matrix of career development theories

5/24/2018 Matrix of Career Development Theories

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ODUCADO, RYAN MICHAEL F.

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CAREER DEVELOPMENT THEORIES

THEORY & THEORIST BASIC TENETS & ASSUMPTIONS KEY CONCEPTS STEPS IN COUNSELINGTRAIT AND FACTOR THEORYFrank Parsons (1909)*Founder of Modern CareerGuidance

*His assessment and interviewprocess established the formatfor career counseling (Holland,1987)

*Personal record and self-analysis questionnaire

*Poineered approaches toindividualized career counselingand advancing social justicethrough career development

work (OBrien, 2001)

*His work was the firstconceptual framework for careerdecision making and became the

first guide for career counselors(Brown and Brooks, 1996)

*Greatly influenced the study ofjob descriptions and jobrequirements in an attempt topredict future job success fromthe measurement of traits thatare job-related (Zunker, 1994).

* Greatest contribution is thedevelopment of manyassessment instruments andtechniques and occupationalinformation (Isaacson & Brown,

1993).

*Emanate out of the logical positivists worldviewthat relies onmeasurementand objective datathat is interpreted by an expert, onthat basis, also makes predictions.

*Founded on the notion that individuals are differentand that theirdifferent capacities can be measured and related to occupations.

*Choosing an occupation involves trying to matchan individual to ajob so that their needs will be met and their job performance will besatisfactory (Brown, 1990).

Brown (1987) noted that traits relatively stable and he described five (5)characteristic of trait and factor:1. Traits are not independent of each other and there are interactionbetween them which leads to behavior patterns, however, the linksremain unclear.2. The placed on quantification of data placed on trait and factortheorists and the objective use of inventories, tests and other measures.3. External validation, where individuals are compared with referencegroups in particular work environments.4. Interactive nature of trait and factor theory and the influence of theenvironment on the personalities of the individuals and in turn, their

influence on the environment as they try to satisfy their needs.5. The average or typical individual has the innate ability to makeadequate decisions if personal and environmental data are available tohim or her.

*Portrayed career decision-making as a cognitive process.

*Career choice was viewed as a single, static, point in time event.

*Parsons maintains that personal counsel is fundamental to thecareer search.

*Three(3) elements of career selection:1. Self knowledge: A clear understanding of yourself, aptitudes,abilities and interest, resources, limitations and other qualities.2. World of work: Knowledge of the requirements and conditionsfor success, advantages and disadvantages,compensation,opportunities and prospects, in different lines ofwork.3. True reasoningof the relations of these two groups: cognitiveprocesses and analytical skills are fundamentals t career selection.

Trait and Factor: refers to the assessment of the person and thejob (Sharf, 1992)

Trait: individual characteristics which can be measured throughtesting

Factor: characteristics required for successful job performance

Seven (7) stages for a career

counselor to work through with

clients:

1. Personal data: create astatement of key facts aboutthe person, remembering to

include every fact that hasbearing on the vocationalproblem.2.Self-analysis: a self-examination is done in privateand under the instruction ofthe counselor. Every tendencyand interest that might impacton the choice of a life workshould be recorded.3. The clients own choice

and decision: this may showitself in the first two stages.The counselor must bear inmind that the choice ofvocation should be made bythe client, with the counseloracting as guide.4. Counselors analysis: the

counselor tests the clientsdecision to see if it is in line

with the main quest.5. Outlook on thevocational field: thecounselor should be familiarwith industrial knowledgesuch as lists andclassifications of industriesand vocations, in addition tolocations of training andapprenticeships.

6. Induction and advice: abroad-minded attitudecoupled with logical and clearreasoning are critical at thisstage.7. General helpfulness:thecounselor helps the client tofit into the chosen work, andto reflect on the decision.


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CAREER DEVELOPMENTTHEORY

David V. Tiedeman andDavidO'Hara (1963)

*Developed a decision-making modelwhichattempted to combine personalawarenesswith appropriateexternal information.

*They believed that the role andprocess of personal choice anddecision making was absentfrom the existing theories ofcareer development.

*Miller-Tiedeman and Tiedeman(1990) state that their theorydoes not predict the behavior ofindividuals; instead, it".. . is avalue-functioning model thatallows a person to put his or her

own decision-making activityinto perspective for himself orherself (personal reality)"

Do not believe individuals need to go through all steps in order;instead, they suggest that some steps may occur simultaneously andthat decisions may be reversed.

*Believe that the process of career development occurs through acontinual process of differentiation and reintegration. Theprocess of occupational change, and change in general, permitsopportunities for differentiation and reintegration.

*Suggest that a key task for individuals is to separate personal realitiesfrom common realities.

1. Personal realities- are defined as acts, thoughts, behaviors, ordirections that people feel are right for them.2. Common realities- are what society tells people to do.

*Postulate that an awareness of decision making is related to career

advancement.

*Believe that the language people use to describe their careers mirrorstheir beliefs about themselves (Miller-Tiedeman and Tiedeman, 1990).

*"Comprehension of the 'lightness' of one's personal reality arises fromthe evolution of consistency in one's words and actions" (Miller-

Tiedeman & Tiedeman, 1990).

*Believe that people are self-organizing systems, capable o f creating

their own realities and acting on their worlds. "Self-construction and-,career making are fashioning life as you want itseeing yourself as thedesigner and builder of your life" (Miller-Tiedeman and Tiedeman, 1990).

*Believe that humans are prone to imprisoning themselves in the statusquo instead of developmentally freeing their spirit to soar in the realmsof what might be. To enter the realm of what 'might be,' they suggestthat individuals need to move into the self-aware level of egodevelopment and utilize "I " power (Miller-Tiedeman & Tiedeman, 1990).

*Suggest that people's entire lives are their careers and that, if theybecome adept at listening to their own personal wisdom rather thansocietal dictates, they will be prepared for whatever career changes areto come (Miller-Tiedeman & Tiedeman, 1990).

*Emphasis on the subjective and intuitive elements within career

decision making adds a different perspective to the theories of careerdevelopment; postulate that participation in the workplace results in newchallenges (Miller-Tiedeman & Tiedeman, 1990).

Two phases:1.Anticipation phase: refers to the stages prior to action, andincludes four stages:a. Exploration- people investigate possible educational,occupational, and personal alternatives.b. Crystallization- begins as individuals attempt to organize,evaluate, and synthesize information about themselves and theworld of work. Thoughts begin to stabilize and distinctionsbetween the alternatives occur.c. As crystallization takes place, a choice or a decision follows.The degree of clarity, complexity, and freedom available affect the

level of motivation and the certainty of carrying through.d. Clarification- the client begins to formulate a plan forcarrying out his or her choice.

2.Accommodation phase- reflects the stages individualsencounter after beginning to implement a decision and iscomprised of three stages. As clients begin to implement theirchoices, they come into contact with people and the realities ofthe settings they enter.a. Induction- during this stage, people are receptive to learningfrom others to ensure their behavior meets the standards of theenvironment. After successfully moving through the induction

stage, people become less receptive to learning and moreassertive.b. Reformation - people begin to influence their environment.

c. Integration- the final stage, people experience an integrationor a synthesis of their goals with the goals of others in theenvironment. The outcome is a sense of equilibrium and acoherent sense of purpose.

1. Differentiation- is a matter of separating experiences.2. Integration - is a matter of structuring them into a morecomprehensive whole.

Hierarchical structuring - is what happens when a new andmore comprehensive whole is formed from the continuousseparating and merging that go on daily and momentarily witheach of us (Miller-Tiedeman & Tiedeman, 1990).

Life Career- reflect the idea that life is career and career is life;emphasizes purpose, not work (Miller-Tiedeman, 1988).


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PERSONALITYDEVELOPMENT AND CAREER

CHOICE THEORYAnne Roe(1956)

*Focuses on early relations withthe family and their subsequentinfluence in career choice.

*Major contribution appears tobe her emphasis on of the

impact childhood experiences oncareer development and her jobclassification system.

*Inspired by Maslow's hierarchyof needs, Roe incorporated thepsychological needs thatdevelop out of parent-childinteractions in herconceptualization of personality.

*Provide the perspective of thefamily as a system whichprovides a framework forunderstanding the transmission

of socialinfluences (Bordin,1994).

Two of her key propositions were that, first, occupation is potentiallythe most powerful source of individual satisfaction at all levels of need;and second, that social and economic status depends more on theoccupation of an individual than upon anything else (Roe, 1957).

*Identified a number of other variables affecting career choice andassigned them weights of importance. These variables included: gender,the state of the economy, family background, education, physicalimpairments, friends and chance. This was significant in that itrecognized that there are many different variables affecting a person'schoice of occupation and that these variables carry different weight over

time.

*Occupations could be arranged along a continuum based on theintensity and nature of the interpersonal relationships involved in theoccupational activities and in an order that would have contiguous

groups more alike than non-contiguous ones.

Classified occupation into two (2) major categories:1. Person oriented2. Non-person oriented

*Three (3) Types of Parenting Style:1. Emotional Concentration- Parents in this category areoverprotective or too demanding. The overprotected child learnsto follow the rules and becomes dependent upon the approval ofothers for self-esteem. The child with too-demanding parentslearns that high standards must be met to receive approval andtherefore tends to become a perfectionist.

2.Avoidance - Parents in this category range from those whoneglect their children to those who reject them. These childrenbelieve they lack value because their basic needs are ignored.3.Accepting- These are parents who accept their children asthey are and meet both their physical and psychological needs.

These children learn that they have intrinsic value, which is notdependent upon their performance.

Eight (8) Occupational Groups:1. Service2. Business contact3. Organization

4.Technology5. Outdoor6. Science

7. General culture8. Arts and entertainment

Six (6) Occupational Levels based upon degree of responsibility,capacity and skill:1. Professional and managerial with independent responsibility2. Professional and managerial3. Semiprofessional and small business4. Skilled5. Semiskilled6. Unskilled

NEEDS THEORY OFOCCUPATIONAL CHOICE

Robert Hoppock(1976)

*Stressed the function of the jobin satisfying personal needs.

*Vocational development beginswith the first awareness that a

job can help meet ones needsand continues as the person isbetter able to anticipate how

10 Basic Postulates1. Everyone has needs: basic physical needs and higher-orderpsychological needs. People vary in the pattern of their need structures,and individual reaction to needs influences occupational choice.2. People tend to gravitate toward occupation that serves their perceivedneeds. Few people are controlled by a single need; most people have avariety of need that act in concert to influence occupational choice.3. Individuals do not necessarily have to have a clear intellectualawareness of their needs for those needs to affect an occupationalchoice. Individuals with self-understanding and insight may understandthe forces that influence them, and others may simply experiencepleasure or satisfaction in certain occupational areas.

Counselors Role:1. Stimulate the clients self-awareness of interest and needs,including the clarification of values.2. Promote insight into what giveslife a personal meaning.3. Provide accurate and completeoccupational information.

4. Help match the clientsperceived strength andweaknesses with occupations likelyto provide maximum satisfaction.


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potentially satisfying a particularcareer could as compared toothers.

*Once a person becomes awareof other jobs that could satisfypersonal needs, thenoccupational choices are subjectto change.

*The degree of job satisfaction

can be determined by assessingthe difference between what aperson wants from the job andwhat he or she has attained.

4. Life experiences help to develop a pattern of individual occupationalpreference and as such suggest a developmental perspective inoccupational guidance. Contact with occupations occurs experientiallyand vicariously, supporting the need for both work or occupationalexperiences and occupational information, especially during the years offormative development.5. Given a great diversity of occupational choices, the individual mustdevelop effective decision-making skills based on solid self-awarenessand a rich informational base. A trial-and-error process of occupationalexperimentation is usually not appropriate.6. Self-understanding is the basis on which occupational choices rests,

thus it is the primary goal of career counseling.7. Understanding the self is only half of the occupational choice process;one must also have a thorough information about available occupations.A person cannot choose a career without knowledge that it exists.Likewise, accurate information dispels stereotypes and myths about the

activities involved in various types of work.8. When a persons needs are met by a job, then he or she experiencesjob satisfaction.9. Individuals can delay need satisfaction if they perceive their job ashaving the potential to satisfy their needs in the future.10. If the balance between needs and satisfaction is unfavourable, thena worker will change jobs if another position appears to offer the

potential to meet needs more fully.

LIFE CAREER DEVELOPMENTNorman Gysbers & Moore

(1975)

*Proposed the concept of lifecareer developmentin aneffort to expand and extendcareer developmentfrom anoccupational perspective to a lifeperspective in whichoccupation (and work) has placeand meaning.

*Later, Gysbers, Heppner, andJohnston (2003) changed thefactor name of religion tospiritualityand added the newfactors of social class and sexualorientation.

The major purpose in using a life career development perspective incounseling is to provide clients and counselors with real-world language

to identify, sort out, and understand the complexities and dynamics ofclients problems, issues, and concerns.

*McDaniels and Gysbers (1992) added the factors of gender, ethnicorigin, religion, and race to the life career development perspective.These factors were added to underscore their importance in shapinghuman behaviour and to provide i ndividuals with greater explanatorypower to understand their life career development.

Life Career Development- self-development over the life spanthrough the integration of the roles, settings, and events of a

persons life.

*The word lifein life career development meant that the focuswas onthe total personthe human career.

*The word careeridentified andrelated the roles in whichindividuals were involved (worker, learner,family, citizen), thesettings where individuals found themselves (home, school,community, workplace), and the events that occurred over theirlifetimes (entry job, marriage, divorce, retirement).

*Finally, the word developmentwas used to indicate thatindividuals are always in the process of becoming.

The life career developmentperspective can help counselors

identify and interpret clientsinternal thought and feelings usingreal- world language (life roles, lifesettings, life events) that canelucidate clients thoughts andfeelings that once were jumbledand confused.

Step in Managing School Guidanceand Conseling Program1. Planning2. Designing3. Implementing4. Evaluating5. Enhancing


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THEORY OF VOCATIONALPERSONALITIES AND WORK

ENVIRONMENTSJohn L. Holland(1959)

*Conceptualised as a trait andfactor theory and remains inthe tradition of differential

psychology (Weinrach &Srebalus, 1990).

*Provides a parallel way ofdescribing people andenvironments by classifyingthem according to six types(Gottfredson & Richards, 1999).

*Major proponent of the personenvironment fit approach,despite being classified as a traitand factor theory.

Assumption: vocational interests are one aspect of personality, and

therefore a description of an individuals vocational interests is also adescription of the individuals personality (Weinrach & Srebalus, 1990).

*Claimed that jobs change people, and people change jobs (Holland,1992).

*Propositions ((Holland, 1997):1. In our culture, most persons can be categorized as one of six types:Realistic, Investigative, Artistic, Social, Enterprising, or Conventional.2. There are six model environments: Realistic, Investigative, Artistic,

Social, Enterprising, or Conventional.3. People search for environments that will let them exercise their skillsand abilities, express their attitudes and values, and take on agreeableproblems and roles.4. Behavior is determined by an interaction between personality and

environment

*Claimed that by late adolescence most people can becharacterised according to their resemblance to these types(Nauta, 2013).

*Represented diagrammatically using a hexagon which provides avisual representation of the relationships between the personality oroccupational type.

*Claimed that individuals seek out work environments which arecompatible with their attitudes and values and allow them to use theirskills and abilities, a corollary of which is that people in similar jobs willhave similar personalities.

*Behaviour is determined by interaction between the individual and theenvironment and determines factors such as job satisfaction, stabilityand achievement, educational choice, and personal competence andsusceptibility to influence.

*Suggested that childrens biologicaldispositions in interaction with theirearly life experiences produce learned preferences for some activitiesand not others. These preferences in combination with learned skills andcompetencies shape values, beliefs and styles (Gottfredson, 1999).

*Individuals develop preferences for certain activities as a result of their

interaction with cultural and personal forces including peers,biological heredity, parents, social class, culture, and thephysical environment (Holland, 1992), and that these preferencesbecome interests in which individuals develop competencies.

*Personality types are indicated by choice of school subjects, hobbies,leisure activities and work, and vocational interests and choices arereflected by personality.

Categorises people into one of six broad types o f personality:1. Realistic(R) - has practical abilities and would prefer to workwith machines or tools rather than people: mechanic; farmer;builder; surveyor; pilot2. Investigative (I) - analytical and precise; good with detail;prefers to work with ideas; enjoys problem solving and research:chemist; geologist; biologist; researcher3.Artistic( A ) - artistic or creative ability; uses intuition andimagination for problem solving: musician; artist; interiordecorator; writer; industrial designer4.Social( S ) - good social skills; friendly and enjoys involvement

with people and working in teams: nurse; teacher; social worker;psychologist; counsellor5. Enterprising ( E ) - leadership, speaking and negotiatingabilities; likes leading others towards the achievement of a goal:salesperson; television producer; manager; administrative

assistant; lawyer6. Conventional ( C ) - systematic and practical worker; good atfollowing plans and attending to detail: banker; secretary;accountant


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SELF CONCEPT AND CAREERDEVELOPMENT

Donald Super

According to Super, self-concept changes over time, and develops asa result of experience.

*As such, career development is lifelong.

*Super argues that occupational preferences and competencies, alongwith an individuals life situations, all change with time and experience.

*Super developed the concept of vocational maturity, which may ormay not correspond to chronological age: people cycle through each ofthese stages when they go through career transitions.

*People seek career satisfaction through work roles in which they canexpress themselves and further implement and develop their self-concept.

*According to Super, our interactions with the social environmentinfluence our personal expectations and goals.

*Career self-concept, according to Super, is a product of the interactionof your personality, interests, experiences, skills, and values and of theways in which you integrate these characteristics into your various liferoles.

Supers Five Life and Career Development Stages1. Growth - birth-14: Development of self-concept, attitudes,needs and general world of work2. Exploration- 14-24: "Trying out" through classes, workhobbies. Tentative choice and skill development. It has threemajor developmental tasks:a. crystallizing - career dreaming occursb. specifying - narrowing down career aspirations to a few optionsworthy of more detailed explorationc. implementing a career choice3. Establishment - 25-44: Entry-level skill building and

stabilisation through work experience4. Maintenance- 45-64: Continual adjustment process toimprove position5. Decline/Disengagement 65+: Reduced output, prepare forretirement

THEORY OF VOCATIONALCHOICE

Eli Ginzberg1951

*Studied the theories ofvocations and concluded thatthe occupational choice is aprocess.

*Stated in his theory that the vocational choice is a process thatundergoes the above said 3 stages-Fantasy, Tentative and Realisticstage.

*He has divided the process of vocation choice into 3 stages.These stages or levels are as follows:1. Fantasy stage - He has said that the vocational development

process starts right from the child's birth and it goes on life-long.The study of vocational development is possible only from thechild's age of 7 years. The period of fantasy is the child's age of11 years.2. Tentative Choice Stage - The age of tentative choices rangesfrom 11 to 17 years. According to Ginzberg, the tentativechoices stage can also be divided into 3 sub-stages. These sub-stages are:a. Interest Stage: At this stage, the child develops its interests.b. Capacity Stage:After the development of interest stage, thechild starts paying attention towards his capacities.c.Value Stage:After the capacity stage, the child studies hisvalues and analysis.3. Realistic Choice - The age above 17 is known as the age ofrealistic choice. He has divided this stage into 3 sub-stages. Thesesub-stages are:a. Exploration Stage: At this stage, the child explores variousvocations as first of all.b. Crystalisation Stage: This is the second stage where thechild decides about his likings, i.e., at this stage the child, afterexploring various vocations, decides in which path he is to move.c. Specification Stage: This is the last stage where the childadopts the specific group of occupation.


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PSYCHODYNAMIC CAREERTHEORY

David Bordin(1990)

*Synthesizes previousapplications of psychodynamictheory to career choice.

*Bordin turned to

development in earlychildhood to account for

work motivation, and inparticular focused on thedevelopment of personality.

*Emphasis is on the

development of personality inrelation to the role of workand playin an individuals life.

Essentially, Bordin suggested that people seek work which theyfindintrinsically interesting or from which they can derive pleasure (Lent &S.D. Brown, 2013, p. 3).

*Basic tenet: individuals seek enjoyment in work as in other areas oftheir lives.

*Individuals express their need for play in work as in other areas of theirlives by looking for something they will enjoy doing.

*Bordin claimed that in young children play and work are fused, and that

through the process of development and socialization, play and workbecome demarcated.

*A process of socialization and external pressures from parents andcaretakers (p. 107) affects how an individual distinguishes play fromwork.*Bordin (1990)claimed that overemphasis on analysis, activationof self-consciousness,and overambition may be intimately tiedto failures to fuse work and play.

*It is also during these early years that individuals build a unique

identity,drawing to some extent from the influences of their parents.

*He acknowledged the influence of biologically and culturally determined

sex roles in identity development, as well as the level of parental supportand nurturance, and the need to be unique from but connected toothers.

*Bordin claimed thatdevelopment is largely an unconsciousprocesswhere the individual draws from aspects of both parents as wellas the extended family.

*Acknowledged the interaction of a number of influences, includingeconomic, cultural, geographic, biological and accidental factors, and inturn their influence on personality.

*Emphasis in career counselling focuses much more on the individualstriving for inner meaning. He advocated the use of guided fantasy,dreams, examining life histories, and imaginative approaches.

*Work can be seen as a sublimation of infantile impulses into sociallyacceptable behavior (Bordin, 1990).

Proposed that play is intrinsically satisfying, and it is thesatisfaction of simply engaging in an activity which distinguishesplay from work.

*He accounted for this demarcation in terms of spontaneity,which is used to refer to elements of self-expression and self-realization in our responses to situations (Bordin, 1990, p. 105).

*Extreme effort converts spontaneity into compulsion, thatis, activities are performed out of a need or compulsion to dothem rather than out of an intrinsic desire to do them because

they are enjoyable.


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THEORY OFCIRCUMSCRIPTION AND

COMPROMISELinda Gottfredson 1981

*Attempts to describe howcareer choice develops in youngpeople.

*Circumscription andCompromise focuses on the

development of an individualsview of the occupational choicesavailable.

Assumes that we build a cognitive map of occupations by pickingup occupational stereotypes from those around us.

*Occupations are placed on this map using only a small number ofdimensions: sex-type, prestige leveland field of work.

*As young people build this map, they begin to decide which occupationsare acceptable and which are unacceptablethose which fit with theirown developing self concept and those which do not .

*Proposes that when people are forced to compromise their career

choices, they are more likely to compromise first on field of work, thenon social level and lastly on sex-type as the amount of compromiseincreases.

Circumscription- ruling out unacceptable options based on theirperceived fit with ones developing self-concept. In the early stagesthis filtering process is quite crude and inaccurate, but it is lasting.1. Orientation to size and power (age 35). Children becomeaware that adults have roles in the world. They realise that theywill eventually become adults and take on roles for themselves.2. Orientation to sex roles(age 68). Children begin tocategorise the world around them with simple concretedistinctions. They become aware of the more recognisable jobroles and begin to assign them to particular sexes. They will startto see jobs which do not match their gender identity as

unacceptable.3. Orientation to social values(age 913). By now childrenhave encountered a wider range of job roles and are capable ofmore abstract distinctions. They begin to classify jobs in terms ofsocial status (income, education level, lifestyle, etc.) as well as

sex-type. Based on the social environment in which they developthey will begin to designate somejobs as unacceptable because they fall below a minimum statuslevel (tolerable level boundary) and some higher status jobs asunacceptable because they represent too much effort or risk offailure (tolerable effort boundary).4. Orientation to internal, unique self(age 14+). Until thispoint circumscription has been mainly an unconscious process. Asentry into the adult world approaches young people engage in aconscious search of the roles still remaining in their social space.

In this process they use increasingly complex concepts such asinterests, abilities values, work-life balance and personality toexclude options which do not fit w ith their self image and identifyan appropriate field of work.

Compromise- In this stage, individuals may be inclined tosacrifice roles they see as more compatible with their self-conceptin favour of those that are perceived to be more easily accessible.In this they are often limited by their lack of knowledge about howto access certain roles because of lack of information, lack ofknow-how and appropriate tactics, and lack of helpful socialconnections.

LEARNING THEORY OFCAREER COUNSELING &

HAPPENSTANCEJohn D. Krumboltz, 1976

Learning takes place through observations as well as through directexperiences

*Simplify the process of career selection; based primarily on life eventsinfluential in determining career selection

*Individual learning experiences over the life span develop the primaryinfluences that lead to career choice:

s and performance inrelation to learned standards

4 Factors of Career Development:1. Genetic endowments and special abilities

Inherited qualities that may set limits on individual careeropportunities2. Environmental conditions and events

Factors of influence that are often beyond the individuals controlCertain events and circumstances influence skills development,

activities, and career preferences3. Learning experiences

Instrumental learning experiences and associative learningexperiences

Counselors should address thefollowing problems:

remediable problem exists

make decisions or solve problems

alternative for inappropriatereasons

inappropriate reasons


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-entry behavior such as applying for a job or selecting aneducation or training institution

*Assisting individuals to understand fully the validity of their beliefs is amajor component of the social learning model

Negative and positive reactions to pairs of previously neutralsituations4. Task approach skills

Sets of kills the individual has developed, such as problem-solving skills, work habits, metal sets, emotional response, andcognitive responses

Modified as a result of desirable or undesirable experiences

Happenstance (Krumboltz, Mitchell, & Levin)

negative consequences

chance events over the life span are to be recognized as important

influences in clients lives

over perceived inability to achievegoals

THEORY OF WORKADJUSTMENT

Ren Dawis,1964

*This is sometimes referred toas the PersonEnvironmentCorrespondenceTheory.

*The more closely a persons abilities(skills, knowledge, experience,attitude,behaviours, etc.) correspond with therequirementsof the role or theorganisation, the more likely it is that they will perform the job well andbeperceived assatisfactoryby the employer.

*Similarly, the more closely the reinforcers (rewards) of the role ororganisation correspond to the values that a person seeks to satisfythrough their work, the more likely it is that the person will perceive thejob as

Satisfying.

*The degrees of satisfaction and satisfactoriness are seen as predictorsof the likelihood that someone will stay in a job, be successful at it andreceive advancement.

*The theory acknowledges that the correspondence between person andenvironment may not be perfectperhaps because the person chosethe wrong career or the employer chose the wrong candidate. Even agood correspondencemay change over time.

*The persons skills might develop so that they outgrow their role ortheir priorities may change because of non-work commitments.*The flexibilityof a person or an environment will determine the extentto which they can tolerate any lack of correspondence between abilities

and requirements and/or values and reinforcers. Flexibility will vary fromindividual to individual and from environment to environment. Internalfactors, such as personality or organisational culture, will influence thelevel of flexibility, as will external factors, such as the availability ofalternative options. When the lack of correspondence is so great thatflexibility is no longer viable, some form of adjustment often takes place.

They list six key values that individuals seek to satisfy:1.Achievement - conditions that encourage accomplishment andprogress2. Comfort- conditions that encourage lack of stress3. Status- conditions that provide recognition and prestige4.Altruism- conditions that foster harmony and service to others5. Safetyconditions that establish predictability and stability6.Autonomyconditions that increase personal control andinitiative

*Active adjustmentby the individual involves them trying to

change their working environment. They may seek tochange the content of the job, and therefore its behaviourrequirements, to better reflect their abilities. Alternatively,they may try to alter the reinforcements of the job by seeking togain different rewards, e.g. better working conditionsor greater variety or responsibility. Active adjustment by theenvironment may involve trying to change the personsabilities through training or trying to change their values orexpectations in some way.

*Reactive adjustmentmay involve the individual trying tochange their behaviours to better suit the environment or bychanging their personal priorities or work values. Similarly, theenvironment may change the responsibilities of arole to better suit the natural strengths o f the individual or changethe rewards to attempt to increase job

satisfaction.

Persistenceis defined as the extent to which individuals orenvironments will keep trying to adjust before giving up. When nofurther adjustment is possible, something more dramatic happens

the person leaves the job or they are fired.


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VALUES-BASED THEORYDuane Brown

*D. Browns theory is indicativeof the significant shift that hastaken place in theorizing aboutcareer development andrecognition that career theoryfocused too much on

Eurocentric values (verko,Babarovi, & verko, 2008) such

as individualism, future timeorientation, moderate need forself-control, emphasis onactivity, and a core belief thathumans should dominate

nature (D. Brown, 2003, p. 48).

Browns (1996) contribution tocareer development is threefold:1. he has drawn attention tovalues, an important concept incareer development which had

previously received little indepth attention.2. he forged important linksbetween the positivist approach

of trait and factor theory andmore recent approaches tocareer counselling, and to someextent demonstrates how theycan co-exist.3. he raised awareness ofcultural sensitivity in the careercounselling process

Values are central.

*Emphasises the importance of a particular trait, values, D. Brownstheory also acknowledges the concept of development and the broadercontext in which individuals exist.

*Claimed that career theory has all but ignored ethnic and culturalminorities (D. Brown, 2002) and in his later work focused on both workvalues and cultural values.

*Claimed that expected outcomes are the most important source

of motivation in decision-making, and that individuals decide on thebasis of values which outcomes are more important than others, that is

values form thebasis for attributing worth to situations and objects(Brown & Crace, 1996).

*Browns (2003) subsequent theoretical statements, describes eight (8)propositions which reflect the incorporation of propositions related tocultural values into his theory.

*Eight (8) propositions listed in D. Brown (2002), while Brown (2003)lists seven (7):1. Highly prioritized work values are the most important determinants of

career choice for people who value individualism if their values arecrystallized and prioritised;2. Individuals who hold collective social values and come from familiesand/or groups who hold the same social value either defer to the wishes

of the group or family members or are heavily influenced by them in theoccupational decision-making process;3. When taken individually, cultural values regarding activity (doing,being, being-in-becoming) do not constrain the occupational decision-making process;4. Because of differing values systems, males and females and peoplefrom differing cultural groups enter occupations at varying rates;5. The process of choosing an occupation involves a series of estimatesof ones abilities and values, skills and abilitiesrequired to be successfulin a particular occupation, and the work values that the occupationalalternatives will satisfy;6. Occupational success is related to job-related skills acquired in formaland informal educational settings, job-related aptitudes and skills, SES,participation in the work role and the extent to which discrimination isexperienced, regardless of the social relationship value held; and

7. Occupational tenure is partially the result of the match between thecultural and work values of the worker, supervisors and colleagues.

*Browns eighth proposition which is not presented inhis 2003 workrelates to the primary bases for job satisfaction. In essence, he proposeddifferent bases for people with an individualist social valuecomparedwith those who hold a collective social value.

Values -beliefs that are experienced by the individual asstandards regarding how he or she should function (Brown,2003).

*Intra-role conflictoccurs when the values of the individual arenot reinforced in the workplace, for example a worker may havedifferent values from his/her supervisor (Brown & Crace, 1996).

Inter-role conflict occurs when the current job is in conflict withanother role, for example, when a less satisfying role(work) takes time away from a more satisfying role, parenting

(Brown & Crace, 1996).

Life Values Inventory (LVI)was developed (Crace & Brown,2002) and is freely available online. Designed for both adolescentsand adults to assist in decisions about life roles, the LVI measures

the 14 life values of Achievement, Belonging, Concern for theEnvironment, Concern for others, Creativity, Financial prosperity,Health and activity, Humility, Independence, Interdependence,Objective analysis, Privacy, Responsibility and Spirituality.

*Fundamental to Browns theory (1996) is the concept that eachperson develops a relatively small number of values which

dictate cognitive, affective, and behavioral patterns

*Individuals are exposed to values laden messages throughouttheir lives from a variety of sources including family, friends and

the media.

*Values develop as a result of the interaction betweeninherited characteristics and experience (Brown, 1996).

*Cultural background, gender,and socioeconomic statusinfluence opportunities and social interaction and thus there isvariation of values both within and between subgroups of society.

*As values are formed they become crystallizedin the mind ofthe individual and prioritized, and the extent to which this occursrelates tocognitive clarity(Brown, 1996).

*Values are said to be crystallized when they can be labelledand articulatedby an individual which enables them to judge

their own behaviour andcompare themselves with others (Brown,1995).

*Brown and Crace (1996) claimed that individuals who aredescribed as high functioning people have values which arewell crystallized and prioritized.

*Values with high priorities are the most important determinants


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Five (5) assumptions ofvalues-based approach to career counselling:1. the importance of considering career decisions in relation to other liferoles rather than as isolated events. Brown (1996) claimed that acentral premise of the theory is that, because people function holistically,career counseling should only be conducted in the context of the entirelife space and other life roles. Life roles may function synergistically,may be in conflict, or may be compensatory in relation to thesatisfaction of values.2. the need for the counselor to assess the degree of crystallization andprioritization of values and role relationship problems.3. Counselors need to be able to assess mood problems such as anxiety

or depression. Dealing with such issues in career counselling drawsattention to the links between career and personal counselling.4. the importance of other variables such as career interests in thecareer counselling process, and advocated that counselors should beable to translate various types of psychological data into values-basedterms (Brown, 1996).5. clients will be able to make effective decisions if they understandtheir values and have values-based information (D.Brown, 1996a)

of choices made, thus individuals are most likely to be satisfiedwhen their choice is compatible with their values.

*The result of role interaction is life satisfaction, which differsfrom the sum of the marital, job, leisure, and other roles,satisfaction indices taken separately(Brown & Crace, 1996).

CAREER INFORMATIONPROCESSING THEORY OF

CAREER DECISION MAKINGPeterson, Sampson, Reardonand Lenz

Three Basic Career Information Processing Principles:1. Self-knowledge is based on perception rather than fact, and isinfluenced by past experience and present feelings (Peterson, Sampson,Reardon and Lenz).2. Knowledge about occupational options is based on facts that

can be verified.3. In todays fast-paced society, decisions will need to be re-madeand adjusted many times over.

*CIP is based on a tri-level pyramid, with self-knowledge andoccupational knowledge as the foundation, which comprises twoKnowledge Domains. The second level of the pyramid is theDecision-Making Skills Domain, composed of five information-processing skills known as CASVE:

1. Communication2. Analysis3. Synthesis4. Valuing5. Executing

*Executive Processing Domain, which focuses onmetacognition (thinking about our thinking). This is themonitoring/evaluation part of the thought process.

* In college and career awareness, the goal of promoting self-knowledge is in service of helping students solve problems byconsidering both internal and external facts. Self-awareness isapplied to decision-making, goal setting, action planning,executing the plan, and communication.

Six Steps to Using CASVEwithStudents:1. Communication: Knowing Ineed to make a choice2.Analysis: Understanding myself

and my options3.Synthesis: Expanding andnarrowing my list of options4.Valuing: Choosing anoccupation, program of study, orjob5. Execution: Implementing mychoice6. Communication: Knowing Imade a good choice

Best Practices to Employ in UsingCIP-Based Processes to AssistStudents in Getting In, GettingThere, and Getting Through:1. Use of Motivational

Interviewing (MI) techniques2. Use of Narrative Counselingand selective assessmenttechniques

3. Identification of red flags andreferral for services4. Creation of mentoring andwhole-school support models


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References:1Patton, W. & McMahon, M. (2006).Career development and systems theory: connecting theory and practice.2nded. Sense Publishers2Parsons' theory.Retrieved from http://www.careers.govt.nz/educators-practitioners/career-practice/career-theory-models/parsons-theory/3Kazdin, A. L. (2000). Encyclopedia of psychology.Oxford Univeristy Press. Retrieved fromhttp://ucolibinstruction.files.wordpress.com/2008/05/career-theory-article.pdf4Bernes, K. B. (2000).A synergistic model of organizational career development: bridging the gap between employees and organizations.Life-Role Development Group Limited. Retrieved from

https://www.uleth.ca/dspace/bitstream/handle/10133/1251/A_Synergistic_Model_of_Organizational_Career_Development_Kerry_Bernes.pdf?sequence=15McCullough, P. (2014).Ann roe's three parenting styles.[ehow.com]. Retrieved fromhttp://www.ehow.com/info_8628146_ann-roes-three-parenting-styles.html6Bimrose, J. (2004). Psychodynamic theories.Institute for Employment Research, University of Warwick. Retrieved fromhttp://www.guidance-research.org/EG/impprac/ImpP2/traditional/psychodynamic7Kottler, J. & Shepard, D. (2010). Introduction to counseling: voices from the field. 7thed. Cengage Learning. Retrieved from

http://books.google.com.ph/books?id=iUwId2xVe0kC&pg=PR13&lpg=PR13&dq=robert+hoppock+theory&source=bl&ots=UMjXrp0Qvd&sig=25WGn2HNUSL542C92NbnMT0BZUk&hl=en&sa=X&ei=UX9iU_HXE4aqyASw

_YCADg&ved=0CEUQ6AEwBQ#v=onepage&q=robert%20hoppock%20theory&f=false8Kilhefner, J.(2014). The career theories of eli ginzberg. Retrieved fromhttp://woman.thenest.com/career-theories-eli-ginzberg-15464.html9Odike, E.L. & Anake, P.M. (2013).An appraisal of eli ginzberg and associates theory of career development. Retrieved from http://www.ichekejournal.com/index.php/2013-09-30-22-58-13/2-uncategorised/27-article-410Thomason,T.C. (1999). Basics of career development.[pdf]. Northern Arizona University11Norman, G.. (2003). Life career development: a needed perspective for all counseling. Retrieved fromhttp://www.counseling.org/resources/library/vistas/vistas04/7.pdf12CareersNZ. (2014). Supers theory. Retrieved from http://www.careers.govt.nz/educators-practitioners/career-practice/career-theory-models/supers-theory/13University of London. (n.d.). Circumscription and compromise. Retrieved fromhttp://careersintheory.files.wordpress.com/2009/10/theories_gottfredson.pdf14Krumboltzs learning theory of career counseling (ltcc) & happenstance. Retrieved fromhttps://www.grinnell.edu/sites/default/files/documents/Krumboltz.pdf15University of London. (n.d.). Theory of work adjustment.Retrieved fromhttp://careersintheory.files.wordpress.com/2009/10/theories_twa.pdf16Career information processing (cip) theory of career decision making. Retrieved from http://www.stlouisgraduates.org/sites/default/files/files/CIP%20Overview%20FINAL%20100413.pdf
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matrix of career development theories

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