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https://www.quantamagazine.org/mathematicians-tame-turbulence-in-flattened-fluids-20180627/ June 27, 2018

Mathematicians Tame Turbulence in FlattenedFluidsBy squeezing fluids into flat sheets, researchers can get a handle on the strange ways thatturbulence feeds energy into a system instead of eating it away.

By Joshua Sokol

NASA/JPL-Caltech/SwRI/JunoCam

The atmospheres of giant planets such as Jupiter can be thought of as essentially two-dimensional structures.

Turbulence, the splintering of smooth streams of fluid into chaotic vortices, doesn’t just make forbumpy plane rides. It also throws a wrench into the very mathematics used to describe atmospheres,oceans and plumbing. Turbulence is the reason why the Navier-Stokes equations — the laws thatgovern fluid flow — are so famously hard that whoever proves whether or not they always work willwin a million dollars from the Clay Mathematics Institute.

But turbulence’s unreliability is, in its own way, reliable. Turbulence almost always steals energyfrom larger flows and channels it into smaller eddies. These eddies then transfer their energy intoeven smaller structures, and so on down. If you switch off the ceiling fan in a closed room, the airwill soon fall still, as large gusts dissolve into smaller and smaller eddies that then vanish entirelyinto the thickness of the air.

But when you flatten reality down to two dimensions, eddies join forces instead of dissipating. In a

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curious effect called an inverse cascade, which the theoretical physicist Robert Kraichnan firstfished out of the Navier-Stokes equations in the 1960s, turbulence in a flattened fluid passes energyup to bigger scales, not down to smaller ones. Eventually, these two-dimensional systems organizethemselves into large, stable flows like vortexes or river-like jets. These flows, rather like vampires,support themselves by sucking away energy from turbulence, instead of the other way around.

NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center Scientific Visualization Studio, the Cassini Imaging Team, CICLOPS, and CosmosStudios

Horizontal cloud bands on Jupiter can be approximated as a two-dimensional fluid.

While the inverse cascade effect has been known for decades, a mathematical, quantitativeprediction of what that final, stable flow looks like has eluded theorists. But a glimmer of hope camein 2014, when Jason Laurie, now at Aston University in the United Kingdom, and his colleaguespublished a full description of the flow’s shape and speed under strict, specific conditions. Sincethen, new simulations, lab experiments and theoretical calculations published as recently as lastmonth have both justified the team’s calculations and explored different cases where their predictionstarts to break down.

All this might seem like only a thought experiment. The universe is not flat. But geophysicists andplanetary scientists have long suspected that real oceans and atmospheres often behave like flatsystems, making the intricacies of two-dimensional turbulence surprisingly relevant to realproblems.

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Lucy Reading-Ikkanda/Quanta Magazine

After all, on Earth, and especially on the gas giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn, weather isconfined to thin, flattish slabs of atmosphere. Large patterns like hurricanes or the Gulf Stream —and Jupiter’s huge horizontal cloud bands and Great Red Spot — might all be feeding on energy fromsmaller scales. In the last few years, researchers analyzing winds both on Earth and on other planetshave detected signatures of energy flowing to larger scales, the telltale sign of two-dimensionalturbulence. They’ve begun mapping the conditions under which that behavior seems to stop or start.

The hope, for a small but dedicated community of researchers, is to use the quirky but simpler worldof two-dimensional fluids as a fresh entry point into processes that have otherwise provedimpenetrably messy. “They can actually make progress” in two dimensions, said Brad Marston, aphysicist at Brown University, “which is more than what we can say for most of our turbulencework.”

Up in the AirOn Sept. 14, 2003, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) sent an aircraftinto Isabel, a Category 5 hurricane bearing down on the Atlantic Coast with winds gusting to 203knots — the strongest readings ever observed in the Atlantic.

NOAA wanted to get readings of turbulence at the bottom of a hurricane, crucial data for improvinghurricane forecasts. This was the first — and last — time a crewed aircraft ever tried. At its lowest,the flight skimmed just 60 meters above the churning ocean. Eventually salt spray clogged up one ofthe plane’s four engines, and the pilots lost an engine in the middle of the storm. The missionsucceeded, but it was so harrowing that afterward, NOAA banned low-level flights like this entirely.

About a decade later, David Byrne got interested in these data. Byrne, a physicist at the Swiss

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Federal Institute of Technology Zurich, had previously studied turbulent energy transfer in labexperiments. He wanted to see if he could catch the process in nature. He contacted Jun Zhang, anNOAA scientist who had been booked on the very next flight into Isabel (a flight that never took off).By analyzing the distribution of wind speeds, the two calculated the direction in which energy wastraveling between large and small fluctuations.

Starting at about 150 meters above the ocean and leading up into the large flow of the hurricaneitself, turbulence began to behave the way it does in two dimensions, the pair discovered. This couldhave been because wind shear forced eddies to stay in their respective thin horizontal layers insteadof stretching vertically. Whatever the reason, though, the analysis showed that turbulent energybegan flowing from smaller scales to larger scales, perhaps feeding Isabel from below.

Their work suggests that turbulence may offer hurricanes an extra source of fuel, perhaps explainingwhy some storms maintain strength even when conditions suggest they should weaken. Zhang nowplans to use uncrewed flights and better sensors to help bolster that case. “If we can prove that, itwould be really amazing,” he said.

Created with Wind Tunnel

On Jupiter, a much larger world with an even flatter atmosphere, researchers have also pinpointedwhere turbulence switches between two-dimensional and three-dimensional behavior.

Wind speed measurements taken by the Voyager probes, which flew past Jupiter in the 1970s, hadalready suggested that Jupiter’s large flows gain energy from smaller eddies. But in 2017, PeterRead, a physicist at the University of Oxford, and Roland Young, his postdoc at the time, made a

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wind speed map using data from the space probe Cassini, which swung past Jupiter in 2000 on itsway to Saturn. They saw energy flowing into larger and larger eddies, the hallmark of two-dimensional turbulence.

But nothing about Jupiter is simple. On smaller scales — across patches of surface about thedistance between New York and Los Angeles or less — energy dissipated instead, indicating thatother processes must also be afoot. Then in March, the Juno spacecraft orbiting Jupiter found thatthe planet’s surface features extend deep into its atmosphere. The data suggest that not just fluiddynamics but magnetic fields sculpt the cloud bands.

For Freddy Bouchet, who studies turbulence at the École Normale Supérieure (ENS) in Lyon,France, this isn’t too discouraging, since the two-dimensional models can still help. “I don’t thinkanybody believes the analogy should be perfect,” he said.

Progress on PaperAt the end of 2017, Bouchet and Eric Woillez, also at ENS, sketched out their own theoreticalaccount of how two-dimensional fluid flow can describe a rotating system such as the atmosphere ofa planet.

Their work shows how flows built from smaller turbulence can match the enormous pattern ofalternating bands visible on Jupiter through a backyard telescope. That “makes it really relevant fordiscussing real phenomena,” Bouchet said.

Bouchet’s work relies on considering the statistics of the large-scale flows, which exchange energyand other quantities in a balance with their environment. But there’s another path to predicting theform these flows will take, and it starts with those same obstreperous Navier-Stokes equations thatlie at the root of fluid dynamics.

For two “totally fruitless” years at the beginning of this decade, Gregory Falkovich, a pen-and-papertheorist at Israel’s Weizmann Institute of Science, stared at those equations. He tried to write outhow the flow of energy would balance between small turbulent eddies and a bigger flow feeding onthem in a simple case: a flat, square box.

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arXiv:1608.04628v1

In two dimensions, theoretical models can now describe turbulent fluids. This image shows the vorticity, or curl, ofa two-dimensional fluid. The orange regions have a counterclockwise flow, the purple regions a clockwise flow.

A single term, related to pressure, stood in the way of a solution. So Falkovich just dropped it. Bydiscarding that troublesome term and assuming that the eddies in this system are too short-lived tointeract with each other, Falkovich and his colleagues tamed the equations enough to solve theNavier-Stokes equations for this case. Then he tasked Jason Laurie, his postdoc at the time, withrunning numerical simulations that proved it. “It’s always nice when you have an exact result inturbulence,” Marston said. “Those are rare.”

In the team’s 2014 paper, they found a formula for how the velocity in the resulting large flow — abig vortex, in this situation — would change with distance from its own center. And since then,

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various teams have filled in the theoretical rationale to excuse Falkovich’s lucky shortcut.

Hoping for payoff in the pure math of fluids and for insight into geophysical processes, physicistshave also pushed the formula outside a simple square box, trying to figure out where it stopsworking. Just switching from a square to a rectangle makes a dramatic difference, for example. Inthis case, turbulence feeds river-like flows called jets in which the formula starts to fail.

As of now, even the mathematics of the simplest case, the square box, isn’t totally settled.Falkovich’s formula describes the large stable vortex itself, but not the turbulent eddies that stillflicker and fluctuate around it. If they vary enough, as they might in other situations, thesefluctuations will overwhelm the stable flow. Just in May, though, two former members of Falkovich’slab — Corentin Herbert, also at ENS, and Anna Frishman of Princeton University — published apaper describing the size of these fluctuations. “It teaches a little bit what the limitations of theapproach are,” Herbert said.

But their hope, ultimately, is to describe a far richer reality. For Frishman, the pictures returnedfrom Juno’s mission over Jupiter — showing a fantasyland of jets and tornadoes swirling like creampoured into the solar system’s largest coffee — are a driving influence. “If it’s something that I couldhelp understand, that would be cool,” she said.

Correction June 28: The original version of this article swapped a researcher’s first and last names.His name is Corentin Herbert, not Herbert Corentin.

This article was reprinted on Wired.com.