master thesis exposÉ©.pdf · 2018-02-09 · sara la vella kassel, germany 23/10/2017 . the online...

MASTER THESIS – EXPOSÉ

The Online Sound of Luxury Watch Brands:

The Effects of Classical Background Music on the Attitudes of Costumers

Submitted by

Sara La Vella

23/10/2017 Kassel, Germany

The Online Sound of Luxury Watch Brands 1

Abstract

Title: How Luxury Watch Brands Sound Online? The Effects of Classical Background Music

on the Attitudes of Costumers.

Background: it is widely recognized that background music is one of the main sensory

components of advertisement and that help conveying brand values and persuasive messages.

Indeed, the effects of music are twofold: it can either affect cognitive processes, but it may also

influence listeners’ emotions. Hence, the ad evaluations of high involvement groups are not

exclusively driven by rational opinions, but are rather biased toward the emotions expressed

by music. However, little research has been done to analyse both affective and cognitive

responses, and the results are contrasting and difficult to generalise.

Purpose: the aim of the study is to understand whether classical background music, used in

web advertising, may influence the attitudes of luxury watch costumers, and what are the

thoughts and feelings behind.

Method: the hypothesis will be tested through a laboratory experiment. A sample of 60

individuals will be randomly divided into a control group, which will be exposed to the video

ad without background music, and an experimental group, that will watch the video ad with

classical background music. The thought-listing technique will be used to collect thoughts and

feelings. As manipulation check, brand attitude will be measured on a five-point Likert scale.

Finally, results will be analyzed with MAXQDA and SPSS software.

Keywords: luxury, watch brands, online, sound, branding, classical background music.


Table Of Contents

Abstract ..................................................................................................................................... 1

List of Abbreviations ............................................................................................................... 3

1. Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 4

1.1 Background and Problem Statement ................................................................................ 4

1.2 Research Questions and Hypothesis ........................................................................... 5

1.3 Significance of the Study ................................................................................................. 6

2. Theoretical Framework ................................................................................................... 7

2.1 Understanding Costumers’ Responses ............................................................................. 7

2.1.1 Cognitive responses .................................................................................................. 7

2.1.2 Affective responses ................................................................................................... 8

2.1.3 Elaboration likelihood method (ELM)...................................................................... 9

2.2 Key factors of Persuasion .............................................................................................. 10

2.2.1 Motivation and ability ............................................................................................. 10

2.2.2 Involvement ............................................................................................................ 11

2.3 The Role of Music ......................................................................................................... 12

2.3.1 Cognitive effects ..................................................................................................... 12

2.3.2 Emotional effects .................................................................................................... 14

3. Methodology ....................................................................................................................... 15

3.1 Laboratory Experiment .................................................................................................. 15

3.1.1 Sample..................................................................................................................... 16

3.1.2 Research design ...................................................................................................... 16

3.1.2 Procedure ................................................................................................................ 16

3.1.3 Variables ................................................................................................................. 16

3.1.4 Measurement and analysis ...................................................................................... 16

3.1.5 Pilot study ............................................................................................................... 17


3.1.6 Limitations and future research .............................................................................. 17

3. Work Plan ....................................................................................................................... 18

4. Overview of the Chapters .............................................................................................. 18

5. References ....................................................................................................................... 20

List of Abbreviations

e.g. exempli grata

ELM Elaboration Likelihood Method

GEMS Geneva Emotional Music Scale

i.e. id est


1. Introduction

1.1 Background and Problem Statement

The literature recognizes that music is one of the main sensory components of advertisement

and that it plays a prominent role as a communication medium of brand values and persuasive

messages (Kellaris, Cox, & Cox Dena, 1993; Oakes & North, 2006). However, apart from

conveying emotions and influencing the affective responses of listeners, the cognitive

processing of background music is involved in the creation and shaping of brand attitudes

(Brodsky, 2010). Indeed, depending on the structure of background music, cognitive tasks such

as attention and comprehension may be influenced, and may result easier (more difficult)

(Peretz & Zatorre, 2005). Specifically, according to its characteristics and its musical fit with

the ad, the effect of background music is twofold: it may interfere with the elaboration of the

message and inhibit the cognitive process (Oakes & North, 2006), and, on the other hand, it

can draw attention, increase motivation and enhance involvement (Hecker, 1984).

Given the ability of background music to evoke feelings and influence costumers’ ad

evaluations, along with other components, it may bias clients’ perceptions and affect their

experiences. Indeed, Zentner, Grandjean and Scherer (2008, p. 501) argue that “music can

express emotions by symbolically mimicking a broad range of human expressive behaviour”

and thus it can induce positive or negative feelings, changing the felt emotions in the ones that

are perceived.

However, little research has been done to understand how background music is processed and

its influence on both affective and cognitive responses, even though seems obvious its role in

attracting the audience and connecting brands and costumers. Moreover, previous empirical

research results to be inconsistent and it is difficult to generalise (Oakes & North, 2006). In

addition, most of the experiments were conducted for TV or radio ads, while nowadays the

new trend of digitalization is pushing watch luxury brands to go online, and thus, use their

website to replicate the brand essence. This is the reason why new insights for understanding

the effectiveness of web advertising is needed (Novak, Hoffman, & Yung, 2000; Okonkwo,

2009).


1.2 Research Questions and Hypothesis

RQ1: Does classical background music influence the costumers’ attitude toward the brand?

Processing an advertisement requires attention and motivation (e.g. rewards), which in turn

may influence the audience attitudes (Park & Young, 1986). Since in the literature has been

proven that classical music, given its fit with the commercial (Macinnis & Park, 1991), may

enhance both factors and have a positive effect on listeners (Chanda & Levitin, 2013; Kellaris

& Cox, 1989; Kellaris & Kent, 1994; Menon & Levitin, 2005), the overall attitude toward the

brand will be positively affected.

HP0: Classical background music has a positive effect on the attitude of the audience toward

the brand.

RQ2: Does classical background music influence the in-depth elaboration of online

advertisements?

Petty and Cacioppo (1986) demonstrated that peripheral cues of the message can inhibit the

cognitive response to it. Indeed, classical background music may reduce cognitive complexity

and make more fluent and effortlessly the elaboration of the ad (Chanda & Levitin, 2013; R.

E. Petty, 1977; Schwarz, Bless, & Bohner, 1991).

HP1: Classical background music reduces the in-depth processing of the advertisement.

RQ3: Does classical background music influence the affective responses to the advertisement?

Even though the group is highly involved and should not base his judgments on feelings,

cognitive and emotional responses are related (G. L. Clore, Gasper, & Garvin, 2001; Zajonc,

1980). Hence, the evaluations will be polarized and more favourable thoughts will be generated

(G. Gorn, Tuan Pham, & Yatming Sin, 2001). Moreover, given the misperception of emotions

felt and perceived, higher number of emotions will emerge (Zentner et al., 2008).

HP2a: Classical background music influences the audience in making more positive and

general evaluations

HP2b: Classical background music increases the number of feelings expressed


1.3 Significance of the Study

This research will either have managerial implications for luxury watch brands, but it is also

meant to be a theoretical contribution to the academic field, which only recently started to

experiment with background music and advertisements.

From the ’60s to our days, watch brands have been challenged several times by the new trends

that are pushing luxury clients to desire digital products and communications (, 2016). Even

though luxury companies would like to keep their exclusiveness for a small niche, Internet is a

communication channel that cannot be avoided, and the luxury world is now going digital to

reinforce the lost relationship with their customers (Okonkwo, 2009). However, it is not yet

clear how these brands should approach the online environment (Okonkwo, 2009) and manage

media richness (Daft & Lengel, 1986). Indeed, McMillan and Hwang (2002) argue that Internet

does change the relationship between brands and costumers, but they suggest a better

understanding of the effects of persuasive advertising in the online environment.

For example, background music is a persuasive tool that not only can influence listeners’

feelings, but that “may convey brand information that words cannot” (Zander, 2006, p. 478).

Since watch brands are now worried of losing the “human emotional connection” with their

costumers (Garfield, 2016, para. 16), new insights on how background music may influence

costumers’ attitudes and perceptions could have important implications. Hence, this research

is meant to have implications for luxury watch brands that want to enhance the ad

persuasiveness and increase emotional involvement.


2. Theoretical Framework

2.1 Understanding Costumers’ Responses

The following chapters are intended to be a framework for categorizing and understanding the

models and methods of persuasion that may help in designing effective online advertisements.

To pursue the change of cognitive and affective attitudes toward the message, the product and

the source, practitioners should know under which conditions peripheral cues of the ad might

have an effect.

2.1.1 Cognitive responses

According to the “cognitive response approach” (Greenwald, 1968, p. 149), the mediators of

the acceptance or the reject of a persuasive message are its cognitive reactions. In other words,

the recipient of the message is expected to connect the new information with his or her previous

knowledge and, in the case of a positive persuasion, create a new one (R. E. Petty, 1977, para.

3). To understand how this connection happens, Greenwald (1968, p. 157) assumed that:

“cognitive effects of the communication could be assessed by comparing the issue-relevant

thoughts of subjects who received this communication with thoughts on the same issue

expressed by control subjects who had received a communication on a different topic”. In

conclusion, the analysis of cognitive processes of persuasion may be useful for explaining how

the change of attitudes occur after a persuasive communication (Greenwald, 1968).

In this context, “attitude” is interpreted as the recipient evaluation about themselves, other

people or objects, and it may be depends on experiences that, in turn, influence the cognitive,

affective and behavioural processes (R. E. Petty & Cacioppo, 1986). When a judgement is

triggered, different paths that define the outcome of the evaluation can be undertaken. Indeed,

the cognitive response to a communication can either agree or disagree with its content, and

result is the positive or negative change of attitude. In addition, it might happen the so-called

“boomerang effect” (Greenwald, 1968, p. 151): if the recipient believes are much stronger than

the ones exposed in the communication, the attitude change goes in exactly the opposite

direction of the persuader’s will (R. E. Petty, 1977). Cialdini and Goldstein (2004) explain this

effect through the human urgency of conforming with their own opinions and decisions, so that

the cognitive dissonance (Festinger, 1957) that would be faced in the case of a discrepant

information received, would be avoided.

The cognitive response approach has been applied to understand the level of effort that

costumers make to cognitively process the advertising stimulus and to analyse their evaluations


of the message(Haugtvedt, Petty, & Cacioppo, 1992). It is relevant to notice that, when the

costumer has high knowledge about the product, costumers’ judgements may be affected in the

long-term and their attitudes be changed (Haugtvedt, Petty, & Cacioppo, 1992). However, the

subject must perceive the message as being personally relevant (that is, he or she must be

involved) or that the accuracy of his or her opinion might have consequences for himself or for

other people (that is, he must feel motivated) (Chaiken, 1980).

However, feelings and emotions may affect this process; it is controversial whether the

cognitive influences the affective state, or the other way around, but it is assumed that mood

and emotions do play a role in processing persuasive messages (Batra & Stayman, 1990;

Bruner, 1990; Gerald L Clore, Schwarz, & Conway, 1994; Schwarz et al., 1991). Indeed, when

a threat is perceived, negative feelings arise, attention increase and a deeper cognitive effort is

applied to solve the adverse situation (consistency approach (Cialdini & Goldstein, 2004; R. E.

Petty, 1977)). Hence, to avoid this mental effort, there is the tendency to avoid unfavourable

situations and the focus will not be on details but on the overall, positive, experience (Cialdini,

2016; Schwarz et al., 1991). For instance, Petty (1977) demonstrated that whether the dominant

response to a message is negative, peripheral cues will enhance persuasiveness: the distracting

element will function as short-cut for avoiding the elaboration of unfavourable evaluations

(Cialdini, 2016).

2.1.2 Affective responses

When it comes to persuasive messages, even though cognitive and affective attitudes are

generally studied and analysed separately, it is difficult to not consider both of them and avoid

correlations (Zajonc, 1980). Indeed, Schwarz and Clore (2003) argue, with the affect-as-

information theory, that evaluative judgements are based on feelings. The emotional state that

people experience when are exposed to an ad tend to influence their evaluations (Gorn, Pham

& Sin 2001, p. 44); which in turn induce the polarization of responses (G. J. Gorn, 1982, p.

43).

When there is high involvement with the product or issue of the advertisement, evaluations

should be based on the claims of the product and not on feelings (R. E. Petty, Cacioppo, &

Schumann, 1983). However, there is still an emotional involvement that unconsciously plays a

role when, for example, external cues such as music are present in the communication (G. Gorn

et al., 2001). In general, costumers that are trying to understand their feelings toward an ad

(e.g. fun, tension), could make more extreme evaluations because biased by their own


emotions; even though there are some individuals that are naturally inclined to elaborate deeper

the information and, thus, are more resistant to manipulations (Haugtvedt et al., 1992). For

instance, some brands use shocking advertisements for inducing costumers to be more attentive

and increase their cognitive processes (Dahl, Frankenberger, & Manchanda, 2003, p. 271).

Indeed, leveraging on certain feelings may have an impact on the way the advertisements are

processed. For example, the literature has given much attention on arousal, and it has been

shown that its level (high, moderate or low) have important consequences on persuasion (Pham,

1996). When costumers are aroused, they may be biased in their evaluations about product

characteristics and be influenced in their brand attitude. Pham (1996, p. 385) claims which are

the necessary conditions so that arousal may have a positive, and not intrusive, effect:

executional cues should be present up to the point that the ability of elaboration is not

hampered.

2.1.3 Elaboration likelihood method (ELM)

According to the ELM model, a persuasive communication can be processed through two

routes: central or peripheral (Petty & Cacioppo, 1986, p. 126). In the first case, the recipient

scrutinizes the message, thus the “elaboration likelihood” (Petty & Cacioppo, 1986, p. 128) of

the ad is high. In the second case, when the peripheric route is undertaken, the subject does not

focus on the ad and the arguments is superficially elaborated. In line with the “principle of least

effort” (Zipf, 2016), recipients rely on the peripheral system because it is easier to take

decisions and make judgements, since the assessment comes from the information given by

external cues such as pictures or music (Kahneman, 1973; Tiedens & Linton, 2001).

When the peripheral system is activated, the attention goes toward external cues and the

information is not carefully analysed (Cialdini, 2016). Therefore, in the case of central

processing, the attitude change will last longer, and it will be more resistant to opposite

messages (Schwarz, Bless & Bohner, 1991; Petty & Cacioppo, 1986; Haugtvedt, Petty &

Cacioppo, 1992). Hence, to change costumers’ attitudes it should be clear on which feelings

and reasonings costumers rely on when they are exposed to persuasive message. For instance,

since it is not possible to analyse every stimulus received by the environment and deeply

elaborate it (Petty & Cacioppo, 1986; Cialdini, 2007), motivation and ability play the major

role in influencing the audience involvement.

In conclusion, individuals assess the information through two different cognitive systems

(Kahneman, 2003, p. 1451):


• System 1: fast, associative and emotional. Hence, the peripheral route.

• System 2: slow, effortful and controlled. That is, the central route.

2.2 Key factors of Persuasion

Practitioners should be aware that the attention is controllable and selective (Kahneman, 1973,

p. 201), hence, factors such as motivation, ability and involvement should be influenced, or at

least taken into consideration, to guide the costumers through emotional experiences.

2.2.1 Motivation and ability

In the case of central processing, whether and how a costumer shapes (or changes) his attitude

depends on:

• The comprehension and evaluation of the message;

• His or her existing knowledge.

On the other hand, when the peripheral processing occurs, costumer’s attitudes can be

influenced by (Mackenzie & Spreng, 1992):

• His or her impressions about the quality of the message;

• His or her current mood;

• The source of the message;

• Anything else that could be helpful in assessing is the feeling perceived at that

moment.

For instance, Petty and Cacioppo (1986) suggested that an increase of motivation to elaborate

the message, along with high involvement, leads to more effortful processes and hence to

stronger attitudes. Batra and Ray (1986, p. 433) confirm that individuals are more likely to

make judgements when there is high motivation for getting involved with the communication

and that higher ability helps in eliciting an effortful response. Therefore, motivation can be

considered as the desire to make judgements (Deci et al., 2001), while ability is the capability

to make evaluations (Ho & Tam, 2005). Furthermore, Petty (1977) showed that, to achieve a

resistant attitude change, a minimum level of cognitive work has to be induced to the audience.

In this way, there is higher motivation to elaborate the information, retrieve old believes, and

update them with the existing ones (Alpert & Alpert, 1991, sec. introduction)


Even though the concepts of motivation and ability derived by the ELM model have led to the

development of several theories, in this context they should be treated as highly interdependent

(Batra & Ray, 1986). Mackenzie and Spreng (1992, p. 520) argue that “motivation influences

the nature rather than the amount of a consumer’s information processing”. In other words,

motivation could have a role in influencing the recipient to make a cognitive effort and focus

on the message, rather than relying on more appealing short-cuts (MacInnis, Moorman &

Jaworksi (1991);Macinnis & Park, 1991).

Kahneman (2011) argues that human beings have limited capacities, thus limited abilities,

when it comes to cognitive thinking. However, McInnis and Park (1991, p. 35) listed some

strategies that may increase the levels of attention toward an advertisement and motivation:

• Aim to trigger hedonic needs to guarantee a more pleasant experience;

• Use novelty for eliciting curiosity, such as unexpected changes;

• Choose a prominent stimulus, such as loud music or pictures.

Furthermore, the importance of motivation to define the depth of processing has been

highlighted also in the literature about the Internet usage and web advertisements (Ho &

Bodoff, 2014; Kim, Kim, & Park, 2010; Rodgers & Thorson, 2000; Sicilia, Ruiz, & Munuera,

2005). For instance, Ho and Bodoff (2014, p. 507) suggest that motivation and ability do have

positive impact on a person’s depth of processing. Moreover, Sicilia, Ruiz and Munuera (2005,

p. 40) found out that interactive Web sites increase the motivation to process the information

of people with low ability cognition.

2.2.2 Involvement

So far, it has been given much attention to the concept of involvement and, for the sake of

clarity, it must be highlighted that in this context it will be considered as either the “product

involvement”, but also as the “cognitive elaboration that occurs in a communication process”

(Liu & Shrum, 2002, p. 60). Indeed, the level of involvement plays a relevant role on which

route, between central or peripheral, will be undertaken by the recipient. For instance, high

involvement with the product advertised (R. E. Petty et al., 1983) and highly interactive online

experience cause the users to make a cognitive effort deeper than usual (Liu & Shrum, 2002).

According to Petty & Cacioppo (1986, p. 145), subjects might be motivated to pay attention to

persuasive messages according to the “personal relevance” of the issue. In other words, the

interest toward a message is proportional to the consequences that may have in someone’s life.


Moreover, in the case of high involvement, it is assumed to be high ability to assess the

information, given an existing knowledge of the issue.

Greenwald and Leavitt (1984, p. 591) define different levels of involvement and processing:

1. Bottom up: if at the beginning the involvement is low but the individual perceives the

message to be relevant, he or she moves forward to a deeper elaboration;

2. Top down: when the involvement is high but the content is irrelevant or well-known,

the attention is shifted somewhere else;

3. Competence limitation concerning the ability to elaborate the information. For instance,

foreign language or a distracting cue;

4. Capacity limitation: the costumer is not able to be attentive and in this case the focus

and the involvement is reduced.

In conclusion, the relevance of the message influences the in-depth processing and cognitive

responses (Greenwald & Leavitt, 1984, p. 587): at high involvement there is deeper processing

and long lasting attitude changes, while at low involvement there is little cognitive effort, and

the elaboration will not go further.

2.3 The Role of Music

Music plays a relevant role in advertising due to its ability of involving costumers and evoking

emotions (Oakes & North, 2006). Indeed, the elements that build up the structure of music,

such as pitch, rhythm, tempo and so on, have the property of attracting the audience and make

it feel connected to the advertisement or the brand (Brodsky, 2010). Moreover, has been found

in several experiments (Gueguen & Jacob, 2012; Milliman, 1982; North, Hargreaves, &

McKendrick, 1999) that a rational thinking behind the responses to the musical stimulus is

missing (Cialdini, 2016, p. 198). Therefore, the following sections aim at exposing and

understanding the relevant effects that music has on the cognitive and affective responses.

2.3.1 Cognitive effects

When a sound reaches the ear, neural events are activated as a chain, and eventually the sound

is transformed into a perception (Peretz & Zatorre, 2005, p. 90). Without going into the details

of how music affects the brain, it is important to highlight that storing a heard sound is

automatic and it does not require much effort, but listening to the sound means that the recipient

is giving attention to the source and he or she is trying to attach meanings to the music. Indeed,


music influence cognitive activities such as “understanding and remembering auditory

information” (Buchholz & Smith, 1991, p. 5) and can make the task more (or less) easier.

According to its structure and characteristics, background music has different degrees of

complexity, which can make some tracks more difficult to listen to than others. Thus, the level

of cognitive effort needed to elaborate the information can be increased (decreased), e.g. using

intrusive and loud popular songs (Peretz & Zatorre, 2005). In other words, there are cases in

which music help the in storing and understanding the message received, but, on the other hand,

when the overall activity requires too much effort, peripheral cues such as background music

may interfere with the cognitive effort music (Lantos & Craton, 2012; Park & Young, 1986).

In conclusion, it is relevant to know which is the meaning of the commercial that needs to be

conveyed and the level of effort that is needed to process it (Greenwald, 1968). Moreover, the

familiarity that the audience has with the background music has relevant effects on the

evaluations. Indeed, when a track is listened to for the first time, it may cause the attachment

of specific thoughts and feelings, either positive or negative, to the experience or the music

itself (e.g. earworms)(Williamson et al., 2012). Finally, when there is background music

playing, the perception of time itself changes: given the higher motivation to listen to it, songs

with positive valence may increase the perceived duration of a time period and costumer give

longer estimation of time (Kellaris & Kent, 1992, p. 373)(Kellaris & Kent, 1992, p. 365).

Given the several ways in which background music may affect the listeners, the results

achieved in the literature are often different and contrasting (Ziv, Hoftman, & Geyer, 2012).

When costumers are highly involved with the advertised product, they are more motivated to

elaborate the commercial, and, as mentioned previously, invasive or familiar music might

lower the attention (Lantos & Craton, 2012, p. 31; Park & Young, 1986). Indeed, the capacity

to focus on the message is limited (Greenwald & Leavitt, 1984). For instance, Park and Young

(1986) advertised a natural product using a famous and popular song in the background. Hence,

they registered a negative response from the high involvement group. However, the opposite

reaction was received from the low involvement group, which presumably enjoyed the overall

commercial (Alpert & Alpert, 1991; Lantos & Craton, 2012). Apart from intrusiveness and

familiarity, wrong musical fit leads to negative reactions. In line with this argument are the

results obtained by MacInnis and Park (1991): music that is not consistent with the primary

message of the advertisement works as a distractor and it negatively affects attitudes and

feelings.


Mentioning the positive effects, the literature presents studies in which background music

facilitated the message processing. For example, MacInnis and Park (1991) showed that

background music may have a positive impact both for high and low involvement groups, when

the condition of musical fit is met. In other words, attention given to the commercial and the

involvement with it both increase if background music and the ad message carry a similar

emotional meaning. Hence, background music may work as a communication vehicle and it

may lead to polarized thoughts, e.g. more favourable (Hoyer, Srivastava, & Jacoby, 1984).

Indeed, Ziv, Hoftman and Geyer (2012) demonstrated that music with a positive valence

increase the acceptance of unethical messages exposed in online commercials (i.e. a “website

allowing pension payments’ cheating” (Ziv et al., 2012, p. 759).

In conclusion, Alpert and Alpert (1991, p. 233) argue that the selection of background music

should be based on:

• The aimed cognitive or affective involvement of the audience (e.g. informative or

emotional ad);

• The meaning that wants to be transmitted;

• The level of involvement of the recipient (high or low).

For instance, a person stating that an advertisement is humorous, informative, or classy is

involved on a cognitive level. This type of involvement is the “thoughtful information

acquisition” (Lantos & Craton, 2012, p. 31) and is important when the aim of the ad is to

change the target attitude through the claims of the product or the brand, reducing the impact

of peripheral cues. On the other hand, affective involvement is based on emotions and

experiences. Therefore, judgements are based on “hedonic needs” (Lantos & Craton, 2012, p.

31), such as fun, amusement or empathy and the advertisement should focus on giving an

experience.

When hearing a piece of music, the right and left hemispheres of the brain work together to

process the melody and analyse the structural components of the music, while the limbic system

activates an emotional response in the listener (Hampton, 2007; Weinberger, 1998)

2.3.2 Emotional effects

In the literature has been largely discussed the power of music in involving customers,

conveying emotions, enhancing experiences and priming their choices (Bruner, 1990; Gueguen


& Jacob, 2012; North, 2012; Williamson et al., 2012; Zentner et al., 2008). Koelsch (2014)

points out several social functions that music has and that can be applied to marketing:

• Creation of bonds and connections, i.e. between brand and costumer (Yorkston &

Menon, 2004);

• Communication of intentions through associations, i.e. luxury brands commercials

(Brodsky, 2010);

• Increase of empathy;

• Synchronization to a beat (Milliman (1982) showed that in-store background music can

influence the customers’ pace of walk);

• Increase of social belonging to a community. For instance, higher levels of pleasure and

arousal induced by classical music may enhance consumer’s desire to affiliate with the

sellers (Dubé, Chebat & Morin, 1995, p. 316).

From the examples it can be understood that it is difficult to define the boundaries between

cognitive and affective responses, since the “feeling is not free of thought, nor is thought free

of feeling” (Zajonc, 1980). Indeed, the emotional component of an advertisement can influence

the cognitive process of the target, and it may impact the brand’s attitude as well. Moreover,

the literature expresses significant ambiguity when it comes to assessing whether is the emotion

that shapes cognition or the other way around (Oakes, 2007).

However, beyond every doubt, music is able to increase the audience motivation and the feeling

of reward (Zentner et al., 2008). Indeed, studies about these effects go beyond the marketing

field and several neurologists (Chanda & Levitin, 2013; Menon & Levitin, 2005) argue that

music involves people through the activation of the brain’s areas of reward, motivation and

pleasure. Hence, emotions such as joy, thrills or happiness are released.

3. Methodology

3.1 Laboratory Experiment

The hypothesis will be tested through an artificial experiment conducted in laboratory.

However, to enhance realism (Lynch, Jr., 1982, p. 231), the participants will be exposed to a

watch advertisement using the website www.luxurynewsroom.com, which presents a dedicated

section to luxury watches. Hence, it is possible to control the effects of extraneous variables

that otherwise would have hampered the validity of the results during a field experiment, such

http://www.luxurynewsroom.com/


as: other sounds, own background music, dislike of the website and consequent avoidance of

the advertisement.

3.1.1 Sample

To ensure highly involved participants, the sample will be composed of adult luxury watch

costumers, which will be recruited through snowball sampling.

3.1.2 Research design

The experiment is designed as a “true experimental posttest-only control group” exposed by

Malhotra (2010). In other words, the sample will be randomly divided into two groups:

• The control group, which will be exposed to the video ad without background music;

• The experimental group will be exposed to the video ad with classical background

music.

Moreover, below the ad there will be the full description of the product.

3.1.2 Procedure

After the exposure to the stimulus, participants will be instructed to list their thoughts and

feelings, with a time limit of 3 minutes (Cacioppo & Petty, 1981; R. Petty, Ostrom, & Brock,

2014). Finally, they will fill out a questionnaire about demographics and brand attitude and

will be dismissed.

3.1.3 Variables

Classical background music is the independent variable of the research that is going to be

manipulated. Indeed, ceteris paribus, the treatment group will evaluate the advertisement

without any background sound or distraction. Relevant differences from the two groups will

be sought in the cognitive and affective responses. As manipulation check, brand attitude will

be measured together with the demographics.

Furthermore, extraneous variables that should be taken into consideration are the artificial

environment that could hamper natural behaviours; and the mood antecedent to the exposure,

which may influence ad responses (Batra & Stayman, 1990; Schwarz et al., 1991).

3.1.4 Measurement and analysis

The thought-listing technique (Cacioppo & Petty, 1981) is the recommended method for

measuring cognitive responses to ads. Indeed, even when individuals’ responses are the same

on the attitude scale, the “thoughts behind the ratings are different” (R. Petty et al., 2014, p. 6).


Therefore, for understanding the dynamics of attitudes change, this technique will be used to

measure the in-depth processing of participants’ (as the average number of thoughts (R. Petty

et al., 2014)); their thoughts (types and valence) and their feelings.

The thought sampling methodology will follow the one drawn up by Wright (1980). In

addition, the thoughts will be coded on the grounds of the “coding scheme of cognitive

responses” provided by Buchholz and Smith (1991, p. 17); while the feelings will be coded

relying on the emotion categories synthesised by Batra and Ray (1986a, pp. 236–240) (see

Appendix). However, since the literature is lacking clear and defined coding schemes ad hoc

for feelings, the Geneva Emotional Music Scale (GEMS) will be used as supportive material.

Indeed, according to Zentner, Grandjean and Scherer (2008, p. 500), the emotions expressed

by music may influence listeners’ feelings and what is perceived becomes what is felt.

Finally, the attitude toward the brand in the ad will be measured with a five-point, Likert-type

scale with Cronbach’s alpha of 0.91 (1 = Strongly disagree; 5 = Strongly agree) (see Appendix).

The results will be analysed with MAXQDA (categorization and coding) and SPSS software

(ANOVA).

3.1.5 Pilot study

A pre-test to will be conducted to ensure the effectiveness of the experiment. Five video ads

have been chosen among the ones of luxury watch brands that gave the authorization for

copyrights (see Appendix). The selection was based on background music characteristics (e.g.

genre, tempo, texture, arousal, intrusiveness) (Kellaris & Kent, 1994) and their fit with both

gender.

3.1.6 Limitations and future research

This research presents several limitations due to time and budget constraints. For instance, the

choice of the ads was very limited because of the copyrights authorization and the artificial

environment may undermine the external validity of the results. Moreover, it would have been

interesting to have a second experimental group to evaluate an ad with popular music, which

is nowadays commonly used among luxury brands to attract younger generations and create

catchy ads. Indeed, new types of musical genres are arising, due to the technology, and

widening the existing range of styles. Thus, it is more difficult to generalise the conclusions of

the experiment and each case should be analysed on the grounds of its own purpose. Finally,

further research is needed first to experiment in the field, and secondly to study the effects of

other music styles.


3. Work Plan

Activity Timeframe

Pre-Test 30/10/2017 – 05/11/2017

Experiments and

Integration of Literature

Review

06/11/2017 – 17/12/2017

Analysis of Results 18/12/2017 – 07/01/2018

Conclusions 08/01/2018 – 21/01/2018

4. Overview of the Chapters

Abstract

Table of Contents

List of Abbreviations

List of Figures

List of Tables

1. Introduction

1.1 Background and Problem statement

1.2 Research Questions and Hypothesis

1.3 Significance of the Study

1.3.1 The digitalization of luxury

2. Literature Review

2.1 Structure of the Thesis

2.2 Understanding Costumers’ Responses

2.2.1 Cognitive Responses

2.2.2 Affective Responses

2.2.3 Elaboration Likelihood Method (ELM)


2.3 Key factors of Persuasion

2.3.1 Motivation and Ability

2.3.2 Involvement

2.4 The role of Music

2.4.1 Characteristics of Music

2.4.2 Cognitive Effects

2.4.3 Emotional Effects

3. Theoretical Framework

4. Methodology

4.1 Laboratory Experiment

4.1.1 Research Design and Sample

4.1.2 Procedure

4.1.3 Variables and Measurement

4.1.4 Analysis of Results

4.1.5 Discussion

5. Conclusions

5.1 Contribution

5.2 Limitations

5.3 Future Research

6. References

7. Appendix


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