maspero manual of egyptian archaeology

8/13/2019 Maspero Manual of Egyptian Archaeology

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MANUALOF

Egyptian ArchaeologyAND

6utbe to lire Stubo of Antiquities in djgujt.^Off 7W.E KS OF STUDENTS AND TRAVELLERS.

BY

SIR G. MASPERO, D.C.L., Oxon.,MEMBER OF THE INSTITUTE OF FRANCE; PROFESSOR AT THE COLLEGE HE FRANCF. JDIRECTOR-GENERAL OF THE SERVICE OF ANTIQUITIES IN EGYl'T.

TRANSLATED AND ENLARGED BYAGNES S. JOHNS.

SIXTH ENGLISH EDITION.

fflSaill) fffirrr li?untrrtJ ant) -ffort8=ttttoo Hlustrattons.

NEW YORK: G. P. PUTNAM'S SONS ^Q A****LONDON: H. GREYEL AND CO.1914


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PRINTED BYHAZELL, WATSON AND VINEY, LD.,LONDON AND AYLESBURY,.ENGLAND


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PREFACETO THE SIXTH EDITION.

TO put this book into English, and thusto hand it on to thousands who mightnot otherwise have enjoyed it, has been to mea very congenial and interesting task. Itwould be difficult, I imagine, to point to anywork of its scope and character which is bettercalculated to give lasting delight to all classesof readers. For the skilled archaeologist, itspages contain not only new facts, but newviews and new interpretations ; while to thosewho know little, or perhaps nothing, of thesubjects under discussion, it will open a freshand fascinating field of study. It is not enoughto say that a handbook of Egyptian Archaeologywas much needed, and that Professor Masperohas given us exactly what we required. Hehas done much more than this. He has givenus a picturesque, vivacious, and highly originalvolume, as delightful as if it were not learned,and as instructive as if it were dull.


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VI PREFACE TO THE SIXTH EDITION.As regards the practical side of Archaeology,

it ought to be unnecessary to point out thatits usefulness is strictly parallel with the use-fulness of public museums. To collect andexhibit objects of ancient art and industry isworse than idle if we do not also endeavour todisseminate some knowledge of the history ofthose arts and industries, and of the processesemployed by the artists and craftsmen of thepast. Archaeology, no less than love, ' adds aprecious seeing to the eye ' ; and without thatgain of mental sight, the treasures of ourpublic collections are regarded by the generalvisitor as mere ' curiosities 'flat and stale forthe most part, and wholly unprofitable.Thus wrote Miss Amelia B. Edwards in thepreface to the first English edition of this book,published in 1887.

Since then the book has passed throughother editions. Every year, almost everymonth, fresh material is found for the study ofEgyptology and fresh light is thrown upon itby the progress of excavation, exploration, andresearch. Hence it follows that in the courseof a few years the standard textbooks requireconsiderable addition and modification if they


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viii PREFACE TO THE SIXTH EDITION.supply the additional matter, although he hasmost kindly assented to the production of thenew English edition.Where any serious additions have beenmade, the sources of information have beenindicated as far as possible in a footnote, andfor references to the predynastic and Thiniteperiods the English editor is alone responsible.A short table of the principal epochs ofEgyptian history has been added.Many aspects of Egyptian archaeology have

necessarily been passed over. In a book ofthis size it is impossible to deal adequatelywith the palaeography, the early relations withNubia, and the Mediterranean peoples, nor yetwith the difficult problems of the origin of theEgyptians. This work of Sir Gaston Masperostill remains the handbook of Egyptianarchaeology, and to render it too bulky wouldbe to deprive it of much of its usefulnessand charm.

For the new illustrations I have to thankDr. Hogarth and Mr. Leeds for their kindassistance in procuring photographs of objectsin the Ashmolean Museum ; Dr. Guterbockfor an excellent photograph of the Akhenaten


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PREFACE TO THE SIXTH EDITION. IXstatue ; and Dr. Flinders Petrie, the DeutscheOrient Gesellschaft, and the Egypt ExplorationFund for their courtesy in allowing me toreproduce illustrations published by them.

A. S. Johns.Cambridge, 191 3.


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CONTENTSTAGEPreface v

List ok Illustrations xiiiThe Principal Epochs of Ancient Egyptian History . xxiv

CHAPTER I.ARCHITECTURECIVIL AND MILITARY.

i. Private Dwellings 22. Fortresses 283. Public Works 41

CHAPTER II.RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTURE.

1. Materials and Principles of Construction . . 532. Temples 723. Decoration 107

CHAPTER III.TOMBS.

1. Mastap.as. 1302. Royal Tombs and Pyramids 1483. Tombs of the Theban Empire : the Rock-cut Tombs 169

xi


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XIV LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.1 1(5. PAGE20. Central pavilion of house, in form of tower, second

Theban period ......2 1. Ceiling pattern from behind Medinet Habu, TwentiethDynasty .......21. Ceiling pattern similar to one at El Bersheh, Twelfth

Dynasty .......23. Ceiling pattern from tomb of Aimadua, Twentieth

Dynasty .......24. Wall-painting, palace of Tell el Amarna. W. M. F

Petrie ........25. Part of painted pavement, palace of Tell el Amarna\V. M. F. Petrie26. Plan of private house, Tell el Amarna. W. M. F

Petrie ........27. Door of a house of the Old Kingdom, from the wall oftomb of the Sixth Dynasty ....28. Facade of a Fourth Dynasty house, from the sarcophagus

of Khiifu Poskhii ......29. Plan of second fortress of Abydos, Eleventh or TwelfthDynasty .......30. Walls of second fort at Abydos, restored .31. Facade of fort, from wall-scene, Beni Hasan, Twelfth

Dynasty .......32. Plan of main gate, second fortress of Abydos33. Plan of south-east gate, second fortress of Abydos34. Plan of gate, fortress of Kom el Ahmar35. Plan of the walled city at El Kab36. I Man of walled city of Kom Ombo37. Plan of fortress of Kummeh ....38. Plan of fortress of Semneh ....39. Section of the platform at A, B, of preceding plan .40. Syrian fort .......41. The town walls of Dapur .....42. City of Kadesh, from bas-relief, Ramcsseum43. Plan of the pavilion of Medinet Habu .44. Elevation of pavilion, Medinet Habu .45. Canal and bridge of Zaru, from bas-relief, Karnak .46. Cellar, with amphorae .....47. Granary ........48. Plan of Pithom49. Store-chambers of the Ramesseum


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LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. XVtlo.50-

5 1 -52.53-54-55-

56.57-58.59-

60.61.62.63-64.6.5-66.67.68.69.70.7 1 -72.

73-74-75-76.77-

78.

79-80.81.82.83-

PAGEKing inaugurating public work. Carved mace head,Oxford ........ 44Dyke at Wady Gerraweh . . . . . -47Section of dyke at Wady Gerraweh . . . -47

Quarries of Silsilis ....... 49Draught of Hathor capital in quarry of Gebel Abu Fedah 50Bas-relief from one of the stelae of Aahmes, at Turah,Eighteenth Dynasty . . . . . 51

Masonry in temple of Seti I. at Abydos . . 57Temple wall with cornice . . . . . -58Niche and doorway in temple of Seti I. at Abydos . . 58Pavement of the portico of Osiris in temple of Seti I.,Abydos ........ 59

Corbelled arch, temple of Seti L, Abydos . . -59Hathor pillar, Abu Simbel . . . . .60Pillar of Amenhotep III., Karnak . . . .61Sixteen-sided pillars, Karnak . . . . .62Fluted pillar, Kalabsheh . . . . . 63Polygonal Hathor-head pillar, El Kab . . -63Column with square die . . . . . .64Column with campaniform capital, Ramesseum . . 64Inverted campaniform capital, Karnak . . -65Compound capital ....... 66Ornate capitals, Ptolemaic . . . . .66Lotus-bud column, Beni Hasan . . . . .66Lotus-bud column, processional hall, Karnak,Thothmes III. . . . . . . -67Column in aisles of hypostyle hall, Karnak . . .68Palm-leaf capital ....... 69Hathor-head capital, Ptolemaic . . . .69Campaniform and Hathor-headed capital, Philae . . 70Section of hypostyle hall at Karnak, showing the ar-rangements of the campaniform and lotus-budcolumns ........Plan of temple and valley temple of Pyramid of Khafra,Gizeh . ........The temple of the Sun at Abu Gurab, reconstructedSouthern temple of Amenhotep III. at ElephantinePlan of temple of Amenhotep III. near El KabPlan of temple of Hathor, Deir el Medineh .Plan of temple of Khonsii, Karnak ....

7 1

757983848586


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XVI LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.FIG.84. Pylon with masts, from a bas-relief in the temple of

Khonsu, Karnak ......85. The Ramesseum restored, showing the rise of the ground86. Crypts in the thickness of the walls round the sanctuaryof Denderah .......

87. The pronaos of Edfu, as seen from the top of the easternpylon .....

88. Plan of the temple, Edfu89. Plan of temple of Karnak in the reign of Amenhotep II90. Plan of hypostyle hall, Karnak91. Plan of great temple, Luxor92. Plan of the island of Philae93. Plan of speos, Kalaat-Addah, Nubia .94. Plan of speos, Gebel Silsileh95. Plan of the Great Speos, Abu Simbel .96. Speos of Hathor, Abu Simbel .97. Plan of temple of Hatshepsut, Deir el Bahari98. Plan of temple of Seti L, Abydos99. Crio-sphinx from Wady es Sabuah .

100. Couchant ram, with statuette of royal founderavenue at sphinxes, Karnak

101-10G. Decorative designs from Denderah107. Two Nile-gods, bearing lotus-flowers and libatk108. Dado decoration, hall of Thothmes III., Karnak109. Ceiling decoration, from tomb of Bakenrenf (Bocchoris)

Saqqara, Twenty-sixth Dynasty1 in. Zodiacal circle of Denderahhi. Frieze of uraei and cartouches ....112. Wall of a chamber at Denderah, showing the arrangement of the tableaux ....113. Obelisk of Senusert I., Heliopolis114. Obelisk of Senusert I., Begig, Fayum115. Table of offerings, Karnak116. Limestone altar ....117. Wooden naos, Turin Museum .1 iS. A mastaba ......119. False door in mastaba, from Mariette's Les Mastabahs120. Plan of forecourt in mastaba of Kaapir121. Plan of forecourt in mastaba of Neferhotep122. Door in facade of mastaba ....123. Portico and door, from Mariette's Les Mastabahs

restored

TAOE

8788

89

909i929394959697989899

102106

106108109109no1 1 1

511712212312412512613113313334134J 34


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LiSt OF ILLUSTRATIONS. XVltFIG. PAGE124. Plan of chapel in mastaba of Khabiusokari, Fourth

Dynasty . . . . . . . . 135125. Plan of chapel in mastaba of Ti, Fifth Dynasty . . 135126. Plan of chapel in mastaba of Shepsesptah, Fourth

Dynasty 135127. Plan of chapel in mastaba of Am, Saqqara, Fourth

Dynasty 135128. Plan of chapel in mastaba of Thenti II., Fourth Dynasty,

Saqqara ........ 136129. Plan of chapel in mastaba of the Red Scribe, Fourth

Dynasty, Saqqara . . . . . .136130. Plan of the mastaba of Ptahhotep, Fifth Dynasty,

Saqqara . . . . . . . .137131. Stela in tomb of Merruka, Fifth Dynasty, Abiisir . 138132. Wall scene of funerary offerings, from mastaba of

Ptahhotep, Fifth Dynasty ..... 140133. Wall painting, funeral voyage, mastaba of Urkhuu,

Gizeh, Fourth Dynasty ..... 142134. Wall scene from mastaba of Ptahhotep, Fifth Dynasty 142135. Plan of serdab in mastaba at Gizeh, Fourth Dynasty . 143136. Plan of serdab and chapel in mastaba of Rahotep atSaqqara, Fourth Dynasty . . . . . 144

137. Plan of serdab and chapel in mastaba of Thenti I., Saq-qara, Fourth Dynasty ...... 144

138. Section showing shaft and vault of mastaba at Gizeh,Fourth Dynasty . . . . . . .145139. Section of mastaba, Saqqara, Sixth Dynasty . . 146T40. Wall painting of funerary offerings, mastaba of Nenka,

Saqqara, Sixth Dynasty ..... 147141. Plan of royal tomb, time of Menes, First Dynasty,

Nagada ........ 149142. Tomb of Senna, with panelled east wall, Denderah, Sixth

Dynasty ........ 150143. Plan of tomb of King Qa, Abydos, First Dynasty . 151144. Stela of King Perabsen, Abydos, Second Dynasty . 152145. Royal tomb, Bet Khallaf, superstructure . . .153146. Section of royal tomb, Bet Khallaf .... 154147. Step pyramid of Saqqara ..... 155148. Pyramid of Medum ...... 156149. Section of passage and vault in pyramid of Medum . 157150. Section of the Great Pyramid. W. M. F. Petrie . 159

b


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xviii List of Illustrations.KIG. A PAGE151. Plan and section of the pyramid of Unas . . 163152. Portcullis and passage, pyramid of Unas . . .164153. Section of the pyramid of Unas . . . -165154. Mastabat el Faraiin ...... 167155. Section of vaulted brick pyramid, Abydos . . 170156. Section of vaulted tomb, Abydos . . .170157. Plan of tomb, Abydos . . . . . . 171158. Thcban tomb with pyramidion, from scene in a tomb . 171159. Theban tomb with pyramidion, from wall painting . 172160. Section of apis tomb, time of Amenhotep If. . . 172161. Tombs in cliff opposite Assuan . . . . 173162. Facade of tomb of Khnumhotep, Beni Hasan, Twelfth

Dynasty . . . . . . . . 174163. Facade of tomb, Assuan . . . . . . 175164. Plan of tomb of Khnumhotep, Beni Hasan . .176165. Plan of unfinished tomb, Beni Hasan . . . 177166. Funeral procession and ceremonies, from wall paintings,Thebes 178167. Plan of tomb of Rameses IV. . . . . .184168. Plan of tomb of Rameses IV., from Turin papyrus . 184169. Plan of tomb of Seti I. ..... . 185170. Wall painting of the fields of Aalii, tomb of Rameses III. 187171. Wooden model of sailing boat, Beni Hasan, Twelfth

Dynasty ........ 192172. Wooden model and servants working, Beni Hasan,Twelfth Dynasty . . . . . . 193173. Pestle and mortar for grinding colours . . . 195171. Comic sketch on ostracon. New York Museum . . 197175. Vignette from the Book of the Dead (Sai'te period) . 198176. Vignette from the Book of the I had, from the papyrus

of Hunefer ....... 199177. Part of scene on a wall of the pre-dynastic tomb of

Hierakonpolis ....... 2001 78-9. Scenes from the tomb of Khnumhotep at Beni Hasan,Twelfth Dynasty . . . . . -203180. Scene from a tomb painting in the British Museum,

Eighteenth Dynasty ...... 204181. Funerary repast, tomb of Prince Horcmheb, Eighteenth

Dynasty ........ 205182. From wall painting, Thebes, Ramesside period . . 207183. From wall scene in tomb of Horemheb . . . 209


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XX LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.FIG.224. Colossus of Alexander II.225. Statue of Horus, Graeco Egyptian226. Group from Naga .227. Slate palettes, predynastic and First Dynasty228. Flint knife, predynastic229. Flint teeth for sickles230. Girdle tie of Isis231. Frog amulet .232. Lotus column amulet233. Sacred eye or uzat .234. Scarab .235. Stone vases, predynastic and First Dynasty236. Impression of cylinder-seal. First Dynasty237. Perfume vase, alabaster238. Perfume vase, alabaster239. Perfume vase, alabaster240. Perfume vase, alabaster241. Kohl-jar242. Black-topped pottery243. Red burnished pottery244. Pottery fish, predynastic245. Red pottery with basket-work designs, pr246. Vase painted to imitate mottled stone247. Decorated vase, predynastic248. Black incised pottery, predynastic .249. Lenticular ampulla of Mykena?an type,Dynasty .....250. False-necked vase ....251-3. Decorated vases, pottery254. Parti-coloured glass vase, bearing namemes III. .....255. Lenticular ampulla, parti-coloured glass256. Parti-coloured glass vase .257. Glass goblets of Nesikhonsu258. Hippopotamus in blue glaze259. Glazed ware, from Thebes260. Glazed ware, from Thebes261. Cup, glazed ware ....

. Decoration of interior of small bowl,Dynasty .....

263. Lenticular vase, glazed ware, Sai'te period

edynastic

Eighteenth

of Thoth-

Eighteenth

PAGE26927O2722 74275276278278278279279282283284284284285285286287288288289289290291291292

297297298298299300300301301302


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LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. XXIfig. rAGE264. Tiled chamber in step pyramid of Saqqara . . 33265. Tile from step pyramid of Saqqara .... 304266. Tile inlay, Tell el Yahudieh, Twentieth Dynasty . 304267. Tile inlay, Tell el Yahudieh, Twentieth Dynasty . 304268. Inlaid tiles, Tell el Yahudieh, Twentieth Dynasty . 305269. Tile of relief, Tell el Yahudieh, Twentieth Dynasty . 305270. Tile in relief, Tell el Yahudieh, Twentieth Dynasty . 306271. Ivory spoon, combs, and hairpins, predynastic . . 307272. Tusk carved with human face ..... 307273. Carved ivory from Hierakonpolis .... 38274. Ivory spoon ..... 39275. Wooden statuette of officer, Eighteenth Dynasty . 310276. Wooden statuette of priest, Eighteenth Dynasty . 311277. Wooden statuette of the Lady Na'i .... 312278-9. Wooden spoons, for perfume or unguents . . 313280-1. Wooden spoons for perfume or unguents . . 314282-3. Wooden spoons for perfume or unguents . . 315284-5. Wooden spoons for perfume or unguents . . 316286. Wooden spoon for perfume or unguents . . 3 X 7287-9. Chests 3 l8290. Construction of a mummy-case, wall scene, Eighteenth

Dynasty 3*9291 . Mask of coffin of Rameses II., tempo, Twenty-first Dynasty 32 2

32332632832933033033i33i332333

334335336343434 1342

292. Mummy-case of Queen Aahmesnefertari .293. Panel portrait, Graeco-Roman. National Gallery294. Carved and painted mummy canopy .295. Mummy-couch with canopy, Graeco-Roman296. Mummy-sledge and canopy ....297. Inlaid chair, Eleventh Dynasty . .298. Inlaid stool, Eleventh Dynasty299. Royal chair of state, wall painting, Rameses III.300. Women weaving, wall scene, Twelfth Dynasty .301. Man weaving, wall scene, Twelfth Dynasty302. Border pattern in cut leather-work, Twenty-first

Dynasty .......303. Bark with cut leather-work sails, Twentieth Dynasty304. Bark with cut leather-work sails, Twentieth Dynasty305. Bronze jug .......306. Bronze jug, seen from above ....307. Lamp, Graeco-Roman period ....308. Bronze statuette of Takushet ....


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XXll LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.FIG. PAGE309. Bronze statuette of Horus ....310. Bronze statuette of Mosu ....311. Bronze lion from Horbeit, Saite period312. Gold worker, wall scene .....313. Gold cup of General Tahuti, Eighteenth Dynasty314. Silver vase of Thmuis .....315. Silver vase of Thmuis .....316. Ornamental vase in precious metal, wall paintingTwentieth Dynasty .....317.

Crater of precious metal, wall painting,- EighteenthDynasty . . .318. Hydria of precious metal, wall painting, Eighteenth

Dynasty .......319. Enamelled cruet, wall painting, Eighteenth Dynasty320. Enamelled cruet, wall painting, Eighteenth Dynasty321. Gold centrepiece of Amenhotep III., wall painting322. Crater of precious metal, wall painting, Eighteenth

Dynasty .......323. Crater of precious metal, wall painting, EighteenthDynasty .......324. Ewer of precious metal, wall painting, EighteenthDynasty .......

325. Signet-ring with bezel .....326-9. Bracelets, First Dynasty ....330. Gold cloisonne pectoral, Dahshur, Twelfth Dynasty331. Mirror of Queen Aahhotep ....332. Bracelet of Queen Aahhotep ....333. Bracelet of Queen Aahhotep ....334. Diadem of Queen Aahhotep ....335. Bold uu'kli necklace of Queen Aahhotep336. Pectoral of Queen Aahhotep, bearing cartouche of

of Aahmes I.337. Poniard of Queen Aahhotep ....338. Poniard of Queen Aahhotep ....339. Battle-axe of Queen Aahhotep ....340. Funerary bark of Queen Aahhotep .341. Ring of Rameses II. .....342. Bracelet of Prince Psar .....

34334434634 735035135i

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35*

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354

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THE PRINCIPAL EPOCHS OE ANCIENTEGYPTIAN HISTORY.PREDYNASTIC PERIOD.

This ended with Menes, who united the kingdoms of the North andof the South.PROTO-DYNASTIC PERIOD.

Thinite : First and Second Dynasties. Steady development andorganisation of the country.MEMPHITE : Third Dynasty.

OLD KINGDOM.Memphite : Fourth, Fifth, and Sixth Dynasties.An age of power-ful Pharaohs, builders of the Pyramids.A period of weak government and civil strife followed. A Thebanfamily finally secured the chief power and gradually reunited the country.MIDDLE KINGDOM.Theban: Eleventh, Twelfth, and Thirteenth Dynasties. Egypt

highly prosperous. The feudal system fully developed under powerfulPharaohs. Nubia subjugated.A period of civil war under the Fourteenth Dynasty was followed bythe Hyksos domination of the Fifteenth and Sixteenth Dynasties.NEW KINGDOM, circa 1600-1080 B.C.Theban : Seventeenth, Eighteenth, Nineteenth, and Twentieth

Dynasties.The great period of Asiatic Conquest and Empire wasunder the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Dynasties.Egypt gradually declined under the later Ramessides (Rameses IV.-

XII.)of the Twentieth Dynasty, and the Empire fell to pieces underthe Twenty-first (Tanite) Dynasty.FOREIGN DOMINATION, circa 950-666 B.C.

Twenty-second, Twenty-third, Twenty-fourth, and Twenty-fifthDynasties. Libyans and Ethiopians in turn occupied the throne, theseat of government being successively at Bubastis, Tanis, and Sais.

LATE EGYPTIAN PERIOD, 666 525 B.C.Saite : Twenty-sixth Dynasty.A time of prosperity under native

Pharaohs, and reversion to ancient conventions of art in Egypt.PERSIAN DOMINATION, 525-408 B.C.Twenty- seventh Dynasty. The Persian monarchs reigned asPharaohs.The Twenty-eighth, Twenty-ninth, and Thirtieth Dynasties were

Egyptian, but they only maintained their partial independence by theaid of Greek mercenaries, and were finally reconquered by Persia.Alexander the Great took possession of Egypt 332 B.C.xxiv


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EGYPTIAN ARCHAEOLOGY.CHAPTER I.

ARCHITECTURE CIVIL AND MILITARY.THE earlier archaeologists, when visiting Egypt,concentrated their attention upon tombs and temples,and manifested little or no interest in the existingremains of private dwellings and fortified buildings.Yet few countries have preserved so many relics oftheir ancient civil architecture, and within the lastfew years systematic excavations have been carriedout with excellent results. Setting aside towns ofRoman or Byzantine date, which till recently werestanding almost intact at Kiift, Kom Ombo, andEl Agandiyeh, considerable portions of ancient Thebesare still standing to the east and south of Karnak.At Memphis there are large mounds, the core ofwhich is formed by houses in good preservation. Yetearlier are the remains at Abydos, where the plansof the Thinite town have been made out, and wherevestiges of the primitive huts still exist.At Kahun the remains of a whole provincial townof the Twelfth Dynasty have been laid bare. In theroyal town of Tell el Amarna of the EighteenthDynasty much important work has already been

I


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2 ARCHITECTURECIVIL AND MILITARY.done, and its streets and houses are now in process ofbeing excavated.At Tell el Maskhutah the granaries of Fithom arestanding ; at Tanis and Bubastis Sai'tic and Ptolemaictowns have been excavated. A long list might bemade of less-known localities where ruins of privatedwellings may be seen, which date back to theRamessides, and even to the earliest dynastic period.With regard to fortresses, Abydos itself can furnishtwo, of which one undoubtedly dates back to theearliest dynasties. The ramparts of El Kab, Kom elAhmar, El Hibeh, Kuban (opposite Dakkeh), ofHeliopolis, and of Thebes are standing, and mostof them have been carefully excavated.

I. PRIVATE DWELLINGS.The soil of Egypt, periodically washed by the in-

undation, is a black, compact, homogeneous mud,which, when dry, acquires the hardness of stone ; fromtime immemorial it has been used by the fellahm inconstructing their houses. The poorest huts of thepresent day are little more than a rudely shaped massof this mud. A rectangular space 8 or 10 feet inwidth and 15 or 16 feet in length is enclosed bywicker-work made of palm-branches coated bothinside and out with a layer of mud. As this coatingcracks in the drying, the fissures are filled in, andanother coating of mud is added until the wallsattain a thickness varying from 4 to 12 inches.Finally the hut is roofed in with palm-branches andstraw, covered with a layer of beaten earth. Theheight varies. Usually the ceiling is so low that to


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BRICK-MAKING. 3rise suddenly is to run the risk of knocking one'shead, while in some huts the roof is as much as 7 feetfrom the ground. There is no window of any de-scription to admit light and air ; occasionally there isa hole in the middle of the roof to let out the smoke,but this luxury is by no means universal. Theremains of huts of the primitive period show thatthis method of building of the modern Egyptian isan inheritance from his remote ancestors of the timeof the earliest dynasties. At Abydos, where theroyal tombs of the First Dynasty have been found,enough vestiges of the ancient town remain to provethat the earliest dwellings of the Egyptians weresimilar to those of the fellahin of to-day.

It is not always easy at the first glance to distin-guish between the huts that are made of wattle anddaub and those built of crude brick. The ordinaryEgyptian brick is made of mud, mixed with a littlesand and chopped straw, moulded into oblong bricksand dried in the sun. Building operations are begunby a man digging up the ground on the selected site.One set of men carry off the clods he turns up andheap them together, while another set knead themwith their feet and reduce them to a homogeneousmass of mud. When the paste is sufficiently kneaded,the master workman runs it into moulds of hard wood.The bricks are carried off by an assistant and laidout in rows some distance apart to dry (fig. 1). Acareful workman will leave them in the sun for sixhours or even a whole day, after which the bricks arestacked in such a manner that the air can circulatefreely among them, and so they remain for a week


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ARCHITECTURE CIVIL AND MILITARY.or two before they are used. Frequently, however,the bricks are merely dried for a few hours in the sunand used while they are still moist. Notwithstandingthis casual treatment, the mud is so tenacious thatthe brick does not easily get out of shape ; the outerface disintegrates owing to atmospheric conditions,but inside the wall the bricks remain intact, and arestill separable from each other. A good modernworkman will easily turn but 1,000 bricks a day,and after a week's practice he will reach 1,200,1,500, or even 1,800. The ancient workman, whose

EQEZ) C3--czy En )F?S csrliCZJ r^l / IEZ3m rmcnrrri

c2>

Fig. I.Brickmaking, from Eighteenth Dynasty tomb-painting,tomb of Rekhmara.tools were the same as those of the present day, musthave obtained equally good results.The ancient mould in general use for medium-sizedbricks measures 87 x 43 x 5-5 inches, and for thelarger bricks, 15-0 x y\ x 55 inches, although bothlarger and smaller moulds have been discovered.Bricks from the royal brickyards are occasionallystamped with the cartouche of the reigning sovereign,those from private factories are marked with one ormore conventional signs in red ink, a print of themoulder's finger or the maker's stamp. The greaternumber have no mark. The ordinary burnt brickdocs not appear to have been in common use before


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FOUNDATIONS OF HOUSES. 5the Graeco-Roman period, although some are knownof Ramesside times. Glazed bricks are occasionallyfound in the Delta ; one of these, now in the CairoMuseum, is inscribed in black ink with the name ofRameses III. In that instance the glaze is green,but other fragments are blue, red, yellow, or white.The nature of the soil does not admit of deepfoundations. On the surface there is a shallow bed ofmade earth which, except on the site of large towns,is of no depth. Below this there is a very densehumus intersected by narrow veins of sand, andbelow this againat the level of infiltrationthere isa bed of mud, more or less liquid according to theseason. At the present day the masons are contentto dig through the made earth and to commenceoperations as soon as they reach virgin soil : if thisshould be too deep down, they lay the foundationsabout 3 feet below the surface. The PharaonicEgyptians did likewise : 1 have never found anyancient dwelling where the foundations went deeperthan 4 feet, and this was exceptional ; in most casesthe depth does not exceed 2 feet.

In many cases no trenches were dug ; the groundwas merely levelled, and probably well watered toincrease the consistency of the soil, and the brickswere then laid on the surface. When the buildinewas finished the scraps of mortar, the broken bricks,and all the accumulated rubbish of building materialwould form a layer about 8 inches to a footdeep round the base of the buildings, the buriedportion of the walls thus taking the place of founda-tions. When the house was to be built on the site


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6 ARCHITECTURECIVIL AND MILITARY.of an earlier one fallen into decay or accidentallydestroyed, it was not considered necessary to razethe old walls completely. The mass of ruin waslevelled to an even surface, and the new building wasbegun several feet higher than its predecessor : thusevery town is built on one or more artificial moundswhich are sometimes as much as 80 or 90 feet in-height.Greek historians attribute this peculiarity to thesagacity of the kings, more particularly of Sesostris,who, they imagined, desired to place their palacesbeyond reach of the inundations. Some modernauthors have described the method by which theybelieve this was effected ; that massive brick plat-forms were constructed at regular intervals, arrangedin cross lines, the interstices filled with earth andrubbish, and the city built on this gigantic chess-board. Wherever I have excavated, more especiallyat Thebes, I have found nothing that answers to thisdescription. The so-called platforms that intersecteach other below the later buildings are merely thevestiges of earlier houses which are themselves restingon the remains of yet more ancient buildings.

Architects were not deterred by the shallowness ofthe foundations from boldly erecting lofty buildings ;in the ruins of.Memphis there are walls standing from30 to 40 feet in height. The only precaution takenwas to thicken the walls at the base and to vault thefloors (fig. 2). The wall thickness for a low buildingwas about 16 inches, but for a house of several storiesit would be as much as 3 or 4 feet. Large beamsembedded at intervals in the brickwork consolidated


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PLAN OF TOWNS.and bound it together. The ground floor was fre-quently built of stone carefully worked, and brickwas relegated to the upper stories. Limestone fromthe adjacent hills was the only stone systematicallyemployed for this purpose. The fragments of sand-stone, granite, and alabaster mixed with it weregenerally brought from some ruined temple. TheEgyptians of those days had no more scruple thanthose of the present timein despoiling their ruinedand neglected monuments.The houses of an ancientEgyptian town were clusteredround its temple, and thetemple stood in a rectangularenclosure to which accesswas obtained through im-posing gateways in the sur-rounding brick wall. Thegods dwelt in fortifiedmansions or redoubts, towhich the people of theplace might fly for safety in the event of any suddenattack upon their town. Such towns as were builtall at one period by prince or king were fairlyregular in plan, having wide paved streets at rightangles to each other, with a stone channel down themiddle to carry off water and drainage, and thebuildings in line (fig. 3). Cities whose growth hadbeen determined by the chances and changes of cen-turies were characterised by no such regularity. Theirhouses stood in a maze of blind alleys, and narrow,

Fig. 2.House with vaultedfloors, against the northernwall of the great temple ofMedinet Habu.


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DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE. 9The poorer classes lived in hovels which, though

built of brick, were little better than the huts of thefellahin. At Karnak in the Pharaonic town, at KomOmbo in the Roman town, at Medinet Habu in theCoptic town, the frontage of dwellingsof this class rarely exceeds 12 or 16 feetin length. They consist of a groundfloor, with occasionally one or twoliving-rooms above.The richer classes, shopkeepers,small officials, and foremen, were betterhoused. These houses were built ofbrick, and were rather small, but they Fig. 4. Plan ofcontained some half-dozen rooms, house, MedinetHabu.which communicated by means ofdoors that were usually arched over. Some few ofthe houses were two or three stories high. Frequentlythey were separated from the street by a narrowcourtyard, at the back of which was a passage withchambers opening from it on either side (fig. 4).

More often the court was sur-rounded on three sides bychambers (fig. 5), while yetmore often the house fronteddirectlv on to the street. Inthe latter case the facade con-

F'g- 5-Pan of house, sisted of a high wall, painted orMedinet Habu. , . . . , .whitewashed, surmounted by acornice. Even in better houses the only ornamen-tation of the outer walls consisted of angular groovingsurmounted by representations of two lotus-flowersjoined together at the neck (see figs. 27, 28). There


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IO ARCHITECTURE CIVIL AND MILITARY.was no opening except the door and possibly afew small windows (fig. 6). Even in unpretentioushouses the doorway was often of stone, the door-

posts projected slightlybeyond the level of thewall, and over the lintelwas a painted or sculp-tured cornice. Havingcrossed the threshold,one passed successivelythrough two small anddark apartments, thesecond of which openedinto the central court(fig- 7)- The- best roomsin the houses of thewealthier citizens were

sometimes lighted through a square opening in thecentre of the ceiling supported on wooden columns.In the Twelfth Dynasty townof Kahun the shafts of thesecolumns rested on round stonebases. They were octagonal, andabout io inches in diameter.The larger houses possessed

a reception hall at the rear witha shady colonnade on the southside, while the principal hallwas colonnaded and had a tankabout 14 inches square in the centre sunk in the stonepavement (fig. 8). Even the poorer houses atKahun contained a stone tank, and there is evidence

Fig. 6.Facade of a house towardthe street, New Kingdom.

Fig. 7.Plan of centralcourt of house, secondTheban period.


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DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE. I Ithat this luxury was universal, except among thepoorest, in houses of the Old Kingdom. At Tell elAmarna an elaborate bath with water supply hasbeen found in the house of a high official of theEighteenth Dynasty, and other indications bearwitness to the excellent hygienic and sanitaryarrangements known in ancient Egypt.*

In the poorer houses the family crowded togetherin one or two rooms during the winter, and slept outon the roof under mosquito-nets in summer. On the

Fig. 8.Restoration of the hall in a Twelfth Dynasty house.lllahun, Kahun, and Gnrob, W. M. F. Petrie.

roof also the women gossiped and cooked. Theground floor included store-rooms, barns, and stables.Private granaries were usually built in pairs (fig. n)in the same long, conical shape as the State granaries,of brick, carefully plastered with mud inside and out.In the walls and floors of their home the peoplewould make hiding-places, where they could secretetheir treasuresnuggets of gold and silver, preciousstones and jewelleryboth from thieves and tax-collectors. Wherever a second floor existed, the

* L. Borchardt, Mittheilungen Orient. GescllscJiaft., No. 50, 1912.


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12 ARCHITECTURECIVIL AND MILITARY.arrangement of rooms was almost exactly the sameas on the ground floor. The upper rooms werereached by an outside staircase, very steep andnarrow, with small square landings at frequentintervals. The rooms were oblong, and the doorordinarily afforded the only means for lighting andventilation. In cases where windows were openedon to the street, they were mere irregular, un-

Fig- ?Wall-painting in a Twelfth Dynasty house, Kahun. Belowis a view of the outside, above is a view of the inside of thebuilding. Illahun, Kahun, and Gurob, W. M. F. Petrie.

symmetrical air-holes near the ceiling, provided witha grill of wooden bars and closed with a woodenshutter. The floors were bricked or paved, or morefrequently consisted of beaten earth. The walls weresometimes whitewashed, sometimes decorated withbright colours, red and yellow, or painted withfamiliar domestic scenes (fig. 9). The roof was flat.At Kahun it consisted of beams of wood, thatched


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FIREPLACES. 13and plastered with mud both inside and out. Some-times it was furnished with one or two ventilators,the mulkafs of modern Egyptian dwellings, andgenerally there wasa washhouse on theroof, and a smallsleeping - chamberfor the slaves orthe guards (fig. 10).The householdfire was on theground floor. Thehearth was hol-lowed out of theearthen floor,usually to one sideof the room, and the smoke escaped through a holein the ceiling ; branches of trees, charcoal, and driedcakes of ass or cow dung were used for fuel. AtAbydos, in the primitive Thinite town, clustered

round the Templeof Osiris, werefound potteryhearths, in whichcharcoal was burnt in one of themthe cinders werestill lying.The mansions of

Fig. 10.Box representing a house(British Museum).

Fig. 11.Mansion with granaries, from thetomb of Anna, Eighteenth Dynasty.the great and wealthy covered a considerable area ;they generally stood in the midst of a garden orof a courtyard planted with trees, and like the


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M ARCHITECTURECIVIL AND MILITARY.houses of the middle classes crenellated walls turneda blank front to the street (fig. u). Thus thedomestic life was secluded and concealed, and thepleasure of watching the passers-by was sacrificed tothe advantages of not being seen. The door wasapproached by a flight of two or three steps or by aportico supported on columns (fig. 12), and adornedwith statues (fig. 13), which gave it a monumentalappearance, and indicated the social importance of thefamily ; or again it consisted of a pylon similar tothose at the entrance of the temples. The interior

Fig. 12.Portico of mansion,second Theban period. Fig. 13.Portico of mansion,second Theban period.Wall-Paintings, Tell el Amarna.

almost resembled a small town divided into quartersby irregular walls. In some cases the dwelling-housestood at the farther end ; while the granaries, stables,and domestic offices were distributed in different partsof the enclosure.We have the remains of some houses at Tell elAmarna, and of the palace of Akhenaten of theEighteenth Dynasty, and with their aid, guided bytwo of the numerous pictures or plans preserved intombs of that period, we can gain a very fair idea of


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MANSIONS. 15the mansions of the great Egyptian nobles and of highofficials.The first of the pictorial plans that we will examine

represents a Theban house, half palace, half villa

^t^ti^tilWl#Jilf

: |flHTlTtfii$l#llfl$llllfmlffiiwwlijrg'XXXXJLrrizrxrx A A a a i-n-> iiim muillll Art > ilu.unniiiiii A--rtr-.hm J. J-irFig. 34. Plan ofgate, fortress ofKom el Ahmar.

constructed is practically the same everywhere, butthey vary slightly according to the wishes of theengineers. At the south-east gate of the fortress ofAbydos (fig. 33) the place darmesbetween the two walls is omitted,and the court is constructed entirelyin the thickness of the main wall.At Kom el Ahmar, opposite El Kab,the block of brickwork in which thedoor is cut projects boldly (fig. 34).Various posterns disposed at irregular intervals facili-tated the movements of the garrison and enabledthem to carry out a variety of sorties.The same system of fortification employed for

fortresses was alsoemployed for thedefence of towns.Everywhere, atKeliopolis, at San,at Sai's, and atThebes, the wallsare straight, withouttowers or bastions :they form either asquare or an elon-gated parallelogram,without foss or out-posts. The thick-

ness of the walls, which varies from 35 to 70 feet,renders such precautions unnecessary. The jambsand lintels of the gates, or at any rate of the principalones, were of stone, sculptured with historical scenes

3

Fl'g- 35-Plan of the walled citv at El Kab.


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34 ARCHITECTURKCIVIL AND MILITARY.

some years ago, but at

and inscriptions, as, for instance, the door at Ombos,which Champollion saw yet in situ, and which datedfrom the reign of Thothmes III.The oldest and best preserved walled city in Egypt,El Kab, dates back to the beginning of Egyptianhistory ; the remains of the oval enclosure of pre-dynastic days can still be traced within the outerwalls of the later fortress (fig. 35). This greatstronghold was partially washed away by the Nile

the beginning of thenineteenth century itformed an irregularquadrilateral enclo-sure measuring 2,100feet in length byabout one-sixth lessin breadth. Thesouth front is con-structed on the sameprinciple as Kom es

Sultan, sections of horizontal layers of brick alternatingwith others where they are concave. On the northand west the layers undulate regularly without a breakfrom end to end of the walls. The walls are 38 feetthick, and average 30 feet in height. Stairwaysconstructed in the thickness of the walls, and alsospacious ramps, lead to the top. The enclosurecontained a considerable population, and within thewall on the north side is a cemetery of the earliesttype of graves. The temples were grouped togetherin a square enclosure, concentric with the outer wall,and this second enclosure served as a keep where the

Fig. 36.Plan of walled city at KomOmbo.


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FORTIFIED HEIGHTS. 35garrison could still hold out long after the rest of thecamp had fallen into the hands of the enemy.The rectangular plan, though excellent in flatcountry, was not always adapted for hilly country.When the site to be fortified was on a height, theEgyptian engineers understood well how to adapt theline of defence to the slope of the ground. At KomOmbo (fig. 36) the walls exactly follow the outline ofthe isolated mound on which the town is perched.Their eastern front isbroken by irregular pro-jections that roughlysuggest the modernbastion. At Kummehand Semneh in Nubia,where the Nile emergesfrom the rocks of thesecond cataract, the ar-rangements are stillmore skilful, and show Fig. 37. Plan of fortress ofKummeh.real genius. Senusert(Usertesen) III. had there fixed the Egyptian frontier:the fortresses he constructed were intended to barthe waterway against the vessels of the negroes ofthe south.At Kummeh, on the right bank, the position is

one of great natural strength (fig. 37). Upon therocky, precipitous hill an irregular square wasenclosed measuring about 200 feet each way. Twolong salients or elongated bastions were constructed,one on the north to command the road leading to thegate of the fortress, and the other on the south to


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36 ARCHITECTURECIVIL AND MILITARY.guard the course of the river. The covering wall is13 feet in front of the main wall, and follows itslines except at two points, the north-west and south-east angles, where it has two bastion-like projections.On the opposite side of the river at Semneh theposition is not so favourable. The east side is pro-tected by a sheer cliff that descends perpendicularlyto the river, but the other sides are only too easyof access (fig. 38). On

the top of this cliff awall about 50 feethigh was built, buton the other sidetowards the plain thewall was over 80 feetin height, and bristledwith counterforts (a,b), 50 feet long by30 feet wide at thebase, and 13 feet atthe top. These were

placed at irregular intervals according to the re-quirements of the defences ; they had no parapets,and took the place of towers. They added muchto the security of the fortress as they commandedthe access to the top of the walls, and enabledthe besieged to direct a flank attack against theenemy if any attempt was made to force the mainwalls. The interval between these counterforts iscalculated so that the archers could sweep the wholeintervening space with their arrows. Both curtainsand salients are in crude brick, with large beams

Fig. 38.Plan of fortress of Semneh.


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SE.MNEH. 37built horizontally into the mass. The outer face isin two sections, the lower one almost vertical, theupper one sloping at an angle of about 70 degrees,an arrangement which made it extremely difficult ifnot impossible toscale the walls. Thewhole of the en-closure inside thewalls was filled inafter the fashion ofa tPrrP fifriti almost Fig - 39- -Section of the platform at a, b,a Une-pltin almost of preceding plan.to the level of theramparts (fig. 39). Externally the covering wall ofdry stone was separated from the main building bya foss 100 to 130 feet wide ; it followed the generalline of the main wall with considerable accuracy, andvaried from 5 to 10 feet in height according to the

situation. On the northJ

it was cut by the wind-f ing pathway leading tothe plain. These arrange-ments, clever as they were,could not save Semnehfrom falling into the handsof the enemy ; a largegap on the south sidebetween the two salientsthe spot where the final

Fig. 40. Syrian fort.nearest the river marksassault was carried by the enemy.The great Asiatic wars of the Eighteenth Dynastywhich secured for the victorious Pharaohs theireastern empire taught the Egyptians new methods


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38 ARCHITECTURECIVIL AND MILITARY.of fortification. The nomads of southern Syriaerected small forts to which they could retreat whenthreatened with invasion (fig. 40). The Canaaniteand Hittite cities,

such as Ascalon,Dapur, and Merom,were surrounded bymassive walls, gene-rally built of stone,and flanked bytowers (fig. 41).Cities built on plains,such as Qodshu(Kadesh), were en-trenched behind a

Fig. 41.The town walls of Dapur.double foss filled with water (fig. 42). The Pharaohsintroduced into the Nile valley some of these newtypes, whose value they had learnt during theircampaign. Fromthe beginning of theNineteenth Dynasty,the eastern frontierof the Delta, the;weakest point ofEgyptian defences,was protected by aseries of block-houses similar tothose of Canaan.Not content with appropriating the actual thing, theEgyptians also adopted the name and called thesewatch-towers by the Semitic name of magadilu

Fig. 42. City of Kadesh, from bas-rcliel,Ramesseum.


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BRIDGES. 41successors of Sheshonk compelled the princes of thenomes to increase the number of their strongholds.The campaign of Piankhi on the borders of the Nilewas a series of successful sieges, but there is nothingto lead us to suppose that the art of fortification hadmade any sensible progress at that time. When theGreek Pharaohs took the place of the native rulersthey probably found fortifications similar to thoseconstructed by the engineers of the Eighteenth andNineteenth Dynasties.

3.PUBLIC WORKS.In such a country as Egypt a permanent system of

roads is unnecessary ; the Nile is the natural highwayfor commerce, and the top of the *y,embankments and the footpathsthat intersect the fields are amplysufficient for foot-passengers, forcattle, and for the transport ofgoods from village to village.Ferry-boats for crossing the river,fords wherever the canals werenot too deep, and permanentcauseways placed across waterfurrows, completed the system. p igg .,Bridges were rare ; up to thepresent time we only know ofone in ancient Egypt ; and whether that one waslong or short, built of wood or of stone, supported onarches or formed of a single span, we know nothing.Under the walls of Zaru it crossed the canal thatseparated the eastern frontiers of the Delta from the

Canal andbridge of Zaru, frombas-relief, Karnak.


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42 ARCHITECTURECIVIL AND MILITARY.desert regions of Arabia Petraea. On the Asiaticside the bridge was protected by a fort (fig. 45). Thusthe maintenance of means of communication, which isso costly an item among modern nations, played avery small part in the annual budget of the Pharaohs ;

they were responsible foronly three important ser-vices, that of storing, ofirrigation, and of miningand quarrying.Taxes were collectedin kind, and Governmentofficials were paid on theig. 46.

Cellar, with amphorae.same system. Monthly distributions were made tothe workpeople of corn, oil, and wine, while from endto end of the social scale, each functionary, in returnfor his services, received cattle, stuffs, manufacturedgoods, and certain quantities of copper or preciousmetals. It was, therefore,necessary that the fiscalauthorities should havecommand of vast store-houses for the receptionof the taxes demanded ofthe people. Each classof goods had its separatequarter walled in, and pro-tected by vigilant guards. There were large stablesfor the cattle ; cellars where the amphora,- were piledin regular layers or hung in rows on the walls (fig. 46),each with the date of the vintage written on the side ;and oven-shaped granaries where the grain was

Fig. 47.Granary.


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STOREHOUSES. 43poured in through a shuttered opening in the roof(fig. 47),

and taken out through a trap near theground.At Thuku (identified with Pithom by M. Naville)the store - chambers arerectangular (a, a. fig. 48), ofvarious sizes, and have nodirect communication witheach other : the wheat wasboth put in and taken outat the top. At the Rames-seum the thousands ofostraca and of jar-stoppersscattered over the placeprove that the ruinous

Dl * \


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44 ARCHITECTURECIVIL AND MILITARV.The system of irrigation has not greatly changed

during the course of centuries. Some new canalshave been cut, others have slightly changed theircourse, while a larger number have been silted up,owing to the negligence of the proprietor, but the

general scheme andmethods of irriga-tion are the same.They do not de-mand much skilledlabour. WhereverI have been ableto examine theancient canals, Ihave found no traceof masonry, eitherat the commence-ment or even atthe weak points oftheir course. Theyare mere ditchesfrom 20 to 70 feetwide ; the earthflung out duringthe work of exca-vating, and thrown

to right and left formed irregular sloping banks from7 to 14 feet high. An early bas-relief, now at Oxford,shows one of the kings of the archaic period, in fullstate, pick in hand, breaking the sod for a new canalor some other public work, while an attendant holdsa basket (fig. 50).

Fig. 50. King, wearing theupper Egypt, attended by fan-bearers,inaugurating some public work. Partof carved mace head, Oxford.


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IRRIGATION. 45The ancient canals were generally straight, but

occasionally some slight irregularity in the groundwould turn them out of their course, and they wouldform immense curves. The dykes that traverse theplain, intersect the canals at intervals and divide thevalley into basins, which retain the water duringthe months of the inundation. These dykes aregenerally of earth, though sometimes of baked brick,as in the province of Girgeh. The embankment atKosheish is very exceptional ; it is constructed ofworked stone, and was made by Menes, the first kingof the First Dynasty, for the benefit of his new cityof Memphis. This system of dykes began nearSilsilis, and extended to the sea, keeping close to theNile throughout its course, except at Beni Suef,where it threw out an arm in the direction of theFayum. It crossed the rocky barrier of the Libyanmountains near Illahun by a narrow and sinuousgorge, which possibly was artificially deepened andthen widened into a fanlike network of many ramifi-cations. The inundation retreated after havingwatered the province, and the water nearest the Nilereturned by the way it came, while the remainderfound its way into a series of lakes, the largest ofwhich is known to-day as the Birket el Karun. Ifwe are to believe Herodotus, the matter was by nomeans so simple. King Moeris desired to establish areservoir in the Fayum to regulate the uncertainsupply of water from the inundation, which was calledafter him Lake Moeris. Did the inundation proveinsufficient, the water in the lake could be let looseto the required extent and maintain the flood at the


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46 ARCHITECTURE CIVIL AND MILITARY.height required for middle Egypt and the westernDelta. Another year, if the flood proved too great,Moeris could absorb the overplus and retain it till theflood subsided. Two pyramids crowned with colossalfigures, one representing the king who constructedthe lake and the other his wife, were situated in themiddle of the lake. So says Herodotus, and he haspuzzled engineers and geographers. How was itpossible in the Fayum to find a site for a piece ofwater not less than 90 miles in circumference ? Thebest accredited theory of our day was that of Linant,that it was situated at the base of the Libyanmountains between Illahun and Mcdinet el Fayum ;but recent excavations have proved that the supposedembankments are modern, and probably do not dateback more than 200 years. If Herodotus ever visitedthe Fayum it must have been in the summer, whenthe whole district has the appearance of a huge lake.What he mistook for the borders of the lake were theembankments that divide the basins and afford com-munication between the various towns. Major Brownhas lately shown that the nucleus of Lake Moeris was the Birket el Karun. It was known to theEgyptians as Miri, the Lake ; from this the Greeksderived their Moiris, a name extended also to theinundation of the Fayum.

I do not believe in the existence of an artificiallake. The only works of that class attempted by theEgyptians are less pretentious ; these are the stonebarriers constructed at the mouth of the ravinesthat descend from the mountains into the plain. Oneof the most important was observed in 1855 by Dr.


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STORAGE OF WATER. 47Schweinfurth, about six miles and a half to the south-west of the baths of Helwan, at the entrance of WadyGerraweh (fig. 51). It answered two purposes itstored up water for theworkmen engaged in theneighbouring alabasterquarries, and it broke thepower of the torrents thatrush down from the desertafter the winter rains. Theravine measures about 240feet in width, and the sides40 to 50 feet in height. Thedam was constructed of threesuccessive layers making atotal thickness of 143 feet.There was first a layer ofclay and rubbish from thehillside (a), then a piled-up mass of large blocks oflimestone, and finally a facing wall of worked stonesbacked the whole on the east side (b). Each layer ofstone was narrower than the one below it, and the

whole dam formed a sort of

Fig. 51.Dyke at WadyGerraweh.

Fig. 52.Section of Dyke atWady Gerraweh.

'mk ^mmense staircase. Thirty- two of these steps stillsteps stillexist out of the originalthirty-five, and about one-fourth of the barrage is still standing at the two

ends, though the centre has been swept away by thetorrent (fig. 52). A similar barrier transformed thelower part of Wady Genneh into a small lake whencethe miners of Sinai procured their water supply.


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4-8 ARCHITECTURECIVIL AND MILITARY.Most of the localities from which Egypt obtained

her metals and valuable stone were difficult of access,and the mines would have proved useless had not theEgyptians constructed roads and rendered life morepossible for those who laboured there. The route tothe quarries of Wady Ilammamat where diorite andgrey granite were obtained was provided at intervalswith cisterns hewn in the rock. Some meagre springsingeniously husbanded and stored in these cisternsmade it possible to establish whole villages at thequarries and also at the emerald mines on the bordersof the Red Sea. Hundreds of voluntary workers, aswell as slaves and condemned criminals, lived therein misery under the command of a dozen taskmasters,and under the brutal control of mercenary soldiers,either Libyans or negroes. The slightest revolutionin Egypt, an unsuccessful war, or any political troublewould for a time put an end to this unnatural exist-ence ; the labourers would desert, the Bedouin wouldharry the colony, the guards in charge of the convictswould return to the valley of the Nile, and the workwould be abandoned.The choicest materials such as diorite, basalt, black

granite, porphyry, green or yellow breccia were onlysparingly used for architectural purposes, as it wasnecessary to organise regular expeditions of soldiersand workmen to procure them, and they were reservedalmost exclusively for sarcophagi and valuable statues.The quarries of limestone, sandstone, alabaster, andred granite which supplied the ordinary material fortemples and funerary monuments were found in theNile valley, and were therefore easily obtained. When


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QUARRIES. 49

im>

4r I

,-^^C

Fig. 53.Quarries of Silsilis.doned were turned into chapels; the Specs Artemidosfor instance, which was dedicated by Hatshepsut,Thotmes III., and Seti I. to Pakhet, the local goddess.

4


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So ARCHITECTURECIVIL AND MILITARY.The most important limestone quarries are at Turahand Massarah, almost opposite Memphis. This stone

was in great request for sculptors and architects, andwas in fact one of the finest materials employed forstatuary. Strong as it is, it lends itself marvellouslyto the most delicate requirements of the chisel, ithardens by exposure and soon acquires a creamy

colour very restful to theeye. At Silsilis there arevast beds of sandstone,and these were quarriedin the open (fig. 53).There we find escarp-ments from 40 to 50 feethigh worked from top tobottom with the pick, orsometimes divided intostages to which access isafforded by steps scarcelywide enough for a man.The walls are groovedwith parallel lines, somehorizontal, some slopingfrom left to right or from

rieht to left in such a fashion as to form bluntedchevrons, enclosed in a rectangular frame of groovesan inch, or an inch and a half wide, and 9 or 10feet in length. These are scars left by the scratchingof the tools of the ancient workman, and show themethod he employed to obtain his blocks. They weresketched out on the rock in red ink, sometimes inthe form in which they were to appear in the projected

Fig. 54.Draught of Hatlior capitalin quarry of Gebel Abu Fedah.


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QUARRYING AND TRANSPORT OF STONE. 51building. The members of the Commission d'Egyptecopied the diagrams and squared designs of severalcapitals in the quarries of Gebel Abu Fedah (fig. 54).These outlines having been drawn, the vertical incisionswere made by means of a long metal chisel driven inperpendicularly or obliquely by powerful blows froma mallet. The horizontal detachments were effectedsolely by bronze or wooden wedges inserted in thedirection of the rock strata. The first working of theblock was often done before it was detached from therock ; thus at Assuan we see an immense length ofgranite which is probably an unfinished obelisk, and

Fig. 55- Bas-relief from one of the stelae of Aahmes, at Turah,Eighteenth Dynasty.

at Tehneh there are drums of columns only halfdisengaged.

Transport was effected in various ways. At Assuan,at Silsilis, at Gebel Sheikh Herida, and at Gebel AbuFedah the quarries are literally washed by the waters ofthe Nile, and the stone was merely rolled from its placeon to the barges. At Kasr es Said and at Turah,localities some distance from the river, boats werebrought to the foot of the cliff by means of canalsconstructed for the purpose. Where it was impossibleto arrange for transport by water, the stone was loadedupon sledges drawn by oxen (fig. 55) or even draggedby gangs of workmen with the help of rollers.


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CHAPTER 11.RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTURE.

As the earliest dwellings we know of the Egyptianswere made of wattle and daub, so were the temples ofthe primitive period. An attempt was made to givethem some dignity of appearance. A few posts infront marked off a small enclosure, on either side ofthe doorway were two high masts, and over the doorprotruded four curved objects ; what they were wecannot identify from the few representations that areall we have to guide us. A carving of the time ofMenes, first king of United Egypt, shows a smallsanctuary that lacks even this decoration, but it issurrounded by a palisade, and inside the enclosureare the masts and also a symbol of the goddess Neith,to whom doubtless the building was dedicated.

This primitive method of temple building was soonsuperseded. The Egyptians early acquired the art ofbuilding in stone, and by the time of the Pyramidbuilders they had carried it to the highest perfection.The Pharaohs desired to build eternal divelliiig-placesfor the gods, and for this purpose stone appeared tobe the only material sufficiently durable to withstandthe attacks of men and the ravages of time.

52


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STONE BLOCKS. 53I. MATERIALS AND PRINCIPLES OF CONSTRUCTION.

It is a mistake to suppose that the Egyptians usedonly large blocks for their buildings. The size variedgreatly according to the purpose for which they wereintended. Architraves, drums of columns, lintels, anddoor jambs were sometimes of very considerabledimensions. The largest architraves known, thoseabove the central aisle of the hypostyle hall at Karnak,average 30 feet in length. Each one represents asolid block of 40 cubic yards and weighs about 65tons. Generally, however, the blocks are not largerthan those in ordinary use among ourselves. Theyvary from 3 to 4 feet in height, from 3 to 8 feetin length, and from 18 inches to 6 feet in breadth.Some temples are built throughout in one kind ofstone, but more frequently materials of various kindsand quality are associated, although in unequal pro-portions. Thus the main buildings of the temples ofAbydos are of very fine limestone, while in the templeof Seti I. the columns, architraves, jambs, and lintels,all those parts where limestone might not be suffi-ciently strong, are in sandstone, and in the temple ofRameses II. they are in sandstone, granite, andalabaster. Similar combinations are to be seen in thetemples of Karnak, Luxor, Tanis, Deir el Bahari,Gizeh, and Memphis. At the Ramesseum, at Karnak,and in the Nubian temples, where all these materialsare combined, the columns rest on a solid foundationof crude brick. The stones were dressed more or lesscarefully according to the position they were tooccupy. When the walls were of medium thickness


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54 RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTURE.the)' were well wrought on all sides. When the wallwas thick the core consisted of blocks roughed out asnearly cubic as possible and piled together, while thegaps between them were filled in with chips, pebbles,or mortar. The casing stones were carefully wroughton the upp2r and lower sides as well as on the face,while at the back they were roughed with the pick tohold the mortar. The largest of these blocks wereused for the lower courses, a very necessary precaution,as the architects of the Pharaonic period affordedalmost as shallow foundations for the temples as theydid for houses and palaces. At Karnak the founda-tions of the walls, columns, and obelisks are barely7 to 10 feet in depth ; at Luxor, on the side closeto the river, the walls rest on a gigantic substructureof three courses of masonry, each of them about 2hfeet in height. At the Ramesseum the course ofdried brick which supports the colonnade does notappear to measure more than 7 feet. Thesedepths are very insignificant, but the experience ofages has proved them to be sufficient. The hardcompact humus which everywhere forms the soil ofthe Nile valley is so contracted by the annual subsi-dence of the inundation that it is rendered almostincompressible. The weight of the masonry graduallyincreased as the building progressed, and thus themaximum of pressure was attained and a solid basissecured. Wherever I have bared the foundations ofthe walls, I can testify that they have not shifted.This is the case even at Karnak, which I examinedafter the fall of the columns in 1899.

It was customary at the building or rebuilding of


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FOUNDATIONS AND FOUNDATION DEPOSITS. 55a temple to place deposits under the foundations con-sisting of small squares of the building materials andmodels of the tools employed. Also a number ofamulets, which were probably intended to secure bymagic the safety of the temple. These foundationdeposits are generally found in a layer of clean sand,and marvellously fresh and uninjured. Many of theobjects are inscribed with the name of the royalfounder of the temple, and it was by means of itsintact foundation deposits that one of the ruinedtemples to the south of the Ramesseum was identifiedas that of Queen Tausert of the end of the NineteenthDynasty, although all its walls were razed to theground. Among the glazed objects found in thisdeposit were scarabs, plaques, models of offerings,besides many beads. The metal objects include adze,knife, axehead, hoes, and chisels, made in thin sheetcopper. There were also jars and cups, an ebonycramp, and a model corn-grinder. The foundationdeposits of the Eighteenth Dynasty temple at Deir elBahari furnished numerous models of workmen's tools,including the wooden centrings used in construct-ing brick vaulting. These were neatly inscribed inblue ink with the cartouche of the foundress Hat-shepsut. Two deposits at the western entrance of thistemple afford evidence of a ceremony customary atthe foundation of a temple.* An animal was slainand the flesh laid on a floor of clean sand over whichthe blood was allowed to drip ; vessels containingunguents and wine were smashed and their contents,

* Earl of Carnarvon, Five Years Exploration at Thebes, OxfordUniversity Press, 19 12.


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56 RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTUREtogether with grains of corn, were poured into thecache in addition to the offering of flesh and blood.The system of construction employed by the ancient

Egyptians in many points resembles that of theGreeks. The stones are often placed with dry jointswithout binding of any sort, the masons trusting totheir weight to keep them in position. Sometimesthey are held together by metal cramps of copper orlead or, as in the temple of Seti at Abydos, by dove-tails of sycamore wood, marked with the royalcartouche. Elsewhere they are bound together bymortar laid on more or less thickly. The specimensof mortar I have hitherto collected are of one or otherof three kinds. The first is white and easily reducedto a powder, being merely lime, the second is greyand rough to the touch, a mixture of lime and sand,the third owes its reddish appearance to poundedbrick-dust mixed with the lime and sand. Thejudicious use of these methods enabled the Egyptiansto rival the Greeks in the skilful laying of regularcourses of even blocks with the vertical joints sym-metrically alternated. If the work is not alwaysequally good the fault must be attributed to theimperfect mechanical means at their disposal.

Outer walls, party walls, and secondary facadeswere usually perpendicular, and the building materialsrequired for them were raised by a huge lifting jackplaced on the top. The walls of pylons, of principalfacades, and sometimes even of secondary facadeswere built with a batter of varying slope. For theirconstruction inclined planes or ramps were erected andheightened as the building progressed. Both methods


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MASONRY. 57were equally dangerous. However carefully the blockswere protected there was great risk of damaging theedges and corners or even of breaking the blocks inpieces. They almost always required some re-work-ing, and in order to avoid waste, the workman wouldactually insert pieces of stone in places that had beenbadly chipped, or he would bevel the end, making thejoint sloping instead of vertical. If a stone was tooshort or not high enough, the difficulty was met byinserting a supplementary slab, or again a stone thatwas too large was allowed to overlap and fill acorresponding gap in the course above or below it(fig. 56). These expedients, atfirst designed to remedy acci-dents, degenerated into habituallycareless ways of working. Themasons who had inadvertently Fi 56.Masonrydrawn up too large a block did temple of Seti I. at

, , . . . Abydos.not trouble to lower it again,but adjusted it by one of the expedients just men-tioned. The architect did not give sufficient attentionto superintending the working or the laying of theblocks and would allow the vertical joints to comeimmediately over each other for two or three courses.When utilising materials from ruined edifices hewould not trouble to work them into shape ; roundshafts of older columns were thus mixed with rect-angular blocks in the walls of the Ramesseum.The main building completed, the facing wasworked smooth, the joints were re-worked andwashed over with a coating of cement or stucco,coloured to match the masonry, which concealed the

l_rz


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58 RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTURE.

HMRllianUOW Wi- T*V\W*

Fig- 57-Templewall with cornice.

imperfections of the original work. The walls rarelyend abruptly, they are bordered by a torus roundwhich a sculptured ribbon is entwined, and crowned

_ either with the splayed cornicesurmounted by a flat band (fig. 57),or, as at Semneh, by a squarecornice, or, as at Medinet Habu,by a line of battlements. Thusframed they have much the ap-pearance of huge panels withoutprojections and almost without

openings. Windows, always rare in Egypt, arehere mere air-holes, intended to give light to thestaircases, as in the secondpylon of Horemheb atKarnak, or else on festivaldays to support the orna-mental woodwork. Thedoorways afforded littlerelief to the flat surfaceof the building (fig. 58)except when the lintelwas surmounted by a flatband and cornice. Thepavilion at Medinet Habuis the solitary exception,and has real windows,but it was constructedon the model of a Syrian

Fig. 5S.Niche and doorway intemple of Scti I. at Abydos.fortress and can only be quoted as an exception.The floor of the court and chambers consisted ofrectangular paving stones arranged with considerable


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VAULTING. 59

Fig. 59.Pavement of theportico of Osiris in templeof Seti I. at Abydos.

regularity except in the inter-columnar spaces. Here,hopeless of adapting them to the curved line of thebases, the architects fitted in fragments of stonewithout order or method (fig.59). Vaulting,* which wascustomary in dwelling-houses,was scarcely ever employedin the temples. It is, how-ever, to be found at Deirel Bahari, and in the sevenparallel sanctuaries at Abydos.Even in these instances it iseffected by corbelling. The corbel is formed bythree or four horizontal courses, each of which pro-jects beyond the preceding one, until the two sidesmeet. The rough curve thus obtained is then

chiselled into theform of an arch(fig. 60). The roofis usually formedof large stone slabsplaced closely to-gether ; when thespace between thewalls was not toogreat, a single rowof slabs covered it,

but when this was not possible the roof supportshad to be placed at intervals varying in numberaccording to the space to be covered. Architraves

The earliest true arch known in Egypt is in a mastaba at BetKhallaf of the Second or Third Dynast}'.

Fig. 60. Corbelled arch in templeof Seti I. at Abydos.


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6o RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTURE.resembling immense stone beams were laid acrossthe supports and formed a framework on which theroofing slabs were laid.There were two types of these supports, the pillar

and the column. Some of these are monoliths.The pillars of the great granite temple at Gizehmeasure 16 feet in height by 4^ feet in width, and thered granite columns found scattered among the ruinsof Saqqara, Bubastis, Memphis, and Alexandria,

range from 20 to 26 feet in height andare all cut in one piece. But columnsand pillars are commonly built incourses, which are often irregular, likethose of the walls that surround them.The great columns of Luxor are noteven solid, two-thirds of the diameterare filled up with yellow cement whichhas lost its strength and crumblesbetween the fingers. The capital ofthe column of Taharka at Karnak is

thor pillar, composed of five courses of stone, eachAbiiSimbel. . ,. , T1 ,about 4 b inches high. 1 he upper andmost projecting one is composed of twenty-six stonesthe points of which converge towards the centre andare held in place solely by the weight of the squaredie above it. The same carelessness we have alreadyobserved in the workmanship of the walls also occursin the workmanship of the pillars and columns.The quadrangular pillar, with parallel or slightlysloping sides, and with or without base or capital,appears frequently in Memphite tombs. It occursalso at Medinet Habu, and at Karnak in what is


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PILLARS. 61

The sides areknown as the processional hallfrequently covered withpictures or hieroglyphicinscriptions, and theprincipal face of thepillar has a specialscheme of decoration.There are stems oflotus or papyrus on thepillar-stelae of Karnak,a Hathor head sur-mounted by the sistrumof the goddess at thesmaller speos

of AbuSimbel (fig. 61), astanding figure ofOsiris in the first courtat Medinet Habu, andof Bes at Denderahand Gebel Baikal. AtKarnak, in the chapelthat was probably con-structed for Horcmhebfrom the ruins of asanctuary of Amen-hotep II. and III., thepillar is capped by acornice, separated fromthe architrave by ashallow abacus (fig. 62).By cutting away thefour edges the pillar is rendered octagonal and by

Fig. 62.Pillar of Amenhotep 111.,Karnak.


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62 RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTURE.again removing the eight edges it becomes sixteen-sided. Some pillars in the tombs of Assuan andBeni Hasan are of this type, as well as in theprocessional hall of Karnak (fig. 63) and in thefunerary temples of Deir el Bahari.

Besides the types thus regularly evolved there arcothers of abnormal derivation, pillars with six, twelve,

-,W^W m ~~ ~- ~~~^~'' Tfjsfc

fig- 63. Sixteen-sided pillars, Karnak.fifteen, or twenty sides, or verging on a perfect circle.The pillars of the portico of the temple of Osiris atAbydos end the series. Here the main part of thepillar presents a curvilinear section scarcely brokenby the plain band at the top and bottom which isof the same diameter. Frequently the sides areslightly fluted ; and sometimes, as at Kalabsheh, the


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64 RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTURE.I. Column with BellsI/aped Capital.The shaft is

generally plain or simply sculp-tured with inscriptions or bas-reliefs. Sometimes, however, asat Medamot, it is compounded ofsix large and six small columnsalternated. During Pharaonictimes the lower part swelled outslightly in bulbous form and wasdecorated with curvilinear tri-angles in imitation of the large

Fig. 66.Column withsquare die.

leaves that sheathe the sproutingplant. The curve is so calculatedas to equalise the diameter atthe base and at the top. In the

Ptolemaic period the bulboften disappeared, owing prob-ably to Greek influence: thecolumns that surround thefirst court of the temple atEdfu rise straight from theirplinths. The shafts invariablycontract cither from the bulbor immediately from the base,and end above in three or fivesuperimposed flat bands. AtMedamot, where the shaft isclustered, the architect evidentlyconsidered that a single tic didnot appear sufficient to secure Fig.67.Column with campa-the cluster of twelve columns, inform capital, Ramesseum.and he has marked out two other rings of fiat bands


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CAMPANIFORM CAPITALS. 65at regular intervals. Round the neck of the bell-shaped capital is a row of leaves similar to those atthe base, and from these spring stems of lotus andpapyrus in flower and bud. The height of the capitaland its projection vary according to the taste ofthe architect. At Luxor the campaniform capitalsmeasure nh feet in diameter at the base, \J\ feetat the top, and ii| feet in height. At Karnakin the hypostyle hall the height is12^ feet, and the greatest diameter2 [ feet. A square die surmounts thewhole. This is fairly low, and almostcompletely masked by the curve of thecapital. In rare instances, as in thesmall temple of Denderah, the die ishigher, and on each face is sculpturedin relief a figure of the god Bes(fig. 66).

This column with campaniformcapital is most usually employed inthe central aisles of hypostyle halls, Fig. 68. Invertedas at Karnak, the Ramesseum (fig. 67), campaniform'

. ). capital, karnak.and Luxor ; but it is not confined tothat purpose, and it is to be seen in the porticoes ofthe Fifth Dynasty valley temples at Abusir, andthose of Medinet Habii, Edfii, and Philae. A verycurious variant is to be seen in the processional hallof Thothmes III. at Karnak, where the campaniformcapital is reversed as well as the shaft itself (fig. 68);the smaller end of the column rises from the plinthand the largest part is at the top. This ungracefularrangement met with no success, and we find no

5

r.

'71


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66 RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTURE.trace of it elsewhere. Other novelties were happier,especially those that enabled the artist to introducedecorative elements derived from the flora of the

Fig. 69.Compoundcapital.

Fig. 70.Ornate capitals,Ptolemaic.Nile valley. As we approach the Ptolemaic periodwe find the capitals decorated with groups of datesand of half-unfolded blossoms (fig. 69), while under

the Ptolemies and Caesars the capitalsbecame wreaths of flowers and leavessymmetrically arranged and painted inthe brightest colours (fig. 70). There isa great variety of designs ; at Edfti,Ombos, and at Philae one might imaginethat the artist had vowed never to repeatthe same pattern on the same side ofthe portico.

II. Column with Lotus-bud Capital. Itis probable that this column originallyrepresented a bundle of lotus-stems, the

F'g- 7'- buds tied together round the neck byLotus-bud & . ,column, Beni four or five bands to form the capital.The columns of Beni Hasan consist of

four rounded stems (fig. 71), while those of theLabyrinth, the processional hall of Thothmes III.,and of Medamot consist of eight stems with projectingridges on the face of the column (fig. 72). The foot


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68 RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTURE.circle of small pointed leaves and channellings sur-rounds the base and impoverishes the effect ; thecapital is little more than a truncated and flutedcone. In the hypostyle hall at Karnak, at Abydos,the Ramesseum, and at Medinet Habu, the flutings

are superseded by a varietyofornamentations, triangularleaves, hieroglyphic inscrip-tions or bands bearing car-touches flanked with uraei,which fill the space thus leftvacant. The abacus is notconcealed as in the cam-paniform columns.butstandsout boldly and bears theroyal cartouche.

III. Column with Palm-leaf Capital.This columnrises direct from its plinth,and tapers regularly andslightly to the top. Itsupports a crown of palm-Column in aisles of branches springing from thehi'postyle hall, karnak. r a band, their heads curving

under the weight of the abacus (fig. 74). Thiscolumn, well known in work of later date, is nowshown to be of very early origin. The funerarytemples attached to the pyramids of the Pharaohsof the Fifth Dynasty at Abusir have been excavated,and many columns of this type have been found. Itis very charming and graceful. At Abusir, belowthe central palm-branch, there falls from the fivefold


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PALM-LEAF AND HATHOR-HEAD CAPITALS. 69

74. Palm-leafcapital.

band a short loop, which may represent the cord bywhich the Egyptian climbs thepalm. The plinth is low and some-what flat ; above the capital thereis a cubical block of stone.

IV. Column with Hathor-lieadCapital.We find examples of theHathor-headed column dating fromancient times, as at Deir el Bahari,in the temples both of the Eleventhand Eighteenth Dynasties ; but thisorder is best known in buildings ofthe Ptolemaic period, as at ContraLatopolis, Philas, and Denderah.The shaft and base present nospecial characteristics, they resemble those of the

campaniform columns. The capitalrepresented Hathor, the woman'shead with the heifer's ears, carvedin high relief on each side of asquare block. Her hair, boundover the brows by three verticalbands, falls behind the ears andover the shoulders. Each headsupports a fluted cornice, on whichstands a naos flanked by twovolutes and crowned by a shallowabacus (fig. 75). Thus four Hathor-heads form the capital of the

'lap^Klte ^ column. Seen from a distance thewhole structure recalls one of thosesistra represented in religious 'bas-reliefs held in the


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IRREGULAR PROPORTIONS OF COLUMNS. 71round the bulb. At the Ramesseum shaft andcapital measure 35 feet, round the bulb 6| feet.There is a similar irregularity in the arrangementof the architraves ; their height is determined bythe taste of the architect or the necessities of thebuilding. So also with the spacing of columns. Not

Fig. 77. Section of hypostyle hall at Karnak, showing the arrangements of the campan i form and lotus-bud columns.

only do the intercolumnar spaces vary greatly in dif-ferent temples and chambers, but in some instances,as in the first court of Medinet Habii, they vary inthe same portico. This was the case when thevarious architectural types were employed separately,when they were associated in the same building ; itwas not considered necessary to give them fixed


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/2 RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTURE.proportions in harmony with each other. In thehypostyle hall of Karnak the campaniform columnssupport the highest part, and the lotus-bud columnsare relegated to the lower aisles (fig. jj). In thetemple of Khonsu there are halls where the lotuscolumn is the highest, and others where the cam-paniform columns are the loftiest. At Medamotall the columns that still remain are of uniformheight. Egypt never had definite orders of archi-tecture such as Greece possessed. Her architectsattempted all possible combinations to which theelements of the column lent themselves, but withoutassigning to them such definite proportions, that,given one member of it, it would be possible todeduct even approximately the dimensions of theremaining parts.

2. TEMPLES.Most of the famous sanctuaries, Denderah, Edfii,

Abydos, were founded before Menes by the Servantsof Horns. It is probable that originally they weremere huts, but they were rebuilt, remodelled, andadded to by successive generations till nothing re-mained of the primitive design to show us what itwas like. The funerary temples of the Memphitekings have actually been excavated, and furnishabundant examples of the' religious architecture ofthe great pyramid period.

Senefeni, last king of the Third Dynasty, built hispyramid at Medum, and on the cast wall is hissmall temple, built entirely of limestone. It consistsof a passage, a chamber, and finally a court, where


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VALLEY TEMPLES. 73>

stood two stelae nearly 14 feet high, flanking a lime-stone altar. The whole is plain, without decorationor inscriptions. There are traces of a walled cause-way leading to it from the plain.* The temple wasmuch visited during the Eighteenth Dynasty byscribes, who left graffiti recording their admirationof the building and their belief that Seneferu hadraised it for himself and his queen.The ruined funerary temple of the second pyramidof Gizeh, that of Khafra, was completely excavatedin 1 9 10, and the plan recovered.f The builders ofthe pyramids brought their materials by boat duringthe inundation to the foot of the hill, where a quaywas constructed to receive them, and the weightystones were then dragged up a sloping causeway tothe building site. The pyramid and its temple com-pleted, it appears that a gateway that was also atemple was built on the quay, and the cause-way covered in, thus connecting the upper templewith its complement below. Ramps were also con-structed by which the high quay or terrace could beapproached from the valley after the water had sub-sided. The valley temple would be of great impor-tance to visitors arriving by water during the inunda-tion, and it was provided with everything necessaryfor the cult of the dead.The temple of the second pyramid has been com-

pletely ruined, but the valley temple is almost perfect,the well-known granite temple that stands about 50

* W. M. F.

maspero manual of egyptian archaeology

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