marxisms and neo-marxisms

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A Brief Introduction|Classical and Orthodox MarxismsCommunisms|Third-Worldism|Indigenism|DiasporismLeft efoundation|Critical ealism|Western Marxism

The production of this book, possibly the mostcomprehensive reference of its kind, originated in arather nave attempt to establish a rudimentaryclassification system for the Marxisms and neo-Marxisms. The author soon realized that the construction

of any Marxian disciplinary framework isextraordinarily problematic, perhaps even futile. TheMarxist theoretical tradition, which was initiated by arlMarx !"#"#-"##$% and his collaborator &riedrich 'ngels!"#()-"#*+%, would be accurately represented by alabyrinth of interconnections and traectories, not by atwo-dimensional Flatland. ndeed, the mere linear outline

presented here offers such a remarkably diverseintellectual legacy insufficient ustice.

s has fre/uently become apparent, over the course ofthe research process, many of the individual itemsselected for inclusion could have been legitimately
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organized under alternate rubrics. Moreover, theassignment of particulars toMarxismvis-0-vis neo-Marxismwas, admittedly, often /uite arbitrary.

decision was, nevertheless, made to persevere with thisventure. 1lease take into account the limitations of themodel, the literature review, and the occasional personalextrapolation while exploring the text. The writer, whileprimarily a 2haskarian critical realist and a nonpartisanleft refoundationist, is also an intersectional or astandpoint theorist !pertaining to a branch of feminist

critical theory%, a world-systems analyst, aninternationalist, and a community organizer. 3et, everyeffort was made notto bias one perspective or tendencyover another.

&inally, bear in mind that the often contested category,4neo-Marxism,5 has been appropriated within thisproect rather broadly. 6. 7illiam 8omhoff, to providebut one illustration, has clearly and consistently statedthat he does not regard himself as either a Marxist or aneo-Marxist. 7hile acknowledging those honestobections, a few /uotations from his excellentscholarship have been placed under the heading, conflicttheory. 9imilarly, 6eorg 9immel s formal sociology and7illard 7aller s value-conflict theory, neither of whichare generally deemed to be neo-Marxist approaches, areconsidered here as conflict theories. &urther, many of theversions of critical realismdiscussed in the book areentirelyunrelated to Marxist thought. The intent,throughout, was to be as inclusive as reasonably possible,


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not to misrepresent, or much less to disrespect, the workof various scholars and left-wing activists.

eturnto the menu!

. :lassical and ;rthodox Marxisms< The term4classical Marxism5 refers to the broad scope ofideas, covering the world of nature and the humansciences, developed by arl Marx !=rl M=rks as

pronounced in this M1$ audio file% and &riedrich'ngels !&r>d?r@x An?gBls as pronounced in this M1$audio file% during Marx s lifetime The website, MarxMyths and Cegends, is an excellent resource forrefuting many of the common forms of anti-Marxism.

4;rthodox Marxism,5 on the other hand, began with'ngels later works and continued through the early"*()s. t included the writings of other Marxistthinkers from this time period, such as arlautsky, Dosa Cuxemburg, Ceon Trotsky, 8aniel 8eCeon, and Eladimir Cenin. ;rthodox Marxism fine-tuned Marxism and, with some writers, turned it into

a social science.The two basic perspectives, which can be found in both

classical and orthodox Marxism, are dialecticalmaterialismand historical materialism. ;n the other
http://scroll%280%2C0%29/http://www.markfoster.net/name/karl_marx.htmlhttp://www.markfoster.net/name/friedrich_engels.htmlhttp://www.markfoster.net/name/friedrich_engels.htmlhttp://marxmyths.org/http://marxmyths.org/http://scroll%280%2C0%29/http://www.markfoster.net/name/karl_marx.htmlhttp://www.markfoster.net/name/friedrich_engels.htmlhttp://www.markfoster.net/name/friedrich_engels.htmlhttp://marxmyths.org/http://marxmyths.org/


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into an independent subect, is the demiurgos^Catin, d>mirgs, demiurge the maintainer ofthe physical universe_ of the real world, and the

real world is only the external, phenomenal formof `the dea. 7ith me, on the contrary, the idealis nothing else than the material world reflectedby the human mind, and translated into forms ofthought.

4 n its the dialectic s_ rational form it is ascandal and abomination to bourgeoisdom andits doctrinaire professors, because it includes inits comprehension and affirmative recognition ofthe existing state of things, at the same time also,the recognition of the negation of that state, ofits inevitable breaking up because it regardsevery historically developed social form as influid movement, and therefore takes intoaccount its transient nature not less than itsmomentary existence because it lets nothingimpose upon it, and is in its essence critical andrevolutionary.

4The contradictions inherent in the movementof capitalist society impress themselves upon the

practical bourgeois most strikingly in thechanges of the periodic cycle, through whichmodern industry runs, and whose crowningpoint is the universal crisis. That crisis is onceagain approaching, although as yet but in its


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4lthough Marx never followed up his plan ofexpounding his dialectical methodology j andalthough he did not use the words `dialectical

materialism to describe his doctrine j theelements of his thought are undeniably thoseconveyed by this term. ;ne can understand whyhe should have stressed the dialectical form ofhis account of economics with a certain`co/uetry as he himself puts it !in the preface tothe second edition of Capital%, having previously

come down so hard on all `metaphysics ofpolitical economy.5 ^]enri Cefebvre.DialecticalMaterialism. Fohn 9turrock, translator.Minneapolis, Minnesota< [niversity ofMinnesota 1ress. ())*. 1age ._

4Marxism, through its philosophy of`dialectical materialism, conures away thecontradiction between the high moral dynamismof our age and our stern critical passion whichdemands that we see human affairs obectively,i.e. as a mechanistic process in the Caplaceanmanner. These antinomies, which make theliberal mind stagger and fumble, are the oy andstrength of Marxism< for the more inordinateour moral aspirations and the more completelyamoral our obectivist outlook, the morepowerful is a combination in which thesecontradictory principles mutually reinforce eachother.5 ^Michael 1olanyi.Personal Knowledge:


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Towards a Post-Critical Philosophy. Condon andew 3ork< Doutledge imprint of Taylor &rancis 6roup, an informa business. "*(. 1age

($._2. historical materialism!arl Marx and &riedrich

'ngels%< 8ialectical materialism is applied tohistory and social science. The relations betweendominators !or oppressors% and the dominated!or the oppressed% are characterized bycontradictions !the dialectic%. Throughout mostof human history, dominant or oppressivegroups have used their ownership and control ofthe economy to dominate or oppress others.'xamples include< ancient slavery, medievalfeudalism, and modern capitalism. Thisoppression began following the end of a globaldominance of primitive communism !hunting-fishing-gathering or foraging societies%.

n 'ngels book, 9ocialism< [topian and9cientific!"##)%, he referred to this social theoryas 4historical materialism5 and, alternately, as4scientific socialism.5 'ngels distinguishedbetween scientific !Marxian% socialism and the

utopian socialism of Dobert ;wenand others.Cater, in his letter to :onrad 9chmidt!"#*)%, healso designated the perspective as 4^t_hematerialist conception of history.5 These terms
http://www.marxist.com/historical-materialism-study-guide.htmhttp://www.markfoster.net/struc/Engels_Socialism_Utopian_and_Scientific.pdfhttp://www.markfoster.net/struc/Engels_Socialism_Utopian_and_Scientific.pdfhttp://www.markfoster.net/struc/owen.pdfhttp://www.markfoster.net/struc/engels_to_schmidt_1890.pdfhttp://www.marxist.com/historical-materialism-study-guide.htmhttp://www.markfoster.net/struc/Engels_Socialism_Utopian_and_Scientific.pdfhttp://www.markfoster.net/struc/Engels_Socialism_Utopian_and_Scientific.pdfhttp://www.markfoster.net/struc/owen.pdfhttp://www.markfoster.net/struc/engels_to_schmidt_1890.pdf


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are, approximately, three alternate designationsfor the same theory.

4 hope even 2ritish respectability will not beovershocked if use, in 'nglish as well as in somany other languages, the term `historicalmaterialism, to designate that view of the courseof history which seeks the ultimate cause and thegreat moving power of all important historicevents in the economic development of society, inthe changes in the modes of production andexchange, in the conse/uent division of societyinto distinct classes, and in the struggles of theseclasses against one another.5 ^&riedrich 'ngels.Socialism: topian and Scientific. 'ngelsintroduction to the 'nglish-language edition."##) !6erman%. "#*( !'nglish%._

4The materialist doctrine concerning thechanging of circumstances and upbringingforgets that circumstances are changed by menand that it is essential to educate the educatorhimself. This doctrine must, therefore, dividesociety into two parts, one of which is superior tosociety.

4The coincidence of the changing ofcircumstances and of human activity or self-changing can be conceived and rationallyunderstood only as re!olutionary practice.5
http://www.markfoster.net/struc/Engels_Socialism_Utopian_and_Scientific.pdfhttp://www.markfoster.net/struc/Engels_Socialism_Utopian_and_Scientific.pdf


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^arl Marx. Theses on Feuer"ach. 7. Cough,translator. 9pring, "#+ !6erman%. "**!'nglish%._

4The dialectical method came to be addedto historical materialism and the analysis of theeconomic content, once this analysis had beensufficiently developed to allow and demand arigorous scientific expression. The dialecticalmethod, worked out first of all in an idealistform, as being the activity of the mind becomingconscious of the content and of the historical2ecoming, and now worked out again, startingfrom economic determinations, loses its abstract,idealist form, but it does not pass away. ;n thecontrary, it becomes more coherent by beingunited with a more elaborate materialism.^]enri Cefebvre.Dialectical Materialism. Fohn9turrock, translator. Minneapolis, Minnesota Papers and $eports from the&S& Social Forum0 788E. Fenna llard, :arl8avidson, and Fulie Matthaei, editors.

:hicago, llinois< :hangeMaker1ublications. ())#. 1age "._

49olidarity economy is an open process, aninvitation. The concept does not arise froma single political tradition or body of ideas.ts very nature and definition are incontinual development, discussed anddebated among its advocates. 9eeking to`make the road by walking rather than topush a closed or finalized ideology,solidarity economy is a `movement ofmovements continually seeking connectionsand possibilities while holding on to thetransformative commitment of sharedvalues. n such a spirit, this chapter willpresent neither a complete nor an`obective view of solidarity economy.7riting as an activist and a scholar in the[.9. context, seek to contribute towards a


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concept and practice of solidarity economythat might be useful and appropriate tomaking change here in the `belly of the

beast. 7hile draw on some writingandmuch inspirationfrom the work of thosein other parts of the world, also recognizeand honor the responsibility that we have toforge our own ideas about solidarityeconomy.5 ^'than Miller, 49olidarity'conomy< ey :oncepts and ssues.5

Solidarity #conomy %: *uilding 'lternati!esfor People and Planet. 'mily awano, TomMasterson, and Fonathan Teller-'llsberg,editors. mherst, Massachusetts< :enter for1opular 'conomics. ()")._

a. 9olidarity'conomy.et< 47e^9olidarity'conomy.et_ begin on a`micro level in each country,contending in all spheres j state,market, civil society, culture j with themost reactionary, `low road elements ofcapital, both local and global. 7e seekpopular and worker s control of allvital institutions, through radicalstructural reform through broadalliances among labor, community,youth and `high road elements of thebusiness community.5 ^:arl 8avidson,4bout [s.5Solidarity#conomy&5et.
http://www.communityeconomies.org/site/assets/media/Ethan_Miller/Miller_Solidarity_Economy_Key_Issues_2010.pdfhttp://www.communityeconomies.org/site/assets/media/Ethan_Miller/Miller_Solidarity_Economy_Key_Issues_2010.pdfhttp://www.solidarityeconomy.net/http://www.solidarityeconomy.net/about-solidarityeconomynet/http://www.communityeconomies.org/site/assets/media/Ethan_Miller/Miller_Solidarity_Economy_Key_Issues_2010.pdfhttp://www.communityeconomies.org/site/assets/media/Ethan_Miller/Miller_Solidarity_Economy_Key_Issues_2010.pdfhttp://www.solidarityeconomy.net/http://www.solidarityeconomy.net/about-solidarityeconomynet/


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Platform. [ndated. Detrieved on9eptember "#th, ()"+._

c. 9olidarity3:< 47e re a collective oforganizers and academics whopromote, connect, and support ew3ork :ity s solidarity economy.9olidarity economy practices utilizevalues of ustice, democracy,cooperation, and mutualism to meetcommunity needs. ;ur collectiverenders these practices visible, throughmapping and filmmaking, and bringsthe sectors of the solidarity economyinto greater cooperation with eachother for enhanced economic andpolitical power through education,organizing, and research.5^49olidarity3: connects, supports,and promotes ew 3ork :ity ssolidarity economy.5Solidarity5C.[ndated. Detrieved on 9eptember ""th,()"+._

d. 9olidarity 'conomy 9t. Couis SoluGHes para $edesSolidarias. 8ecember, ()"". Detrievedon 9eptember "th, ()"+._

i. D1'99 j ntercontinental etwork forthe 1romotion of 9ocial 9olidarity'conomy< 4D1'99 mission is to buildand promote the social solidarityeconomy !99'%, which takes intoaccount the social and ethicaldimension in all its economic activities.Thus the 99' aims to produce,exchange and consume goods andservices that answer the economic andsocial needs of the local andinternational communities.5 ^4bout[s.5$%P#SS > %ntercontinental5etwor1 for the Promotion of SocialSolidarity #conomy. ()". Detrieved on9eptember "th, ()"+._

(. social economy< The sector of the economywhich promotes collective well-being.
http://solidarius.com.br/mance/biblioteca/solidarity_economy.pdfhttp://www.ripess.org/?lang=enhttp://www.ripess.org/?lang=enhttp://www.ripess.org/?lang=enhttp://www.ripess.org/about-us/?lang=enhttp://www.ripess.org/about-us/?lang=enhttp://solidarius.com.br/mance/biblioteca/solidarity_economy.pdfhttp://www.ripess.org/?lang=enhttp://www.ripess.org/?lang=enhttp://www.ripess.org/?lang=enhttp://www.ripess.org/about-us/?lang=enhttp://www.ripess.org/about-us/?lang=en


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4The social economy !9'% exists at the nexusbetween civil society, the economy, and thestate. t is comprised of a variety of public,

private and non-profit entities that providegoods, services, and information to thepublic with the aim of generating botheconomic productivity and social solidarity.5 ^47hat is the 9ocial 'conomy5Social#conomy in 'ri?ona. [ndated. Detrieved on9eptember "th, ()"+._

4 the historical roots of the socialeconomy lie within the thought and work ofthe utopian socialists and the early attemptsto create alternative communitarianresponses to the mainstream capitalisteconomy through the use of the co-operativemodel. This early history framed laterdefinitions that retained the emphasis on analternative paradigm that challenged theclassical understanding of capitalisteconomics, including the control of capital.

4Eery /uickly the concept came to be usedto refer to collective enterprises and

associations guided by ethical and moralconsiderations, not ust material gain.5

^Fohn Destakis.Defining the Social #conomy >The *C Context. 2ritish :olumbia
http://socialeconomyaz.org/what-is-a-social-enterprise/https://www.uvic.ca/research/centres/cccbe/assets/docs/publications/practitioner/Restakis_DefiningSocialEconomy.pdfhttps://www.uvic.ca/research/centres/cccbe/assets/docs/publications/practitioner/Restakis_DefiningSocialEconomy.pdfhttp://socialeconomyaz.org/what-is-a-social-enterprise/https://www.uvic.ca/research/centres/cccbe/assets/docs/publications/practitioner/Restakis_DefiningSocialEconomy.pdfhttps://www.uvic.ca/research/centres/cccbe/assets/docs/publications/practitioner/Restakis_DefiningSocialEconomy.pdf


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:ooperative ssociation. Fanuary, ()).1age #. Detrieved on ;ctober "st, ()"+._

4[ndoubtedly, the social economy is asector which makes a significantcontribution to employment creation,sustainable growth and to a fairer incomeand wealth distribution. t is a sector whichis able to combine profitability with socialinclusion and democratic systems ofgovernance, working alongside the publicand private sectors in matching services toneeds. :rucially, it is a sector which hasweathered the economic crisis much betterthat others and is increasingly gainingrecognition at the 'uropean level.5 ^FosZCuis Monzn and Dafael :haves. The Social#conomy in the #uropean nion.nternational :entre of Desearch andnformation on the 1ublic, 9ocial and:ooperative 'conomy !:D':%. [ndated.Detrieved on ;ctober "st, ()"+. 1age ._

$. the commons< The resources which areshared, ointly, by members of a human

population.4 wide number of new strategies exist forassuring that the commons, in its manyforms, is protected and enhanced over time.
http://www.eesc.europa.eu/resources/docs/qe-30-12-790-en-c.pdfhttp://www.eesc.europa.eu/resources/docs/qe-30-12-790-en-c.pdfhttp://www.eesc.europa.eu/resources/docs/qe-30-12-790-en-c.pdfhttp://www.eesc.europa.eu/resources/docs/qe-30-12-790-en-c.pdf


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9ome involve government and law, othersdepend on informal governance and socialsanctions, while still others work with

market mechanisms and other hybridmodels.5 ^4:ommons 9trategies.5 3n theCommons. [ndated. Detrieved on9eptember "#th, ()"+._

4The idea of universal access to research,education, and culture is made possible bythe nternet, but our legal and socialsystems don t always allow that idea to berealized. :opyright was created long beforethe emergence of the nternet, and canmake it hard to legally perform actions wetake for granted on the network< copy,paste, edit source, and post to the 7eb. Thedefault setting of copyright law re/uires allof these actions to have explicit permission,granted in advance, whether you re anartist, teacher, scientist, librarian,policymaker, or ust a regular user. Toachieve the vision of universal access,someone needed to provide a free, public,and standardized infrastructure that createsa balance between the reality of the nternetand the reality of copyright laws. Thatsomeone is :reative :ommons.5 ^4bout.5Creati!e Commons. [ndated. Detrieved on;ctober "st, ()"+._
http://www.onthecommons.org/magazine/commons-strategieshttp://creativecommons.org/abouthttp://www.onthecommons.org/magazine/commons-strategieshttp://creativecommons.org/about


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. deep socialism !1eter 7ilberg%< n this typeof democratic socialism, which incorporatesboth social democracy and economic

socialism, differences in hourly wages wouldnot be based on the substance of aindividual s work but, rather, on its methodand /uality.

48eep socialism is democratic socialism,based on the principle of social democracyand economic socialism. 8emocracy is basedon the principle that each person s votecarries e/ual weight irrespectie of theirwealth or status< ;n e/uality of rights.9ocialism economics is based on theprinciple that each person s labour has thesame basic value as every other person sirrespective of its nature< ;n e/uality oflabour. 7hy should a corporate boss earnhundreds more per hour than a hard-working secretary, cleaner or assembly-lineworker ]ourly pay differentials wouldbe based not on what people did, but onhow they did it. ot on the nature of theirwork but on its /uality

4The establishment of a democratic,planned economy and the phasing out ofmoney in favour of labour time-and-/ualitycredits recorded on smart cards would take


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advantage of the enormous developments ininformation and communicationstechnology brought about by computers and

microchips. n this way, the basic Marxisttheory of social development andtransformation would be fulfilled namelythat is is development in the technology ofproduction that makes changes in theeconomic structure of society both necessaryandpossi"le.5

^1eter 7ilberg.Deep Socialism: ' 5ewManifesto of Marxist #thnics and#conomics. Condon< ew 6nosis1ublications. ())$. 1ages "-"+._

4The aim of socialism is deep valuefulfillment, a society in which `the free

development of each is the condition for thefree development of all. The association ofmarket capitalism with individualism isfundamentally false, for capitalism thrivesonly on proving symbolic valuefulfillment.

4Marketing translates deepn values intosymbolic ones, thus making them intocommodities. dvertising and promotionuse symbols to attach deep values to


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commodities, thus transforming them intopurely symbolic values.

47hen an individual sells their labourpower as a commodity, the individual/ualities they embody and materialize intheir work become merely the materialembodiment of their symbolic value,cultural and economic.5

^1eter 7ilberg.Deep Socialism: ' 5ew

Manifesto of Marxist #thnics and#conomics. Condon< ew 6nosis1ublications. ())$. 1ages #(-#$._

+. community organizing !9aul 8. linsky andothers%< This approach to community-basedempowerment, originated by linsky,

incorporated some political Marxian tacticsbut not Marxist theory.

4&ew of us ^the radicals of my generation_survived the Foe Mc:arthy holocaust of theearly "*+)s and of those there were evenfewer whose understanding and insightshad developed beyond the dialecticalmaterialism of orthodox Marxism.5 ^9aul 8.linsky.$ules for $adicals: ' PracticalPrimer for $ealistic $adicals. ew 3ork-n-t-z-shn5 aspronounced in this M1$ audio file%, the 'nglish-language version of the 1ortugueseconscienti?aGo!M1$ audio file%.:onscientization refers to critical consciousness
http://anti-imperialism.com/welcome-page/https://siglodelucha.wordpress.com/about/http://www.revolutionaryaim.org/publications/dare-to-win/http://www.markfoster.net/name/critical_pedagogy.htmlhttp://www.markfoster.net/name/critical_pedagogy.htmlhttp://www.markfoster.net/name/paulo_freire.htmlhttp://www.markfoster.net/name/conscientization.htmlhttp://www.markfoster.net/name/conscientizacao.htmlhttp://anti-imperialism.com/welcome-page/https://siglodelucha.wordpress.com/about/http://www.revolutionaryaim.org/publications/dare-to-win/http://www.markfoster.net/name/critical_pedagogy.htmlhttp://www.markfoster.net/name/critical_pedagogy.htmlhttp://www.markfoster.net/name/paulo_freire.htmlhttp://www.markfoster.net/name/conscientization.htmlhttp://www.markfoster.net/name/conscientizacao.html


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or consciousness raising. The root ofconscienti?aGois the &rench word, conscience!M1$ audio file%, which can be translated into

'nglish as either conscienceor consciousness.ConcienciaciNn!M1$ audio file% is a 9panish-language spelling. Conscientisation!M1$ audiofile% is the &rench-language version.Coscienti??a?ione!M1$ audio file% is the talian-language translation.

4 have encountered, both in training courseswhich analyze the role of conscienti?aGoand inactual experimentation with a truly liberatingeducation, the `fear of freedom discussed in thefirst chapter of this book. ot infre/uently,training course participants call attention to `thedanger of conscienti?aGo in a way that revealstheir own fear of freedom. :riticalconsciousness, they say, is anarchic. ;thers addthat critical consciousness may lead to disorder.9ome, however, confess< 7hy deny it wasafraid of freedom. am no longer afraid5!1aulo &reire.Pedagogy of the 3ppressed. $)thanniversary edition. Myra 2ergman Damos,translator. ew 3ork< The :ontinuumnternational 1ublishing 6roup nc. ())+. 1age$+._

&. theater of the oppressed!ugusto 2oal aspronounced in this M1$ audio file%< 2oal s
http://www.markfoster.net/name/conscience.htmlhttp://www.markfoster.net/name/concienciacion.htmlhttp://www.markfoster.net/name/conscientisation.htmlhttp://www.markfoster.net/name/conscientisation.htmlhttp://www.markfoster.net/name/coscientizzazione.htmlhttps://libcom.org/files/FreirePedagogyoftheOppressed.pdfhttp://rockermouse.com/theatreofoppressed.htmlhttp://www.markfoster.net/name/augusto_boal.htmlhttp://www.markfoster.net/name/conscience.htmlhttp://www.markfoster.net/name/concienciacion.htmlhttp://www.markfoster.net/name/conscientisation.htmlhttp://www.markfoster.net/name/conscientisation.htmlhttp://www.markfoster.net/name/coscientizzazione.htmlhttps://libcom.org/files/FreirePedagogyoftheOppressed.pdfhttp://rockermouse.com/theatreofoppressed.htmlhttp://www.markfoster.net/name/augusto_boal.html


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approach to theatrical performance as atheatrical director, explained in his book Theatreof the 3ppressed, was influenced by fellow

2razilian 1aulo &reire s critical pedagogy.4 a Marxist artist must promote themovement toward national liberation andtoward the liberation of the classes oppressed bycapital.5 ^ugusto 2oal. Theatre of the3ppressed. :harles . and Maria-;dilia CealMc2ride and 'mily &ryer, translators. Condon 5otes on the%deology of the Fourth orld. 9eptember, ())).Detrieved on 9eptember th, ()"+. &ound also in

7ard :hurchill. From a 5ati!e Son: Selected #ssaysin %ndigenism0 26O9-2669. :ambridge,Massachusetts< 9outh 'nd 1ress. "**. 1ages +)*-+"._
http://www.markfoster.net/struc/i_am_indigenist.pdfhttp://www.markfoster.net/struc/i_am_indigenist.pdfhttp://www.markfoster.net/struc/i_am_indigenist.pdfhttp://www.markfoster.net/struc/i_am_indigenist.pdf


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4;ne approach which has yet to be consideredthoroughly is that of indigenism, which reflectscreative linkages between place-based struggles and

transnational networks as enactments of self-determination in reconfiguring internationalrelations and challenging !neo%colonial hierarchieswithin the state and inter-state system .mportantly, the `self is not the sovereign man nor isthe `nation the demarcated body politic of thetraditional imaginings of western political science.

Dather, indigenism asserts an altogether differentregistry in which to understand relationswithin localand global landscapes.5 ^Fac/ueline Casky,4ndigenism, narchism, &eminism< n 'merging&ramework for 'xploring 1ost-mperial &utures.5'ffinities: ' ournal of $adical Theory0 Culture0 and'ction. Eolume +, number ". 1ages $-$._

4My interest here is in the way places areenvisioned in relation-ship to two other paradigmaticphenomena of our times, indigenism and socialmovements. More than any other political andcultural orientation currently available, indigenismoffers an indispensable critical perspective on thehegemonic assumptions that inform globalization.9ocial movements, on the other hand, offer a meansto linking places in larger wholes that are importantnot only for overcoming the parochialism that is thepredicament of place-based politics but also toanswer to the demands of sustenance within political


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economic spaces that of necessity transcend places.5^rif 8irlik, 46lobalization, ndigenism, 9ocialMovements, and the 1olitics of 1lace.5(ocalities.

Eolume ", ()"". 1ages -*)._4 all of us ^2lack, 2rown, and merican ndian_

are the indigenous people of this planet.5 ^MinisterCouis &arrakhan. 4&arrakhan on `merican ndiansTruths Dadio 9how j Fustice ;r 'lse5 ouTu"e.Fuly "$th, ()"+. Detrieved on 9eptember th, ()"+._

4ndigenism is a social movement with a strategicfocus outside of states that seeks to activate rights toautonomy withinstates. n so doing, it imparts a newmeaning to pluralism and a new challenge to theliberal proect of recognizing differences.5 ^Donaldiezen. The 3rigins of %ndigenism: Buman $ightsand the Politics of %dentity. ;akland, :aliforniaV theia truth_, aultimately grounded in conceptions of humannature .5 ^Doy 2haskar.Dialectic: The Pulse ofFreedom. Condon and ew 3ork< Doutledge

imprint of Taylor &rancis 6roup, an informabusiness. ())#. 1age "*._

4^Doy_ 2haskar s theory of explanatory criti/ue,which culminates in metacriti/ue, argues, against


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]ume s Caw, that social science can move fromfacts to value udgments, or explain how theorycan affect practice. t sustains an ethical

naturalism that holds that it is possible to derivemoral truths from facts, necessarily denying any`inseparable barrier between 4is5 and 4ought5statements . n short, 2haskar maintains thatscientific explanation in the human sciences cangenerate the explanatoryjcritical conditions forhuman emancipation.5 ^arl 1olanyi s

Metacriti/ue of the Ciberal :reed< Deading1olanyi s 9ocial Theory in Terms of 8ialectical:ritical Dealism.5ournal of Critical $ealism.Eolume "), issue $, ()"". 1ages (-$)(._

4:D s ^critical realism s_ view of morality has two main principles 5eo-'ristotelism. Eolume ,numbers " and (, winterspring ()". 1ages-"._

. critical phenomenological realism !]erbert9pieleberg%. 9pieleberg develops a non-2haskarian critical realist approach which,he contends, does not transcend thephenomena of reality.

4 critical phenomenological realism does not coincide with a so-called criticalrealism which does not grant reality to anyof the phenomena and, instead, tries to infera real world different from the onepresented to us in the phenomena. Thiswould be the position of the most radical

form of critical realism, which might beillustrated by ^mmanuel_ ant s contrastof the thing in itself and its appearances, astaken over and developed by lois Diehland other 6erman critical realists.


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4n contradistinction to such a `criticalrealism, the critical phenomenologicalrealism advocated here for the phenomena

of sense perception does not claim to passbeyond all actual and potential phenomenaand enter into a reality of an entirelydifferent structure. t does not transcend thephenomena of reality, but either merelyselects critically among those which directlyor indirectly conflict, or rearranges them in

a newly constructed pattern. t also strivesfor an integration of the phenomenal fieldby filling gaps left by a `naivephenomenological realism that reliesexclusively on isolatedphenomena of realityonce they are critically observed and appearsufficiently trustworthy in themselves.

4There is one point in the program of theew Dealists with which even criticalphenomenological realism agrees, namely,the attempt to return as far as possible tothe tenets of a genuine naive realism, whilemodifying them where they prove to beuntenable.5

^]erbert 9pieleberg.Doing Phenomenology:#ssays on and in Phenomenology. The]ague, etherlands< Martinus ihoff."*+. 1ages "+-"#._
https://books.google.com/books?id=BmUyBwAAQBAJ&dq=%22critical+realism%22&q=%22and+other+german%22&search_plus_one=form#v=snippet&q=%22and%20other%20german%22&f=falsehttps://books.google.com/books?id=BmUyBwAAQBAJ&dq=%22critical+realism%22&q=%22and+other+german%22&search_plus_one=form#v=snippet&q=%22and%20other%20german%22&f=falsehttps://books.google.com/books?id=BmUyBwAAQBAJ&dq=%22critical+realism%22&q=%22and+other+german%22&search_plus_one=form#v=snippet&q=%22and%20other%20german%22&f=falsehttps://books.google.com/books?id=BmUyBwAAQBAJ&dq=%22critical+realism%22&q=%22and+other+german%22&search_plus_one=form#v=snippet&q=%22and%20other%20german%22&f=false


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. ontological and epistemological criticalrealism !Mario 2unge as pronounced in this

M1$ audio file%< 2unge has developed hisown distinctive version of scientific realism.

4The main theses, or rather hypotheses, ofcritical realism are as follows.

4D". There are things in themselves, i.e.,obects the existence of which does notdepend upon any mind. !ote that the/uantifier is existential, not universalpolitical reality gap hasits origin in contending and conflicting


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pri!ati?ation perspecti!es0 which aregrounded in irreconcila"le epistemologicaland ontological assumptions that underpin

neoli"eralism s neoclassical free-mar1et

economic roots& Thiseither-or conflict ma1esthe closing of this gap awin-lose struggle.5^Fohn 8ixon, 4aive eoclassical'conomics and the 1romised Cand of1rivatization< :ritical 8econstruction ofBomo #conomicus.5 bstract !italics

retained from the original%.'dministrati!eTheory I Praxis. Eolume $(, number $,9eptember ()"). 1ages $#j$(._

#. critical urban theory !eil 2renner andothers%< 47hat is critical urban theory7hile this phrase is often used in adescriptive sense, to characterize thetradition of post-"*# leftist or radicalurban studies, argue that it also hasdeterminate socialjtheoretical content. Tothis end, building on the work of several&rankfurt 9chool social philosophers, thispaper interprets critical theory withreference to four, mutually interconnectedelementsits theoretical character itsreflexivity its criti/ue of instrumentalreason and its emphasis on the disuncturebetween the actual and the possible. ;n thisbasis, a brief concluding section considers


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the status of urban /uestions within criticalsocial theory. n the early (" century, argue, each of the four key elements within

critical social theory re/uires sustainedengagement with contemporary patterns ofcapitalist urbanization. [nder conditions ofincreasingly generalized, worldwideurbanization, the proect of critical socialtheory and that of critical urban theoryhave been intertwined as never before.5

^eil 2renner, 47hat is critical urbantheory5 bstract. City. Eolume "$,numbers (-$, Fune-9eptember ())*. 1ages"*#-()._

#+. critical theory of advertising !Fohn ]armsand 8ouglas ellner%< 4 variety of recentbooks address these problems and in thisarticle we shall point to their contributionstoward developing a critical theory ofadvertising, while also indicating some oftheir limitations. 9everal recent books onadvertising take an explicitly criticalsociological orientation toward advertisingas a means of reproducing the existingcapitalist society. This literature argues thatnot only does advertising carry out crucialeconomic functions in managing consumerdemand and in aiding capital accumulation,but it also helps produce the sort of
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ideological ambience re/uired by consumercapitalism, thus linking, more or lesssuccessfully, macro and micro analysis.

9ome of this literature provides illuminatinghistorical framing of the history ofadvertising and the consumer society, aswell as providing sociological analysis,cultural and ideological criti/ue, andpolitical proposals to regulate or curtailadvertising in contemporary capitalist

societies.5 ^Fohn ]arms and 8ouglasellner, 4Toward :ritical Theory ofdvertising.5%lluminations. [ndated.Detrieved on 9eptember "$th, ()"+._

#. instrumentalization theory !ndrew&eenberg%< 8evelops a critical theory oftechnology. 8espite &eenberg s adoption of

the term 4instrumentalization,5 his theory isnot an elitist theory of the state !a branch ofso-called 4instrumental Marxism5%.

4nstrumentalization theory holds thattechnology must be analyzed at two levels,the level of our original functional relation

to reality and the level of design andimplementation. t the first level, we seekand find affordances that can be mobilizedin devices and systems by decontextualizingthe obects of experience and reducing them
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to their useful properties. This involves aprocess of de-worlding in which obects aretorn out of their original contexts and

exposed to analysis and manipulation whilesubects are positioned for distancedcontrol. Modern societies are uni/ue in de-worlding human beings in order to subectthem to technical action-we call itmanagement-and in prolonging the basicgesture of de-worlding theoretically in

technical disciplines which become the basisfor complex technical networks.

4t the second level, we introduce designsthat can be integrated with other alreadyexisting devices and systems and withvarious social constraints such as ethicaland aesthetic principles. The primary levelsimplifies obects for incorporation into adevice while the secondary level integratesthe simplified obects to a natural and socialenvironment. This involves a process which,following ^Martin_ ]eidegger, we can call`disclosure or `revealing of a world.8isclosing involves a complementaryprocess of realization which /ualifies theoriginal functionalization by orienting ittoward a new world involving those sameobects and subects.


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4These two levels are analyticallydistinguished. o matter how abstract theaffordances identified at the primary level,

they carry social content from thesecondary level in the elementarycontingencies of a particular approach tothe materials. 9imilarly, secondaryinstrumentalizations such as designspecifications presuppose the identificationof the affordances to be assembled and

concretized.4The theory is complicated, however, by

the peculiar nature of differentiated modernsocieties. 9ome of the functions of thesecondary instrumentalization do getdistinguished institutionally rather thananalytically. Thus the aesthetic function, animportant secondary instrumentalization,may be separated out and assigned to acorporate design division. rtists will thenwork in parallel with engineers. This partialinstitutional separation of the levels ofinstrumentalization encourages the beliefthat they are completely distinct. Thisobscures the social nature of every technicalact, including the work of engineersliberated from aesthetic considerations, ifnot from many other social influences, bytheir corporate environment.


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4n Marx the capitalist is ultimatelydistinguished not so much by ownership ofwealth as by control of the conditions of

labor. The owner has not merely aneconomic interest in what goes on within hisfactory, but also a technical interest. 2yreorganizing the work process, he canincrease production and profits. :ontrol ofthe work process, in turn, leads to new ideasfor machinery and the mechanization of

industry follows in short order. This leadsover time to the invention of a specific typeof machinery which deskills workers andre/uires management.5

^ndrew &eenberg, 4:ritical Theory ofTechnology< n ;verview.5 Tailoring*iotechnologies. Eolume ", ssue ", 7inter())+. 1ages -._

4The dialectic of technology is short-circuited under capitalism in one especiallyimportant domain< the technical control ofthe labor force. 9pecial obstacles tosecondary instrumentalization are

encountered wherever integrative technicalchange would threaten that control. Theseobstacles are not merely ideological but areincorporated into technical codes thatdetermine formally biased designs. s we
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have seen, the integration of skill andintelligence into production is often arrestedby the fear that the firm will become

dependent on its workers. The largercontext of work, which includes thesesuppressed potentialities, is uncovered in acriti/ue of the formal bias of existingdesigns. The critical theory of technologyexposes the obstacles to the release oftechnology s integrative potential and thus

serves as the link between political andtechnical discourse.5 ^ndrew &eenberg.Transforming Technology: ' Critical Theory$e!isited. ;xford, 'ngland, and ew 3ork#mpiricistDispute in the Philosophy of Science. 1h.8.thesis ![.9. 'nglish, dissertation%.8epartment of 1hilosophy, The [niversityof 6uelph. 9eptember, ()"+. Detrieved on8ecember th, ()"+._ 1age $+._

. theory of structural contradictions !7illiamF. :hambliss, 7illiam F. :hambliss,Marorie 9ue atz, Caurie F. Dodriguez,


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8avid '. 2arlow, and others%< The processof law creation, both nationally andinternationally, resolves historically specific

structural contradictions.4 we have elaborated on theory ofstructural contradictions to account for thecreation of law by applying it to thedevelopment of criminal law and crimecontrol in 2ritain and the [nited 9tates.;ur theory stresses the importance offundamental contradictions in political,economic, and social relations as thestarting point for a sociologicalunderstanding of law creation. n ourtheory people struggle to resolve thecontradictions by fighting against existinglaws !laws supporting colonialism, wagediscrimination, or racism, for example%,while other people fight to maintain thestatus /uo through the enforcement ofexisting laws and the creation of new ones.n the process, ideological ustificationsdevelop, shift, and change these ideologies,in turn, become a force of their own,influencing the development of legalinstitutions which reflect the interplaybetween material conditions and ideology.


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4[nderstanding consists of dividing theworld into abstract units that we then use toorder our observations. Too early, however,

we become enamored of our observationsand reify them. `9ocietyan observation ofsome use in helping us to understandingwhat is going onhas become an entity formany otherwise perfectly intelligent socialscientists. 7hen this happens, we ceaseasking the right /uestions and become

mired in abstract disputes rather thancarrying on with the sine /ua non of socialscientific in/uiry< the description andexplanation of social reality.

41eople lie at the root of the socialscientific enterprise. Their decisions makeup our data. 1eople construct worlds, createconflicts, adudicate disputes, and makelaw.

42ut people do not create their reality on aclean canvas. They, like the painter, must fittheir creative efforts to the shape and size oftheir canvas, the paints they have, and the

way they have come to see the world theywish to depict. ll these things, and more,result from personal experiences !things likesocial background, socialization in school,family, and peers%, but in the long train of


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history they also result from larger forcesthat shape our lives.

4'very historical era and every economicsystem contain basic contradictions.

41eople are agents of social changeembedded in social structures through rolesand ideologies.5

^7illiam F. :hambliss, 4The :reation of

:riminal Caw and :rime :ontrol in 2ritainand merica.5Ma1ing (aw: The State0 the(aw0 and Structural Contradictions. 7illiamF. :hambliss, Marorie 9ue atz, editors.2loomington, ndiana< ndiana [niversity1ress. "**$. 1ages "-(._

4:hambliss model of structuralcontradictions that envisions law creation asa process aimed at resolving conflicts anddilemmas stemming from underlyingcontradictions that are historically specificand inherently set in the structure of aparticular political, economic, and socialstructure. ^C_aw evolves in a dialecticalmanner. s problematic issues are resolved,new issues emerge that drive new `solutionsthat only create new `contradictions.
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4lthough :hambliss model is focused onanalyzing law formation within the contextof nation-states, it can be turned toward an

international society that is composed of alarger political and social structure thatcontains its own structural contradictions.:hanges in the law do not necessarily meanchanges in international societal relations,ust as changes in the international societalviews or relations do not always lead to

changes in laws. These then can alsoproduce conflict or further contradictions.The response to conflicts is not only politicalit is ideological !the promotion of aninternational system% and structural !withinthe system of international law%. Theunderlying contradictions of an

international society and system ofinternational law remain unresolved. 7henconflicts occur, newlaws, a newinternationalsystem of ustice, or a new internationalideology is created to address these conflictswhile ignoring the embeddedcontradictions< existing inter-state relations

based on sovereignty and self-rule.5^8an Dothe and :hristopher 7. Mullins, 4The

nternational :riminal :ourt and [nited9tates opposition< 9tructural:ontradictions Model.5 Crime0 (aw I


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Social Change. Eolume +, ()). 1ages ()"j((._

4^7illiam F._ :hambliss first proferredthe theory of structural contradictions toaddress weaknesses in the structuralMarxist perspective, suggesting thatcriminal ustice policy formation can bebetter perceived through a greaterappreciation of the role of the state in theprocess of law formation. The obligation ofthe state to address class conflicts within acapitalist economy is reflected in itslegislative development. :apitalist and theirrepresentatives routinely urge policyenactment corresponding to their interests,while state actors attempt to mollifyworking class fears of nonrepresentationalrule in order to maintain social order andstructural stability.

4 2y relating the development,implementation, and application of theguidelines to structural contradictionstheory, this research corroborates the

premise that business leaders, industrialists,and pro-business lobbyists strive tomanipulate the process of law creation topromote their interests over those of labor,the less powerful, and the poor. The state is


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then obliged to intercede in the conflictsthat arise from this practice by addressingand attempting to resolve inter- and intra-

class dissension while ensuring that thewealthy and powerful maintain primacyover the policy formation process. Thestate must maintain a certain degree ofautonomy in order to take actions whichmay oppose the short-term interests ofspecific factions within the capitalist class.

Thus, capitalist domination of state policy,mitigated by occasional working classvictories both tangible and symbolic,assures the continuation of the capitalisteconomy .5

^Caurie F. Dodriguez and 8avid '. 2arlow,49tructural contradictions and the [nited9tates 9entencing :ommission.5 Crime0 (awand Social Change. Eolume $(, number (,"***. 1ages "*-()(._

. generative structuralism!1ierre 2ourdieuas pronounced in this M1$ audio file%< Thisperspective is also called genetic

structuralism, constructivist structuralism,structuralist constructivism, or a theory ofpractice.
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4f had to characterize my work in twowords, that is, as is the fashion these days, tolabel it, would speak of constructi!ist

structuralismor of structuralistconstructi!ism, taking the wordstructuralism in a sense very different fromthe one it has ac/uired in the 9aussurean orCZvi-9traussian tradition. 2y structuralismor structuralist, mean that there exist,within the social world itself and not only

within symbolic systems !language, myths,etc.%, obective structures independent of theconsciousness and will of agents, which arecapable of guiding and constraining theirpractices or their representations. 2yconstructivism, mean that there is atwofold social genesis, on the one hand of

the schemes of perception, thought. andaction which are constitutive of what callhabitus, and on the other hand of socialstructures, and particularly of what callfields and of groups, notably those weordinarily call social classes.5 ^1ierre2ourdieu, 49ocial 9pace and 9ymbolic

1ower.5Sociological Theory. Eolume ,number ", spring "*#*. 1ages "-(+._

4 an inevitable moment in scientificknowledge j and to bring to light the theoryof theory and the theory of practice
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inscribed !in its practical state% in this modeof knowledge, ^is_ that we can integrate thegains from it into an ade/uate science of

practices. The critical break with obectivistabstraction ensuing from in/uiry into theconditions of possibility, and thereby, intothe limits of the obective and obectifyingstandpoint which grasps practices fromoutside, as afait accompli^M1$ audio file,i.e., accomplished fact_, instead of

constructing their generative principle bysituating itself within the very movement oftheir accomplishment, has no other aimthan to make possible a science of thedialectical relationsbetween the obectivestructures to which the obectivist mode ofknowledge gives access and the structured

dispositions within which those structuresare actualized and which tend to reproducethem.5 ^1ierre 2ourdieu. 3utline of aTheory of Practice. Dichard ice, translator.:ambridge, 'ngland< :ambridge[niversity 1ress. "*. 1age $._

4The true status of kin relationships,principles of structuration of the socialworld which, as such, always fulfil apolitical function, is most clearly seen in thedifferent uses wrhich men and women canmake of the same field of genealogical
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relationships, and in particular in theirdifferent `readings and `uses ofgenealogically ambiguous kinship ties

!which are relatively fre/uent on account ofthe narrow area of matrimonial choice%.5^1ierre 2ourdieu. 3utline of a Theory ofPractice. Dichard ice, translator.:ambridge, 'ngland< :ambridge[niversity 1ress. "*. 1age "._

4The specific potency of the explicitstatement that brings subective experiencesinto the reassuring unanimity of a sociallyapproved and collectively attested senseimposes itself with the authorityandnecessityof a collective position adopted ondata intrinsically amenable to many otherstructurations.5 ^1ierre 2ourdieu. 3utlineof a Theory of Practice. Dichard ice,translator. :ambridge, 'ngland

marxisms and neo-marxisms

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