The

Ger

man

Ideo

logy

Pa

rt I

(sel

ectio

ns)

Kar

l Mum

and

Frie

dric

h En

gels

In A

pril

of 1

845,

Eng

els

mov

ed to

Bru

ssel

s to

join

Mar

x Th

at su

mm

er th

e tw

o tr

avel

led

to E

ngla

nd to

stud

y ec

onom

ic th

eory

and

to m

ake

conn

ectio

ns

with

Ger

man

wor

kers

'gro

ups

in L

ondo

n. U

pon

thei

r re

turn

to B

russ

els,

they

un

dert

ook

a jo

int

wor

k, th

eir f

irst

, w

hich

had

two

chie

f aim

s: n

egat

ivel

y, to

cr

itici

ze a

nd "

settl

e ac

coun

ts w

ith"

vari

ous

of t

heir

ers

twhi

le Y

oung

Heg

elia

n co

lleag

ues a

nd c

lari

fi ho

w th

eir

new

ly e

mer

ging

view

s di

ffere

d fro

m t

he "

ide-

ol

ogie

s" o

f th

ese

othe

rs; a

nd p

ositi

vely

, to

dev

elop

thei

r ow

n m

ater

ialis

t the

- or

y of

his

tory

. Th

eir m

ain

targ

ets w

ere B

auer

, Feu

erba

ch, M

ax S

tirne

r, a

nd

Kar

l G

run

and

the

so-c

alle

d tr

ue o

r ut

opia

n so

cial

ists

. Th

e re

sult

of t

heir

ef

fort

s, w

hich

last

ed th

roug

h th

e su

mm

er o

f 18

46, w

as a

man

uscr

ipt o

f abo

ut

+

five

hund

red

page

s. Th

e lo

ng se

cond

and

thir

d pa

rts'

of th

e w

ork

cons

ist l

arge

ly

of s

atir

ical

pole

mic

s ag

ains

t the

ir o

ppon

ents

, esp

ecia

lly S

tirne

r, w

ho h

ad

rece

ntly

pub

lishe

d T

he E

go a

nd I

ts O

wn,

in w

hich

Mar

x an

d En

gels

had

be

en c

ritic

ized

. The

se pa

rts

are

little

rea

d to

day.

The

first

par

t, ho

wev

er,

whi

ch o

sten

sibl

y is

a c

ritiq

ue o

f Feu

erba

ch b

ut, m

ore

impo

rtan

t, is

the f

irst

sy

stem

atic

expo

sitio

n of

his

tori

cal m

ater

ialis

m, i

s on

e of

the

mos

t inf

uent

ial

of a

ll of

Mar

x's

wri

tings

. The

wor

k w

as n

ever

publ

ishe

d in

thei

r lif

etim

es,

how

evet

: As

Mar

x w

rote

in th

e Pr

efac

e to

'Y C

ontr

ibut

ion

to th

e C

ritiq

ue

of P

oliti

cal E

cono

my,

"* t

he se

cond

and

thir

d pa

rts

of t

he m

anus

crip

t had

"r

each

ed t

he p

ublis

hers

in

Wes

tpha

lia w

hen

we

wer

e in

form

ed th

at o

win

g to

ch

ange

d ci

rcum

stan

ces

it c

ould

not

be p

rint

ed.

We a

band

oned

the

man

uscr

ipt

to th

e gna

win

g cr

itici

sm o

f th

e m

ice

all t

he m

ore

will

ingl

y si

nce

we

had

achi

eved

our

mai

n pu

rpos

e-se

lf-c

lar$

catio

" It

was

pub

lishe

d fo

r th

e fir

st

time

in 1

932.

In

Par

t I o

f The

Ger

man

Ideo

logy

, Mar

x an

d En

gels

atte

mpt

to c

lari

fi at

gr

eate

r len

gth

than

pre

viou

sly

how

thei

r th

eory

of h

isto

ry d

ifer

s fro

m t

hat o

f Fe

uerb

achi

an m

ater

ialis

m, o

n th

e on

e ha

nd, a

nd H

egel

ian

idea

lism

, on

the

othe

r. Th

eir v

iew

"is

not

dev

oid

of p

rem

ises

. It p

roce

eds f

rom

rea

l pre

mis

es

and

does

not

aba

ndon

them

for

a m

omen

t. Th

ese p

rem

ises

are

men

, not

in

any

fant

astic

iso

latio

n an

djix

atio

n, b

ut in

thei

r re

al, e

mpi

rica

lly pe

rcep

tible

pro

- ce

ss o

f dev

elop

men

t und

er c

erta

in c

ondi

tions

. . .

. Whe

re sp

ecul

atio

n en

ds,

nam

ely

in a

ctua

l life

, the

re re

al, p

ositi

ve sc

ienc

e be

gins

as

the

repr

esen

tatio

n of

The

Ger

man

Ideo

logy

10

3

the p

ract

ical

act

ivity

and

pra

ctic

al p

roce

ss o

f the

dev

elop

men

t of

men

." Fr

om

this

beg

inni

ng po

int,

they

des

crib

e the

theo

retic

al pr

oces

s of

acc

ount

ingf

or

the

deve

lopm

ent o

f soc

ial i

nstit

utio

ns, i

nclu

ding

the

stat

e an

d th

e re

alm

of

cultu

re a

nd id

eas,

and

outli

ne th

e na

ture

of h

isto

rica

l evo

lutio

n. A

ll so

cial

in

stitu

tions

and

pra

ctic

es a

re to

be

unde

rsto

od in

term

s of

the p

reva

iling

m

ater

ial c

ondi

tions

. Con

scio

usne

ss, o

r id

eolo

gy, i

s a r

efec

tion

of m

ater

ial

rela

tions

, in

part

icul

ar, t

he re

latio

ns o

f pro

duct

ion.

Thu

s, to

und

erst

and

cont

empo

rary

Ger

man

philo

soph

y an

d la

w, o

ne m

ust u

nder

stan

d th

e ri

se o

f m

anuj

iictu

ring

, the

div

isio

n of

labo

r, tr

ade

rela

tions

, and

oth

er fa

ctor

s sh

ap-

ing

econ

omic

lif

Im

port

ant

rem

arks

abo

ut c

omm

unis

m a

re a

lso

scat

tere

d th

roug

h th

e m

anus

crip

t. Pa

rt I

of T

he G

erm

an I

deol

ogy

was

nev

erfin

ishe

d an

d w

as p

ut a

side

w

hen

the p

lans

for

publ

ishi

ng th

e se

cond

and

thir

d pa

rtsf

ell

thro

ugh.

It

does

not

, the

n, r

epre

sent

a p

olis

hed

wor

k, a

nd im

port

ant t

hem

es a

re n

ot sy

s-

tem

atic

ally

dev

elop

ed. A

lso,

com

pare

d to

late

r w

ritin

gs o

f Mar

x on

his

tory

, th

is w

ork

clea

rly s

uffe

rs fr

om a

lack

of t

he d

etai

led

know

ledg

e of

his

tory

th

at M

arx

wou

ld a

cqui

re in

the

1850

's. N

onet

hele

ss, a

ll o

f the

maj

or p

oint

s of

his

tori

cal m

ater

ialis

m a

re in

The

Ger

man

Ideo

logy

, if n

ot i

n a f

ully

w

orke

d-ou

tform

, and

the

impo

rtan

ce o

f the

doc

umen

t can

not b

e de

nied

.

Prefa

ce

Unt

il no

w m

en h

ave

cons

tant

ly h

ad f

alse

con

cept

ions

of

them

selv

es,

abou

t wha

t th

ey a

re o

r w

hat

they

oug

ht to

be.

The

y ha

ve r

elat

ed t

hem

- se

lves

to

one

anot

her

in c

onfo

rmity

with

the

ir id

eas

of G

od, o

f no

rmal

m

an,

etc.

The

pha

ntom

s of

the

ir i

mag

inat

ion

have

got

ten

too

big

for

them

. T

hey,

the

cre

ator

s, ha

ve b

een

bow

ing

to t

heir

cre

atio

ns.

Let

us

liber

ate

them

fro

m t

heir

chi

mer

as, f

rom

the

ir id

eas,

dogm

as, i

mag

inar

y be

ings

, und

er w

hose

yok

e th

ey a

re l

angu

ishi

ng. L

et u

s re

bel a

gain

st t

he

rule

of

thou

ghts

. Let

us

teac

h m

an, s

ays

one

pers

on, t

o ex

chan

ge th

ese

imag

inin

gs f

or t

houg

hts

that

cor

resp

ond

to m

an's

esse

nce;

let

us t

each

m

an t

o be

cri

tical

tow

ard

them

, say

s an

othe

r; le

t us

tea

ch m

an t

o ge

t rid

of

them

alto

geth

er, s

ays a

thir

d. T

hen-

-exi

stin

g re

ality

will

col

laps

e.

Such

inn

ocen

t an

d ch

ildlik

e fa

ntas

ies

mak

e up

the

cor

e of

rec

ent

You

ng-H

egel

ian

philo

soph

y w

hich

not

onl

y is

rec

eive

d w

ith h

orro

r an

d aw

e by

the

Ger

man

pub

lic,

but

is a

lso

prop

ound

ed b

y th

e ph

iloso

phic

Thi

s se

lect

ion

is t

he f

irst

part

of T

he G

erm

an I

deol

ogy

as t

rans

late

d fro

m t

he

Ger

man

by

Loyd

D. E

asto

n an

d K

urt H

. Gud

dat.

1. S

ee p

. 209

belo

w.

104

Writ

ings

on H

istor

ical

Mat

eria

lism

hero

es t

hem

selv

es w

ith a

cer

emon

ious

con

scio

usne

ss o

f it

s ca

tacl

ysm

ic

dang

erou

snes

s an

d cr

imin

al d

isre

gard

. T

he

firs

t vo

lum

e of

the

pre

sent

pu

blic

atio

n at

tem

pts

to u

nmas

k th

ese

shee

p w

ho c

onsi

der t

hem

selv

es a

nd

are

take

n to

be

wol

ves,

to s

how

how

the

ir b

leat

ing

only

fol

low

s in

phi

- lo

soph

y th

e co

ncep

tions

of

the

aver

age

Ger

man

citi

zen,

to

indi

cate

how

th

e bo

astin

g of

the

se p

hilo

soph

ic e

xege

tes

sim

ply

mir

rors

the

wre

tche

d-

ness

of

actu

al c

ondi

tions

in

Ger

man

y. T

his

publ

icat

ion

aim

s to

deb

unk

and

disc

redi

t tha

t phi

loso

phic

str

uggl

e w

ith s

hado

ws

of r

ealit

y w

hich

so

appe

als t

o th

e dr

eam

y, d

row

sy G

erm

an p

eopl

e.

A c

leve

r fe

llow

onc

e go

t th

e id

ea t

hat

peop

le d

row

n be

caus

e th

ey a

re

poss

esse

d by

the

idea

of g

ravi

ty.

If t

hey

wou

ld g

et th

is n

otio

n ou

t of

thei

r he

ads

by s

eein

g it

as r

elig

ious

sup

erst

itio

n, th

ey w

ould

be

com

plet

ely

safe

fr

om a

ll da

nger

of

wat

er. F

or h

is e

ntir

e lif

e he

fou

ght a

gain

st th

e ill

usio

n of

gra

vity

whi

le a

ll st

atis

tics

gave

him

new

and

abu

ndan

t ev

iden

ce o

f it

s ha

rmfu

l ef

fect

s. T

hat

kind

of

fello

w i

s ty

pica

l of

the

new

rev

olut

iona

ry

philo

soph

ers i

n G

erm

any.

I. Fe

uerb

ach:

Opp

ositi

on o

f Mat

eria

listic

an

d Id

ealis

tic O

utlo

ok ["I

,, G

erm

an i

deol

ogis

ts s

ay t

hat

Ger

man

y ex

peri

ence

d an

unp

rece

dent

ed

revo

lutio

n du

ring

the

past

few

yea

rs. T

he

deco

mpo

sitio

n of

the

Heg

elia

n ph

iloso

phy

that

beg

an w

ith S

trau

ss d

evel

oped

int

o a

ferm

ent

of w

orld

- w

ide

prop

ortio

ns a

ffec

ting

all

"pow

ers

of t

he p

ast."

G

igan

tic e

mpi

res

grew

in

the

gene

ral

chao

s, o

nly

to d

eclin

e ag

ain.

Her

oes

emer

ged

mo-

m

enta

rily

, on

ly t

o be

hur

led

back

aga

in i

nto

obsc

urity

by

bold

er a

nd

mig

htie

r riv

als.

Th

e F

renc

h R

evol

utio

n w

as c

hild

's pl

ay i

n co

mpa

riso

n w

ith t

his

revo

lutio

n w

hich

dw

arfs

eve

n th

at o

f th

e 'D

iado

chi

[suc

cess

ors

of A

lexa

nder

the

Gre

at].

Pri

ncip

les

oust

ed o

ne a

noth

er w

ith u

npre

ce-

dent

ed s

peed

. Her

oes

of t

he m

ind

spee

dily

ove

rthr

ew o

ne a

noth

er, a

nd

in t

hree

yea

rs,

1842

-45,

mor

e of

the

pas

t w

as s

wep

t aw

ay i

n G

erm

any

than

in th

ree

cent

urie

s at

oth

er p

erio

ds.

All

this

is s

aid

to h

ave

happ

ened

in

the

real

m o

f pu

re th

ough

t. W

e ar

e ce

rtai

nly

deal

ing

with

an

inte

rest

ing

phen

omen

on:

the

rott

ing

away

of

abso

lute

Spi

rit.

Its

last

spa

rk h

avin

g fa

iled,

the

var

ious

com

po-

nent

s of

th

is c

aput

mor

tuum

beg

an t

o de

com

pose

, en

tere

d in

to n

ew

com

poun

ds, a

nd f

orm

ed n

ew s

ubst

ance

s. T

he

indu

stri

alis

ts o

f ph

iloso

- ph

y, h

avin

g liv

ed o

ff t

he e

xplo

itatio

n of

abs

olut

e Sp

irit

, th

en s

eize

d on

th

e co

mpo

unds

. E

ach

of t

hem

ret

aile

d hi

s sh

are

with

all

poss

ible

zea

l.

['Titl

e in

the

eld

er E

ngel

s's h

andw

ritin

g on

the

last

man

uscr

ipt p

age

of P

art I.]

The

Ger

man

Ideo

logy

10

5

Com

petit

ion

had

to a

rise

, an

d in

the

beg

inni

ng i

t w

as r

athe

r bo

urge

ois

and

trad

ition

al.

Lat

er w

hen

the

Ger

man

mar

ket

was

glu

tted

and

the

com

mod

ity c

ould

not

be

sold

on

the

wor

ld m

arke

t de

spite

all

effo

rts,

bu

sine

ss w

as s

poile

d in

typi

cally

Ger

man

fas

hion

by

mas

s pr

oduc

tion

or

pseu

do-p

rodu

ctio

n, b

y a

low

erin

g of

qua

lity,

adu

ltera

tion

of r

aw m

ate-

ria

ls,

fals

ific

atio

n of

lab

els,

fic

titio

us p

urch

ases

, bi

ll-jo

bbin

g, a

nd a

cre

dit

syst

em l

acki

ng a

ny r

eal

basi

s. T

he

com

petit

ion

turn

ed i

nto

bitt

er f

ight

- in

g, w

hich

is

now

int

erpr

eted

and

ext

olle

d as

a r

evol

utio

n of

wor

ld-

hist

oric

al si

gnif

ican

ce a

nd a

s pr

oduc

ing

the

mos

t tre

men

dous

res

ults

and

ac

hiev

emen

ts. I

f w

e ar

e to

rec

ogni

ze f

ully

this

phi

loso

phic

al c

harl

atan

ry

whi

ch a

wak

ens

even

in

the

brea

st o

f th

e ho

nest

Ger

man

citi

zen

a w

arm

fe

elin

g of

nat

iona

l pr

ide,

and

if

we

are

to p

oint

out

the

pet

tines

s, t

he

paro

chia

l na

rrow

-min

dedn

ess

of t

he e

ntir

e Y

oung

-Heg

elia

n m

ovem

ent,

and

part

icul

arly

the

tra

gico

mic

al c

ontr

ast

betw

een

the

actu

al a

ccom

- pl

ishm

ents

of

thes

e he

roes

and

the

illu

sion

s th

ey h

ave

abou

t th

eir

achi

evem

ents

, we

have

to

exam

ine

the

who

le s

pect

acle

fro

m a

sta

ndpo

int

outs

ide

of G

erm

any.

A. I

deol

ogy

in G

ener

al, P

artic

ular

ly G

erm

an Id

eolo

gy

Rig

ht u

p to

its

mos

t rec

ent e

ffor

ts, G

erm

an c

ritic

ism

nev

er le

ft th

e re

alm

of

phi

loso

phy.

Far

fro

m e

xam

inin

g it

s ge

nera

l ph

iloso

phic

pre

mis

es,

all

of i

ts i

nqui

ries

wer

e ba

sed

on o

ne p

hilo

soph

ical

sys

tem

, th

at o

f H

egel

. T

here

was

mys

tific

atio

n no

t on

ly i

n th

e an

swer

s bu

t al

so e

ven

in t

he

ques

tions

them

selv

es. T

his

depe

nden

ce o

n H

egel

is th

e re

ason

why

non

e of

the

se m

oder

n cr

itics

eve

n at

tem

pted

a c

ompr

ehen

sive

cri

ticis

m o

f th

e H

egel

ian

syst

em,

thou

gh e

ach

of t

hem

cla

imed

to

have

gon

e be

yond

H

egel

. The

ir p

olem

ics

agai

nst H

egel

and

aga

inst

one

ano

ther

are

rat

her

limite

d. E

ach

criti

c pi

cks

one

aspe

ct o

f th

e H

egel

ian

syst

em a

nd a

pplie

s it

to th

e en

tire

sys

tem

as

wel

l as

to t

he a

spec

ts c

hose

n by

oth

er c

ritic

s. I

n th

e be

ginn

ing

they

took

up

pure

and

unf

alsi

fied

Heg

elia

n ca

tego

ries

suc

h as

"Su

bsta

nce"

or

"Sel

f-co

nsci

ousn

ess.

" L

ater

they

des

ecra

ted

such

cat

- eg

orie

s by

giv

ing

them

mor

e m

unda

ne n

ames

suc

h as

"Sp

ecie

s,"

"the

U

niqu

e,"

"Man

," e

tc.

All

Ger

man

phi

loso

phic

al c

ritic

ism

from

Str

auss

to S

tirn

er is

con

fine

d to

cri

ticis

m o

f re

ligi

o~~

s conc

eptio

ns.

Th

e cr

itic

s pr

ocee

ded

from

rea

l re

ligio

n an

d ac

tual

theo

logy

. As

they

wen

t on

, the

y de

term

ined

in v

ario

us

way

s w

hat

cons

titut

es r

elig

ious

con

scio

usne

ss a

nd r

elig

ious

con

cept

ions

. T

heir

pro

gres

s co

nsis

ted

of

thei

r su

bsum

ing

the

alle

gedl

y do

min

ant

met

aphy

sica

l, po

litic

al,

juri

dica

l, m

oral

, an

d ot

her

conc

epts

und

er t

he

106

Wri

tings

on H

isto

rica

l Mat

eria

lism

clas

s of

rel

igio

us o

r th

eolo

gica

l con

cept

s. S

imila

rly, t

hey

decl

ared

pol

itica

l, ju

ridi

cal,

and

mor

al c

onsc

ious

ness

to

be r

elig

ious

or

theo

logi

cal

con-

sc

ious

ness

, and

the

pol

itica

l, ju

ridi

cal,

and

mor

al m

an,

"Man

" in

the

last

re

sort

, to

be

relig

ious

. T

hey

pres

uppo

sed

the

gove

rnan

ce o

f re

ligio

n.

Gra

dual

ly e

very

dom

inan

t rel

atio

nshi

p w

as h

eld

to b

e re

ligio

us a

nd m

ade

into

a c

ult,

such

as

the

cult

of l

aw, t

he c

ult

of s

tate

, et

c. E

vent

ually

ther

e w

as n

othi

ng b

ut d

ogm

as a

nd b

elie

f in

dog

mas

. Th

e w

orld

was

mor

e an

d m

ore

sanc

tifie

d un

til o

ur h

onor

able

Sai

nt M

ax [

Stir

ner]

was

abl

e to

sa

nctif

y it

en b

loc

and

dism

iss

it on

ce f

or a

ll.

The

Old

Heg

elia

ns h

ad c

ompr

ehen

ded

ever

ythi

ng o

nce

they

red

uced

it

to a

Heg

elia

n lo

gica

l cat

egor

y. T

he

You

ng H

egel

ians

cri

ticiz

ed e

very

thin

g by

im

putin

g re

ligio

us c

once

ptio

ns t

o it

or d

ecla

ring

eve

ryth

ing

to b

e th

eolo

gica

l. T

he

You

ng

Heg

elia

ns

are

in

agre

emen

t w

ith

the

Old

H

egel

ians

in b

elie

ving

in t

he g

over

nanc

e of

rel

igio

n, c

once

pts,

a u

nive

r-

sal p

rinc

iple

in t

he e

xist

ing

wor

ld. B

ut o

ne p

arty

atta

cks

this

gov

erna

nce

as u

surp

atio

n w

hile

the

othe

r pa

rty

prai

ses

it as

legi

timat

e.

Sinc

e th

e Y

oung

Heg

elia

ns r

egar

d co

ncep

ts,

thou

ghts

, id

eas,

and

all

prod

ucts

of

cons

ciou

snes

s, to

whi

ch t

hey

give

ind

epen

dent

exi

sten

ce, a

s ""

the

real

fet

ters

of

man

-whi

le

the

Old

Heg

elia

ns p

rono

unce

d th

em t

he

true

bon

ds o

f hu

man

soc

iety

-it

is o

bvio

us t

hat

the

You

ng H

egel

ians

ha

ve t

o fi

ght

only

aga

inst

the

illu

sion

s of

con

scio

usne

ss.

In t

he Y

oung

H

egel

ians

' fa

ntas

ies

the

rela

tions

hips

of

men

, al

l th

eir

actio

ns,

thei

r ch

ains

, and

thei

r lim

itatio

ns a

re p

rodu

cts

of t

heir

con

scio

usne

ss. C

onse

- qu

ently

they

giv

e m

en t

he m

oral

pos

tula

te o

f ex

chan

ging

the

ir p

rese

nt

cons

ciou

snes

s fo

r hu

man

, cr

itica

l or

ego

istic

con

scio

usne

ss t

o re

mov

e th

eir

limita

tions

. Thi

s am

ount

s to

a d

eman

d to

int

erpr

et w

hat

exis

ts in

a

diff

eren

t way

, th

at i

s, to

rec

ogni

ze i

t by

mea

ns o

f a

diff

eren

t in

terp

reta

- tio

n. T

he

You

ng-H

egel

ian

ideo

logi

sts

are

the

stau

nche

st c

onse

rvat

ives

, de

spite

the

ir a

llege

dly

"wor

ld-s

haki

ng"

stat

emen

ts.

Th

e m

ost

rece

nt

amon

g th

em h

ave

foun

d th

e co

rrec

t ex

pres

sion

for

thei

r do

ings

in

sayi

ng

they

are

fig

htin

g on

ly a

gain

st "

phra

ses."

The

y fo

rget

, ho

wev

er, t

hat

they

fi

ght t

hem

onl

y w

ith p

hras

es o

f th

eir

own.

In

no w

ay a

re th

ey a

ttack

ing

the

actu

al e

xist

ing

wor

ld;

they

mer

ely

atta

ck t

he p

hras

es o

f th

is w

orld

. T

he o

nly

resu

lts t

his

philo

soph

ic c

ritic

ism

cou

ld a

chie

ve w

ere

som

e el

ucid

atio

ns o

n C

hris

tiani

ty,

one-

side

d as

the

y ar

e, f

rom

the

poi

nt o

f vi

ew o

f re

ligio

us h

isto

ry.

All

thei

r ot

her

asse

rtio

ns a

re o

nly

furt

her

em-

belli

shm

ents

of

thei

r ba

sic

clai

m th

at th

ese

unim

port

ant

eluc

idat

ions

are

di

scov

erie

s of

wor

ld-h

isto

rica

l sig

nifi

canc

e.

Not

one

of

thes

e ph

iloso

pher

s ev

er t

houg

ht t

o lo

ok i

nto

the

conn

ec-

tion

betw

een

Ger

man

phi

loso

phy

and

Ger

man

rea

lity,

bet

wee

n th

eir

criti

cism

and

the

ir o

wn

mat

eria

l env

iron

men

t.

The G

erm

an Id

eolo

gy

107

I. I

deol

ogy

in G

ener

al,

Espe

cial

ly G

erm

an P

hilo

soph

y..l*

l ((W

e kn

ow o

nly

one

scie

nce,

the

scie

nce

of h

isto

ry. H

isto

ry c

an b

e vi

ewed

fro

m tw

o si

des:

it

can

be d

ivid

ed i

nto

the

hist

ory

of n

atur

e an

d th

at o

f m

an.

Th

e tw

o si

des,

how

ever

, are

not

to b

e se

en a

s in

depe

nden

t ent

ities

. As

long

as

man

ha

s ex

iste

d, n

atur

e an

d m

an h

ave

affe

cted

eac

h ot

her.

Th

e hi

stor

y of

na

ture

, so-

calle

d na

tura

l his

tory

, do

es n

ot c

once

rn u

s he

re a

t al

l. B

ut w

e w

ill h

ave

to d

iscu

ss th

e hi

stor

y of

man

, sin

ce a

lmos

t all

ideo

logy

am

ount

s to

eit

her

a di

stor

ted

inte

rpre

tatio

n of

thi

s hi

stor

y or

a c

ompl

ete

abst

rac-

tio

n fr

om it

. Ide

olog

y its

elf

is o

nly

one

of t

he s

ides

of

this

his

tory

.))

Th

e pr

emis

es f

rom

whi

ch w

e st

art

are

not

arbi

trar

y; t

hey

are

no

dogm

as b

ut r

athe

r ac

tual

pre

mis

es f

rom

whi

ch a

bstr

actio

n ca

n be

mad

e on

ly in

imag

inat

ion.

The

y ar

e th

e re

al in

divi

dual

s, th

eir

actio

ns, a

nd th

eir

mat

eria

l con

ditio

ns o

f lif

e, th

ose

whi

ch th

ey f

ind

exis

ting

as w

ell a

s th

ose

whi

ch t

hey

prod

uce

thro

ugh

thei

r ac

tions

. T

hese

pre

mis

es c

an b

e su

b-

stan

tiate

d in

a p

urel

y em

piri

cal w

ay

Th

e fi

rst p

rem

ise

of a

ll hu

man

his

tory

, of

cour

se,

is t

he e

xist

ence

of

livin

g hu

man

ind

ivid

uals

. ((

The

fir

st h

isto

rica

l ac

t of

the

se i

ndiv

idua

ls,

the

act b

y w

hich

they

dis

tingu

ish

them

selv

es fr

om a

nim

als

is n

ot th

e fa

ct

that

the

y th

ink

but

the

fact

tha

t th

ey b

egin

to

prod

uce

thei

r m

eans

of

subs

isten

ce.))

Th

e fi

rst f

act t

o be

est

ablis

hed,

then

, is

the

phys

ical

org

ani-

za

tion

of t

hese

indi

vidu

als

and

thei

r co

nseq

uent

rel

atio

nshi

p to

the

res

t of

nat

ure.

Of

cour

se, w

e ca

nnot

dis

cuss

her

e th

e ph

ysic

al n

atur

e of

man

or

th

e na

tura

l co

nditi

ons

in

whi

ch

man

fi

nds

him

self-

geol

ogic

al,

oroh

ydro

grap

hica

l, cl

imat

ic, a

nd o

ther

s. (

(The

se r

elat

ions

hips

aff

ect n

ot

only

the

ori

gina

l an

d na

tura

l or

gani

zatio

n of

men

, es

peci

ally

as

to r

ace,

bu

t al

so h

is e

ntir

e fu

rthe

r de

velo

pmen

t or

non-

deve

lopm

ent

up t

o th

e pr

esen

t.))

All

hist

orio

grap

hy m

ust

proc

eed

from

the

se n

atur

al b

ases

and

th

eir

mod

ific

atio

n in

the

cou

rse

of h

isto

ry t

hrou

gh t

he a

ctio

ns o

f m

en.

Man

can

be

dist

ingu

ishe

d fr

om t

he a

nim

al b

y co

nsci

ousn

ess,

rel

igio

n,

or a

nyth

ing

else

you

ple

ase.

He

begi

ns t

o di

stin

guis

h hi

mse

lf f

rom

the

an

imal

the

mom

ent h

e be

gins

to pr

oduc

e hi

s m

eans

of

subs

iste

nce,

a s

tep

requ

ired

by

his

phys

ical

org

aniz

atio

n. B

y pr

oduc

ing

food

, man

ind

irec

tly

prod

uces

his

mat

eria

l lif

e its

elf.

T

he

way

in

whi

ch m

an p

rodu

ces

his

food

dep

ends

fir

st o

f al

l on

the

na

ture

of

the

mea

ns o

f su

bsis

tenc

e th

at h

e fi

nds

and

has

to r

epro

duce

. T

his

mod

e of

pro

duct

ion

mus

t no

t be

vie

wed

sim

ply

as r

epro

duct

ion

of

the

phys

ical

exi

sten

ce o

f in

divi

dual

s. R

athe

r it

is a

def

inite

for

m o

f th

eir

activ

ity, a

def

inite

way

of

expr

essi

ng th

eir

life,

a d

efin

ite m

ode

of 1%

A

s

['Thi

s he

adin

g an

d su

bseq

uent

mat

eria

l with

in d

oubl

e pa

rent

hese

s cr

osse

d ou

t in

the

man

uscr

ipt.]

108

Wri

tittg

s on

His

tori

cal M

ater

ialis

m

indi

vidu

als

expr

ess

thei

r lif

e, s

o th

ey a

re. W

hat

they

are

, the

refo

re,

coin

- ci

des

with

wha

t th

ey p

rodu

ce,

with

wha

t th

ey p

rodu

ce

and

how

the

y nr

oduc

e. T

he

natu

re o

f in

divi

dual

s th

us d

epen

ds o

n th

e m

ater

ial c

ondi

- r---

tions

whi

ch d

eter

min

e th

eir

prod

uctio

n.

Thi

s pr

oduc

tion

begi

ns w

ith p

opul

atio

n gr

owth

whi

ch i

n tu

rn p

resu

p-

pose

s in

tera

ctio

n [V

erke

hr] a

mon

g in

divi

dual

s. T

he

form

of

such

int

erac

- tio

n is

aga

in d

eter

min

ed b

y pr

oduc

tion.

l"l

The

rel

atio

ns o

f va

riou

s na

tions

with

one

ano

ther

dep

end

upon

th

e ex

tent

to w

hich

eac

h of

the

m h

as d

evel

oped

its

prod

uctiv

e fo

rces

, the

di

visi

on o

f la

bor,

and

dom

estic

com

mer

ce.

Th

is p

ropo

sitio

n is

gen

eral

ly

acce

pted

. But

not

onl

y th

e re

latio

n of

one

nat

ion

to o

ther

s, b

ut a

lso

the

entir

e in

tern

al s

truc

ture

of

the

natio

n its

elf

depe

nds

on t

he s

tage

of

deve

lopm

ent

achi

eved

by

its p

rodu

ctio

n an

d it

s do

mes

tic a

nd i

nter

na-

tiona

l co

mm

erce

. How

far

the

pro

duct

ive

forc

es o

f a

natio

n ar

e de

vel-

oped

is s

how

n m

ost e

vide

ntly

by

the

degr

ee to

whi

ch t

he d

ivis

ion

of l

abor

ha

s be

en d

evel

oped

. Eac

h ne

w p

rodu

ctiv

e fo

rce,

inso

far

as it

is n

ot o

nly

a qu

antit

ativ

e ex

tens

ion

of p

rodu

ctiv

e fo

rces

alr

eady

kno

wn

(e.g

. cu

ltiva

tion

of l

and)

will

bri

ng a

bout

a f

urth

er d

evel

opm

ent o

f th

e di

visi

on o

f la

bor.

The

div

isio

n of

lab

or in

a n

atio

n le

ads

firs

t of

all t

o th

e se

para

tion

of

indu

stri

al-c

omm

erci

al la

bor

from

agr

icul

tura

l la

bor

and

cons

eque

ntly

to

the

sepa

ratio

n of

tow

n an

d co

uatr

y an

d to

a c

lash

of

thei

r in

tere

sts.

Its

fu

rthe

r de

velo

pmen

t lea

ds to

the

sep

arat

ion

of c

omm

erci

al f

rom

ind

us-

tria

l lab

or. A

t the

sam

e tim

e, w

ithin

thes

e va

riou

s bra

nche

s, th

ere

deve

lop

----.

-

thro

ugh

the

divi

sion

of

labo

r fu

rthe

r va

riou

s di

visi

ons

amon

g th

e in

di-

vidu

als

coop

erat

ing

in s

peci

fic

kind

s of

lab

or.

Th

e re

lativ

e . po

sitio

n -.

of

thes

e in

divi

dual

gro

ups

is d

eter

min

ed b

y th

e m

etho

ds e

mpl

oyed

in

agn-

-

- cu

ltura

l, in

dust

rial

, an

d co

mm

erci

al l

abor

(pa

tria

rcha

lism

, sl

aver

y, e

s-

tate

s, c

lass

es).

Th

e sa

me

cond

ition

s ca

n be

obs

erve

d in

the

rel

atio

ns o

f va

rious

nat

ions

if c

omm

erce

has

bee

n fu

rthe

r dev

elop

ed.

Th

e di

ffer

ent s

tage

s of

dev

elop

men

t in

the

divi

sion

of

labo

r are

just

so

man

y di

ffer

ent

form

s of

ow

ners

hip;

tha

t is

, th

e st

age

in t

he d

ivis

ion

of

labo

r als

o de

term

ines

the

rela

tions

of

indi

vidu

als

to o

ne a

noth

er s

o fa

r as

th

e m

ater

ial,

inst

rum

ent,

and

prod

uct

of l

abor

are

con

cern

ed.

The

fir

st fo

rm o

f ow

ners

hip

is t

riba

l ow

ners

hip.

It

corr

espo

nds

to th

e un

deve

lope

d st

age

of p

rodu

ctio

n w

here

peo

ple

live

by h

unti

ng a

nd f

ish-

in

g, b

y br

eedi

ng a

nim

als

or,

in t

he h

ighe

st s

tage

, by

agri

cultu

re.

Gre

at

area

s of

unc

ultiv

ated

land

are

req

uire

d in

the

latt

er c

ase.

Th

e di

visi

on o

f

('Bre

ak i

n m

anus

crip

t te

xt i

ndic

ated

by

tripl

e in

dent

atio

n of

first

lin

e of

the

follo

win

g pa

ragr

aph.

In

all

the

text

to

follo

w s

ome

long

par

agra

phs

have

bee

n di

vide

d to

fac

ilita

te r

eadi

ng,

but

in s

uch

case

s' th

e fir

st l

ines

of

the

new

par

a-

grap

hs h

ave

ordi

nary

inde

ntat

ions

.]

The

Ger

man

Ideology

109

labo

r at

this

sta

ge is

stil

l ver

y un

deve

lope

d an

d co

nfin

ed t

o ex

tend

ing

the

natu

ral d

ivis

ion

of l

abor

in th

e fa

mily

. Th

e so

cial

str

uctu

re th

us is

lim

ited

to a

n ex

tens

ion

of t

he f

amily

: pat

riar

chal

fam

ily c

hief

tain

s, b

elow

the

m

the

mem

bers

of

the

trib

e, f

inal

ly t

he s

lave

s. T

he

slav

ery

late

nt i

n th

e fa

mily

dev

elop

s on

ly g

radu

ally

with

the

inc

reas

e in

pop

ulat

ion,

the

in-

cr

ease

of

wan

ts, a

nd t

he e

xten

sion

of

exte

rnal

rel

atio

ns in

war

as

wel

l as

in

bar

ter.

T

he

seco

nd f

orm

is t

he a

ncie

nt c

omm

unal

and

sta

te o

wne

rshi

p w

hich

pr

ocee

ds e

spec

ially

fro

m t

he u

nion

of

seve

ral t

ribe

s in

to a

city

by

agre

e-

men

t or

by c

onqu

est;

this

for

m is

stil

l acc

ompa

nied

by

slave

ry. A

long

side

co

mm

unal

ow

ners

hip

ther

e al

read

y de

velo

ps m

ovab

le,

and

late

r ev

en

imm

ovab

le,

priv

ate

prop

erty

, bu

t as

an

abno

rmal

for

m s

ubor

dina

te t

o co

mm

unal

ow

ners

hip.

Th

e ci

tizen

s ho

ld p

ower

ove

r th

eir

labo

ring

sla

ves

only

in

com

mun

ity a

nd a

re t

here

fore

bou

nd t

o th

e fo

rm o

f co

mm

unal

ow

ners

hip.

Th

e co

mm

unal

pri

vate

pro

pert

y of

the

act

ive

citiz

ens

com

- pe

ls th

em to

rem

ain

in th

is n

atur

al f

orm

of

asso

ciat

ion

over

aga

inst

thei

r sla

ves.

Hen

ce t

he w

hole

soc

ial s

truc

ture

bas

ed o

n co

mm

unal

ow

ners

hip

and

with

it th

e po

wer

of

the

peop

le d

eclin

e as

imm

ovab

le p

riva

te p

rope

rty

deve

lops

. Th

e di

visi

on o

f la

bor i

s de

velo

ped

to a

larg

er e

xten

t. W

e al

read

y fin

d an

tago

nism

bet

wee

n to

wn

and

coun

try

and

late

r an

tago

nism

be-

tw

een

stat

es r

epre

sent

ing

urba

n in

tere

sts

and

thos

e re

pres

enti

ng r

ural

in

tere

sts.

With

in t

he c

ities

the

mse

lves

we

find

the

ant

agon

ism

bet

wee

n in

dust

ry a

nd m

ariti

me

com

mer

ce.

Th

e cl

ass

rela

tion

betw

een

citiz

ens

and

slav

es is

then

ful

ly d

evel

oped

. W

ith t

he d

evel

opm

ent

of p

riva

te p

rope

rty

we

enco

unte

r fo

r th

e fi

rst

time

thos

e co

nditi

ons

whi

ch w

e sh

all

find

aga

in w

ith m

oder

n pr

ivat

e pr

oper

ty, o

nly

on a

larg

er s

cale

. On

the

one

hand

, the

re is

the

conc

entr

a-

tion

of p

rivat

e pr

oper

ty w

hich

beg

an v

ery

early

in R

ome

(as p

rove

d by

the

L

icin

ian

agra

rian

law

) an

d pr

ocee

ded

very

rap

idly

fro

m t

he t

ime

of t

he*

civi

l war

s an

d pa

rtic

ular

ly u

nder

the

em

pero

rs.

On

the

othe

r ha

nd,

ther

e is

linke

d to

this

the

tran

sfor

mat

ion

of t

he p

lebe

ian

smal

l pea

sant

ry in

to a

pr

olet

aria

t tha

t ne

ver

achi

eved

an

inde

pend

ent

deve

lopm

ent b

ecau

se o

f its

inte

rmed

iate

pos

ition

bet

wee

n pr

oper

tied

citi

zens

and

sla

ves.

The

thi

rd f

orm

is

feud

al o

r es

tate

ow

ners

hip.

Ant

iqui

ty s

tart

ed o

ut

from

the

tow

n an

d th

e sm

all t

erri

tory

aro

und

it; th

e M

iddl

e A

ges

star

ted

out

from

the

cou

ntry

. T

his

diff

eren

t st

arti

ng-p

oint

was

cau

sed

by t

he

spar

se p

opul

atio

n at

tha

t tim

e, s

catt

ered

ove

r a

larg

e ar

ea a

nd r

ecei

ving

no

lar

ge p

opul

atio

n in

crea

se f

rom

the

con

quer

ors.

In

cont

rast

to G

reec

e an

d R

ome,

the

feu

dal

deve

lopm

ent b

egan

in

a m

uch

larg

er a

rea,

pre

- pa

red

by t

he R

oman

con

ques

ts a

nd t

he s

prea

ding

of

agri

cult

ure

initi

ally

co

nnec

ted

with

the

se c

onqu

ests

. T

he

last

cen

turi

es o

f th

e de

clin

ing

Rom

an

Em

pire

an

d its

con

ques

t by

th

e ba

rbar

ians

de

stro

yed

man

y

110

Wri

tings

on H

isto

rica

l Mat

eria

lism

prod

uctiv

e fo

rces

. Agr

icul

ture

had

dec

lined

, tr

ade

had

com

e to

a s

tand

- st

ill o

r ha

d be

en in

terr

upte

d by

for

ce, a

nd th

e ru

ral a

nd u

rban

pop

ulat

ion

had

decr

ease

d. T

hese

con

ditio

ns a

nd t

he m

ode

of o

rgan

izat

ion

of t

he

conq

uest

det

erm

ined

by

them

dev

elop

ed f

euda

l pro

pert

y un

der

the

infl

u-

ence

of

the

Ger

man

ic m

ilita

ry c

onst

itutio

n. L

ike

trib

al a

nd c

omm

unal

ow

ners

hip,

it i

s ba

sed

agai

n on

a c

omm

unity

. W

hile

the

sla

ves

stoo

d in

op

posi

tion

to th

e an

cien

t com

mun

ity, h

ere

the

serf

s as

the

dire

ct p

rodu

c-

ing

clas

s st

and

in o

ppos

ition

. A

s so

on a

s fe

udal

ism

is

fully

dev

elop

ed,

ther

e al

so e

mer

ges

anta

goni

sm to

the

tow

ns. T

he

hier

arch

ical

sys

tem

of

land

ow

ners

hip

and

the

arm

ed b

odie

s of

re

tain

ers

gave

the

nob

ility

po

wer

ove

r th

e se

rfs.

Lik

e th

e an

cien

t co

mm

unal

ow

ners

hip

this

feu

dal

orga

niza

tion

was

an

asso

ciat

ion

dire

cted

aga

inst

a s

ubje

cted

pro

duci

ng

clas

s. B

ut th

e fo

rm o

f as

soci

atio

n an

d th

e re

latio

n to

the

dir

ect p

rodu

cers

w

ere

diff

eren

t bec

ause

of

the

diff

eren

t con

diti

ons

of p

rodu

ctio

n.

Thi

s fe

udal

org

aniz

atio

n of

lan

d ow

ners

hip

had

its

coun

terp

art i

n th

e to

wns

in

the

form

of

corp

orat

e pr

oper

ty,

the

feud

al o

rgan

izat

ion

of t

he

trade

s. P

rope

rty

cons

iste

d m

ainl

y in

the

lab

or o

f ea

ch i

ndiv

idua

l. T

he

nece

ssity

for

ass

ocia

tion

agai

nst

the

orga

nize

d ro

bber

nob

ility

, the

nee

d w

fo

r co

mm

unal

mar

kets

in

an a

ge w

hen

the

indu

stri

alis

t w

as a

t th

e sa

me

time

a m

erch

ant,

the

grow

ing

com

petit

ion

of e

scap

ed s

erfs

pou

ring

int

o th

e ri

sing

citi

es, a

nd t

he f

euda

l st

ruct

ure

of t

he w

hole

cou

ntry

gav

e ri

se

to g

uild

s. T

he

grad

ually

acc

umul

ated

cap

ital o

f in

divi

dual

cra

ftsm

en a

nd

thei

r st

able

num

ber

in c

ompa

riso

n to

the

gro

win

g po

pula

tion

prod

uced

th

e re

latio

nshi

p of

jou

rney

man

and

app

rent

ice.

In

the

tow

ns, t

his

led

to a

hi

erar

chy

sim

ilar t

o th

at in

the

coun

try.

T

he m

ain

form

of

prop

erty

dur

ing

the

feud

al t

imes

con

sist

ed o

n th

e on

e ha

nd o

f la

nded

pro

pert

y w

ith s

erf

labo

r an

d on

the

oth

er h

and,

in

divi

dual

labo

r w

ith s

mal

l ca

pita

l co

ntro

llin

g th

e la

bor

of j

ourn

eym

en.

The

org

aniz

atio

n of

bot

h w

as d

eter

min

ed b

y th

e lim

ited

cond

ition

s of

pr

oduc

tion:

sm

all-

scal

e, p

rim

itive

cul

tivat

ion

of l

and

and

indu

stry

bas

ed

on c

raft

s. T

here

was

litt

le d

ivis

ion

of l

abor

whe

n fe

udal

ism

was

at

its

peak

. Eve

ry d

istr

ict

carr

ied

in it

self

the

ant

agon

ism

of

tow

n an

d co

untr

y.

Tho

ugh

divi

sion

int

o es

tate

s w

as s

tron

gly

mar

ked,

the

re w

as n

o di

visi

on

of i

mpo

rtan

ce a

part

fro

m t

he d

iffe

rent

iatio

n of

pri

nces

, no

bilit

y, c

lerg

y,

and

peas

ants

in

the

coun

try,

and

mas

ters

, jo

urne

ymen

, ap

pren

tices

, an

d so

on t

he m

ob o

f da

y la

bore

rs i

n th

e ci

ties.

Th

e st

rip-

syst

em h

inde

red

such

a d

ivis

ion

in a

gric

ultu

re;

cotta

ge i

ndus

try

of t

he p

easa

nts

them

- se

lves

em

erge

d; a

nd i

n in

dust

ry t

here

was

no

divi

sion

of

labo

r at

all

with

in p

artic

ular

tra

des,

and

ver

y lit

tle a

mon

g th

em.

Th

e se

para

tion

of

indu

stry

and

com

mer

ce o

ccur

red

in o

lder

tow

ns,

and

in n

ewer

tow

ns i

t de

velo

ped

late

r whe

n th

ey e

nter

ed in

to m

utua

l rel

atio

ns.

The G

erm

an Id

eolo

gy

111

Th

e m

erge

r of

lar

ger

terr

itor

ies

into

feu

dal k

ingd

oms

was

a n

eces

sity

fo

r th

e la

nded

nob

ility

as

wel

l as

for

the

citi

es.

Th

e or

gani

zatio

n of

the

ru

ling

clas

s, th

e no

bilit

y, h

ad a

mon

arch

at i

ts h

ead

in a

ll in

stan

ces.

T

he

fact

is,

the

n, t

hat

defi

nite

ind

ivid

uals

who

are

pro

duct

ivel

y ac

tive

in a

spe

cifi

c w

ay

ente

r in

to t

hese

def

inite

soc

ial

and

polit

ical

re

latio

ns.

In e

ach

part

icul

ar i

nsta

nce,

em

piri

cal

obse

rvat

ion

mus

t sh

ow

empi

rical

ly, w

ithou

t an

y m

ystif

icat

ion

or s

pecu

latio

n, t

he c

onne

ctio

n of

th

e so

cial

and

pol

itica

l st

ruct

ure

with

pro

duct

ion.

Th

e so

cial

str

uctu

re

and

the

stat

e co

ntin

ually

evo

lve

out

of t

he l

ife-

proc

ess

of d

efin

ite in

di-

vidu

als,

but

ind

ivid

uals

not

as

they

may

app

ear

in t

heir

ow

n or

oth

er

peop

le's

imag

inat

ion

but

rath

er a

s th

ey r

eally

are

, th

at i

s, as

the

y w

ork,

pr

oduc

e m

ater

ially

, an

d ac

t un

der

defi

nite

mat

eria

l lim

itatio

ns,

pres

up-

posi

tions

, and

con

ditio

ns in

depe

nden

t of

thei

r w

ill.

((T

he id

eas

whi

ch t

hese

ind

ivid

uals

for

m a

re i

deas

eit

her

abou

t th

eir

rela

tion

to n

atur

e, t

heir

mut

ual

rela

tions

, or

the

ir o

wn

natu

re.

It i

s ev

i- de

nt th

at in

all

thes

e ca

ses

thes

e id

eas

are

the

cons

ciou

s ex

pres

sion

-rea

l or

illu

sory

--of

the

ir a

ctua

l re

latio

nshi

ps a

nd a

ctiv

ities

, of

thei

r pr

oduc

- tio

n an

d co

mm

erce

, and

of

thei

r so

cial

and

pol

itica

l beh

avio

r. T

he

op-

posi

te a

ssum

ptio

n is

pos

sibl

e on

ly if

, in

addi

tion

to t

he s

piri

t of

the

actu

al

and

mat

eria

lly e

volv

ed i

ndiv

idua

ls, a

sep

arat

e sp

irit

is p

resu

ppos

ed. I

f th

e co

nsci

ous

expr

essi

on o

f th

e ac

tual

rel

atio

ns o

f th

ese

indi

vidu

als

is i

l-

luso

ry, i

f in

thei

r im

agin

atio

n th

ey t

urn

real

ity u

psid

e do

wn,

thi

s in

tur

n is

a r

esul

t of

the

ir l

imite

d m

ode

of a

ctiv

ity a

nd t

heir

lim

ited

soci

al

rela

tions

ari

sing

from

it.))

T

he p

rodu

ctio

n of

ide

as,

of c

once

ptio

ns,

of c

onsc

ious

ness

is

dire

ctly

in

terw

oven

with

the

mat

eria

l ac

tivity

and

the

mat

eria

l re

latio

nshi

ps o

f m

en;

it is

the

lan

guag

e of

act

ual

life.

Con

ceiv

ing,

thi

nkin

g, a

nd t

he

inte

llect

ual r

elat

ions

hips

of

men

app

ear

here

as

the

dire

ct r

esul

t of

the

ir

mat

eria

l beh

avio

r. T

he

sam

e ap

plie

s to

int

elle

ctua

l pr

oduc

tion

as

man

- ife

sted

in

a pe

ople

's la

ngua

ge o

f po

litic

s, l

aw,

mor

ality

, re

ligio

n, m

eta-

ph

ysic

s, et

c. M

en a

re t

he p

rodu

cers

of

thei

r co

ncep

tions

, ide

as, e

tc.,

but

thes

e ar

e re

al, a

ctiv

e m

en,

as th

ey a

re c

ondi

tione

d by

a d

efin

ite' d

evel

op-

men

t of

thei

r pr

oduc

tive

forc

es a

nd o

f th

e re

latio

nshi

ps c

orre

spon

ding

to

thes

e up

to

thei

r hi

ghes

t fo

rms.

Con

scio

usne

ss c

an n

ever

be

anyt

hing

el

se e

xcep

t con

scio

us e

xist

ence

, and

the

exi

sten

ce o

f m

en is

the

ir a

ctua

l lif

e-pr

oces

s. I

f m

en a

nd t

heir

cir

cum

stan

ces

appe

ar u

psid

e do

wn

in a

ll id

eolo

gy a

s in

a c

amer

a ob

scur

a, t

his

phen

omen

on i

s ca

used

by

thei

r hi

stor

ical

lif

e-pr

oces

s, j

ust

as t

he i

nver

sion

of

obje

cts

on t

he r

etin

a is

ca

used

by

thei

r im

med

iate

phy

sica

l life

. In

dir

ect c

ontr

ast t

o G

erm

an p

hilo

soph

y, w

hich

des

cend

s fr

om h

eave

n to

ear

th, h

ere

one

asce

nds

from

ear

th to

hea

ven.

In

othe

r wor

ds, t

o ar

rive

112

Wri

tings

on H

isto

rica

l Mat

eria

lism

at m

an i

n th

e fl

esh,

one

doe

s no

t se

t out

fro

m w

hat

men

say

, im

agin

e, o

r co

ncei

ve, n

or f

rom

man

as

he i

s de

scri

bed,

tho

ught

abo

ut,

imag

ined

, or

co

ncei

ved.

Rat

her

one

sets

out

fro

m r

eal,

activ

e m

en a

nd t

heir

act

ual

life-

proc

ess

and

dem

onst

rate

s th

e de

velo

pmen

t of

id

eolo

gica

l re

flex

es

and

echo

es o

f th

at p

roce

ss.

Th

e ph

anto

ms

form

ed i

n th

e hu

man

bra

in,

too,

are

nec

essa

ry s

ublim

atio

ns o

f m

an's

mat

eria

l lif

e-pr

oces

s w

hich

is

empi

rica

lly v

erifi

able

and

con

nect

ed w

ith m

ater

ial

prem

ises

. M

oral

ity,

relig

ion,

met

aphy

sics

, and

all

the

rest

of

ideo

logy

and

the

ir c

orre

spon

d-

ing

form

s of

con

scio

usne

ss n

o lo

nger

see

m to

be

inde

pend

ent.

The

y ha

ve

no h

isto

ry o

r de

velo

pmen

t. R

athe

r, m

en w

ho d

evel

op th

eir

mat

eria

l pr

o-

duct

ion

and

thei

r m

ater

ial

rela

tions

hips

alt

er t

heir

thi

nkin

g an

d th

e pr

oduc

ts o

f th

eir

thin

king

alo

ng w

ith th

eir

real

exi

sten

ce. C

onsc

ious

ness

do

es n

ot d

eter

min

e lif

e, b

ut l

ife

dete

rmin

es c

onsc

ious

ness

. In

the

fir

st

view

the

sta

rtin

g po

int

is c

onsc

ious

ness

tak

en a

s a

livin

g in

divi

dual

; in

the

seco

nd it

is th

e re

al l

ivin

g in

divi

dual

s th

emse

lves

as

they

exi

st in

rea

l lif

e, a

nd c

onsc

ious

ness

is c

onsi

dere

d on

ly a

s th

eir

cons

ciou

snes

s.

Thi

s vi

ew i

s no

t de

void

of

prem

ises

. It

pro

ceed

s fr

om r

eal

prem

ises

an

d do

es n

ot a

band

on th

em f

or a

mom

ent.

The

se p

rem

ises

are

men

, not

in

any

fan

tast

ic is

olat

ion

and

fixa

tion,

but

in

thei

r re

al,

empi

rica

lly p

er-

cept

ible

pro

cess

of

deve

lopm

ent

unde

r ce

rtai

n co

nditi

ons.

Whe

n th

is

activ

e lif

e-pr

oces

s is

pre

sent

ed,

hist

ory

ceas

es to

be

a co

llect

ion

of d

ead

fact

s as

it i

s w

ith t

he e

mpi

rici

sts

who

are

them

selv

es s

till

abst

ract

, or

an

imag

ined

act

ivity

of

imag

ined

sub

ject

s, a

s w

ith t

he id

ealis

ts.

Whe

re s

pecu

latio

n en

ds,

nam

ely

in a

ctua

l lif

e, t

here

rea

l, po

sitiv

e sc

ienc

e be

gins

as

the

repr

esen

tatio

n of

the

pra

ctic

al a

ctiv

ity a

nd p

ract

ical

pr

oces

s of

the

dev

elop

men

t of

men

. Ph

rase

s ab

out

cons

ciou

snes

s ce

ase

and

real

kno

wle

dge

take

s th

eir

plac

e. W

ith

the

desc

ript

ion

of r

ealit

y,

inde

pend

ent

philo

soph

y lo

ses

its m

ediu

m o

f ex

iste

nce.

At

best

, a

sum

- m

ary

of t

he m

ost

gene

ral

resu

lts,

abst

ract

ions

der

ived

fro

m o

bser

vatio

n of

the

his

tori

cal

deve

lopm

ent

of m

en,

can

take

its

pla

ce.

Apa

rt f

rom

ac

tual

his

tory

, the

se a

bstr

actio

ns h

ave

in th

emse

lves

no

valu

e w

hats

oeve

r. T

hey

can

only

ser

ve t

o fa

cilit

ate

the

arra

ngem

ent

of h

isto

rica

l m

ater

ial

and

to in

dica

te th

e se

quen

ce o

f its

par

ticu

lar

stra

ta. B

y no

mea

ns d

o th

ey

give

us

a re

cipe

or

sche

ma,

as

philo

soph

y do

es,

for

trim

min

g th

e ep

ochs

of

his

tory

. On

the

cont

rary

, the

dif

ficu

lties

beg

in o

nly

whe

n w

e st

art t

he

obse

rvat

ion

and

arra

ngem

ent

of

the

mat

eria

l, th

e re

al

desc

ript

ion,

w

heth

er o

f a

past

epo

ch o

r of

the

pre

sent

. T

he

rem

oval

of

thes

e di

ffi-

cu

lties

is g

over

ned

by p

rem

ises

we

cann

ot s

tate

her

e. O

nly

the

stud

y of

th

e re

al li

fe-p

roce

ss a

nd th

e ac

tivity

of

the

indi

vidu

als

of a

ny g

iven

epo

ch

will

yie

ld t

hem

. We

shal

l se

lect

her

e so

me

of t

hese

abs

trac

tions

whi

ch

we

use

in o

ppos

ing

ideo

logy

, an

d w

e sh

all

illus

trat

e th

em b

y hi

stor

ical

ex

ampl

es.

The

Ger

man

Ideo

logy

11

3

((F

euer

bach

))~"

l [ . .

. (a

t le

ast

two

man

uscr

ipt

page

s m

issi

ng)]

in

real

ity a

nd f

or t

he p

ract

ical

m

ater

ialis

t, th

at i

s, t

he c

omm

unis

t, it

is a

qu

estio

n of

rev

olut

ioni

zing

the

wor

ld a

s it

is,

of p

ract

ical

ly ta

cklin

g an

d ch

angi

ng e

xist

ing

thin

gs.

Tho

ugh

we

som

etim

es f

ind

such

vie

ws

with

Fe

uerb

ach,

they

nev

er g

o be

yond

iso

late

d su

rmis

es a

nd h

ave

muc

h to

o lit

tle in

flue

nce

on h

is g

ener

al o

utlo

ok to

be

cons

ider

ed h

ere

as a

nyth

ing

but

embr

yos

capa

ble

of d

evel

opm

ent.

Feue

rbac

h's

"con

cept

ion"

of

the

se

nsuo

us w

orld

is

conf

ined

to m

ere

perc

eptio

n w

nsch

auun

g] o

f it

on th

e on

e ha

nd a

nd to

mer

e se

nsat

ion

[Em

pjnd

ung]

on th

e ot

her.

He

spea

ks o

f "M

an"

inst

ead

of "

real

his

tori

cal

men

."

"Man

" is

act

ually

"th

e G

er-

man

." In

the

fir

st c

ase,

in

the

perc

eptio

n of

th

e se

nsuo

us w

orld

, he

ne

cess

arily

enc

ount

ers

thin

gs w

hich

con

trad

ict

his

cons

ciou

snes

s an

d fe

elin

g an

d di

stur

b th

e ha

rmon

y he

pre

supp

oses

of

all

part

s of

the

se

nsuo

us w

orld

and

esp

ecia

lly o

f m

an w

ith n

atur

e. (

Feue

rbac

h's

mis

take

is

not

that

he

subo

rdin

ates

the

flatly

obv

ious

, the

sen

suou

s ap

pear

ance

, to

the

sens

uous

rea

lity

esta

blis

hed

by c

lose

r ex

amin

atio

n of

the

sen

suou

s fa

cts,

but

tha

t he

can

not,

afte

r al

l, co

pe w

ith s

ensu

ousn

ess

exce

pt b

y lo

okin

g at

it

with

the

"ey

es,"

that

is,

thr

ough

the

"ey

egla

sses

" of

the

ph

iloso

pher

.)["l

To

rem

ove

this

dis

turb

ance

, he

mus

t ta

ke r

efug

e in

a d

ual

perc

eptio

n: a

pro

fane

one

whi

ch a

ppre

hend

s on

ly t

he "

flatly

ob

viou

s"

and

a hi

gher

, ph

iloso

phic

al o

ne w

hich

get

s at

the

"tr

ue

esse

nce"

of

thin

gs. H

e do

es n

ot s

ee th

at t

he w

orld

sur

roun

ding

him

is

not s

omet

hing

di

rect

ly g

iven

and

the

sam

e fr

om a

ll et

erni

ty b

ut t

he p

rodu

ct o

f in

dust

ry

and

of t

he s

tate

of

soci

ety

in t

he s

ense

that

it is

a h

isto

rica

l pro

duct

, th

e re

sult

of t

he a

ctiv

ity o

f a

who

le s

ucce

ssio

n of

gen

erat

ions

, ea

ch s

tand

ing

on t

he s

houl

ders

of

the

prec

edin

g on

e, d

evel

opin

g fu

rthe

r its

ind

ustr

y an

d co

mm

erce

, an

d m

odif

ying

its

soc

ial

orde

r ac

cord

ing

to c

hang

ed

need

s. E

ven

the

obje

cts

of t

he s

impl

est "

sens

uous

cer

tain

ty"

are

give

n to

hi

m o

nly

thro

ugh

soci

al d

evel

opm

ent,

indu

stry

, and

com

mer

cial

rel

atio

n- -

ship

s. T

he

cher

ry t

ree,

lik

e al

mos

t al

l fr

uit

tree

s, w

as t

rans

plan

ted

into

ou

r zo

ne b

y co

mm

erce

onl

y a

few

cen

turi

es a

go, a

s w

e kn

ow,

and

only

by

this

act

ion

of a

par

ticul

ar s

ocie

ty i

n a

part

icul

ar t

ime

has

it be

com

e "s

ensu

ous

cert

aint

y" f

or F

euer

bach

. In

cide

ntal

ly, w

hen

we

conc

eive

thin

gs a

s th

ey r

eally

are

and

hap

pene

d,

any

prof

ound

phi

loso

phic

al p

robl

em i

s re

solv

ed q

uite

sim

ply

into

an

['Dou

ble

poin

ted

brac

kets

for

adja

cent

add

enda

in

Mar

x's h

andw

ritin

g in

the

rig

ht c

olum

n of

the

man

uscr

ipt p

age.

Eac

h m

anus

crip

t pag

e is

halv

ed le

ngth

wise

in

to tw

o co

lum

ns, t

he le

ft fil

led

with

mos

t of

the

text

in E

ngel

s's s

crip

t-he

wro

te

mor

e sm

ooth

ly an

d qu

ickl

y th

an M

arx-

from

jo

int d

icta

tion.

] j'S

ingl

e po

inte

d br

acke

ts fo

r ad

jace

nt a

dden

da i

n En

gels'

s w

ritin

g in

the

rig

ht

colu

mn

of t

he m

anus

crip

t pag

e.]

114

Wri

tings

on H

isto

rica

l Mat

eria

lisna

Th

e Ger

man

Ideo

logy

11

5

fact

, as

will

be

seen

eve

n m

ore

clea

rly

belo

w. F

or e

xam

ple,

the

mad

e th

em w

hat

they

are

. H

e ne

ver

arri

ves

at t

he r

eally

exi

stin

g ac

tive

impo

rtan

t que

stio

n of

the

rel

atio

n of

man

to n

atur

e (B

runo

[B

auer

l eve

n m

en,

but

stop

s at

the

abs

trac

tion

"Man

" an

d ge

ts o

nly

to t

he p

oint

of

goes

so

far

as t

o sp

eak

of t

he "

antit

hese

s in

nat

ure

and

hist

ory"

as

if re

cogn

izin

g th

e "t

rue,

ind

ivid

ual,

corp

orea

l m

an"

emot

iona

lly, t

hat

is, h

e th

ese

wer

e tw

o se

para

te "

thin

gs"

and

man

did

not

alw

ays

have

bef

ore

know

s no

oth

er "

hum

an r

elat

ions

hips

" "o

f m

an t

o m

an"

than

love

and

hi

m a

his

tori

cal n

atur

e an

d a

natu

ral

hist

ory)

fro

m w

hich

all

the

"un-

fr

iend

ship

, an

d th

ese

idea

lized

. H

e gi

ves

no c

ritic

ism

of

the

pres

ent

fath

omab

ly lo

fty

wor

ks"

on "

Subs

tanc

e" a

nd "

Self

-con

scio

usne

ss"

wer

e co

nditi

ons

of l

ife.

He

neve

r m

anag

es to

vie

w t

he s

ensu

ous

wor

ld a

s th

e bo

rn,

colla

pses

whe

n w

e un

ders

tand

tha

t th

e ce

lebr

ated

"un

ity o

f m

an

tota

l liv

ing

sens

uous

act

ivity

of

the

indi

vidu

als

com

posi

ng i

t. W

hen

he

with

nat

ure"

has

alw

ays

exis

ted

in i

ndus

try

in v

aryi

ng f

orm

s in

eve

ry

sees

, for

exa

mpl

e, a

cro

wd

of s

crof

ulou

s, o

ver-

wor

ked,

and

con

sum

ptiv

e ep

och

acco

rdin

g to

the

les

ser

or g

reat

er d

evel

opm

ent

of i

ndus

try,

jus

t w

retc

hes

inst

ead

of h

ealth

y m

en,

he i

s co

mpe

lled

to t

ake

refu

ge i

n th

e lik

e th

e "s

trug

gle"

of

man

with

nat

ure,

rig

ht u

p to

the

dev

elop

men

t of

"hig

her

perc

eptio

n" a

nd "

idea

l co

mpe

nsat

ion

in t

he s

peci

es."

Thu

s he

hi

s pr

oduc

tive

forc

es o

n a

corr

espo

ndin

g ba

sis.

Ind

ustr

y an

d co

mm

erce

, re

laps

es in

to id

ealis

m a

t the

ver

y po

int

whe

re t

he c

omm

unis

tic m

ater

ial-

pr

oduc

tion

and

the

exch

ange

of

the

nece

ssiti

es o

f lif

e, d

eter

min

e di

s-

ist s

ees

the

nece

ssity

and

at t

he s

ame

time

the

cond

ition

of

tran

sfor

min

g tr

ibut

ion

and

the

stru

ctur

e of

the

var

ious

soc

ial

clas

ses,

and

are

in

turn

in

dust

ry a

s wel

l as

the

soci

al s

truc

ture

. de

term

ined

as

to t

he m

ode

in w

hich

the

y ar

e ca

rrie

d on

. A

nd s

o it

As

far

as F

euer

bach

is

a m

ater

ialis

t he

does

not

dea

l with

his

tory

, and

ha

ppen

s th

at i

n M

anch

este

r, f

or i

nsta

nce,

Feu

erba

ch s

ees

only

fac

tori

es

as f

ar a

s he

dea

ls w

ith h

isto

ry h

e is

not

a m

ater

ialis

t. M

ater

ialis

m a

nd

and

mac

hine

s, w

here

a h

undr

ed y

ears

ago

onl

y sp

inni

ng w

heel

s an

d hi

stor

y co

mpl

etel

y di

verg

e w

ith h

im,

a fa

ct w

hich

sho

uld

alre

ady

be

wea

ving

loom

s co

uld

be s

een,

or

in t

he C

ampa

gna

di R

oma

he d

isco

vers

ob

viou

s fro

m w

hat h

as b

een

said

. on

ly p

astu

re a

nd s

wam

ps, w

here

in

the

tim

e of

Aug

ustu

s he

wou

ld h

ave

foun

d no

thin

g bu

t the

vin

eyar

ds an

d vi

llas

of R

oman

cap

italis

ts.

((H

isto

ry))

In d

ealin

g w

ith G

erm

ans

devo

id o

f pr

emis

es,

we

mus

t be

gin

4

Feue

rbac

h sp

eaks

in p

artic

ular

of

the

view

poin

t of

natu

ral

scie

nce.

He

by

stat

ing

the

firs

t pr

emis

e of

all

hum

an e

xist

ence

, an

d he

nce

of a

ll m

entio

ns s

ecre

ts d

iscl

osed

onl

y to

the

eye

of

the

phys

icis

t an

d ch

emis

t. hi

stor

y, th

e pr

emis

e, n

amel

y, t

hat m

en m

ust

be a

ble

to li

ve i

n or

der

to b

e B

ut w

here

wou

ld n

atur

al s

cien

ce b

e w

ithou

t in

dust

ry a

nd c

omm

erce

? ab

le "

to m

ake

histo

ry."

((Heg

el.

Geo

logi

cal,

hydr

ogra

phic

al, e

tc.,

cond

i-

Eve

n th

is "

pure

v na

tura

l sc

ienc

e re

ceiv

es i

ts a

im, l

ike

its m

ater

ial,

only

tio

ns. H

uman

bod

ies.

Nee

ds, l

abor

.)) B

ut li

fe in

volv

es a

bove

all

eatin

g an

d th

roug

h co

mm

erce

and

ind

ustr

y, t

hrou

gh t

he s

ensu

ous

activ

ity o

f m

en.

drin

king

, she

lter,

clo

thin

g, a

nd m

any

othe

r th

ings

. Th

e fi

rst h

isto

rica

l act

So

muc

h is

thi

s ac

tivity

, thi

s co

ntin

uous

sen

suou

s w

orki

ng a

nd c

reat

ing,

is

thus

the

prod

uctio

n of

the

mea

ns to

sat

isfy

thes

e ne

eds,

the

prod

uctio

n th

is p

rodu

ctio

n, t

he b

asis

of

the

who

le s

ensu

ous

wor

ld a

s it

now

exi

sts,

of

mat

eria

l lif

e its

elf.

Thi

s is

a h

isto

rica

l ac

t, a

fund

amen

tal c

ondi

tion

of

that

, wer

e it

inte

rrup

ted

for

only

a y

ear,

Feue

rbac

h w

ould

fin

d no

t on

ly a

al

l hi

stor

y w

hich

mus

t be

ful

fille

d in

ord

er t

o su

stai

n hu

man

lif

e ev

ery

trem

endo

us c

hang

e in

the

nat

ural

wor

ld b

ut a

lso

wou

ld s

oon

find

mis

s-

day

and

ever

y ho

ur, t

oday

as

wel

l as

thou

sand

s of

yea

rs a

go.

Eve

n w

hen

ing

the

entir

e w

orld

of

men

and

his

ow

n pe

rcep

tual

fac

ulty

, eve

n hi

s ow

n se

nsuo

usne

ss is

red

uced

to

a m

inim

um,

to a

stic

k as

with

Sai

nt B

rund

ex

iste

nce.

Of

cour

se, t

he p

rior

ity o

f ex

tern

al n

atur

e re

mai

ns, a

nd a

ll th

is

[Bau

er],

it Pr

esup

pose

s th

e ac

tivity

of

prod

ucin

g th

e st

ick.

Th

e fi

rst

has

no a

pplic

atio

n to

the

ori

gina

l m

en ~

rod

uce

d by

gen

erat

io a

equi

voca

pr

inci

ple

ther

efor

e in

any

theo

ry o

f hi

stor

y is

to o

bser

ve th

is f

unda

men

- [s

pont

aneo

us g

ener

atio

n]. B

ut th

is d

iffe

rent

iati

on h

as m

eani

ng o

nly

inso

- ta

l fac

t in

its e

ntir

e si

gnif

ican

ce a

nd a

ll it

s im

plic

atio

ns a

nd to

att

ribu

te to

fa

r as

man

is

cons

ider

ed d

isti

nct

from

nat

ure.

And

aft

er a

ll, t

he k

ind

of

this

fac

t its

due

im

port

ance

. T

he

Ger

man

s ha

ve n

ever

don

e th

is,

as w

e na

ture

tha

t pre

cede

d hu

man

his

tory

is

by n

o m

eans

the

nat

ure

in w

hich

al

l kno

w,

so th

ey h

ave

neve

r ha

d an

ear

thly

bas

is f

or h

isto

ry a

nd c

onse

- Fe

uerb

ach

lives

, th

e na

ture

whi

ch n

o lo

nger

exi

sts

anyw

here

, ex

cept

qu

ently

hav

e ne

ver

had

a hi

stor

ian.

Tho

ugh

the

Fre

nch

and

the

Eng

lish

perh

aps

on a

few

Aus

tral

ian

cora

l is

land

s of

rec

ent

orig

in,

and

whi

ch

gras

ped

the

conn

ectio

n of

thi

s fa

ct w

ith s

o-ca

lled

hist

ory

only

in

an

does

not

exi

st fo

r Feu

erba

ch e

ither

. ex

trem

ely

one-

side

d w

ay,

part

icul

arly

so

long

as

they

wer

e in

volv

ed i

n Fe

uerb

ach

adm

itted

ly h

as a

gre

at a

dvan

tage

ove

r th

e "p

ure"

mat

eria

l-

polit

ical

ideo

logy

, the

y ne

vert

hele

ss m

ade

the

firs

t att

empt

s to

giv

e hi

sto-

is

ts b

ecau

se h

e re

aliz

es t

hat

man

too

is

"sen

suou

s ob

ject

"; b

ut h

e se

es

riogr

aphy

a m

ater

ialis

tic b

asis

by

wri

ting

hist

orie

s of

civ

il so

ciet

y, c

orn-

m

an o

nly

as "

sens

uous

obj

ect,"

no

t as

"se

nsuo

us a

ctiv

ity,"

bec

ause

he

mer

ce, a

nd in

dust

ry.

rem

ains

in

the

real

m o

f th

eory

and

doe

s no

t vi

ew m

en i

n th

eir

give

n T

he

seco

nd p

oint

is

that

onc

e a

need

is

satis

fied

, whi

ch r

equi

res

the

soci

al c

onne

ctio

n, n

ot u

nder

the

ir e

xist

ing

cond

ition

s of

lif

e w

hich

hav

e ac

tion

of

satis

fyin

g an

d th

e ac

quis

ition

of

the

inst

rum

ent

for

this

116

Writ

irjgs

on H

isto

rica

l Mat

eria

lism

purp

ose,

new

nee

ds a

rise

. T

he

prod

ucti

on o

f ne

w n

eeds

is

the

firs

t hi

stor

ical

ac

t. H

ere

we

see

imm

edia

tely

whe

re

the

grea

t hi

stor

ical

- -

. - . . -

wis

dom

of

the

Ger

man

s co

mes

fro

m.

Whe

n th

ey r

un o

ut o

f po

sitiv

e m

ater

ial

and

are

not

deal

ing

with

the

olog

ical

, pol

itica

l, or

lite

rary

non

- se

nse,

the

y do

not

thi

nk o

f hi

stor

y at

all

but

of "

preh

isto

ric

times

,"

with

out e

xpla

inin

g ho

w w

e ca

n ge

t fro

m t

he n

onse

nse

of "

preh

isto

ry"

to

hist

ory

prop

er. W

ith t

heir

his

tori

cal s

pecu

latio

n, o

n th

e ot

her

hand

, th

ey

seiz

e up

on "

preh

isto

ry"

beca

use

they

bel

ieve

tha

t th

ere

they

are

saf

e fr

om i

nter

fere

nce

by "

crud

e fa

cts"

and

can

giv

e fu

ll re

in t

o th

eir

spec

- ul

ativ

e im

puls

es t

o es

tabl

ish

and

tear

dow

n hy

poth

eses

by

the

thou

sand

. T

he

thir

d ci

rcum

stan

ce e

nter

ing

into

his

tori

cal

deve

lopm

ent f

rom

the

ve

ry b

egin

ning

is

the

fact

tha

t m

en w

ho d

aily

rem

ake

thei

r ow

n liv

es

begi

n to

mak

e ot

her

men

, be

gin

to p

ropa

gate

: th

e re

latio

n be

twee

n hu

s-

band

and

wife

, par

ents

and

chi

ldre

n, t

hefi

mil

y. T

he

fam

ily, i

nitia

lly th

e on

ly s

ocia

l rel

atio

nshi

p, b

ecom

es l

ater

a s

ubor

dina

te r

elat

ions

hip

(exc

ept

in G

erm

any)

whe

n in

crea

sed

need

s pr

oduc

e ne

w s

ocia

l rel

atio

ns a

nd a

n in

crea

sed

popu

latio

n cr

eate

s ne

w n

eeds

. It

mus

t th

en b

e tr

eate

d an

d de

velo

ped

in a

ccor

danc

e w

ith th

e ex

istin

g em

piri

cal

data

- an

d no

t acc

ord-

--

in

~

to t

he "

conc

ept

of t

he f

amily

" as

is

cust

omar

y in

Ger

man

y.

. --

'l'he

se

thre

e as

pect

s of

soc

ial

activ

ity a

re n

ot t

o be

tak

en a

s th

ree

diff

eren

t "

stag

es, b

ut ju

st f

or w

hat t

hey

are,

thr

ee a

spec

ts. T

o m

ake

it cl

ear

for

the

Ger

man

s w

e m

ight

cal

l th

em t

hree

"m

omen

ts"

whi

ch h

ave

exis

ted

si-

mul

tane

ousl

y ev

er s

ince

the

daw

n of

his

tory

and

the

fir

st m

en a

nd s

till

exis

t tod

ay.

Th

e pr

oduc

tion

of l

ife,

of

one's

ow

n lif

e in

lab

or a

nd o

f an

othe

r in

pr

ocre

atio

n, n

ow a

ppea

rs a

s a

doub

le r

elat

ions

hip:

on

the

one

hand

as

a na

tura

l re

latio

nshi

p, o

n th

e ot

her

as a

soc

ial o

ne.

Th

e la

tter

is

soci

al in

th

e se

nse

that

indi

vidu

als c

oope

rate

, no

mat

ter

unde

r w

hat c

ondi

tions

, in

wha

t m

anne

r, a

nd f

or w

hat

purp

ose.

Con

sequ

entl

y a

cert

ain

mod

e of

pr

oduc

tion

or in

dust

rial

sta

ge is

alw

ays

com

bine

d w

ith a

cer

tain

mod

e of

co

oper

atio

n or

soc

ial

stag

e, a

nd t

his

mod

e of

co

oper

atio

n is

its

elf

a "p

rodu

ctiv

e fo

rce.

" W

e ob

serv

e in

add

ition

tha

t the

mul

titud

e of

pro

duc-

tiv

e fo

rces

acc

essi

ble

to m

en d

eter

min

es t

he n

atur

e of

soc

iety

and

tha

t th

e "h

isto

ry o

f m

anki

nd"

mus

t al

way

s be

stu

died

and

tre

ated

in

rela

tion

to th

e hi

stor

y of

ind

ustr

y an

d ex

chan

ge. I

t is

also

cle

ar, h

owev

er, w

hy i

t is

impo

ssib

le in

Ger

man

y to

wri

te s

uch

a hi

stor

y. T

he

Ger

man

s la

ck n

ot

only

the

pow

er o

f co

mpr

ehen

sion

req

uire

d an

d th

e m

ater

ial

but

also

"s

ensu

ous

certa

inty

." O

n th

e ot

her

side

of

the

Rhi

ne p

eopl

e ca

nnot

hav

e an

y ex

peri

ence

of

thes

e m

atte

rs b

ecau

se h

isto

ry h

as c

ome

to a

sta

ndst

ill

ther

e. I

t is

obv

ious

at

the

outs

et t

hat

ther

e is

a m

ater

ialis

tic c

onne

ctio

n am

ong

men

det

erm

ined

by

thei

r ne

eds

and

thei

r m

odes

of

prod

uctio

n an

d as

old

as

men

the

mse

lves

. Thi

s co

nnec

tion

is f

orev

er a

ssum

ing

new

The

Ger

man

Ideo

logy

11

7

form

s an

d th

us p

rese

nts

a "h

isto

ry"

even

in

abse

nce

of a

ny p

oliti

cal o

r re

ligio

us n

onse

nse

whi

ch m

ight

hol

d m

en to

geth

er in

add

ition

. H

avin

g co

nsid

ered

fou

r m

omen

ts,

four

asp

ects

of

the

prim

ary

hist

or-

ical

rel

atio

nshi

ps, w

e no

w f

ind

that

man

als

o po

sses

ses

"con

scio

usne

ss."

((

Men

hav

e hi

stor

y be

caus

e th

ey m

ust p

rodu

ce t

heir

life

, and

[ .

. . ?]

in a

ce

rtain

way

: th

is i

s de

term

ined

by

thei

r ph

ysic

al o

rgan

izat

ion;

thei

r co

n-

scio

usne

ss is

det

erm

ined

in

the

sam

e w

ay.))

But

thi

s co

nsci

ousn

ess

is n

ot

inhe

rent

, not

"pu

re."

Fr

om t

he s

tart

the

"spi

rit"

bea

rs t

he c

urse

of

bein

g "b

urde

ned"

w

ith m

atte

r w

hich

mak

es i

ts a

ppea

ranc

e in

the

for

m o

f ag

itate

d la

yers

of

air,

soun

ds,

in s

hort

, in

the

for

m o

f la

ngua

ge.

Lan

- gu

age

is a

s ol

d as

con

scio

usne

ss.

It i

s pr

actic

al c

onsc

ious

ness

whi

ch

exis

ts a

lso

for

othe

r m

en a

nd h

ence

exi

sts

for

me

pers

onal

ly a

s w

ell.

Lan

guag

e, li

ke c

onsc

ious

ness

, onl

y ar

ises

fro

m t

he n

eed

and

nece

ssity

of

rela

tions

hips

with

oth

er m

en. (

(My

rela

tions

hip

to m

y su

rrou

ndin

gs is

my

cons

ciou

snes

s.))

Whe

re a

rel

atio

nshi

p ex

ists

, it e

xist

s fo

r m

e. T

he

anim

al

has

no "

rela

tions

" w

ith a

nyth

ing,

no

rela

tions

at a

ll. I

ts r

elat

ion

to o

ther

s do

es n

ot e

xist

as

a re

latio

n. C

onsc

ious

ness

is

thus

fro

m t

he v

ery

begi

n-

ning

a s

ocia

l pro

duct

and

will

rem

ain

so a

s lo

ng a

s m

en e

xist

. A

t fi

rst

cons

ciou

snes

s is

con

cern

ed o

nly

with

the

im

med

iate

sen

suou

s en

viro

n-

men

t an

d a

limite

d re

latio

nshi

p w

ith o

ther

per

sons

and

thi

ngs

outs

ide

the

indi

vidu

al w

ho is

bec

omin

g co

nsci

ous

of h

imse

lf. A

t the

sam

e tim

e it

is c

onsc

ious

ness

of

natu

re w

hich

fir

st a

ppea

rs to

man

as

an e

ntir

ely

alie

n,

omni

pote

nt, a

nd u

nass

aila

ble

forc

e. M

en's

rela

tions

with

thi

s co

nsci

ous-

ne

ss a

re p

urel

y an

imal

, and

the

y ar

e ov

eraw

ed b

y it

like

beas

ts.

Hen

ce it

is

a p

urel

y an

imal

con

scio

usne

ss o

f na

ture

(na

tura

l re

ligio

n)-f

or

the

very

rea

son

that

nat

ure

is n

ot y

et m

odif

ied

hist

oric

ally

. On

the

othe

r ha

nd

it is

con

scio

usne

ss o

f th

e ne

cess

ity to

com

e in

con

tact

with

oth

er in

divi

d-

uals

; it i

s th

e be

ginn

ing

of m

an's

cons

ciou

snes

s of

the

fac

t tha

t he

lives

in

a so

ciet

y. T

his b

egin

ning

is a

s an

imal

istic

as

soci

al li

fe it

self

at t

his

stag

e.

It is

the

mer

e co

nsci

ousn

ess

of b

eing

a m

embe

r of

a f

lock

, and

the

onl

y di

ffer

ence

bet

wee

n sh

eep

and

man

is

that

man

pos

sess

es c

onsc

ious

ness

in

stea

d of

ins

tinct

, or

in o

ther

wor

ds h

is in

stin

ct is

mor

e co

nsci

ous.

((W

e he

re s

ee im

med

iate

ly th

at th

is n

atur

al r

elig

ion

or p

artic

ular

rel

a-

tion

to n

atur

e is

det

erm

ined

by

the

form

of

soci

ety

and

vice

ver

sa. A

s it

is

the

case

eve

ryw

here

, the

ide

ntity

of

natu

re a

nd m

an a

ppea

rs i

n su

ch a

w

ay t

hat

the

rest

rict

ed b

ehav

ior

of m

en t

owar

d na

ture

det

erm

ines

the

ir

rest

rict

ed b

ehav

ior

to o

ne a

noth

er,

and

thei

r re

stri

cted

beh

avio

r to

one

an

othe

r de

term

ines

the

ir r

estr

icte

d be

havi

or t

o na

ture

.))

Thi

s sh

eepl

ike

or t

riba

l co

nsci

ousn

ess

rece

ives

fur

ther

de

velo

pmen

t an

d fo

rmat

ion

thro

ugh

incr

ease

d pr

oduc

tivity

, the

incr

ease

of

need

s, a

nd w

hat i

s fu

nda-

m

enta

l to

both

, the

inc

reas

e of

pop

ulat

ion.

Alo

ng w

ith th

ese,

div

isio

n of

la

bor

deve

lops

whi

ch o

rigi

nally

was

not

hing

but

the

div

isio

n of

lab

or i

n

118

Wri

tings

on

His

tori

cal M

ater

ialis

m

the

sexu

al a

ct,

then

tha

t ty

pe o

f di

visi

on o

f la

bor

whi

ch c

omes

abo

ut

spon

tane

ousl

y or

"na

tura

lly"

beca

use

of n

atur

al p

redi

spos

ition

(e.

g. p

hys-

ic

al s

tren

gth)

, nee

ds, a

ccid

ents

, et

c.,

etc.

Th

e di

visi

on o

f la

bor

is a

tru

e di

visi

on o

nly

from

the

mom

ent

a di

visi

on o

f m

ater

ial

and

men

tal

labo

r ap

pear

s. (

(The

firs

t for

m o

f id

eolo

gist

s, p

riest

s, i

s co

ncur

rent

.))

From

this

m

omen

t on

cons

ciou

snes

s can

rea

lly b

oast

of

bein

g so

met

hing

oth

er th

an

cons

ciou

snes

s of

ex

istin

g pr

actic

e,

of

real

ly

repr

esen

ting

so

met

hing

w

ithou

t re

pres

entin

g so

met

hing

rea

l. Fr

om t

his

mom

ent

on c

onsc

ious

- ne

ss c

an e

man

cipa

te it

self

fro

m t

he w

orld

and

pro

ceed

to

the

form

atio

n of

"pu

re"

theo

ry, t

heol

ogy,

phi

loso

phy,

eth

ics,

etc

. But

eve

n if

this

theo

ry,

theo

logy

, phi

loso

phy,

eth

ics,

etc

., co

mes

int

o co

nflic

t w

ith e

xist

ing

rela

- tio

ns, t

his

can

only

occ

ur b

ecau

se e

xist

ing

soci

al re

latio

ns h

ave

com

e in

to

conf

lict w

ith t

he e

xist

ing

forc

e of

pro

duct

ion.

Inc

iden

tally

thi

s ca

n al

so

occu

r in

nat

iona

l re

latio

nshi

ps t

hrou

gh a

con

flic

t no

t w

ithin

the

nat

ion

but b

etw

een

a pa

rtic

ular

nat

iona

l con

scio

usne

ss a

nd th

e pr

actic

e of

oth

er

natio

ns, t

hat

is, b

etw

een

the

natio

nal

and

the

gene

ral

cons

ciou

snes

s of

a

natio

n (a

s w

e ob

serv

e no

w i

n G

erm

any)

. ((

Rel

igio

n. T

he

Ger

man

s an

d id

eolo

gy a

s su

ch.))

Sin

ce th

is c

ontr

adic

tion

appe

ars

only

as

a co

ntra

dict

ion

with

in n

atio

nal

cons

ciou

snes

s, a

nd s

ince

the

stru

ggle

see

ms

to b

e lim

ited

w

to t

his

na((

tiona

1 cr

ap ju

st b

ecau

se t

his

natio

n is

cra

p in

and

for

itse

lf.))

M

oreo

ver

it do

es n

ot m

ake

any

diff

eren

ce w

hat c

onsc

ious

ness

sta

rts

to

do o

n its

ow

n. T

he

only

resu

lt w

e ob

tain

fro

m a

ll su

ch m

uck

is th

at th

ese

thre

e m

omen

ts-th

e fo

rce

of

prod

ucti

on,

the

stat

e of

so

ciet

y,

and

cons

ciou

snes

s-ca

n an

d m

ust

com

e in

to c

onfl

ict

with

one

ano

ther

be-

ca

use

the

divi

sion

of

labo

r im

plie

s th

e po

ssib

ility

, in

deed

the

nec

essi

ty,

that

int

elle

ctua

l an

d m

ater

ial

activ

ity (

(act

ivity

and

thi

nkin

g, t

hat

is,

thou

ghtle

ss a

ctiv

ity a

nd i

nact

ive

thou

ght

[lat

er d

elet

ed.])

)-en

joym

ent

and

labo

r, pr

oduc

tion

and

cons

umpt

ion-

are

give

n to

dif

fere

nt i

ndiv

id-

uals

, an

d th

e on

ly p

ossi

bilit

y of

the

ir n

ot c

omin

g in

to c

onfl

ict

lies

in

agai

n tr

ansc

endi

ng th

e di

visi

on o

f la

bor.

It is

sel

f-ev

iden

t tha

t wor

ds s

uch

as "

spec

ters

,"

"bon

ds,"

"h

ighe

r be

ing,

" "c

once

pt,"

"s

crup

le,"

ar

e on

ly

the

idea

listic

, spi

ritu

al e

xpre

ssio

n, t

he a

ppar

ent

conc

eptio

n of

the

iso

- la

ted

indi

vidu

al,

the

imag

e of

ver

y em

piri

cal

fett

ers

and

rest

rict

ions

w

ithin

whi

ch t

he m

ode

of p

rodu

ctio

n of

lif

e an

d th

e re

late

d fo

rm o

f in

tera

ctio

n m

ove.

((T

his

idea

listic

exp

ress

ion

of e

xist

ing

econ

omic

re-

st

rict

ions

is

pres

ent

not

only

in

pure

the

ory

but

also

in

prac

tical

con

- sc

ious

ness

; th

at i

s to

say

, hav

ing

eman

cipa

ted

itsel

f an

d ha

ving

ent

ered

in

to c

onfl

ict w

ith t

he e

xist

ing

mod

e of

pro

duct

ion,

con

scio

usne

ss s

hape

s no

t onl

y re

ligio

ns a

nd p

hilo

soph

ies

but a

lso

stat

es.))

W

ith t

he d

ivis

ion

[Eil

ung]

of

labo

r, in

whi

ch a

ll th

ese

conf

licts

are

im

plic

it an

d w

hich

is b

ased

on

the

natu

ral

divi

sion

of

labo

r in

the

fam

ily

and

the

part

ition

of

soci

ety

into

ind

ivid

ual

fam

ilies

opp

osin

g on

e an

-

The

Ger

man

Ideo

logy

11

9

othe

r, t

here

is

at t

he s

ame

time

dist

ribu

tion

[Ver

teilu

ng],

inde

ed u

nequ

al

dist

ribu

tion,

bot

h qu

antit

ativ

e an

d qu

alita

tive,

of

labo

r an

d its

pro

duct

s,

henc

e pr

oper

ty w

hich

has

its

fir

st f

orm

, its

nuc

leus

, in

the

fam

ily w

here

w

ife a

nd c

hild

ren

are

the

slav

es o

f th

e m

an.

Th

e la

tent

sla

very

in

the

fam

ily, t

houg

h st

ill v

ery

crud

e, i

s th

e fi

rst

prop

erty

. E

ven

at t

his

initi

al

stag

e, h

owev

er,

it co

rres

pond

s pe

rfec

tly t

o th

e de

fini

tion

of

mod

ern

econ

omis

ts w

ho c

all

it th

e po

wer

of

cont

rolli

ng t

he l

abor

of

othe

rs.

(Div

isio

n of

lab

or a

nd p

riva

te p

rope

rty

are

iden

tical

exp

ress

ions

. Wha

t is

said

in t

he f

orm

er in

reg

ard

to a

ctiv

ity is

exp

ress

ed in

the

latt

er in

rega

rd

to th

e pr

oduc

t of

the

act

ivity

.) Fu

rthe

rmor

e, t

he d

ivis

ion

of l

abor

im

plie

s th

e co

nflic

t be

twee

n th

e in

tere

st o

f th

e in

divi

dual

or

the

indi

vidu

al f

amily

and

the

com

mun

al

inte

rest

of

all i

ndiv

idua

ls h

avin

g co

ntac

t with

one

ano

ther

. Th

e co

mm

u-

nal

inte

rest

doe

s no

t ex

ist

only

in

the

imag

inat

ion,

as

som

ethi

ng "

gen-

er

al,"

but

fir

st o

f al

l in

rea

lity,

as

a m

utua

l in

terd

epen

denc

e of

tho

se

indi

vidu

als

amon

g w

hom

the

lab

or is

div

ided

. And

fin

ally

, the

div

isio

n of

la

bor o

ffer

s us

the

fir

st e

xam

ple

for

the

fact

that

man

's ow

n ac

t bec

omes

an

alie

n po

wer

opp

osed

to

him

and

ens

lavi

ng h

im i

nste

ad o

f be

ing

cont

rolle

d by

him

-as

long

as

man

rem

ains

in n

atur

al s

ocie

ty, a

s lo

ng a

s a

split

exi

sts

betw

een

the

part

icul

ar a

nd t

he c

omm

on i

nter

est,

and

as l

ong

as th

e ac

tivity

is n

ot v

olun

tari

ly b

ut n

atur

ally

div

ided

. For

as

soon

as

labo

r is

dis

trib

uted

, ea

ch p

erso

n ha

s a

part

icul

ar,

excl

usiv

e ar

ea o

f ac

tivity

w

hich

is

impo

sed

on h

im a

nd f

rom

whi

ch h

e ca

nnot

esc

ape.

He

is a

hu

nter

, a f

ishe

rman

, a h

erds

man

, or

a cr

itica

l cri

tic, a

nd h

e m

ust

rem

ain

so i

f he

doe

s no

t w

ant

to l

ose

his

mea

ns o

f liv

elih

ood.

In

com

mun

ist

soci

ety,

how

ever

, whe

re n

obod

y ha

s an

exc

lusi

ve a

rea

of a

ctiv

ity a

nd e

ach

can

trai

n hi

mse

lf i

n an

y br

anch

he

wis

hes,

soc

iety

reg

ulat

es t

he g

ener

al

prod

uctio

n, m

akin

g it

poss

ible

for

me

to d

o on

e th

ing

toda

y an

d an

othe

r to

mor

row

, to

hunt

in

the

mor

ning

, fi

sh i

n th

e af

tern

oon,

bre

ed c

attle

61

the

even

ing,

cri

ticiz

e af

ter

dinn

er, j

ust

as I

like,

with

out

ever

bec

omin

g a

hunt

er,

a fi

sher

man

, a

herd

sman

, or

a c

ritic

. T

his

fixa

tion

of

soci

al

activ

ity,

this

con

solid

atio

n of

our

ow

n pr

oduc

ts i

nto

an o

bjec

tive

pow

er

abov

e us

, gr

owin

g ou

t of

our

con

trol

, th

war

ting

our

expe

ctat

ions

, an

d nu

llify

ing

our

calc

ulat

ions

, is

one

of t

he c

hief

fac

tors

in h

isto

rica

l dev

el-

opm

ent s

o fa

r, [ . .

. (ni

ne li

nes

dele

ted

and

illeg

ible

)]

([be

side

pre

viou

s pa

ragr

aph]

Out

of

this

ver

y co

ntra

dict

ion

betw

een

the

inte

rest

of

the

indi

vidu

al a

nd t

hat

of t

he c

omm

unity

the

latt

er ta

kes

an i

ndep

ende

nt f

orm

as

the

Stat

e, s

epar

ated

fro

m t

he r

eal

inte

rest

s of

in

divi

dual

and

com

mun

ity, a

nd a

t the

sam

e tim

e as

an

illus

ory

com

mun

al

life,

but

alw

ays b

ased

on

the

real

bon

ds p

rese

nt i

n ev

ery

fam

ily a

nd e

very

tr

ibal

con

glom

erat

ion,

suc

h as

fle

sh a

nd b

lood

, la

ngua

ge,

divi

sion

of

labo

r on

a la

rger

sca

le, a

nd o

ther

int

eres

ts, a

nd p

artic

ular

ly b

ased

, as

we

120

Writ

ings

on

His

toric

al M

ater

ialis

m

The

Ger

man

Ideo

logy

12

1

inte

nd to

sho

w la

ter,

on th

e cl

asse

s al

read

y de

term

ined

by

the

divi

sion

of

labo

r, cl

asse

s w

hich

for

m i

n an

y su

ch m

ass

of p

eopl

e an

d of

whi

ch o

ne

dom

inat

es a

ll th

e ot

hers

. It

follo

ws

from

this

tha

t all

stru

ggle

s w

ithin

the

St

ate,

the

str

uggl

e be

twee

n de

moc

racy

, ar

isto

crac

y an

d m

onar

chy,

the

st

rugg

le f

or f

ranc

hise

, et

c.,

etc.

, ar

e no

thin

g bu

t th

e ill

usor

y fo

rms

in

whi

ch t

he r

eal

stru

ggle

s of

dif

fere

nt c

lass

es a

re c

arri

ed o

ut a

mon

g on

e an

othe

r (t

he G

erm

an t

heor

etic

ians

do

not

have

the

fai

ntes

t in

klin

g of

th

is f

act,

alth

ough

the

y ha

ve h

ad s

uffi

cien

t in

form

atio

n in

the

Deu

tsch

- Fr

anzo

sisc

he Ja

hrbu

cher

an

d T

he H

oly

Fam

ily).

Fur

ther

mor

e, i

t fo

llow

^ th

at e

very

cla

ss s

triv

ing

to g

ain

cont

rol-e

ven

whe

n su

ch c

ontr

ol m

eans

th

e tr

ansc

ende

nce

of t

he e

ntir

e ol

d fo

rm o

f so

ciet

y an

d of

con

trol

itse

lf,

as is

the

case

with

the

pro

leta

riat

-mus

t fi

rst w

in p

oliti

cal p

ower

in

orde

r to

rep

rese

nt it

s in

tere

st i

n tu

rn a

s th

e un

iver

sal i

nter

est,

som

ethi

ng w

hich

th

e cl

ass

is fo

rced

to d

o im

med

iate

ly)

((Ju

st b

ecau

se in

divi

dual

s se

ek o

nly

thei

r pa

rtic

ular

int

eres

t, w

hich

for

the

m d

oes

not

coin

cide

with

the

ir

com

mun

al i

nter

est,

the

latt

er w

ill b

e im

pose

d on

the

m a

s so

met

hing

"a

lien"

an

d "i

ndep

ende

nt,"

as

a "

univ

ersa

l"

inte

rest

of

a pa

rtic

ular

and

pe

culia

r na

ture

in

its

turn

. O

ther

wis

e th

ey t

hem

selv

es m

ust

rem

ain

with

in t

his

disc

ord,

as

in d

emoc

racy

On

the

oth

er h

and,

the

pra

ctic

al

stru

ggle

of

thes

e pa

rtic

ular

int

eres

ts, w

hich

con

stan

tly r

eally

run

cou

nter

to

the

com

mun

al a

nd i

lluso

ry c

omm

unal

int

eres

ts,

nece

ssita

tes

prac

tical

+

inte

rven

tion

and

cont

rol

thro

ugh

the

illus

ory

"uni

vers

al"

inte

rest

in

the

o

form

of

the

Stat

e.

Com

mun

ism

is f

or u

s no

t a s

tate

of af

fairs

stil

l to

be e

stab

lishe

d, n

ot a

n id

eal t

o w

hich

rea

lity

[will

] hav

e to

adj

ust.

We

call

com

mun

ism

the

rea

l m

ovem

ent w

hich

abo

lishe

s the

pre

sent

sta

te o

f af

fair

s. T

he

cond

ition

s of

th

is m

ovem

ent

resu

lt fr

om p

rem

ises

no

w i

n ex

iste

nce.

)) T

he

soci

al

pow

er,

that

is,

the

mul

tiplie

d pr

oduc

tive

forc

e fr

om t

he c

oope

ratio

n of

di

ffer

ent i

ndiv

idua

ls d

eter

min

ed b

y th

e di

visi

on o

f la

bor,

appe

ars

to th

ese

indi

vidu

als n

ot a

s th

eir

own

unite

d po

wer

but

as

a fo

rce

alie

n an

d ou

tsid

e th

em b

ecau

se t

heir

coo

pera

tion

is n

ot v

olun

tary

but

has

com

e ab

out

natu

rally

. T

hey

do n

ot k

now

the

ori

gin

and

the

goal

of

this

alie

n fo

rce,

an

d th

ey c

anno

t co

ntro

l it.

On

the

cont

rary

, it p

asse

s th

roug

h a

pecu

liar

seri

es o

f ph

ases

and

sta

ges

inde

pend

ent

of t

he w

ill a

nd t

he a

ctio

n of

m

en, e

ven

dire

ctin

g th

eir

will

. X [

Inse

rtio

n m

ark

for p

arag

raph

to

follo

w]

How

els

e co

uld

prop

erty

, fo

r ex

ampl

e, h

ave

a hi

stor

y at

all

and

assu

me

vario

us f

orm

s? H

ow e

lse

coul

d la

nded

pro

pert

y, a

ccor

ding

to

diff

eren

t pr

emis

es,

have

cha

nged

in

Fran

ce f

rom

par

cella

tion

to c

entr

aliz

atio

n in

th

e ha

nds

of a

few

, and

in

Eng

land

fro

m c

entr

aliz

atio

n in

the

han

ds o

f a

few

to

parc

ella

tion,

as

is a

ctua

lly t

he c

ase

toda

y? O

r ho

w d

oes

it ha

ppen

th

at tr

ade,

whi

ch a

fter

all

is n

othi

ng m

ore

than

the

exc

hang

e of

pro

duct

s of

var

ious

indi

vidu

als

and

coun

trie

s, r

ules

the

ent

ire

wor

ld t

hrou

gh s

up-

ply

and

dem

and-

a re

latio

n, a

s an

Eng

lish

econ

omis

t sa

ys, w

hich

hov

ers

over

the

ear

th li

ke t

he f

ate

of a

ntiq

uity

, dis

trib

utin

g fo

rtun

e an

d m

isfo

r-

tune

with

invi

sibl

e ha

nd,

esta

blis

hing

and

ove

rthr

owin

g em

pire

s, c

ausi

ng

natio

ns t

o ri

se a

nd t

o di

sapp

ear?

How

cou

ld t

his

go o

n, w

hile

with

the

ab

oliti

on o

f th

e ba

sis

of p

riva

te p

rope

rty,

with

com

mun

istic

reg

ulat

ion

of

prod

uctio

n an

d he

nce

with

abo

litio

n of

the

alie

natio

n be

twee

n m

en a

nd

thei

r ow

n pr

oduc

ts,

the

pow

er o

f su

pply

and

dem

and

is c

ompl

etel

y di

s-

solv

ed a

nd m

en r

egai

n co

ntro

l of

exch

ange

, pro

duct

ion,

and

the

mod

e of

th

eir

mut

ual r

elat

ions

hips

? ((

X T

his

"alie

natio

n,"

to u

se a

ter

m w

hich

the

phi

loso

pher

s w

ill u

n-

ders

tand

, can

be

abol

ishe

d on

ly o

n th

e ba

sis

of t

wo

prac

tical

pre

mis

es. T

o be

com

e an

"in

tole

rabl

e" p

ower

, tha

t is

, a p

ower

aga

inst

whi

ch m

en m

ake

a re

volu

tion,

it m

ust

have

mad

e th

e gr

eat

mas

s of

hum

anity

"pr

oper

ty-

less

" an

d th

is a

t th

e sa

me

time

in c

ontr

adic

tion

to

an e

xist

ing

wor

ld o

f w

ealth

and

cul

ture

, bot

h of

whi

ch p

resu

ppos

e a

grea

t inc

reas

e in

pro

duc-

tiv

e po

wer

and

a h

igh

degr

ee o

f its

dev

elop

men

t. O

n th

e ot

her

hand

, th

is

deve

lopm

ent

of p

rodu

ctiv

e fo

rces

(w

hich

alr

eady

impl

ies

the

actu

al e

m-

piri

cal

exis

tenc

e of

men

on

a w

orld

-his

tori

cal

rath

er t

han

loca

l sc

ale)

is

an a

bsol

utel

y ne

cess

ary

prac

tical

pre

mis

e be

caus

e, w

ithou

t it,

wan

t is

m

erel

y m

ade

gene

ral,

and

with

des

titut

ion

the

stru

ggle

for

nec

essi

ties a

nd

all

the

old

muc

k w

ould

nec

essa

rily

be

repr

oduc

ed;

and

furt

herm

ore,

be

caus

e on

ly w

ith t

his

univ

ersa

l de

velo

pmen

t of

prod

uctiv

e fo

rces

is

a un

iver

sal

com

mer

ce a

mon

g m

en e

stab

lishe

d w

hich

pro

duce

s in

all

na-

tions

sim

ulta

neou

sly

the

phen

omen

on o

f a

"pro

pert

yles

s" m

ass

(uni

ver-

sa

l com

petit

ion)

, mak

es e

ach

natio

n de

pend

ent

on t

he r

evol

utio

ns o

f th

e ot

hers

, an

d fi

nally

rep

lace

s lo

cal

indi

vidu

als

with

wor

ld-h

isto

rica

l, em

- pi

rical

ly u

nive

rsal

ind

ivid

uals

. W

ithou

t th

is,

(1) c

omm

unis

m c

ould

onl

y ex

ist l

ocal

ly; (

2) th

e for

ces

of i

nter

acti

on th

emse

lves

cou

ld n

ot h

ave

deve

l- op

ed a

s un

iver

sal a

nd t

hus

into

lera

ble

pow

ers,

but

wou

ld h

ave

rem

aine

d ho

meb

red,

sup

erst

itiou

s "c

ondi

tions

";

(3)

any

exte

nsio

n of

int

erac

tion

wou

ld a

bolis

h lo

cal c

omm

unis

m. E

mpi

rica

lly, c

omm

unis

m i

s on

ly p

ossi

- bl

e as

the

act

of

dom

inan

t pe

ople

s "a

ll at

onc

e" a

nd s

imul

tane

ousl

y,

whi

ch p

resu

ppos

es th

e un

iver

sal d

evel

opm

ent o

f pr

oduc

tive

pow

er a

nd w

orld

wid

e in

tera

ctio

n lin

ked

with

com

mun

ism

. B

esid

es,

the

mas

s of

pro

perty

less

wor

kers

-labo

r po

wer

on

a m

ass

scal

e cu

t of

f fr

om

capi

tal o

r ev

en li

mite

d sa

tisfa

ctio

n, a

nd h

ence

no

long

er ju

st t

empo

rari

ly

depr

ived

of

wor

k as

a s

ecur

e so

urce

of

life-

pres

uppo

ses

a w

orld

mar

ket

thro

ugh

com

petit

ion.

T

he

prol

etar

iat

can

thus

on

ly

exis

t w

orld

- hi

stor

ical

ly,

just

as

com

mun

ism

, it

s ac

tivity

, ca

n on

ly h

ave

a "w

orld

- hi

stor

ical

" ex

iste

nce.

Wor

ld-h

isto

rica

l exi

sten

ce o

f in

divi

dual

s mea

ns e

x-

iste

nce

of i

ndiv

idua

ls w

hich

is d

irec

tly b

ound

up

with

wor

ld h

isto

ry.))

T

he

form

of

inte

ract

ion

dete

rmin

ed b

y an

d in

tur

n de

term

inin

g th

e

122

Writ

ings

on

His

toric

al M

ater

ialis

m

exis

ting

prod

uctiv

e fo

rces

at a

ll pr

evio

us h

isto

rica

l st

ages

is c

ivil

soci

ety.

It

is c

lear

fro

m w

hat

has

been

sai

d ab

ove,

tha

t ci

vil

soci

ety

has

as i

ts

prem

ise

and

basi

s th

e si

mpl

e fa

mily

and

the

mul

tiple

fam

ily, t

he s

o-ca

lled

trib

e. M

ore

deta

iled

defi

nitio

ns a

re c

onta

ined

in

our

rem

arks

abo

ve.

Alre

ady

we

see

here

how

civ

il so

ciet

y is

the

tru

e fo

cus

and

scen

e of

all

hist

ory.

We

see

how

non

sens

ical

is

the

old

conc

eptio

n of

his

tory

whi

ch

negl

ects

real

rela

tions

hips

and

res

tric

ts it

self

to

high

-sou

ndin

g dr

amas

of

prin

ces a

nd s

tate

s.

So

far w

e ha

ve c

once

rned

our

selv

es m

ainl

y w

ith o

ne a

spec

t of

hum

an

activ

ity,

how

man

afe

cts

natu

re.

((In

tera

ctio

n an

d pr

oduc

tive

pow

er.))

T

he

othe

r as

pect

, how

man

affe

cts

man

--or

igin

of

the

sta

te a

nd t

he r

e-

latio

n of

the

sta

te to

civ

il so

ciet

y [ . .

. ]

His

tory

is

noth

ing

but

the

succ

essi

on o

f se

para

te g

ener

atio

ns,

each

of

whi

ch e

xplo

its t

he m

ater

ials

, ca

pita

l, an

d pr

oduc

tive

forc

es

hand

ed d

own

to it

by

all p

rece

ding

gen

erat

ions

. O

n th

e on

e ha

nd,

it th

us

cont

inue

s th

e tr

aditi

onal

act

ivity

in

com

plet

ely

chan

ged

circ

umst

ance

s an

d, o

n th

e ot

her,

mod

ifie

s th

e ol

d ci

rcum

stan

ces

with

a c

ompl

etel

y ch

ange

d ac

tivity

. Thi

s ca

n be

spe

cula

tivel

y di

stor

ted

so t

hat

late

r hi

stor

y

+

is m

ade

the

goal

of

earl

ier

hist

ory,

for

exa

mpl

e, th

e go

al a

scri

bed

to t

he

- di

scov

ery

of A

mer

ica

is to

ass

ure

the

outb

reak

of

the

Fre

nch

Rev

olut

ion.

H

isto

ry th

en o

btai

ns i

ts o

wn

aim

s an

d be

com

es a

"pe

rson

ran

king

with

ot

her

pers

ons"

(t

o w

it:

"Sel

f-co

nsci

ousn

ess,

C

ritic

ism

, th

e U

niqu

e,"

etc.

), w

hile

wha

t is

desi

gnat

ed w

ith t

he w

ords

"de

stin

y,"

"goa

l,"

"ger

m,"

or

"id

ea"

of e

arlie

r hi

stor

y is

not

hing

mor

e th

an a

n ab

stra

ctio

n fo

rmed

fr

om la

ter

hist

ory,

an

abst

ract

ion

from

the

act

ive

infl

uenc

e w

hich

ear

lier

hist

ory

exer

cise

s on

late

r his

tory

. T

he f

urth

er th

e se

para

te s

pher

es th

at i

nter

act

on o

ne a

noth

er e

xten

d in

the

cou

rse

of t

his

deve

lopm

ent,

the

mor

e th

e or

igin

al i

sola

tion

of

sepa

rate

nat

iona

litie

s is

dest

roye

d by

the

dev

elop

ed m

ode

of p

rodu

ctio

n,

com

mer

ce,

and

divi

sion

of

labo

r be

twee

n va

riou

s na

tions

na

tura

lly

brou

ght f

orth

by

thes

e an

d th

e m

ore

does

his

tory

bec

ome

wor

ld h

isto

ry.

For

inst

ance

, whe

n a

mac

hine

is

inve

nted

in

Eng

land

to

depr

ive

coun

t-

less

wor

kers

of

brea

d in

Ind

ia a

nd C

hina

and

rev

olut

ioni

ze th

e en

tire

life

of

the

se e

mpi

res,

it

beco

mes

a w

orld

-his

tori

cal

fact

. S

ugar

and

cof

fee

prov

ed t

heir

wor

ld-h

isto

rica

l im

port

ance

in th

e ni

nete

enth

cen

tury

whe

n th

e la

ck o

f th

ese

prod

ucts

, oc

casi

oned

by

the

Nap

oleo

nic

Con

tine

ntal

Sy

stem

, cau

sed

the

Ger

man

s to

rise

aga

inst

Nap

oleo

n. L

ack

of s

ugar

and

co

ffee

thus

bec

ame

the

real

bas

is o

f th

e gl

orio

us W

ars

of L

iber

atio

n of

18

13. H

ence

the

tra

nsfo

rmat

ion

of h

isto

ry i

nto

wor

ld h

isto

ry i

s no

t a

mer

e ab

stra

ct a

ct o

f th

e "S

elf-

cons

ciou

snes

s,"

the

wor

ld s

piri

t, or

of

any

othe

r m

etap

hysi

cal s

pect

er, b

ut a

com

plet

ely

mat

eria

l, em

piri

cally

ver

ifi-

ab

le a

ct,

an a

ct f

or w

hich

eve

ry in

divi

dual

fur

nish

es p

roof

as

he c

omes

an

d go

es, e

ats,

dri

nks,

and

clo

thes

him

self

.

The

Ger

man

Ideo

logy

123

((O

n th

e Pr

oduc

tion

of C

onsc

iozu

ness

)) In

his

tory

up

to t

he p

rese

nt i

t is

ce

rtai

nly

an e

mpi

rica

l fac

t tha

t se

para

te in

divi

dual

s, w

ith t

he b

road

enin

g of

th

eir

activ

ity i

nto

wor

ld-h

isto

rica

l ac

tivity

, ha

ve b

ecom

e m

ore

and

mor

e en

slav

ed t

o a

pow

er a

lien

to t

hem

(a

hard

ship

the

y co

ncei

ve a

s ch

ican

ery

on t

he p

art

of t

he s

o-ca

lled

Wor

ld S

piri

t, et

c.),

a p

ower

whi

ch

has

beco

me

incr

easi

ngly

gre

at a

nd f

inal

ly t

urns

out

to

be t

he w

orld

m

arke

t. B

ut i

t is

just

as

empi

rica

lly e

stab

lishe

d th

at b

y th

e ov

erth

row

of

the

exis

ting

stat

e of

soc

iety

by t

he c

omm

unis

t re

volu

tion

(mor

e ab

out t

his

belo

w)

and

the

abol

ition

of

priv

ate

prop

erty

whi

ch is

iden

tical

with

it, t

his

alie

n po

wer

so

baff

ling

to G

erm

an t

heor

etic

ians

will

be

diss

olve

d. T

hen

the

liber

atio

n of

eac

h si

ngle

indi

vidu

al w

ill b

e ac

com

plis

hed

to t

he e

xten

t th

at h

isto

ry b

ecom

es w

orld

his

tory

. Hen

ce it

is c

lear

that

the

real

inte

llec-

tu

al w

ealth

of

the

indi

vidu

al d

epen

ds e

ntir

ely

on t

he w

ealth

of

his

real

co

nnec

tions

. Onl

y in

thi

s w

ay w

ill s

epar

ate

indi

vidu

als

be l

iber

ated

fro

m

the

vari

ous

natio

nal

and

loca

l bar

rier

s, b

e br

ough

t int

o pr

actic

al c

onne

c-

tion

with

the

mat

eria

l an

d in

telle

ctua

l pr

oduc

tion

of

the

who

le w

orld

, an

d be

abl

e to

enj

oy t

his

all-

side

d pr

oduc

tion

of

the

who

le e

arth

(th

e cr

eatio

ns o

f m

an).

All-

arou

nd

depe

nden

ce,

that

nat

ural

fo

rm o

f th

e w

orld

-his

toric

al c

oope

ratio

n of

ind

ivid

uals

, w

ill b

e tr

ansf

orm

ed b

y th

e co

mm

unis

t re

volu

tion

into

the

con

trol

an

d co

nsci

ous

gove

rnan

ce o

f th

ese

pow

ers,

whi

ch,

born

of

the

inte

ract

ion

of m

en,

have

unt

il no

w

over

awed

and

gov

erne

d m

en a

s po

wer

s co

mpl

etel

y al

ien

to t

hem

. N

ow

this

vie

w c

an b

e ex

pres

sed

agai

n sp

ecul

ativ

ely

and

idea

listic

ally

, tha

t is

, fa

ntas

tical

ly,

as "

self

-gen

erat

ion

of t

he s

peci

es"

("so

ciet

y as

the

sub

- je

ct")

, an

d th

ereb

y th

e co

nsec

utiv

e se

ries

of

inte

rrel

ated

ind

ivid

uals

can

be

con

ceiv

ed a

s a

sing

le i

ndiv

idua

l whi

ch a

ccom

plis

hes

the

mys

tery

of

gene

ratin

g its

elf.

It

is c

lear

her

e th

at i

ndiv

idua

ls c

erta

inly

gen

erat

e on

e an

othe

r, ph

ysic

ally

and

men

tally

, but

do

not

gene

rate

them

selv

es e

ithe

r in

- th

e no

nsen

se o

f Sa

int B

runo

[B

auer

] ((

or i

n th

e se

nse

of t

he "

Uni

que,

" of

"m

ade"

Man

)).

Fina

lly, f

rom

the

con

cept

ion

of h

isto

ry a

s de

velo

ped

abov

e w

e ob

tain

th

ese

furt

her

conc

lusi

ons:

(1)

In

the

deve

lopm

ent o

f pr

oduc

tive

forc

es

ther

e co

mes

a s

tage

whe

n pr

oduc

tive

forc

es a

nd m

eans

of

inte

ract

ion

are

achi

eved

whi

ch u

nder

the

exi

stin

g re

latio

nshi

ps c

ause

not

hing

but

mis

- ch

ief

and

are

no l

onge

r pr

oduc

tive

forc

es b

ut r

athe

r de

stru

ctiv

e on

es

(mac

hine

ry a

nd m

oney

). C

onne

cted

with

thi

s is

a c

lass

whi

ch h

as to

bea

r al

l the

bur

dens

of

soci

ety

with

out

enjo

ying

its

adva

ntag

es. I

t is

exc

lude

d fr

om s

ocie

ty a

nd f

orce

d in

to e

xtre

me

oppo

sitio

n to

all

othe

r cl

asse

s. I

t co

nstit

utes

the

maj

ority

of

all

mem

bers

of

soci

ety,

and

fro

m i

t ar

ises

a

cons

ciou

snes

s of

the

nec

essi

ty o

f fu

ndam

enta

l re

volu

tion,

com

mun

ist

cons

ciou

snes

s, w

hich

may

of

cour

se a

rise

als

o in

the

oth

er c

lass

es p

er-

ceiv

ing

the

situ

atio

n of

thi

s cl

ass.

(2)

Th

e co

nditi

ons

unde

r w

hich

def

i-

nite

pro

duct

ive

forc

es c

an b

e ap

plie

d ar

e th

e co

nditi

ons

of t

he r

ule

of a

Wn'

tings

on H

isto

rica

l Mat

eria

lism

Th

e Ger

man

Ideo

logy

defi

nite

cla

ss o

f so

ciet

y w

hose

soc

ial p

ower

, de

rivi

ng f

rom

its

pro

pert

y,

has

its p

ract

ical

-ide

alis

tic e

xpre

ssio

n in

the

form

of

the

stat

e as

it h

appe

ns

to e

xist

then

. T

here

fore

, ev

ery

revo

lutio

nary

str

uggl

e is

dir

ecte

d ag

ains

t a

clas

s w

hich

unt

il th

en h

as b

een

in p

ower

. ((

The

peo

ple

are

inte

rest

ed i

n m

aint

aini

ng th

e pr

esen

t st

ate

of p

rodu

ctio

n.))

(3)

In

all r

evol

utio

ns u

p til

l no

w t

he m

ode

of a

ctiv

ity re

mai

ned

unch

ange

d, a

nd it

was

onl

y a

ques

tion

of a

dif

fere

nt d

istr

ibut

ion

of t

his

activ

ity, a

new

dis

trib

utio

n of

lab

or to

ot

her

pers

ons.

But

the

com

mun

ist

revo

lutio

n is

dir

ecte

d ag

ains

t th

e pr

eced

ing

mod

e of

act

ivity

, doe

s aw

ay w

ith la

bor,

and

abol

ishe

s the

rul

e of

al

l cla

sses

alo

ng w

ith t

he c

lass

es th

emse

lves

, bec

ause

it

is a

ccom

plis

hed

by t

he c

lass

whi

ch s

ocie

ty n

o lo

nger

rec

ogni

zes

as a

cla

ss a

nd is

itse

lf t

he

expr

essi

on o

f th

e di

ssol

utio

n of

all

clas

ses,

nat

iona

litie

s, e

tc.

(4)

For

the

prod

uctio

n of

thi

s co

mm

unis

t co

nsci

ousn

ess

on a

mas

s sc

ale

and

for

the

succ

ess

of t

he c

ause

its

elf,

the

alte

ratio

n of

men

on

a m

ass

scal

e is

re

quir

ed. T

his

can

only

take

pla

ce i

n a

prac

tical

mov

emen

t, in

a r

evol

u-

tion.

A re

volu

tion

is n

eces

sary

, the

refo

re,

not o

nly

beca

use

the

rulin

g cl

ass

cann

ot b

e ov

erth

row

n in

any

oth

er w

ay b

ut a

lso

beca

use

the

clas

s ov

er-

thro

win

g it

can

succ

eed

only

by

revo

lutio

n in

get

ting

rid

of a

ll th

e tr

adi-

tio

nal m

uck

and

beco

me

capa

ble

of e

stab

lishi

ng s

ocie

ty a

new

. T

his

conc

eptio

n of

his

tory

dep

ends

on

our

abili

ty to

set

for

th th

e re

al

proc

ess

of p

rodu

ctio

n, s

tart

ing

out

from

the

mat

eria

l pr

oduc

tion

of

life

itsel

f, a

nd t

o co

mpr

ehen

d th

e fo

rm o

f in

tera

ctio

n co

nnec

ted

with

thi

s an

d cr

eate

d by

thi

s m

ode

of p

rodu

ctio

n, t

hat

is,

by c

ivil

soci

ety

in i

ts

vario

us s

tage

s, a

s th

e ba

sis

of a

ll hi

stor

y. W

e ha

ve t

o sh

ow c

ivil

soci

ety

in

actio

n as

Sta

te a

nd a

lso

expl

ain

all t

he d

iffe

rent

theo

retic

al p

rodu

cts

and

form

s of

con

scio

usne

ss, r

elig

ion,

phi

loso

phy,

eth

ics,

etc

., an

d tr

ace

thei

r ge

nesi

s fr

om t

hat

basi

s. T

he

who

le t

hing

can

be

depi

cted

in

its

tota

lity

(and

thu

s th

e re

cipr

ocal

act

ion

of t

hese

var

ious

sid

es t

oo).

Unl

ike

the

idea

listic

vie

w o

f hi

stor

y th

is c

once

ptio

n do

es n

ot lo

ok f

or a

cat

egor

y in

ev

ery

hist

oric

al p

erio

d; r

athe

r it

rem

ains

con

stan

tly o

n th

e re

al g

roun

d of

hi

stor

y. I

t doe

s no

t exp

lain

pra

ctic

e fr

om th

e id

ea b

ut e

xpla

ins

the

form

a-

tion

of i

deas

fro

m m

ater

ial p

ract

ice.

Con

sequ

entl

y it

arr

ives

at

the

con-

cl

usio

n th

at a

ll fo

rms

and

prod

ucts

of

cons

ciou

snes

s ca

nnot

be

diss

olve

d by

men

tal c

ritic

ism

, by

reso

lutio

n in

to "

Self

-con

scio

usne

ss"

or tr

ansf

or-

mat

ion

into

"ap

pari

tions

,"

"spe

cter

s,"

"fan

cies

,"

etc.

, bu

t on

ly b

y th

e pr

actic

al o

vert

hrow

of

the

actu

al s

ocia

l rel

atio

ns w

hich

gav

e ri

se t

o th

is

idea

listic

tri

cker

y N

ot c

ritic

ism

but

rev

olut

ion

is t

he d

rivi

ng f

orce

of

hist

ory

and

also

of

relig

ion,

phi

loso

phy,

and

all

othe

r ty

pes

of t

heor

y.

It s

how

s th

at

hist

ory

does

no

t en

d by

be

ing

reso

lved

in

to

"Sel

f-

cons

ciou

snes

s" a

s "s

piri

t of

the

Spi

rit,"

but

that

ther

e is

a m

ater

ial r

esul

t at

eac

h hi

stor

ical

sta

ge, a

sum

of

prod

uctiv

e fo

rces

, a h

isto

rica

lly c

reat

ed

rela

tion

of i

ndiv

idua

ls t

o na

ture

and

to

one

anot

her

whi

ch i

s ha

nded

dow

n to

eac

h ge

nera

tion

from

its

pre

dece

ssor

-a

mas

s of

pro

duct

ive

forc

es, c

apita

l fu

nds,

and

con

ditio

ns w

hich

on

the

one

hand

is

mod

ifie

d by

the

new

gen

erat

ion

but

on t

he o

ther

han

d al

so p

resc

ribe

s it

s co

ndi-

tio

ns o

f lif

e, g

ivin

g it

a de

fini

te d

evel

opm

ent a

nd a

spe

cial

cha

ract

er.

It

show

s, th

eref

ore,

tha

t ci

rcum

stan

ces

mak

e m

en j

ust

as m

uch

as m

en

mak

e ci

rcum

stan

ces.

T

he s

um o

f pr

oduc

tive

forc

es,

capi

tal

fund

s, a

nd s

ocia

l fo

rms

of

inte

ract

ion

whi

ch e

very

indi

vidu

al a

nd e

very

gen

erat

ion

find

s ex

istin

g is

th

e re

al b

asis

of

wha

t th

e ph

iloso

pher

s ha

ve c

once

ived

as

"Sub

stan

ce"

and

"ess

ence

of

Man

," w

hat t

hey

have

apo

theo

size

d an

d at

tack

ed, t

hat i

s,

a re

al b

asis

whi

ch i

s no

t in

the

leas

t dis

turb

ed i

n it

s ef

fect

and

inf

luen

ce

on t

he d

evel

opm

ent

of m

en b

y th

e fa

ct t

hat

thes

e ph

iloso

pher

s re

volt

agai

nst

it as

"Se

lf-c

onsc

ious

ness

" an

d th

e "U

niqu

e."

The

se c

ondi

tions

of

lif

e w

hich

th

e va

riou

s ge

nera

tions

fi

nd i

n ex

iste

nce

also

dec

ide

whe

ther

per

iodi

cal

and

recu

rrin

g re

volu

tiona

ry t

rem

ors

will

be

stro

ng

enou

gh t

o ov

erth

row

the

bas

is o

f th

e en

tire

exi

stin

g sy

stem

. If

the

se

mat

eria

l ele

men

ts o

f to

tal r

evol

utio

n ar

e no

t pre

sent

(na

mel

y, th

e ex

istin

g pr

oduc

tive

forc

es o

n th

e on

e ha

nd a

nd t

he f

orm

atio

n of

a r

evol

utio

nary

m

ass

on t

he o

ther

, a

mas

s w

hich

rev

olts

not

onl

y ag

ains

t pa

rtic

ular

co

nditi

ons

of t

he p

reva

iling

soc

iety

but

aga

inst

the

pre

vaili

ng "

prod

uc-

tion

of l

ife"

itsel

f, th

e "t

otal

act

ivity

" on

whi

ch i

t w

as b

ased

) th

en i

t is

ab

solu

tely

im

mat

eria

l, so

far

as

prac

tical

de

velo

pmen

t is

con

cern

ed,

whe

ther

the

idea

of

this

rev

olut

ion

has

alre

ady

been

exp

ress

ed a

hun

dred

tim

es, a

s th

e hi

stor

y of

com

mun

ism

pro

ves.

In

the

who

le c

once

ptio

n of

his

tory

up

to t

he p

rese

nt t

his

actu

al b

asis

of

his

tory

has

bee

n ei

ther

tot

ally

neg

lect

ed o

r co

nsid

ered

as

a m

inor

m

atte

r ir

rele

vant

to

the

cour

se o

f hi

stor

y.

Thu

s hi

stor

y m

ust

alw

ays

be w

ritte

n ac

cord

ing

to a

n ex

tran

eous

sta

ndar

d. T

he

actu

al p

rodu

c-

tion

of

life

appe

ars

as s

omet

hing

unh

isto

rica

l, w

hile

th

e hi

stor

ical

ap

pear

s as

som

ethi

ng s

epar

ated

fro

m o

rdin

ary

life,

som

ethi

ng e

xtra

- su

pert

erre

stri

al.

Thu

s th

e re

latio

n of

man

to

natu

re i

s ex

clud

ed f

rom

hi

stor

y an

d th

e an

tithe

sis

of n

atur

e an

d hi

stor

y is

cre

ated

. Th

e ex

pone

nts

of t

his

conc

eptio

n of

his

tory

hav

e on

ly b

een

able

to s

ee in

his

tory

pol

iti-

cal a

ctio

n an

d re

ligio

us o

r ot

her

theo

retic

al s

trug

gles

. In

eac

h hi

stor

ical

ep

och

they

hav

e ha

d to

sha

re th

e ill

usio

n of

that

epo

ch F

or e

xam

ple,

if a

n ep

och

imag

ines

its

elf

to b

e de

term

ined

by

pure

ly "

polit

ical

" or

"re

- lig

ious

" m

otiv

es, e

ven

thou

gh "

relig

ion"

and

"po

litic

s" a

re o

nly

form

s of

its

act

ual m

otiv

es, t

he h

isto

rian

acc

epts

this

opi

nion

. Th

e "n

otio

n"

[Ein

- bi

ldun

g],

the

con

cept

ion^

' of

the

peo

ple

abou

t th

eir

real

pra

ctic

e, i

s tr

ansf

orm

ed i

nto

the

sole

det

erm

inin

g an

d ac

tive

forc

e co

ntro

lling

and

de

term

inin

g th

eir

prac

tice.

Whe

n th

e cr

ude

form

in

whi

ch t

he d

ivis

ion

of la

bor

appe

ars

with

the

Ind

ians

and

Egy

ptia

ns b

ring

s ab

out

the

cast

e

126

Writ

ings

on

His

toric

al M

ater

ialis

m

syst

em in

thei

r st

ates

and

in t

heir

rel

igio

ns, t

he h

isto

rian

bel

ieve

s th

at th

e ca

ste

syst

em i

s th

e po

wer

whi

ch p

rodu

ced

this

soc

ial

form

. W

hile

the

Fr

ench

and

the

Eng

lish

at l

east

adh

ere

to a

pol

itica

l illu

sion

mod

erat

ely

clos

e to

rea

lity,

the

Ger

man

s m

ove

in th

e re

alm

of

the

"pur

e Sp

irit"

and

m

ake

relig

ious

illu

sion

the

driv

ing

forc

e of

his

tory

. T

he H

egel

ian

philo

soph

y of

hi

stor

y is

the

las

t co

nseq

uenc

e,

the

"pur

est

expr

essi

on,"

of

al

l th

is

Ger

man

hi

stor

iogr

aphy

whi

ch

does

no

t de

al w

ith

real

int

eres

ts,

not

even

pol

itica

l on

es,

but

with

pur

e th

ough

ts w

hich

con

sequ

ently

mus

t ap

pear

to

Sai

nt B

runo

[B

auer

] as

a

seri

es o

f "t

houg

hts"

de

vour

ing

one

anot

her

and

peri

shin

g in

"Se

lf-

cons

ciou

snes

s."

Th

e B

less

ed M

ax S

tirn

er,

who

doe

s no

t kn

ow a

thi

ng

abou

t re

al h

isto

ry,

goes

eve

n fa

rthe

r. H

e se

es h

isto

ry a

s a

mer

e ta

le o

f "k

nigh

ts,"

rob

bers

, and

gho

sts

from

who

se v

isio

ns h

e ca

n es

cape

onl

y by

"u

nhol

ines

s."

((So

-cal

led

obje

ctiv

e hi

stor

iogr

aphy

has

jus

t co

nsis

ted

in

trea

ting

hist

oric

al

cond

ition

s as

se

para

te

from

ac

tivity

. R

eact

iona

ry

char

acte

r.))

Thi

s co

ncep

tion

is tr

uly

relig

ious

. It p

ostu

late

s re

ligio

us m

an

as th

e or

igin

al m

an, t

he s

tart

ing

poin

t of

all

hist

ory.

In

its im

agin

atio

n it

puts

the

rel

igio

us p

rodu

ctio

n of

fan

cies

in t

he p

lace

of

the

real

pro

duc-

+

tio

n of

the

mea

ns o

f su

bsis

tenc

e an

d of

lif

e its

elf.

Thi

s w

hole

con

cept

ion

w

of

hist

ory

toge

ther

with

its

dis

solu

tion

and

the

scru

ples

and

qua

lms

resu

lting

from

it is

a p

urel

y na

tiona

l af

fair

of

the

Ger

man

s an

d ha

s on

ly

loca

l int

eres

t fo

r G

erm

any,

as

for

exam

ple

the

impo

rtan

t qu

estio

n w

hich

ha

s be

en t

reat

ed s

ever

al t

imes

of

late

: H

ow d

oes

one

"pas

s fr

om t

he

real

m o

f G

od t

o th

e re

alm

of

Man

"? A

s if

this

rea

lm o

f G

od h

ad e

ver

exis

ted

anyw

here

exc

ept

in t

he i

mag

inat

ion,

and

the

lea

rned

gen

tlem

en,

with

out

bein

g aw

are

of i

t, w

ere

not

cons

tant

ly l

ivin

g in

the

"re

alm

of

Man

" w

hich

the

y ar

e no

w s

eeki

ng.

As

if t

he l

earn

ed p

astim

e, f

or i

t is

no

thin

g m

ore,

of

expl

aini

ng t

he

mys

tery

of

th

is

theo

retic

al

clou

d-

form

atio

n di

d no

t on

the

cont

rary

lie

in d

emon

stra

ting

its

orig

in i

n ac

tual

ea

rthl

y co

nditi

ons.

For

the

se G

erm

ans

it is

alw

ays

sim

ply

a m

atte

r of

re

solv

ing

som

e no

nsen

se a

t ha

nd i

nto

som

e ot

her

frea

k. I

n ot

her

wor

ds,

they

pre

supp

ose

that

all

this

non

sens

e ha

s a

spec

ial s

ense

whi

ch c

an b

e di

scov

ered

, whi

le a

ctua

lly t

hey

shou

ld e

xpla

in th

is t

heor

etic

al t

alk

from

th

e ac

tual

exi

stin

g co

nditi

ons.

Th

e re

al,

prac

tical

dis

solu

tion

of t

hese

ph

rase

s, th

e re

mov

al o

f th

ese

notio

ns f

rom

the

cons

ciou

snes

s of

men

will

be

eff

ecte

d by

alte

red

circ

umst

ance

s, n

ot b

y th

eore

tical

ded

ucti

on, a

s w

e ha

ve a

lread

y sa

id. S

uch

theo

retic

al n

otio

ns d

o no

t ex

ist

and

need

not

be

expl

aine

d to

the

mas

s of

men

, th

at i

s, t

he p

role

tari

at.

If t

his

mas

s ev

er

had

any

theo

retic

al n

otio

ns,

for

exam

ple,

rel

igio

n, t

hese

hav

e no

w l

ong

been

dis

solv

ed b

y ci

rcum

stan

ces.

T

he p

urel

y na

tiona

l cha

ract

er o

f th

ese

ques

tions

and

ans

wer

s is

sho

wn

also

in

the

way

the

se t

heor

ists

bel

ieve

in

all

seri

ousn

ess

that

pha

ntom

s

The

Ger

man

Ideo

logy

12

7

like

"the

God

-Man

,"

"Man

,"

etc.

, ha

ve p

resi

ded

over

ind

ivid

ual

epoc

hs

of h

isto

ry-S

aint

B

runo

[B

auer

] ev

en g

oes

so f

ar a

s to

ass

ert

that

onl

y "c

ritic

ism

and

cri

tics

mak

e hi

stor

y" W

hen

they

con

stru

ct h

isto

rica

l sys

- te

ms,

the

y sk

ip o

ver

all

earl

ier

peri

ods

with

gre

ates

t ha

ste

and

jum

p im

med

iate

ly f

rom

"M

ongo

ldom

" to

his

tory

"w

ith m

eani

ngfu

l co

nten

t,"

to t

he h

isto

ry o

f th

e [y

oung

Heg

elia

n] H

allis

che

and

Deu

tsclz

eJal

zrbi

iclz

er

[edi

ted

by A

rnol

d R

uge]

and

the

dis

solu

tion

of t

he H

egel

ian

scho

ol in

a

gene

ral

squa

bble

. The

y fo

rget

all

othe

r na

tions

, al

l re

al e

vent

s, a

nd t

he

thea

trum

mun

di i

s co

nfin

ed t

o th

e L

eipz

ig B

ook

Fair

and

the

mut

ual

quar

rels

of

"cri

ticis

m,"

"M

an,"

an

d th

e "U

niqu

e."

Whe

n th

ese

theo

rist

s at

tem

pt to

tre

at r

eally

his

tori

cal

subj

ects

, as

for

exa

mpl

e th

e ei

ghte

enth

ce

ntur

y, th

ey m

erel

y gi

ve a

his

tory

of

the

idea

s of

the

tim

es,

torn

aw

ay

from

the

fac

ts a

nd p

ract

ical

dev

elop

men

ts f

unda

men

tal

to t

hem

. T

hey

give

suc

h a

hist

ory

only

with

the

inte

ntio

n of

rep

rese

ntin

g th

at p

erio

d as

an

im

perf

ect

prel

imin

ary

stag

e, a

s th

e lim

ited

fore

runn

er o

f th

e re

al

hist

oric

al a

ge, t

hat

is,

the

peri

od o

f th

e G

erm

an p

hilo

soph

ical

str

uggl

e fr

om 1

840

to 1

844.

Whe

n th

e hi

stor

y of

an

earl

ier

peri

od i

s w

ritte

n w

ith

the

aim

of

brin

ging

out

the

fam

e of

an

unhi

stor

ic p

erso

n an

d hi

s fa

n-

tasi

es,

the

real

ly h

isto

rica

l ev

ents

, ev

en t

he r

eally

his

tori

c in

vasi

ons

of

polit

ics

into

his

tory

, rec

eive

no

men

tion.

Ins

tead

we

get a

nar

rativ

e ba

sed

not o

n st

udie

s bu

t on

conj

ectu

res

and

liter

ary

goss

ip s

uch

as S

aint

Bru

no

pres

ente

d in

his

now

for

gotte

n hi

stor

y of

the

eig

htee

nth

cent

ury.

The

se

pom

pous

and

hau

ghty

ide

a-pe

ddle

rs w

ho b

elie

ve t

hey

are

far

abov

e al

l na

tiona

l pr

ejud

ices

ar

e ac

tual

ly

far

mor

e na

tiona

l th

an

the

beer

- ph

ilist

ines

who

dre

am o

f a

unite

d G

erm

any.

The

y do

not

rec

ogni

ze th

e de

eds

of o

ther

nat

ions

as

hist

oric

al.

The

y tu

rn t

he R

hine

Son

g in

to a

re

ligio

us h

ymn

and

conq

uer

Als

ace-

Lor

rain

e by

rob

bing

Fre

nch

philo

so-

phy

inst

ead

of t

he F

renc

h st

ate,

by

Ger

man

izin

g F

renc

h id

eas

inst

ead

of

Fren

ch p

rovi

nces

. V

ened

ey i

s a

cosm

opol

itan

com

pare

d w

ith t

he S

aint

s B

runo

[B

auer

] an

d M

ax [

Stir

ner]

who

in

the

univ

ersa

l do

min

atio

n of

th

eory

pro

clai

m th

e un

iver

sal d

omin

atio

n of

Ger

man

y It

is

also

cle

ar f

rom

thi

s di

scus

sion

how

gro

ssly

Feu

erba

ch d

ecei

ves

him

self

whe

n he

de

clar

es h

imse

lf

a co

mm

unis

t (W

igan

d's

Vie

rtel-

jahr

ssch

rift,

11, 1

845)

by

virt

ue o

f th

e qu

alif

icat

ion

"com

mon

man

" co

n-

verte

d in

to a

pre

dica

te "

of'

Man

, an

d th

us h

e be

lieve

s it

poss

ible

to

chan

ge t

he w

ord

com

mun

ist,

whi

ch a

ctua

lly m

eans

the

fol

low

er o

f a

defi

nite

revo

lutio

nary

par

ty, i

nto

a m

ere

cate

gory

. Feu

erba

ch's

who

le d

e-

duct

ion

conc

erni

ng t

he r

elat

ion

of m

en t

o on

e an

othe

r go

es o

nly

so f

ar

as to

pro

ve th

at m

en n

eed

and

alrv

ays

have

nee

ded

one

anot

her.

He

wan

ts

to e

stab

lish

cons

ciou

snes

s of

thi

s fa

ct.

Lik

e ot

her

theo

rist

s he

wan

ts t

o br

ing

abou

t a

corr

ect

awar

enes

s of

an

exis

ting

fact

, w

here

as t

he r

eal

com

mun

ist a

ims

to o

vert

hrow

the

exis

ting

stat

e of

thi

ngs.

We

appr

ecia

te

128

Writ

ings

on H

isto

rica

l Mat

eria

lism

fully

tha

t Fe

uerb

ach,

try

ing

to p

rodu

ce c

onsc

ious

ness

of

just

thi

s fa

ct,

goes

as

far

as a

theo

rist

pos

sibl

y ca

n w

ithou

t ce

asin

g be

ing

a th

eori

st a

nd

philo

soph

er.

It i

s ch

arac

teri

stic

, ho

wev

er,

that

Sai

nt B

runo

and

Sai

nt

Max

take

Feu

erba

ch's

conc

eptio

n of

the

com

mun

ist a

nd s

ubst

itut

e it

for

the

real

com

mun

ist,

part

ly s

o th

at t

hey

too

can

com

bat

com

mun

ism

as

<c sp

irit

of t

he S

piri

t," a

s a

philo

soph

ical

cat

egor

y, a

s an

equ

al o

ppon

ent-

an

d in

the

case

of

Sain

t Bru

no a

lso

for p

ragm

atic

rea

sons

. As

an e

xam

ple

of F

euer

bach

's ac

cept

ance

and

at

the

sam

e ti

me

mis

unde

rsta

ndin

g of

ex

istin

g re

ality

, so

met

hing

he

still

sha

res

with

our

opp

onen

ts, w

e re

call

the

pass

age

in h

is P

hilo

soph

y of

the

Fut

ure

whe

re h

e de

velo

ps t

he v

iew

th

at t

he e

xist

ence

of

a th

ing

or a

man

is

at t

he s

ame

time

its

or h

is

esse

nce,

tha

t th

e co

nditi

ons

of

exis

tenc

e, t

he m

ode

of

life,

and

the

ac

tivity

of

an a

nim

al o

r hu

man

ind

ivid

ual

are

thos

e in

whi

ch i

ts o

r hi

s "e

ssen

ce"

feel

s sa

tisfi

ed. H

ere

ever

y ex

cept

ion

is e

xpre

ssly

con

ceiv

ed a

s an

unf

ortu

nate

acc

iden

t and

una

ltera

ble

abno

rmal

ity. I

f m

illio

ns o

f pr

o-

leta

rian

s in

no

way

fee

l co

nten

ted

with

the

ir c

ondi

tion

s of

lif

e, i

f th

eir

"exi

sten

ce"~

1 doe

s no

t in

the

leas

t co

rres

pond

to

thei

r "e

ssen

ce,"

th

is is

an

una

void

able

mis

fort

une

whi

ch m

ust b

e bo

rne

quie

tly. T

he

mill

ions

of

prol

etar

ians

and

com

mun

ists

, ho

wev

er,

thin

k di

ffer

ently

and

will

pro

ve

this

whe

n th

ey b

ring

thei

r "e

xist

ence

" in

to h

arm

ony

with

thei

r "e

ssen

ce"

in a

pra

ctic

al w

ay, b

y m

eans

of

revo

lutio

n. F

euer

bach

nev

er s

peak

s of

the

+

hum

an w

orld

in

such

cas

es b

ut a

lway

s ta

kes

refu

ge i

n ex

tern

al n

atur

e, i

n na

ture

as

such

, no

t ye

t su

bdue

d by

men

. B

ut e

very

new

inv

entio

n an

d ev

ery

adva

nce

mad

e by

ind

ustr

y re

mov

es a

noth

er p

orti

on o

f th

is d

omai

n so

the

grou

nd w

hich

pro

duce

s ex

ampl

es t

o ill

ustr

ate

Feue

rbac

h's

prop

o-

sitio

ns is

ste

adily

shr

inki

ng. T

he

"ess

ence

" of

the

fis

h is

its

"ex

iste

nce,

" w

ater

-to

go n

o fu

rthe

r th

an t

his

one

prop

ositi

on. T

he

"ess

ence

" of

the

fr

eshw

ater

fish

is th

e w

ater

of

a ri

ver.

But

this

cea

ses

to b

e th

e "e

ssen

ce"

of t

he f

ish

and

is n

o lo

nger

a s

uita

ble

med

ium

of

exis

tenc

e as

soo

n as

the

river

is m

ade

to s

erve

indu

stry

, as

soon

as

it is

pol

lute

d by

dye

s an

d ot

her

was

te p

rodu

cts

and

navi

gate

d by

ste

ambo

ats,

whe

n it

s w

ater

is

dive

rted

in

to c

anal

s an

d th

e fi

sh is

dep

rive

d of

its

med

ium

of

exis

tenc

e by

sim

ple

drai

nage

. Th

e ex

plan

atio

n th

at a

ll su

ch c

ontr

adic

tion

s ar

e in

evita

ble

ab-

norm

aliti

es d

oes

not

esse

ntia

lly d

iffe

r fr

om t

he c

onso

latio

n w

hich

the

B

less

ed M

ax S

tirn

er o

ffer

s [i

n T

he E

go a

nd I

ts O

wn]

to t

he d

isco

nten

ted,

sa

ying

that

this

con

trad

ictio

n is

thei

r ow

n co

ntra

dict

ion

and

this

pre

dica

- m

ent t

heir

ow

n pr

edic

amen

t, th

at th

ey s

houl

d re

lax,

or

keep

thei

r di

sgus

t to

them

selv

es,

or r

evol

t ag

ains

t it

in s

ome

fant

astic

way

. It

diff

ers

just

as

['Fro

m h

ere

to p

arag

raph

belo

w e

ndin

g 'I

. . .

lang

uage

of

real

ity.))

" ar

e tra

ns-

late

d hi

ther

to m

issin

g pa

ges

foun

d in

the

Int

erna

tiona

l Ins

titut

e of

Soc

ial H

is-

tory

, Am

sterd

am.]

The

Ger

man

Ideo

logy

12

9

little

fro

m S

aint

Bru

no's

alle

gatio

n [o

p. c

it.]

tha

t th

ese

unfo

rtun

ate

cir-

cu

mst

ance

s ar

ose

beca

use

thos

e co

ncer

ned

are

stuc

k in

the

muc

k of

"S

ubst

ance

," h

ave

not

adva

nced

to

"abs

olut

e Se

lf-c

onsc

ious

ness

," a

nd

do n

ot re

aliz

e th

at th

ese

adve

rse

cond

ition

s ar

e sp

irit

of t

heir

spi

rit.

Of

cour

se, w

e sh

all n

ot ta

ke th

e tr

oubl

e to

enl

ight

en o

ur w

ise

philo

so-

pher

s by

exp

lain

ing

to t

hem

tha

t th

e "l

iber

atio

n"

of "

man

" is

not

ad-

va

nced

a s

ingl

e st

ep b

y th

eir

redu

cing

Phi

loso

phy,

The

olog

y, S

ubst

ance

, an

d al

l th

at t

rash

to

"Sel

f-co

nsci

ousn

ess"

an

d by

the

ir l

iber

atin

g m

an

from

the

dom

inat

ion

of t

hese

phr

ases

whi

ch h

ave

neve

r he

ld h

im i

n th

rall.

((F

euer

bach

. Ph

iloso

phic

and

rea

l lib

erat

ion.

Man

. T

he

Uni

que.

T

he in

divi

dual

. Geo

logi

cal,

hydr

ogra

phic

al, e

tc.,

cond

ition

s. T

he

hum

an

body

. Nee

d an

d la

bor.)

) N

or w

ill w

e ex

plai

n to

the

m t

hat

real

lib

erat

ion

can

be a

chie

ved

only

in

the

real

wor

ld a

nd w

ith r

eal

mea

ns, t

hat

slav

ery

cann

ot b

e ab

olis

hed

with

out

the

stea

m e

ngin

e an

d th

e sp

inni

ng je

nny,

th

at s

erfd

om c

anno

t be

abol

ishe

d w

ithou

t im

prov

ed a

gric

ultu

re,

and

that

pe

ople

on

the

who

le c

anno

t be

lib

erat

ed s

o lo

ng a

s th

ey a

re u

nabl

e to

ob

tain

foo

d an

d dr

ink,

she

lter

and

clo

thin

g in

ade

quat

e qu

ality

and

qu

antit

y. "

Lib

erat

ion"

is

a h

isto

rica

l an

d no

t a

men

tal

act.

It is

eff

ecte

d by

his

tori

cal c

ondi

tions

, by

the

deve

lopm

ent o

f in

dust

ry, c

omm

erce

, agr

i-

cultu

re, t

rans

port

atio

n [m

anus

crip

t pag

e da

mag

ed, u

nrea

dabl

e]

In G

erm

any,

a c

ount

ry w

here

onl

y a

shab

by h

isto

rica

l de

velo

pmen

t is

occu

rrin

g, t

hese

men

tal

deve

lopm

ents

, th

ese

glor

ifie

d an

d in

effe

ctiv

e tri

vial

ities

, nat

ural

ly s

erve

as

a su

bsti

tute

for

the

lack

of

hist

oric

al d

evel

- op

men

t, an

d th

ey ta

ke r

oot a

nd h

ave

to b

e co

mba

ted.

But

this

is a

figh

t of

loca

l si

gnif

ican

ce.

((Ph

rase

s an

d re

al m

ovem

ent.

Th

e im

port

ance

of

phra

ses

in G

erm

any.

Lan

guag

e is

the

lang

uage

of

real

ity.))

In

eve

ry e

poch

the

idea

s of

the

rul

ing

clas

s ar

e th

e ru

ling

idea

s, th

at is

, th

e cl

ass

that

is t

he r

ulin

g m

ater

ial

pow

er o

f so

ciet

y is

at

the

sam

e tim

e its

rul

ing

inte

llect

ual

pow

er.

Th

e cl

ass

havi

ng t

he m

eans

of

mat

e6al

pr

oduc

tion

has

also

con

trol

ove

r th

e m

eans

of

inte

llect

ual p

rodu

ctio

n, s

o th

at i

t al

so c

ontr

ols,

gen

eral

ly s

peak

ing,

the

ide

as o

f th

ose

who

lack

the

m

eans

of

inte

llect

ual

prod

uctio

n. T

he

ruli

ng i

deas

are

not

hing

mor

e th

an t

he id

eal e

xpre

ssio

n of

the

dom

inan

t m

ater

ial

rela

tions

hips

gra

sped

as

idea

s, h

ence

of

the

rela

tions

hips

whi

ch m

ake

the

one

clas

s th

e ru

ling

on

e an

d th

eref

ore

the

idea

s of

it

s do

min

atio

n. T

he

indi

vidu

als

who

co

mpr

ise

the

ruli

ng c

lass

pos

sess

am

ong

othe

r th

ings

con

scio

usne

ss a

nd

thou

ght.

Inso

far

as t

hey

rule

as

a cl

ass

and

dete

rmin

e th

e ex

tent

of

a hi

stor

ical

epo

ch,

it is

sel

f-ev

iden

t th

at t

hey

do i

t in

its

ent

ire

rang

e.

Am

ong

othe

r th

ings

the

y ru

le a

lso

as t

hink

ers

and

prod

ucer

s of

ide

as

and

regu

late

the

pro

duct

ion

and

dist

ribu

tion

of t

he i

deas

of

thei

r ag

e.

The

ir id

eas

are

the

ruli

ng id

eas

of t

he e

poch

. For

exa

mpl

e, in

an

age

and

in a

cou

ntry

whe

re r

oyal

pow

er, a

rist

ocra

cy, a

nd b

ourg

eois

ie a

re c

onte

nd-

130

Writ

ings

on H

istor

ical

Mat

eria

lism

ing

for

dom

inat

ion

and

whe

re c

ontr

ol i

s sh

ared

, th

e do

ctri

ne o

f th

e se

para

tion

of p

ower

s pr

oves

to b

e th

e do

min

ant

idea

and

is

expr

esse

d as

an

"et

erna

l law

." T

he d

ivis

ion

of l

abor

, whi

ch w

e sa

w a

bove

(pp

. [42

4-25

1) a

s on

e of

the

ch

ief

forc

es o

f hi

stor

y up

till

now

, is

expr

esse

d al

so in

the

rul

ing

clas

s as

th

e di

visi

on o

f m

enta

l an

d m

ater

ial

labo

r, so

tha

t w

ithin

thi

s cl

ass

one

part

app

ears

as

the

thin

kers

of

the

clas

s (i

ts a

ctiv

e, c

once

ptiv

e id

eolo

gist

s w

ho m

ake

perf

ectin

g th

e ill

usio

n of

thi

s cl

ass

abou

t its

elf

thei

r m

ain

sour

ce o

f liv

elih

ood)

, whi

le t

he o

ther

s' a

ttit

ude

tow

ard

thes

e id

eas

and

illus

ions

is m

ore

pass

ive

and

rece

ptiv

e be

caus

e th

ey a

re r

eally

the

act

ive

mem

bers

of

this

cla

ss a

nd h

ave

less

tim

e to

mak

e up

illu

sion

s an

d id

eas

abou

t th

emse

lves

. Wit

hin

this

cla

ss t

his

split

can

eve

n de

velo

p in

to o

p-

posi

tion

and

host

ility

bet

wee

n th

e tw

o pa

rts,

whi

ch d

isap

pear

s, h

owev

er,

in t

he c

ase

of a

pra

ctic

al c

ollis

ion

whe

re t

he c

lass

its

elf

is i

n da

nger

. In

th

is c

ase

the

appe

aran

ce th

at th

e ru

ling

idea

s wer

e no

t ide

as o

f th

e ru

ling

cl

ass

with

a p

ower

dis

tinc

t fr

om t

he p

ower

of

this

cla

ss a

lso

vani

shes

. T

he

exis

tenc

e of

rev

olut

iona

ry id

eas

in a

par

ticul

ar e

poch

pre

supp

oses

th

e ex

iste

nce

of a

rev

olut

iona

ry c

lass

. Abo

ut t

he p

rem

ises

for

the

lat

ter

C

~1

we

have

mad

e su

ffic

ient

com

men

t abo

ve (

pp. [

427-

281)

. If

in

cons

ider

ing

the

cour

se o

f hi

stor

y w

e de

tach

the

ide

as o

f th

e ru

ling

clas

s fr

om th

e ru

ling

cla

ss it

self

and

att

ribu

te to

them

an

inde

pen-

de

nt e

xist

ence

, if

we

conf

ine

ours

elve

s to

sayi

ng th

at th

ese

or t

hose

ide

as

prev

aile

d in

a c

erta

in e

poch

with

out

both

erin

g ou

rsel

ves

abou

t th

eir

cond

ition

s of

pro

duct

ion

or p

rodu

cers

, if

we

iglio

re t

he i

ndiv

idua

ls a

nd

wor

ld c

ondi

tions

whi

ch a

re t

he s

ourc

e of

the

ide

as,

we

can

say,

for

ex

ampl

e, t

hat

duri

ng t

he t

ime

whe

n ar

isto

crac

y w

as d

omin

ant

the

con-

ce

pts

of h

onor

, loy

alty

, etc

., pr

evai

led,

dur

ing

the

dom

inio

n of

the

bou

r-

geoi

sie,

the

con

cept

s of

fre

edom

, eq

ualit

y, e

tc.

Th

e ru

ling

cla

ss i

tsel

f ge

nera

lly im

agin

es th

is t

o be

the

cas

e. T

his

conc

eptio

n of

his

tory

, com

- m

on to

all

hist

oria

ns p

artic

ular

ly s

ince

the

eigh

teen

th c

entu

ry, w

ill n

eces

- sa

rily

com

e up

aga

inst

the

phe

nom

enon

tha

t in

crea

sing

ly t

he a

bstr

act

idea

s pr

evai

l, th

at i

s, i

deas

tha

t in

crea

sing

ly ta

ke o

n th

e fo

rm o

f un

iver

- sa

lity.

Eac

h ne

w c

lass

whi

ch d

ispl

aces

the

one

pre

viou

sly

dom

inan

t is

fo

rced

, sim

ply

to b

e ab

le t

o ca

rry

out i

ts a

im, t

o re

pres

ent

its i

nter

est

as

the

com

mon

inte

rest

of

all m

embe

rs o

f so

ciet

y, th

at is

, ide

ally

exp

ress

ed.

It h

as to

giv

e its

idea

s th

e fo

rm o

f un

iver

salit

y an

d re

pres

ent

them

as

the

only

ratio

nal,

univ

ersa

lly v

alid

one

s. T

he

clas

s m

akin

g re

volu

tion

emer

ges

at t

he o

utse

t si

mpl

y be

caus

e it

is o

ppos

ed t

o a

clas

s no

t as

a c

lass

but

as

a re

pres

enta

tive

of t

he w

hole

of

soci

ety.

It

appe

ars

as t

he w

hole

mas

s of

so

ciet

y co

nfro

ntin

g on

e ru

ling

cla

ss.

((U

nive

rsal

ity c

orre

spon

ds t

o (1

) cl

ass

vers

us e

stat

e, (

2) c

ompe

titio

n, w

orld

tra

de,

etc.

, (3

) th

e gr

eat

The

Ger

man

Ideo

logy

13

1

num

eric

al s

tren

gth

of t

he r

ulin

g cl

ass,

(4) t

he il

lusi

on o

f co

mm

on in

tere

sts

(in

the

begi

nnin

g th

is il

lusi

on is

true

), (

5) th

e de

lusi

on o

f id

eolo

gist

s an

d th

e di

visi

on o

f la

bor.)

) It

can

do

this

bec

ause

in

the

begi

nnin

g it

s in

tere

st

real

ly i

s m

ore

atta

ched

to

the

com

mon

int

eres

t of

all

othe

r no

n-ru

ling

cl

asse

s an

d be

caus

e un

der

the

pres

sure

of

prev

ailin

g co

nditi

ons

its

inte

r-

est h

as n

ot y

et b

een

able

to d

evel

op a

s th

e pa

rtic

ular

int

eres

t of

a pa

rtic

u-

lar

clas

s. I

ts v

icto

ry,

ther

efor

e, b

enef

its

also

man

y in

divi

dual

s of

oth

er

clas

ses

whi

ch d

o no

t w

in p

ower

but

onl

y in

sofa

r as

it

now

put

s th

ese

indi

vidu

als

in a

pos

ition

to r

aise

the

mse

lves

into

the

rul

ing

clas

s. W

hen

the

Fren

ch b

ourg

eois

ie o

vert

hrew

the

pow

er o

f th

e ar

isto

crac

y, it

per

mit-

te

d m

any

prol

etar

ians

to

rais

e th

emse

lves

abo

ve t

he p

role

tari

at,

but

only

in

sofa

r as

the

y be

cam

e bo

urge

ois.

Eve

ry n

ew c

lass

, th

eref

ore,

ach

ieve

s do

min

ance

onl

y on

a b

road

er b

asis

than

that

of

the

prev

ious

cla

ss ru

ling,

w

here

as t

he o

ppos

ition

of

the

non-

ruli

ng c

lass

aga

inst

the

new

rul

ing

clas

s la

ter

deve

lops

all

the

mor

e sh

arpl

y an

d de

eply

. B

oth

thes

e fa

ctor

s m

ean

that

the

stru

ggle

to b

e w

aged

aga

inst

this

new

rul

ing

clas

s ai

ms

at a

m

ore

deci

ded

and

mor

e ra

dica

l ne

gatio

n of

the

pre

viou

s co

nditi

ons

of

soci

ety

than

cou

ld a

ll pr

evio

us c

lass

es s

triv

ing

for d

omin

ance

. T

his

enti

re a

ppea

ranc

e, th

at th

e ru

le o

f a

cert

ain

clas

s is

onl

y th

e ru

le

of ce

rtai

n id

eas,

com

es to

a n

atur

al e

nd a

s so

on a

s cl

ass

rule

in

gene

ral

ceas

es t

o be

the

for

m i

n w

hich

soc

iety

is o

rgan

ized

, as

soo

n as

it

is n

o lo

nger

nec

essa

ry t

o re

pres

ent

a pa

rtic

ular

int

eres

t as

gen

eral

or

"the

ge

nera

l int

eres

t" a

s do

min

ant.

Whe

n ru

ling

idea

s ar

e se

para

ted

from

rul

ing

indi

vidu

als

and

abov

e al

l fr

om re

latio

nshi

ps re

sulti

ng f

rom

a g

iven

leve

l of

the

mod

e of

pro

duct

ion

and

the

conc

lusi

on h

as b

een

reac

hed

that

idea

s ar

e al

way

s ru

ling

his

tory

, it

is v

ery

easy

to

abst

ract

fro

m t

hese

var

ious

ide

as "

the

idea

s," t

he I

dea,

et

c.,

as t

he d

omin

ant

forc

e in

his

tory

and

thu

s un

ders

tand

all

thes

e se

para

te i

deas

and

con

cept

s as

"Se

lf-d

eter

min

atio

ns"

of t

he C

once

pt

deve

lopi

ng in

his

tory

. It

fol

low

s, o

f co

urse

, th

at a

ll th

e re

latio

nshi

ps o

f m

en c

an b

e de

rive

d fr

om t

he c

once

pt o

f m

an,

man

as

conc

eive

d, t

he

esse

nce

of m

an,

Man

. T

his

has

been

don

e in

spe

cula

tive

philo

soph

y.

((H

egel

him

self

adm

its a

t th

e en

d of

the

Phi

loso

phy

of H

isto

ry t

hat

he

"has

con

side

red

the

prog

ress

of

the

Con

cept

onl

y" a

nd h

as p

rese

nted

the

"t

rue

theo

dicy

" in

his

tory

(p.

446

).))

Now

one

can

go

back

aga

in to

the

pr

oduc

ers

of "

the

Con

cept

,"

to t

he t

heor

ists

, id

eolo

gist

s, a

nd p

hilo

so-

pher

s,

and

one

com

es t

o th

e co

nclu

sion

tha

t th

e ph

iloso

pher

s,

the

thin

kers

as

such

, hav

e al

way

s be

en d

omin

ant i

n hi

story

-a

conc

lusi

on, a

s we

see

, alr

eady

adv

ance

d by

Heg

el. T

hus

the

who

le t

rick

of

prov

ing

the

hege

mon

y (S

tirn

er c

alls

it

hier

arch

y) o

f Sp

irit

in

hist

ory

is c

onfi

ned

to

the

follo

win

g th

ree

effo

rts.

132

Wri

tings

on H

isto

rica

l Mat

eria

lisnz

No.

1.

One

mus

t se

para

te t

he i

deas

of

thos

e ru

ling

for

em

piri

cal

reas

ons,

und

er e

mpi

rica

l con

ditio

ns, a

nd a

s m

ater

ial i

ndiv

idua

ls fr

om th

e ac

tual

rule

rs;

one

mus

t rec

ogni

ze t

he r

ule

of i

deas

or

illus

ions

in h

isto

ry.

No.

2.

One

mus

t pu

t or

der

into

thi

s ru

le o

f id

eas,

pro

ve a

mys

tical

co

nnec

tion

amon

g th

e su

cces

sive

rul

ing

idea

s, w

hich

is

man

aged

by

seei

ng t

hem

as

"sel

f-de

term

inat

ions

of

the

Con

cept

" (t

his

is p

ossi

ble

beca

use

thes

e id

eas

are

actu

ally

con

nect

ed w

ith o

ne a

noth

er b

y vi

rtue

of

thei

r em

piri

cal

basi

s an

d be

caus

e as

m

ere

idea

s th

ey b

ecom

e se

lf-

dist

inct

ions

, dis

tinct

ions

mad

e by

tho

ught

).

No.

3.

To

rem

ove

the

mys

tical

app

eara

nce

of t

his

"sel

f-de

term

inin

g C

once

pt"

one

chan

ges

it in

to a

per

son-

"Sel

f-C

onsc

ious

ness

"-or

, to

m

ake

it ap

pear

tho

roug

hly

mat

eria

listic

, in

to a

ser

ies

of p

erso

ns w

ho

repr

esen

t "t

he C

once

pt"

in h

isto

ry, i

nto

"the

thi

nker

s,"

"phi

loso

pher

s,"

ideo

logi

sts

who

aga

in a

re u

nder

stoo

d as

the

man

ufac

ture

rs o

f hi

stor

y,

"the

cou

ncil

of g

uard

ians

," t

he r

uler

s. (

(Man

= th

e "r

atio

nal

hum

an

spiri

t."))

Thu

s al

l mat

eria

listic

ele

men

ts h

ave

been

rem

oved

fro

m h

isto

ry

and

full

rein

can

be

give

n to

one

's sp

ecul

ativ

e ste

ed.

Thi

s hi

stor

ical

met

hod

whi

ch p

reva

iled

in G

erm

any

and

part

icul

arly

th

e re

ason

why

it

prev

aile

d m

ust

be e

xpla

ined

fro

m i

ts c

onne

ctio

n w

ith

the

illus

ion

of i

deol

ogis

ts in

gen

eral

, fo

r ex

ampl

e, th

e ill

usio

ns o

f ju

rist

s,

polit

icia

ns (

even

of

the

prac

tical

sta

tesm

en a

mon

g th

em),

and

fro

m t

he

dogm

atic

dre

amin

gs a

nd d

isto

rtio

ns o

f th

ese

fello

ws.

It

is v

ery

sim

ply

expl

aine

d fr

om th

eir

prac

tical

pos

ition

in

life,

thei

r em

ploy

men

t, an

d th

e di

visi

on o

f la

bor.

Whi

le in

ord

inar

y lif

e ev

ery

shop

keep

er i

s ve

ry w

ell a

ble

to d

istin

guis

h be

twee

n w

hat s

omeb

ody

prof

esse

s to

be

and

wha

t he

real

ly is

, our

his

to-

rian

s ha

ve n

ot y

et a

chie

ved

this

tri

vial

ins

ight

. T

hey

take

eve

ry e

poch

at

its w

ord

and

belie

ve

ever

ythi

ng

it sa

ys

and

imag

ines

ab

out

itsel

f. [P

ages

36

thro

ugh

39 in

Mam

's pa

gina

tion

mis

sing

her

e.]

[Div

isio

n of

Lab

or][

. .

. ] a

re f

ound

. Fr

om t

he f

irst

, th

ere

follo

ws

the

prem

ise

of a

hig

hly

deve

lope

d di

visi

on o

f la

bor

and

exte

nsiv

e co

mm

erce

; fr

om t

he s

econ

d, t

he l

ocal

ity.

In t

he f

irst

cas

e, i

ndiv

idua

ls m

ust

be

brou

ght t

oget

her;

in th

e se

cond

, the

y fi

nd th

emse

lves

alo

ngsi

de th

e gi

ven

inst

rum

ent

of

prod

uctio

n as

ins

trum

ents

of

prod

ucti

on

them

selv

es.

Her

e ar

ises

the

dif

fere

nce

betw

een

natu

ral

inst

rum

ents

of

prod

ucti

on

and

thos

e cr

eate

d by

civ

iliza

tion.

Th

e la

nd (

wat

er, e

tc.)

can

be

rega

rded

as

a n

atur

al in

stru

men

t of

pro

duct

ion.

In

the

firs

t cas

e, w

ith t

he n

atur

al

inst

rum

ent

of p

rodu

ctio

n, i

ndiv

idua

ls a

re s

ubse

rvie

nt t

o na

ture

; in

the

se

cond

, to

a pr

oduc

t of

lab

or. I

n th

e fi

rst c

ase,

pro

pert

y (l

ande

d pr

oper

ty)

appe

ars

as d

irec

t nat

ural

dom

inat

ion;

in t

he s

econ

d, a

s do

min

atio

n of

la-

bo

r, pa

rtic

ular

ly o

f ac

cum

ulat

ed l

abor

, cap

ital.

Th

e fi

rst c

ase

pres

uppo

ses

The G

erm

an Id

eolo

gy

133

that

the

indi

vidu

als

are

unite

d by

som

e bo

nd:

fam

ily, t

ribe

, the

land

itse

lf,

etc.

Th

e se

cond

cas

e pr

esup

pose

s th

at t

hey

are

inde

pend

ent

of o

ne

anot

her

and

are

only

hel

d to

geth

er b

y ex

chan

ge.

In t

he f

irst

cas

e, t

he

exch

ange

is m

ainl

y an

exc

hang

e be

twee

n m

en a

nd n

atur

e in

whi

ch t

he

labo

r of

men

is e

xcha

nged

for

the

prod

ucts

of

natu

re; i

n th

e se

cond

, it i

s pr

edom

inan

tly a

n ex

chan

ge o

f m

en a

mon

g th

emse

lves

. In

the

fir

st c

ase,

av

erag

e hu

man

com

mon

sen

se s

uffi

ces;

phy

sica

l ac

tivity

is

not

as y

et

sepa

rate

d fr

om m

enta

l act

ivity

. In

the

seco

nd, t

he d

ivis

ion

betw

een

phys

i- ca

l an

d m

enta

l la

bor

alre

ady

mus

t be

pra

ctic

ally

com

plet

ed.

In t

he f

irst

ca

se,

the

dom

inat

ion

of

the

prop

riet

or

over

non

-pro

prie

tors

m

ay b

e ba

sed

on a

per

sona

l rel

atio

nshi

p or

kin

d of

com

mun

ity;

in th

e se

cond

, it

mus

t ha

ve t

aken

on

phys

ical

sha

pe i

n a

thir

d pa

rty:

mon

ey. I

n th

e fi

rst

case

, sm

all i

ndus

try

exis

ts, b

ut d

eter

min

ed b

y th

e ut

iliza

tion

of t

he n

atu-

ra

l in

stru

men

t of

pro

duct

ion

and

henc

e w

ithou

t di

stri

butio

n of

lab

or

amon

g va

riou

s in

divi

dual

s; i

n th

e se

cond

, in

dust

ry e

xist

s on

ly i

n an

d th

roug

h di

visi

on o

f la

bor.

We

star

ted

from

ins

trum

ents

of

prod

ucti

on a

nd s

how

ed t

hat

priv

ate

prop

erty

was

a n

eces

sity

for

cer

tain

ind

ustr

ial

stag

es. I

n in

dust

rie

extr

ac-

tive

priv

ate

prop

erty

stil

l co

inci

des

with

lab

or.

In s

mal

l in

dust

ry a

nd

agri

cultu

re u

p til

l no

w p

rope

rty

is t

he n

eces

sary

con

sequ

ence

of

the

exis

ting

inst

rum

ents

of

prod

uctio

n.

Onl

y w

ith b

ig i

ndus

try

does

the

co

ntra

dict

ion

betw

een

the

inst

rum

ent

of p

rodu

ctio

n an

d pr

ivat

e pr

oper

ty

appe

ar; i

t is

the

prod

uct o

f bi

g in

dust

ry. I

n ad

ditio

n, b

ig in

dust

ry m

ust b

e hi

ghly

dev

elop

ed t

o pr

oduc

e it.

Onl

y w

ith b

ig in

dust

ry is

the

abol

ition

of

priv

ate

prop

erty

pos

sibl

e.

The

gre

ates

t div

isio

n of

mat

eria

l an

d in

telle

ctua

l la

bor

is t

he s

epar

a-

tion

of t

own

and

coun

try.

Th

e op

posi

tion

betw

een

the

two

begi

ns w

ith

the

tran

sitio

n fr

om b

arba

rism

to

civi

lizat

ion,

fro

m t

he t

ribe

to

the

stat

e,

from

loca

lity

to n

atio

n, a

nd r

uns

thro

ugh

the

who

le h

isto

ry o

f ci

viliz

atbn

to

the

pre

sent

day

(th

e A

nti-

Cor

n-L

aw

Lea

gue)

. W

ith t

he e

xist

ence

of

tow

ns t

here

is t

he n

eces

sity

of

adm

inis

trat

ion,

pol

ice,

taxe

s, e

tc.,

in s

hort

of

mun

icip

al li

fe a

nd th

us p

oliti

cs in

gen

eral

. Her

e fi

rst b

ecam

e ap

pare

nt

the

divi

sion

of

the

popu

latio

n in

to tw

o gr

eat c

lass

es d

irec

tly b

ased

on

the

divi

sion

of

labo

r an

d th

e in

stru

men

ts o

f pr

oduc

tion.

Th

e to

wn

alre

ady

show

s in

act

ual

fact

a c

once

ntra

tion

of p

opul

atio

n, o

f in

stru

men

ts o

f pr

oduc

tion,

of

capi

tal,

satis

fact

ions

, and

nee

ds,

whi

le t

he c

ount

ry d

em-

onst

rate

s the

opp

osite

, iso

latio

n an

d se

para

tion.

Th

e an

tago

nism

bet

wee

n to

wn

and

coun

try

can

exis

t on

ly w

ith p

riva

te p

rope

rty.

It

is t

he c

rass

est

expr

essi

on o

f th

e su

bsum

ptio

n of

the

ind

ivid

ual

unde

r th

e di

visi

on o

f la

bor,

unde

r a

defi

nite

act

ivity

for

ced

upon

him

, a

subs

umpt

ion

mak

ing

one

man

int

o a

narr

ow t

own

anim

al,

the

othe

r in

to a

nar

row

cou

ntry

an

imal

, and

eve

ry d

ay c

reat

es a

new

the

con

flic

t be

twee

n th

eir

inte

rest

s.

134

Wri

tings

on H

isto

rica

l Mat

eria

lism

Lab

or is

aga

in th

e m

ain

thin

g he

re, p

ower

ove

r ind

ivid

uals

, and

as

long

as

this

pow

er e

xist

s, p

riva

te p

rope

rty

mus

t ex

ist.

Th

e ov

erco

min

g of

the

an

tago

nism

bet

wee

n to

wn

and

coun

try

is o

ne o

f th

e fi

rst

cond

ition

s of

co

mm

unal

lif

e, a

con

ditio

n de

pend

ing

on a

mas

s of

mat

eria

l pr

emis

es.

Mer

e w

ill, a

s an

yone

can

see

at f

irst

gla

nce,

can

not

fulf

ill t

his

cond

ition

. (W

e w

ill h

ave

to d

iscu

ss th

ese

cond

ition

s.)

Sepa

rati

on o

f to

wn

and

coun

- tr

y ca

n al

so b

e un

ders

tood

as

the

sepa

ratio

n of

cap

ital

and

land

ed p

rop-

er

ty,

as t

he b

egin

ning

of

capi

tal's

exi

sten

ce a

nd d

evel

opm

ent i

ndep

en-

dent

of

land

ed p

rope

rty,

the

beg

inni

ng o

f pr

oper

ty b

ased

onl

y on

lab

or

and

exch

ange

. In

tow

ns th

at h

ad n

ot e

xist

ed b

efor

e bu

t wer

e ne

wly

bui

lt by

fre

ed s

erfs

in

the

Mid

dle

Age

s, ea

ch m

an's

part

icul

ar l

abor

was

his

onl

y pr

oper

ty

exce

pt f

or t

he s

mal

l ca

pita

l he

bro

ught

with

him

con

sist

ing

only

of

the

mos

t ne

cess

ary

tool

s of

his

cra

ft.

Th

e co

mpe

titio

n of

ser

fs c

onst

antly

ta

king

ref

uge

in t

he t

owns

, th

e co

nsta

nt w

ar o

f th

e co

untr

y ag

ains

t th

e to

wn,

and

thu

s th

e ne

cess

ity o

f an

org

aniz

ed m

unic

ipal

mili

tary

for

ce,

the

bond

of

com

mon

ow

ners

hip

in a

par

ticul

ar k

ind

of l

abor

, the

nec

es-

sity

of

shar

ing

build

ings

for

the

sale

of

thei

r w

ares

whe

n cr

afts

men

wer

e +

al

so t

rade

rs,

and

cons

eque

ntly

the

exc

lusi

on o

f un

auth

oriz

ed p

erso

ns

4

from

the

se b

uild

ings

, the

con

flic

t of

int

eres

ts a

mon

g va

riou

s cr

afts

, th

e ne

cess

ity o

f pr

otec

ting

thei

r la

bori

ousl

y ac

quir

ed s

kill,

and

the

feu

dal

orga

niza

tion

of t

he e

ntir

e co

untry

-all

thes

e w

ere

caus

es o

f th

e un

ion

of

wor

kers

of

each

cra

ft i

nto

guild

s. A

t th

is p

oint

we

need

not

go

furt

her

into

the

num

erou

s m

odif

icat

ions

of

the

guild

sys

tem

with

late

r hi

stor

ical

de

velo

pmen

ts. T

he

flig

ht o

f se

rfs

into

the

tow

ns c

onti

nued

with

out i

nter

- ru

ptio

n th

roug

h th

e en

tire

Mid

dle

Age

s. T

hese

ser

fs,

pers

ecut

ed

by

thei

r lo

rds

in t

he c

ount

ry,

cam

e se

para

tely

int

o th

e to

wns

whe

re t

hey

foun

d an

org

aniz

ed c

omm

unity

aga

inst

whi

ch t

hey

wer

e po

wer

less

and

in

whi

ch t

hey

had

to a

djus

t to

the

sta

tion

whi

ch t

heir

org

aniz

ed u

rban

co

mpe

titor

s ass

igne

d to

the

m a

ccor

ding

to t

heir

nee

d of

lab

or a

nd t

heir

in

tere

st.

Arr

ivin

g se

para

tely

, the

se w

orke

rs w

ere

neve

r ab

le t

o ga

in a

ny

pow

er b

ecau

se if

the

ir l

abor

was

of

the

guild

type

and

had

to

be le

arne

d,

the

guild

mas

ters

put

the

m i

n su

bjec

tion

and

orga

nize

d th

em a

ccor

ding

to

the

ir i

nter

est.

If t

heir

lab

or w

as n

ot o

f th

is t

ype

but

rath

er d

ay la

bor,

they

nev

er m

anag

ed t

o or

gani

ze t

hem

selv

es a

nd r

emai

ned

unor

gani

zed

rabb

le. T

he

need

for

day

labo

r in

the

tow

ns c

reat

ed t

he ra

bble

. T

hese

tow

ns w

ere

true

"as

soci

atio

ns"

crea

ted

by a

dir

ect

need

to

prov

ide

for p

rote

ctio

n of

pro

pert

y, m

ultip

ly th

e m

eans

of

prod

ucti

on, a

nd

defe

nd t

he in

divi

dual

mem

bers

. Th

e ra

bble

of

thes

e to

wns

was

dep

rive

d of

all

pow

er.

It w

as c

ompo

sed

of i

ndiv

idua

ls w

ho w

ere

stra

nge

to o

ne

anot

her,

had

arr

ived

sep

arat

ely,

wer

e un

orga

nize

d, a

nd f

aced

an

orga

- ni

zed

pow

er a

rmed

for

war

and

jea

lous

ly s

uper

visi

ng th

em.

In e

ach

craf

t jo

urne

ymen

and

app

rent

ices

wer

e or

gani

zed

as b

est

suite

d th

eir

mas

ter's

The G

erm

an Id

eolo

gy

135

inte

rest

. T

heir

pat

riar

chal

rel

atio

nshi

p w

ith t

heir

mas

ters

gav

e th

e m

as-

ters

a d

oubl

e po

wer

, fir

st b

ecau

se o

f th

eir

dire

ct in

flue

nce

on a

ll as

pect

s of

lif

e of

the

jou

rney

men

and

sec

ondl

y be

caus

e th

ere

was

a r

eal

bond

un

iting

the

jou

rney

men

w

ho w

orke

d fo

r th

e sa

me

mas

ter,

a

bond

se

para

ting

them

fro

m jo

urne

ymen

wor

king

for

othe

r m

aste

rs. A

nd f

inal

ly

the

jour

neym

en w

ere

boun

d to

the

exi

stin

g or

der

by t

heir

int

eres

t in

be

com

ing

mas

ters

them

selv

es. W

hile

the

rab

ble

at le

ast c

arri

ed o

ut s

ome

revo

lts a

gain

st t

he w

hole

mun

icip

al o

rder

, re

volts

tha

t re

mai

ned

com

- pl

etel

y in

effe

ctiv

e be

caus

e of

the

ir i

mpo

tenc

e, t

he j

ourn

eym

en h

ad o

nly

insi

gnif

ican

t sq

uabb

les

with

in t

heir

gui

ld a

nd s

uch

as p

erta

in t

o th

e na

ture

of

the

syst

em. T

he

grea

t rev

olts

of

the

Mid

dle

Age

s al

l sta

rted

in

the

coun

try.

The

y, t

oo,

rem

aine

d to

tally

ine

ffec

tive

beca

use

of t

he d

is-

pers

al a

nd r

esul

ting

crue

lty o

f th

e pe

asan

ts.

Cap

ital

in t

hese

tow

ns c

onsi

sted

of

a ho

use,

too

ls o

f th

e cr

aft,

and

natu

ral h

ered

itary

cus

tom

ers;

it w

as n

atur

al c

apita

l. Si

nce

it w

as u

nrea

liz-

able

bec

ause

of

the

prim

itive

for

m o

f co

mm

erce

and

lack

of

circ

ulat

ion,

it

had

to d

esce

nd f

rom

fath

er to

son

. Unl

ike

mod

ern

capi

tal w

hich

can

be

appr

aise

d m

onet

arily

and

inve

sted

in

this

thi

ng o

r th

at,

this

nat

ural

cap

i-

tal

was

dir

ectly

tie

d up

with

the

par

ticul

ar w

ork

of

the

owne

r, w

as

inse

para

ble

from

it, a

nd w

as th

us e

stat

e ca

pita

l. In

the

tow

ns th

e di

visi

on o

f la

bor b

etw

een

the

vari

ous

guild

s w

as q

uite

na

tura

l; in

the

gui

lds

them

selv

es i

t w

as n

ot a

ll ca

rrie

d ou

t am

ong

the

indi

vidu

al w

orke

rs. E

very

wor

ker

had

to b

e w

ell v

erse

d in

a w

hole

rou

nd

of t

asks

and

had

to

be a

ble

to m

ake

all t

hing

s th

at c

ould

be

mad

e w

ith h

is

tool

s. T

he

limite

d co

mm

erce

and

the

lac

k of

go

od c

omm

unic

atio

ns

betw

een

indi

vidu

al t

owns

, th

e la

ck o

f po

pula

tion,

and

lim

ited

need

s di

d no

t per

mit

a hi

gher

div

isio

n of

lab

or. E

very

man

who

set

out

to b

ecom

e a

mas

ter

craf

tsm

an h

ad t

o be

pro

fici

ent

in t

he w

hole

of

his

craf

t. T

he

med

ieva

l cr

afts

men

stil

l ex

hibi

ted

an i

nter

est

in t

heir

spe

cial

wor

k an

d-

thei

r sk

ill i

n it

whi

ch c

ould

dev

elop

to

a ce

rtai

n lim

ited

artis

tic t

alen

t. Fo

r th

at v

ery

reas

on, h

owev

er, e

very

med

ieva

l cra

ftsm

an w

as c

ompl

etel

y ab

sorb

ed in

his

wor

k, h

ad a

con

tent

ed s

lavi

sh r

elat

ions

hip

to i

t, an

d w

as

subj

ecte

d to

it

to a

far

gre

ater

ext

ent

than

is

the

mod

ern

wor

ker

for

who

m h

is w

ork

is a

mat

ter

of in

diff

eren

ce.

Th

e ne

xt e

xten

sion

of

the

divi

sion

of

labo

r w

as t

he s

epar

atio

n of

pr

oduc

tion

and

com

mer

ce a

nd t

he f

orm

atio

n of

a s

peci

al c

lass

of

mer

- ch

ants

, a

sepa

ratio

n w

hich

had

bee

n ha

nded

dow

n (a

s fo

r ex

ampl

e w

ith

the

Jew

s) i

n es

tabl

ishe

d to

wns

and

soo

n ap

pear

ed i

n ne

w o

nes.

With

this

th

ere

was

th

e po

ssib

ility

of

com

mer

ce

tran

scen

ding

the

im

med

iate

ne

ighb

orho

od, a

nd t

he r

ealiz

atio

n of

thi

s po

ssib

ility

dep

ende

d on

exi

st-

ing

mea

ns o

f co

mm

unic

atio

n, t

he s

tate

of

publ

ic s

afet

y in

the

cou

n-

trysi

de d

eter

min

ed b

y po

litic

al c

ondi

tions

(th

roug

hout

the

Mid

dle

Age

s th

e m

erch

ants

tra

vele

d in

arm

ed c

arav

ans,

as

is w

ell

know

n), a

nd o

n th

e

136

Wri

tings

on

His

tori

cal M

ater

ialis

m

crud

er o

r m

ore

deve

lope

d ne

eds

of t

he a

rea

acce

ssib

le t

o co

mm

erce

as

dete

rmin

ed b

y th

e st

age

of c

ultu

re.

Wit

h co

mm

erce

as

the

prop

er b

usi-

ne

ss o

f a

part

icul

ar c

lass

and

ext

ensi

on o

f tr

ade

thro

ugh

the

mer

chan

ts

beyo

nd t

he im

med

iate

sur

roun

ding

s of

the

tow

n, a

n im

med

iate

rec

ipro

- ca

l act

ion

betw

een

prod

ucti

on a

nd c

omm

erce

app

eare

d. T

he

tow

ns e

n-

tere

d in

to r

elat

ions

with

one

ano

ther

. N

ew t

ools

wer

e br

ough

t fr

om o

ne

tow

n in

to t

he o

ther

. T

he

divi

sion

bet

wee

n pr

oduc

tion

and

com

mer

ce

soon

cre

ated

a n

ew d

ivis

ion

of p

rodu

ctio

n am

ong

indi

vidu

al to

wns

, eac

h ex

ploi

ting

a pr

edom

inan

t br

anch

of

indu

stry

. E

arlie

r lo

cal

rest

rict

ions

gr

adua

lly b

roke

dow

n.

It d

epen

ds e

ntir

ely

on t

he e

xten

sion

of

com

mer

ce w

heth

er t

he p

ro-

duct

ive

forc

es, e

spec

ially

inv

entio

ns, i

n a

loca

lity

are

lost

for

late

r de

vel-

opm

ent o

r no

t. A

s lo

ng a

s th

ere

is n

o co

mm

erce

bey

ond

the

imm

edia

te

neig

hbor

hood

, eve

ry in

vent

ion

mus

t be

sep

arat

ely

mad

e in

eac

h lo

calit

y.

Pure

acc

iden

ts s

uch

as e

rupt

ions

of

barb

aric

peo

ples

and

eve

n or

dina

ry

war

s ar

e en

ough

to c

ause

a c

ount

ry w

ith a

dvan

ced

prod

uctiv

e fo

rces

and

ne

eds

to s

tart

all

over

aga

in f

rom

the

beg

inni

ng.

In p

rim

itive

his

tory

ev

ery

inve

ntio

n ha

d to

be

mad

e an

ew,

inde

pend

ently

, ev

ery

day

and

in

each

loc

ality

. Tha

t w

ell-

deve

lope

d pr

oduc

tive

forc

es a

re n

ot s

afe

from

co

mpl

ete

dest

ruct

ion

even

with

rel

ativ

ely

exte

nsiv

e co

mm

erce

is

prov

ed

by t

he P

hoen

icia

ns (

(and

gla

ss p

aint

ing

in t

he M

iddl

e A

ges)

) w

hose

in

vent

ions

wer

e la

rgel

y lo

st f

or a

lon

g tim

e th

roug

h th

e di

spla

cem

ent

of

this

nat

ion

from

com

mer

ce,

its c

onqu

est

by A

lexa

nder

, an

d its

con

se-

quen

t dec

line.

Gla

ss p

aint

ing

in th

e M

iddl

e A

ges

had

a si

mila

r fat

e. O

nly

whe

n co

mm

erce

has

bec

ome

wor

ldw

ide

and

is b

ased

on

larg

e-sc

ale

in-

dust

ry, w

hen

all n

atio

ns a

re d

raw

n in

to th

e co

mpe

titiv

e st

rugg

le, w

ill th

e pe

rman

ence

of

the

acqu

ired

pro

duct

ive

forc

es b

e as

sure

d.

[Man

ufac

turi

nd A

dir

ect

cons

eque

nce

of t

he d

ivis

ion

of l

abor

bet

wee

n th

e va

riou

s to

wns

was

the

ris

e of

man

ufac

ture

s, b

ranc

hes

of p

rodu

ctio

n th

at h

ad d

evel

oped

fro

m t

he g

uild

sys

tem

. T

hey

firs

t fl

ouri

shed

in

Italy

an

d la

ter

in F

land

ers

beca

use

of t

he h

isto

rica

l co

ndit

ion

of t

rade

with

fo

reig

n na

tions

. In

oth

er c

ount

ries

, fo

r ex

ampl

e, E

ngla

nd a

nd F

ranc

e,

man

ufac

turi

ng w

as a

t fi

rst c

onfi

ned

to t

he d

omes

tic m

arke

t. B

esid

es th

e co

nditi

ons

alre

ady

men

tione

d, m

anuf

actu

ring

dep

ends

on

an a

dvan

ced

conc

entr

atio

n of

pop

ulat

ion-

part

icul

arly

in

the

cou

ntry

-and

of

cap

ital

whi

ch b

egan

to

accu

mul

ate

in t

he h

ands

of

indi

vidu

als,

par

tly i

n th

e gu

ilds

desp

ite th

eir

regu

latio

ns, a

nd p

artly

am

ong

the

mer

chan

ts.

Tha

t ki

nd o

f la

bor

whi

ch f

rom

the

beg

inni

ng r

equi

red

a m

achi

ne,

even

of

the

crud

est k

ind,

soo

n tu

rned

out

to b

e m

ost c

apab

le o

f de

velo

p-

men

t. W

eavi

ng,

prev

ious

ly d

one

by p

easa

nts

in t

he c

ount

ry a

s a

sec-

on

dary

job

to p

rovi

de c

loth

ing,

was

the

fir

st l

abor

to

rece

ive

an i

mpe

tus

The G

erm

an Id

eolo

gy

137

and

a fu

rthe

r de

velo

pmen

t thr

ough

the

ext

ensi

on o

f co

mm

erce

. Wea

ving

w

as t

he f

irst

and

rem

aine

d th

e m

ain

man

ufac

turi

ng.

Th

e ri

sing

dem

and

for

clot

hing

mat

eria

ls f

rom

the

gro

wth

of

the

popu

latio

n, t

he g

row

ing

accu

mul

atio

n an

d m

obili

zatio

n of

na

tura

l ca

pita

l th

roug

h ac

cele

rate

d ci

rcul

atio

n, th

e de

man

d fo

r lux

urie

s ca

used

by

the

acce

lera

ted

circ

ulat

ion

and

gene

rally

fac

ilita

ted

by

the

grad

ual

exte

nsio

n of

com

mer

ce,

gave

w

eavi

ng a

qua

ntita

tive

and

qual

itativ

e im

petu

s w

hich

rem

oved

it f

rom

the

prev

ailin

g fo

rm o

f pr

oduc

tion.

Bes

ide

the

peas

ants

who

con

tinu

ed, a

nd

still

con

tinue

, to

wea

ve f

or th

eir

own

use,

a n

ew c

lass

of

wea

vers

em

erge

d in

the

tow

ns w

hose

fab

rics

wer

e de

stin

ed f

or t

he e

ntir

e do

mes

tic m

arke

t an

d us

ually

als

o fo

reig

n m

arke

ts.

Wea

ving

, a j

ob u

sual

ly r

equi

ring

litt

le

skill

, so

on b

ranc

hed

out

into

var

ious

kin

ds o

f jo

bs

and

resi

sted

the

re

stri

ctio

ns o

f a

guild

. Fo

r th

is r

easo

n w

eavi

ng w

as d

one

mos

tly i

n vi

l- la

ges

and

mar

ketp

lace

s, w

ithou

t gu

ild o

rgan

izat

ion.

Vill

ages

gre

w i

nto

tow

ns, a

nd in

deed

the

mos

t flo

uris

hing

one

s in

eac

h co

untr

y.

With

gui

ld-f

ree

man

ufac

turi

ng,

prop

erty

rel

atio

ns c

hang

ed r

apid

ly.

The

fir

st a

dvan

ce b

eyon

d na

tura

l-es

tate

ca

pita

l w

as p

rovi

ded

by

the

emer

genc

e of

mer

chan

ts w

hose

cap

ital w

as f

rom

the

sta

rt m

ovab

le, c

api-

ta

l in

the

mod

ern

sens

e as

far

as

we

can

spea

k of

it

in c

onsi

deri

ng t

he

circ

umst

ance

s of

thos

e tim

es.

Th

e se

cond

adv

ance

cam

e w

ith m

anuf

ac-

turi

ng w

hich

aga

in m

obili

zed

a gr

eat

deal

of

natu

ral

capi

tal

and

al-

toge

ther

inc

reas

ed t

he m

ass

of m

ovab

le c

apita

l as

com

pare

d to

tha

t of

na

tura

l ca

pita

l. A

t th

e sa

me

time

man

ufac

turi

ng b

ecam

e a

refu

ge o

f th

e pe

asan

ts f

rom

the

guild

s w

hich

exc

lude

d th

em o

r pa

id t

hem

poo

rly, j

ust

as e

arlie

r th

e gu

ild t

owns

had

ser

ved

as a

ref

uge

for

the

peas

ants

fro

m

the

land

lord

s.

With

the

begi

nnin

g of

man

ufac

turi

ng th

ere

was

im

med

iate

ly a

per

iod

of v

agra

ncy

caus

ed b

y th

e ab

oliti

on o

f fe

udal

ret

aine

rs,

the

disb

andi

ng o

f ar

mie

s whi

ch h

ad s

erve

d th

e ki

ngs

agai

nst t

heir

vas

sals

, the

impr

ovem

ent

of a

gric

ultu

re, a

nd t

he tr

ansf

orm

atio

n of

lar

ge s

trip

s of

ara

ble

land

into

pa

stur

e la

nd. I

t is

cle

ar f

rom

this

alo

ne h

ow t

his

vagr

ancy

coi

ncid

es w

ith

the

disi

nteg

ratio

n of

the

feu

dal

syst

em.

Isol

ated

epo

chs

of

this

kin

d oc

curr

ed a

s ea

rly a

s th

e th

irte

enth

cen

tury

. O

nly

at t

he e

nd o

f th

e fi

ftee

nth

and

begi

nnin

g of

the

six

teen

th c

entu

ries

is i

t ge

nera

lly p

rese

nt

and

for

quite

som

e du

ratio

n. T

hese

vag

abon

ds w

ere

so n

umer

ous

that

, to

give

one

exa

mpl

e, H

enry

VII

I of

Eng

land

had

72,

000

of t

hem

han

ged.

T

hey

coul

d be

put

to

wor

k on

ly w

ith t

he g

reat

est

diff

icul

ty a

nd t

hrou

gh

mos

t ex

trem

e de

stitu

tion,

and

the

n af

ter

long

res

ista

nce.

Th

e ra

pid

rise

of

man

ufac

turi

ng, p

artic

ular

ly in

Eng

land

, gra

dual

ly a

bsor

bed

them

. W

ith t

he r

ise

of m

anuf

actu

ring

, th

e va

riou

s na

tions

ent

ered

int

o a

com

petit

ive

rela

tions

hip,

the

fig

ht f

or t

rade

, w

hich

was

fou

ght

out

in

war

s, pr

otec

tive

dutie

s, a

nd p

rohi

bitio

ns,

whi

le t

he n

atio

ns f

orm

erly

had

138

Writ

ings

on H

isto

rica

l Mat

eria

lism

Th

e G

erm

an Id

eolo

gy

139

carr

ied

on a

n in

offe

nsiv

e ex

chan

ge if

the

y w

ere

in c

onta

ct a

t al

l. Fr

om

then

on

trad

e as

sum

ed p

oliti

cal s

igni

fica

nce.

T

he

rela

tions

hip

betw

een

wor

ker

and

empl

oyer

als

o ch

ange

d. I

n th

e gu

ilds

the

patr

iarc

hal r

elat

ions

hip

betw

een

jour

neym

an a

nd m

aste

r co

n-

tinue

d to

exi

st; i

n m

anuf

actu

ring

the

mon

etar

y re

latio

n be

twee

n w

orke

r an

d ca

pita

list t

ook

its

plac

e, a

rel

atio

nshi

p w

hich

ret

aine

d a

patr

iarc

hal

tinge

in

the

coun

try

and

the

smal

l to

wns

but

qui

te e

arly

los

t al

mos

t al

l pa

tria

rcha

l col

orat

ion

in th

e la

rger

, the

real

man

ufac

turi

ng to

wns

. M

anuf

actu

ring

and

the

mov

emen

t of

pro

duct

ion

in g

ener

al r

ecei

ved

an e

norm

ous

stim

ulus

thr

ough

the

ext

ensi

on o

f co

mm

erce

with

the

di

scov

ery

of

Am

eric

a an

d a

sea

rout

e to

the

Eas

t In

dies

. T

he

new

pr

oduc

ts i

mpo

rted

fro

m A

mer

ica

and

the

Indi

es a

nd p

artic

ular

ly t

he

larg

e qu

antit

ies

of g

old

and

silv

er w

hich

cam

e in

to c

ircu

latio

n co

mpl

etel

y ch

ange

d th

e po

sitio

n of

cla

sses

tow

ard

each

oth

er a

nd d

ealt

a ha

rd b

low

to

feu

dal l

ande

d pr

oper

ty a

nd l

abor

ers.

Th

e ex

pedi

tions

of

adve

ntur

ers,

co

loni

zatio

n, a

nd a

bove

all

the

exte

nsio

n of

mar

kets

int

o a

wor

ld m

arke

t, no

w p

ossi

ble

and

beco

min

g m

ore

and

mor

e a

fact

with

eac

h da

y, c

alle

d fo

rth

a ne

w p

hase

of

hist

oric

al d

evel

opm

ent w

hich

we

cann

ot f

urth

er

+

disc

uss

here

. T

hrou

gh t

he c

olon

izat

ion

of n

ewly

dis

cove

red

land

s, t

he

Lo

com

mer

cial

str

uggl

e of

nat

ions

aga

inst

one

ano

ther

rec

eive

d ne

w f

uel

and

thus

bec

ame

bigg

er a

nd m

ore

bitte

r.

Exp

ansi

on o

f tr

ade

and

man

ufac

turi

ng a

ccel

erat

ed th

e ac

cum

ulat

ion

of

mov

able

cap

ital

whi

le n

atur

al c

apita

l in

the

gui

lds

rem

aine

d st

able

or

even

dec

reas

ed w

ithou

t any

stim

ulus

for

incr

ease

d pr

oduc

tion

. Tra

de a

nd

man

ufac

turi

ng c

reat

ed t

he b

ig b

ourg

eois

ie;

the

petty

bou

rgeo

isie

was

co

ncen

trat

ed in

the

gui

lds,

no

long

er a

pre

vaili

ng p

ower

in

the

citie

s bu

t bo

win

g to

the

pow

er o

f bi

g m

erch

ants

and

man

ufac

ture

rs.

(([v

ertic

ally

] T

he

petty

bou

rgeo

is-M

iddl

e cl

ass-

Big

bo

urge

oisi

e))

As

soon

as

the

guild

s ca

me

into

con

tact

with

man

ufac

turi

ng, t

hey

decl

ined

. D

urin

g th

e ep

och

unde

r di

scus

sion

the

rel

atio

nshi

ps o

f th

e na

tions

to

one

anot

her

took

on

two

diff

eren

t fo

rms.

In

the

begi

nnin

g th

e sm

all

quan

tity

of g

old

and

silv

er i

n ci

rcul

atio

n br

ough

t ab

out

the

ban

on t

he

expo

rt o

f th

ese

met

als.

Ind

ustr

y, m

ostly

im

port

ed

from

ab

road

and

ne

eded

to

empl

oy t

he i

ncre

asin

g ur

ban

popu

latio

n, r

equi

red

thos

e pr

iv-

ilege

s w

hich

cou

ld b

e gr

ante

d no

t on

ly a

gain

st c

ompe

titio

n at

hom

e bu

t m

ainl

y ag

ains

t for

eign

com

petit

ion.

In

the

orig

inal

pro

hibi

tions

the

loc

al

guild

priv

ilege

was

ext

ende

d ov

er th

e w

hole

nat

ion.

Cus

tom

s du

ties

orig

i-

nate

d fr

om l

evie

s w

hich

feu

dal

lord

s ex

acte

d as

pro

tect

ion

mon

ey f

rom

m

erch

ants

pas

sing

thro

ugh

thei

r te

rrit

orie

s an

d fr

om le

vies

late

r im

pose

d by

to

wns

as

the

mos

t co

nven

ient

met

hod

of

rais

ing

mon

ey f

or t

heir

tre

asur

y. T

he

appe

aran

ce o

f A

mer

ican

gol

d an

d si

lver

on

the

Eur

opea

n m

arke

ts,

the

grad

ual

deve

lopm

ent

of i

ndus

try,

the

rap

id e

xpan

sion

of

trad

e, a

nd t

he c

onse

quen

t ri

se o

f th

e no

n-gu

ild

bour

geoi

sie

and

of

mon

ey g

ave

thes

e m

easu

res

a di

ffer

ent

sign

ific

ance

. Bei

ng f

rom

day

to

day

less

abl

e to

do

with

out

mon

ey, t

he s

tate

now

uph

eld

the

ban

on t

he

expo

rt o

f go

ld a

nd s

ilver

for

fis

cal

reas

ons.

Th

e bo

urge

ois

for

who

m

thes

e m

asse

s of

mon

ey o

n th

e m

arke

t be

cam

e th

e ch

ief

obje

ct o

f sp

ec-

ulat

ion

wer

e th

orou

ghly

ple

ased

. Pr

ivile

ges

beca

me

a so

urce

of

inco

me

for

the

gove

rnm

ent

and

wer

e so

ld f

or m

oney

. In

cus

tom

s le

gisl

atio

n ex

port

dut

ies

appe

ared

whi

ch h

ad a

pur

ely

fisc

al a

im a

nd w

ere

only

a

hind

ranc

e to

indu

stry

. T

he

seco

nd p

erio

d be

gan

in t

he m

iddl

e of

the

sev

ente

enth

cen

tury

an

d la

sted

alm

ost t

o th

e en

d of

the

eig

htee

nth.

Com

mer

ce a

nd n

avig

a-

tion

had

expa

nded

mor

e ra

pidl

y th

an m

anuf

actu

ring

whi

ch p

laye

d a

seco

ndar

y ro

le.

Col

onie

s w

ere

beco

min

g im

port

ant

cons

umer

s. A

fter

lo

ng s

trug

gles

the

ind

ivid

ual n

atio

ns s

hare

d th

e op

enin

g w

orld

mar

ket.

Thi

s pe

riod

beg

ins

with

the

Nav

igat

ion

Law

s an

d co

loni

al m

onop

olie

s.

Com

petit

ion

of t

he n

atio

ns a

mon

g th

emse

lves

was

exc

lude

d so

far

as

poss

ible

by

tari

ffs,

pro

hibi

tions

, an

d tr

eatie

s. I

n th

e la

st r

esor

t th

e co

m-

petit

ive

stru

ggle

was

car

ried

out

and

dec

ided

in

war

s (p

artic

ular

ly i

n na

val w

ars)

. T

he

mos

t po

wer

ful m

ariti

me

natio

n, t

he E

nglis

h, h

eld

pre-

em

inen

ce in

trad

e an

d m

anuf

actu

ring

. H

ere

we

alre

ady

have

con

cent

ra-

tion

in o

ne c

ount

ry.

Man

ufac

turi

ng w

as c

onst

antly

pro

tect

ed

at h

ome

by t

arif

fs,

in t

he

colo

nial

mar

ket b

y m

onop

olie

s, a

nd a

broa

d as

muc

h as

pos

sibl

e by

dif

- fe

rent

ial d

utie

s. T

he

proc

essi

ng o

f do

mes

tic r

aw m

ater

ials

was

enc

our-

ag

ed (

woo

l an

d lin

en i

n E

ngla

nd,

silk

in

Fran

ce);

the

exp

ort

of r

aw

mat

eria

ls w

as f

orbi

dden

(w

ool i

n E

ngla

nd);

and

the

pro

cess

ing

of i

mpo

r-

tant

mat

eria

l was

neg

lect

ed o

r su

ppre

ssed

(co

tton

in E

ngla

nd).

Th

e na

- tio

n ru

ling

in s

ea t

rade

and

col

onia

l po

wer

nat

ural

ly s

ecur

ed f

or i

tsel

f al

so th

e gr

eate

st q

uant

itativ

e an

d qu

alita

tive

expa

nsio

n of

man

ufac

turi

ng.

Man

ufac

turi

ng c

ould

not

do

with

out

prot

ectio

n. T

hrou

gh t

he s

light

est

chan

ge t

akin

g pl

ace

in o

ther

cou

ntri

es,

it co

uld

lose

its

mar

ket

and

be

ruin

ed.

It c

an b

e ea

sily

intr

oduc

ed i

nto

a co

untr

y un

der

reas

onab

ly fa

vor-

ab

le c

ondi

tions

and

for

this

rea

son

can

be e

asily

des

troy

ed. T

hrou

gh th

e m

ode

in w

hich

man

ufac

turi

ng w

as c

arri

ed o

n pa

rtic

ular

ly i

n ru

ral

area

s of

th

e ei

ghte

enth

cen

tury

, it

was

so

muc

h in

terw

oven

with

the

vita

l re

latio

nshi

ps o

f a

grea

t mas

s of

ind

ivid

uals

that

no

coun

try

dare

d je

opar

- d

ie it

s ex

iste

nce

by p

erm

itti

ng f

ree

com

petit

ion.

Whe

n a

coun

try

man

- ag

es t

o ex

port

, thi

s de

pend

s en

tirel

y on

the

ext

ensi

on o

r re

stri

ctio

n of

co

mm

erce

and

exe

rcis

es a

rel

ativ

ely

smal

l eff

ect.

[Cor

ner

of m

anus

crip

t da

mag

ed.]

Hen

ce th

e se

cond

ary

[im

port

ance

] and

infl

uenc

e of

[th

e m

er-

chan

ts] i

n th

e ei

ghte

enth

cen

tury

. Mor

e th

an a

nyon

e el

se th

e m

erch

ants

an

d es

peci

ally

the

shi

pper

s in

sist

ed o

n pr

otec

tion

and

mon

opol

ies.

Th

e

140

Writ

ings

on

His

toric

al M

ater

ialis

m

man

ufac

ture

rs a

lso

dem

ande

d an

d re

ceiv

ed p

rote

ctio

n bu

t w

ere

infe

rior

in

pol

itica

l im

port

ance

at

all

times

. T

he

com

mer

cial

tow

ns, p

artic

ular

ly

the

mar

itim

e to

wns

, bec

ame

to s

ome

degr

ee c

ivili

zed

and

big-

bour

geoi

s,

but

an e

xtre

me

petty

bou

rgeo

is o

utlo

ok p

ersi

sted

in

the

fact

ory

tow

ns.

See

Aik

in [

Des

crip

tion

of th

e C

ount

y fr

om T

hirt

y to

For

ty M

iles

roun

d M

unch

este

r, L

ondo

n, 1

7951

, etc

. Th

e ei

ghte

enth

cen

tury

was

a c

entu

ry o

f tr

ade.

Pin

to s

ays

this

exp

ress

ly [

Tra

ite' d

e la

ci

rcul

atio

tz e

t du

cr

e'dit,

A

mst

erda

m,

1771

1: "

Com

mer

ce i

s th

e ra

ge o

f th

e ce

ntur

y,"

and:

"fo

r so

me

time

now

peo

ple

have

bee

n ta

lkin

g on

ly a

bout

com

mer

ce,

navi

ga-

tion,

and

the

navy

." T

he m

ovem

ent o

f ca

pita

l, al

thou

gh s

igni

fica

ntly

acc

eler

ated

, rem

aine

d re

lativ

ely

slow

. Th

e sp

littin

g of

the

wor

ld m

arke

t int

o se

para

te p

arts

, eac

h of

whi

ch w

as e

xplo

ited

by a

par

ticul

ar n

atio

n, t

he e

xclu

sion

of

natio

ns'

com

petit

ion

amon

g th

emse

lves

, the

clu

msi

ness

of

prod

ucti

on i

tsel

f, an

d th

e fa

ct t

hat

the

fina

ncia

l sy

stem

was

onl

y de

velo

ping

fro

m i

ts e

arly

sta

ges-

all

this

gre

atly

impe

ded

circ

ulat

ion.

Th

e co

nseq

uenc

e w

as a

hag

- gl

ing,

sha

bby,

pet

ty s

piri

t whi

ch s

till c

lung

to a

ll m

erch

ants

and

the

who

le

mod

e of

ca

rryi

ng o

n tr

ade.

Com

pare

d w

ith m

anuf

actu

rers

and

par

- tic

ular

ly c

raft

smen

, the

y w

ere

cert

ainl

y bi

g bo

urge

ois;

com

pare

d w

ith th

e m

erch

ants

and

ind

ustr

ialis

ts o

f th

e ne

xt p

erio

d th

ey r

emai

n pe

tty b

our-

h)

geoi

s. C

f. A

dam

Sm

ith

[The

Wea

lth of

N

atio

ns].

o

Thi

s pe

riod

is

also

cha

ract

eriz

ed b

y th

e ca

ncel

latio

n of

ban

s on

the

ex

port

of

gold

and

silv

er, a

nd th

e be

ginn

ing

of t

rade

in

mon

ey; b

y ba

nks,

na

tiona

l de

bts,

pap

er m

oney

, spe

cula

tion

in s

tock

s an

d sh

ares

, an

d jo

b-

bing

in

all

artic

les;

by

the

deve

lopm

ent

of

fina

nce

in g

ener

al.

Cap

ital

agai

n lo

st a

gre

at p

art

of t

he n

atio

nal

char

acte

r w

hich

it

had

still

pos

- se

ssed

. T

he c

once

ntra

tion

of t

rade

and

man

ufac

turi

ng i

n on

e co

untr

y, E

n-

glan

d, d

evel

oped

irr

esis

tibly

in

the

seve

ntee

nth

cent

ury

and

grad

ually

cr

eate

d fo

r tha

t cou

ntry

a re

lativ

e w

orld

mar

ket a

nd th

us a

dem

and

for

its

man

ufac

ture

d pr

oduc

ts w

hich

cou

ld n

o lo

nger

be

met

by

the

prev

ailin

g in

dust

rial

for

ces

of p

rodu

ctio

n. T

he

dem

and

outg

rew

the

pro

duct

ive

forc

es a

nd w

as t

he m

otiv

e po

wer

to

brin

g ab

out

the

thir

d pe

riod

of

priv

ate

owne

rshi

p si

nce

the

Mid

dle

Age

s by

pro

duci

ng b

ig in

dust

ry-t

he

appl

icat

ion

of e

lem

enta

l fo

rces

to i

ndus

tria

l pu

rpos

es,

mac

hine

ry, a

nd a

ve

ry e

xten

sive

div

isio

n of

lab

or.

The

re a

lrea

dy e

xist

ed i

n E

ngla

nd t

he

rem

aini

ng c

ondi

tions

for

this

new

pha

se:

free

dom

of

com

petit

ion

with

in

the

natio

n an

d th

e de

velo

pmen

t of

theo

retic

al m

echa

nics

(as

per

fect

ed b

y N

ewto

n, t

he m

ost

popu

lar

scie

nce

in F

ranc

e an

d E

ngla

nd i

n th

e ei

gh-

teen

th c

entu

ry).

(Fr

ee c

ompe

titio

n w

ithin

the

nat

ion

itsel

f ev

eryw

here

ha

d to

be

obta

ined

by

revo

lutio

n-16

40

and

1688

in E

ngla

nd,

1789

in

Fran

ce.)

Com

petit

ion

soon

for

ced

ever

y co

untr

y th

at w

ante

d to

ret

ain

its

The G

erm

an Id

eolo

gy

141

hist

oric

al r

ole

to p

rote

ct i

ts m

anuf

actu

rers

by

rene

wed

cus

tom

s re

gula

- tio

ns (

the

old

dutie

s w

ere

of l

ittl

e he

lp a

gain

st b

ig i

ndus

try)

and

soo

n in

trod

uce

big

indu

stry

und

er p

rote

ctiv

e du

ties.

Big

indu

stry

uni

vers

aliz

ed

com

petit

ion

(pra

ctic

al f

ree

trad

e; th

e pr

otec

tive

duty

is o

nly

a pa

lliat

ive,

a

mea

sure

of

defe

nse

with

in f

ree

trad

e) d

espi

te p

rote

ctiv

e m

easu

res,

est

ab-

lishe

d m

eans

of

com

mun

icat

ion

and

the

mod

ern

wor

ld m

arke

t, su

bord

i-

nate

d tr

ade

to i

tsel

f, tr

ansf

orm

ed a

ll ca

pita

l in

to i

ndus

tria

l ca

pita

l, an

d th

us p

rodu

ced

the

rapi

d ci

rcul

atio

n (d

evel

opm

ent o

f fi

nanc

e) a

nd c

en-

tral

izat

ion

of c

apita

l fu

nds.

(B

y un

iver

sal

com

petit

ion

it fo

rced

all

indi

- vi

dual

s to

str

ain

thei

r en

ergy

to

the

extr

eme.

So

far

as p

ossi

ble,

big

in

dust

ry d

estr

oyed

ide

olog

y, r

elig

ion,

mor

ality

, et

c.,

and

whe

re i

t co

uld

not,

mad

e th

em i

nto

a pl

ain

lie.)

It p

rodu

ced

wor

ld h

isto

ry f

or t

he f

irst

tim

e in

tha

t it

mad

e ev

ery

civi

lized

nat

ion

and

ever

y in

divi

dual

mem

ber

of t

he n

atio

n de

pend

ent

for

the

satis

fact

ion

of h

is w

ants

on

the

who

le

wor

ld,

thus

des

troy

ing

the

form

er n

atur

al e

xclu

sive

ness

of

sepa

rate

na-

tio

ns. I

t su

bsum

ed n

atur

al s

cien

ce u

nder

cap

ital

and

took

fro

m t

he d

ivi-

si

on o

f la

bor

the

last

sem

blan

ce o

f it

s na

tura

l ch

arac

ter.

It

dest

roye

d na

tura

l gro

wth

in g

ener

al, s

o fa

r as

this

is p

ossi

ble

in la

bor,

and

reso

lved

al

l na

tura

l re

latio

nshi

ps in

to m

oney

rel

atio

nshi

ps.

In t

he p

lace

of

natu

- ra

lly g

row

n to

wns

it

crea

ted

over

nigh

t m

oder

n, l

arge

ind

ustr

ial

citie

s.

Whe

reve

r bi

g in

dust

ry p

reva

iled,

it

dest

roye

d th

e cr

afts

and

all

earl

ier

stag

es o

f in

dust

ry I

t co

mpl

eted

the

vic

tory

[of

the

tow

n] o

ver

the

coun

- try

. [I

ts p

rem

ise]

was

the

aut

omat

ic s

yste

m.

[Its

dev

elop

men

t] re

sulte

d in

a

mas

s of

pro

duct

ive

forc

es f

or w

hich

pri

vate

pro

pert

y be

cam

e ju

st a

s m

uch

a fe

tter

as th

e gu

ild h

ad b

een

for

man

ufac

ture

r an

d th

e sm

all r

ural

sh

op fo

r the

dev

elop

ing

craf

t. U

nder

the

syst

em o

f pr

ivat

e pr

oper

ty th

ese

prod

uctiv

e fo

rces

rec

eive

onl

y a

one-

side

d de

velo

pmen

t and

bec

ome

de-

stru

ctiv

e fo

rces

for

the

maj

ority

. A g

reat

mul

titud

e of

suc

h fo

rces

can

not

find

app

licat

ion

at a

ll un

der

the

syst

em o

f pr

ivat

e ow

ners

hip.

In

gene

ral,

big

indu

stry

cre

ated

eve

ryw

here

the

sam

e re

latio

n be

twee

n th

e cl

asse

s of

so

ciet

y an

d th

us d

estr

oyed

the

par

ticul

arity

of

each

nat

iona

lity.

And

fi-

nally

, whi

le th

e bo

urge

oisi

e of

eac

h na

tion

still

ret

aine

d se

para

te n

atio

nal

inte

rest

s, b

ig i

ndus

try

crea

ted

a cl

ass

havi

ng t

he s

ame

inte

rest

s in

all

natio

ns a

nd f

or w

hich

nat

iona

lity

is a

lrea

dy d

estr

oyed

; a

clas

s w

hich

is

real

ly r

id o

f th

e en

tire

old

wor

ld a

nd s

tand

s op

pose

d to

it.

Big

indu

stry

m

akes

unb

eara

ble

for

the

wor

ker n

ot o

nly

his

rela

tion

to th

e ca

pita

list b

ut

even

labo

r its

elf.

It is

cle

ar th

at b

ig in

dust

ry d

oes

not

deve

lop

equa

lly in

all

dist

rict

s of

a

coun

try. H

owev

er, t

his

does

not

hin

der

the

clas

s m

ovem

ent o

f th

e pr

o-

leta

riat

, bec

ause

the

pro

leta

rian

s cr

eate

d by

big

ind

ustr

y as

sum

e le

ader

- sh

ip o

f th

is m

ovem

ent

and

carr

y th

e cr

owd

with

the

m,

and

beca

use

the

wor

kers

exc

lude

d fr

om b

ig in

dust

ry a

re p

ut i

n a

wor

se s

ituat

ion

than

the

142

Writ

ings

on

His

toric

al M

ater

ialis

m

wor

kers

in

big

indu

stry

its

elf.

Cou

ntri

es w

ith b

ig i

ndus

trie

s af

fect

in

a si

mila

r man

ner

the

mor

e or

less

non

-ind

ustr

ial

coun

trie

s, if

the

latt

er a

re

swep

t by

gl

obal

com

mer

ce i

nto

univ

ersa

l co

mpe

titiv

e st

rugg

le.

The

se

diff

eren

t fo

rms

are

only

so

man

y fo

rms

of t

he o

rgan

izat

ion

of l

abor

and

he

nce

of p

rope

rty.

In

each

per

iod

a un

ific

atio

n of

the

exi

stin

g pr

oduc

tive

forc

es ta

kes

plac

e in

sofa

r as

this

has

bee

n m

ade

nece

ssar

y by

nee

ds.

Thi

s co

ntra

dict

ion

betw

een

the

prod

uctiv

e fo

rces

and

the

for

m o

f co

mm

erce

, w

hich

we

obse

rve

occu

rrin

g se

vera

l tim

es i

n pa

st h

isto

ry

with

out e

ndan

geri

ng t

he b

asis

of

hist

ory,

had

to

burs

t ou

t in

a re

volu

tion

each

tim

e, ta

king

on

at t

he s

ame

time

vari

ous

seco

ndar

y fo

rms,

suc

h as

co

mpr

ehen

sive

col

lisio

ns, c

ollis

ions

of

vari

ous

clas

ses,

con

trad

icti

ons

of

cons

ciou

snes

s, b

attle

of

idea

s, e

tc.,

polit

ical

str

uggl

e, e

tc. F

rom

a n

arro

w

poin

t of

view

one

can

isol

ate

one

of t

hese

sec

onda

ry f

orm

s an

d co

nsid

er

it th

e ba

sis

of t

hese

rev

olut

ions

. Thi

s is

all

the

mor

e ea

sy a

s th

e in

divi

d-

uals

who

sta

rted

the

rev

olut

ions

had

illu

sion

s ab

out

thei

r ow

n ac

tivity

ac

cord

ing

to t

heir

deg

ree

of e

duca

tion

and

stag

e of

his

tori

cal

deve

lop-

m

ent.

In o

ur v

iew

all

colli

sion

s in

his

tory

hav

e th

eir

orig

in i

n th

e co

ntra

dic-

tio

n be

twee

n th

e pr

oduc

tive

forc

es a

nd t

he f

orm

of

inte

ract

ion

[Ver

- ke

hrsf

orm

]. In

cide

ntal

ly, t

his

cont

radi

ctio

n do

es n

eed

to h

ave

reac

hed

its

extr

eme

in a

par

ticul

ar c

ount

ry t

o le

ad t

o co

llisi

ons

in t

hat

coun

try.

C

ompe

titio

n w

ith i

ndus

tria

lly m

ore

deve

lope

d co

untr

ies

brou

ght

abou

t by

exp

ande

d in

tern

atio

nal

com

mer

ce i

s su

ffic

ient

to

prod

uce

a si

mila

r co

ntra

dict

ion

in c

ount

ries

whe

re i

ndus

try

is l

aggi

ng b

ehin

d (e

.g.

the

late

nt p

role

tari

at in

Ger

man

y br

ough

t ou

t by

the

com

petit

ion

of E

nglis

h in

dust

ry).

C

ompe

titio

n is

olat

es in

divi

dual

s, n

ot o

nly

the

bour

geoi

s bu

t ev

en m

ore

the

prol

etar

ians

, des

pite

the

fac

t th

at i

t br

ings

the

m t

oget

her.

It

take

s a

long

tim

e be

fore

thes

e in

divi

dual

s ca

n un

ite,

apa

rt f

rom

the

fac

t tha

t fo

r th

is u

nion

-if

it is

not

to

be m

erel

y lo

cal-b

ig

indu

stry

mus

t fi

rst

pro-

du

ce th

e ne

cess

ary

mea

ns, t

he b

ig in

dust

rial

citi

es a

nd in

expe

nsiv

e, q

uick

co

mm

unic

atio

ns. T

here

fore

, ev

ery

orga

nize

d po

wer

sta

ndin

g in

opp

osi-

tio

n to

the

se i

sola

ted

indi

vidu

als,

who

liv

e in

rel

atio

nshi

ps d

aily

re-

pr

oduc

ing

this

iso

latio

n, c

an b

e co

nque

red

only

aft

er l

ong

stru

ggle

s. T

o de

man

d th

e op

posi

te w

ould

be

tant

amou

nt t

o de

man

ding

tha

t co

mpe

ti-

tion

shou

ld n

ot e

xist

in t

his

defi

nite

his

tori

cal p

erio

d, o

r th

at t

he in

divi

d-

uals

sho

uld

bani

sh f

rom

the

ir m

inds

rel

atio

nshi

ps o

ver

whi

ch t

hey,

the

is

olat

ed, h

ave

no c

ontr

ol.

[Com

mun

ity]

Th

e bu

ildin

g of

hou

ses.

With

sav

ages

eve

ry f

amily

has

its

ow

n ca

ve o

r hu

t, ju

st a

s w

ith t

he n

omad

s ea

ch f

amily

has

a s

epar

ate

tent

. T

his

sepa

rate

dom

estic

eco

nom

y is

mad

e ev

en m

ore

nece

ssar

y by

the

The

Ger

man

Ideo

logy

14

3

furt

her

deve

lopm

ent o

f pr

ivat

e pr

oper

ty. W

ith a

gric

ultu

ral

peop

le a

com

- m

unal

dom

estic

eco

nom

y is

just

as

impo

ssib

le a

s is

a c

omm

unal

cul

tiva-

tio

n of

the

soi

l. T

he

build

ing

of t

owns

was

a g

reat

adv

ance

. In

all

prev

ious

per

iods

, ho

wev

er,

the

abol

ition

of

indi

vidu

al e

cono

my,

whi

ch

cann

ot b

e se

para

ted

from

the

abo

litio

n of

pri

vate

pro

pert

y, w

as i

mpo

s-

sibl

e fo

r th

e si

mpl

e re

ason

that

the

mat

eria

l con

ditio

ns w

ere

not

pres

ent.

To

esta

blis

h a

com

mun

al d

omes

tic e

cono

my

pres

uppo

ses

the

deve

lop-

m

ent

of m

achi

nery

, of

the

use

of

natu

ral

forc

es a

nd o

f m

any

othe

r pr

oduc

tive

forc

es-fo

r ex

ampl

e, o

f w

ater

sup

plie

s, o

f ga

slig

htin

g, s

team

he

atin

g, e

tc.,

the

rem

oval

[of

the

ant

agon

ism

] of

tow

n an

d co

untr

y. W

ith-

out t

hese

con

ditio

ns a

com

mun

al e

cono

my

coul

d no

t for

m a

new

pro

duc-

tiv

e fo

rce.

Lac

king

any

mat

eria

l bas

is a

nd r

estin

g on

a p

urel

y th

eore

tical

fo

unda

tion,

it w

ould

be

only

a f

reak

and

wou

ld n

ot a

chie

ve m

ore

than

a

mon

astic

eco

nom

y ac

hiev

es.-W

hat

was

pos

sibl

e ca

n be

see

n in

the

for

- m

atio

n of

citi

es w

hich

sta

rted

whe

n pe

ople

mov

ed c

lose

toge

ther

and

in

the

erec

tion

of c

omm

unal

bui

ldin

gs f

or v

ario

us d

efin

ite p

urpo

ses

(pri

s-

ons,

bar

rack

s, e

tc.).

It i

s se

lf-e

vide

nt th

at th

e tr

ansc

ende

nce

of i

ndiv

idua

l ec

onom

y ca

nnot

be

sepa

rate

d fr

om th

e tr

ansc

ende

nce

of t

he fa

mily

. Sa

int M

ax's

freq

uent

sta

tem

ent

that

eve

ryon

e is

all

that

he

is t

hrou

gh

the

stat

e is

bas

ical

ly t

he s

ame

as th

e st

atem

ent t

hat

the

bour

geoi

s is

onl

y a

spec

imen

of

the

bour

geoi

s sp

ecie

s, a

sta

tem

ent

pres

uppo

sing

tha

t th

e cl

ass

of t

he b

ourg

eois

exi

sted

bef

ore

the

indi

vidu

als

cons

titut

ing

it.

((W

ith th

e ph

iloso

pher

s, p

re-e

xist

ence

of

a cl

ass.

)) I

n th

e M

iddl

e A

ges

the

citiz

ens

of e

ach

tow

n w

ere

com

pelle

d to

uni

te a

gain

st th

e la

nded

nob

ility

to

sav

e th

eir

skin

s. E

xten

sion

of

trad

e an

d es

tabl

ishm

ent

of c

omm

unic

a-

tion

acqu

aint

ed s

epar

ate

tow

ns w

ith o

ther

s w

hich

had

ass

erte

d th

e sa

me

inte

rest

s in

the

fig

ht a

gain

st t

he s

ame

oppo

nent

. O

ut o

f th

e m

any

loca

l co

rpor

atio

ns o

f bu

rghe

rs t

here

gra

dual

ly b

ut v

ery

slow

ly a

rose

the

bur

- gh

er c

lass

. T

he

cond

ition

s of

lif

e of

the

ind

ivid

ual

burg

hers

bec

ame

cond

ition

s w

hich

wer

e co

mm

on t

o th

em a

ll an

d in

depe

nden

t of

eac

h in

divi

dual

bec

ause

of

thei

r co

ntra

dict

ion

to th

e ex

istin

g re

latio

nshi

ps a

nd

beca

use

of t

he m

ode

of l

abor

det

erm

ined

by

thes

e. T

he

burg

hers

had

cr

eate

d th

ese

cond

ition

s in

sofa

r as

they

had

fre

ed th

emse

lves

from

feu

dal

ties

and

had

been

cre

ated

by

them

ins

ofar

as

they

wer

e de

term

ined

by

thei

r op

posi

tion

to th

e ex

istin

g fe

udal

sys

tem

. Whe

n th

e in

divi

dual

tow

ns

bega

n to

ent

er i

nto

asso

ciat

ions

, th

ese

com

mon

con

ditio

ns d

evel

oped

in

to c

lass

con

ditio

ns. T

hese

sam

e co

nditi

ons,

the

sam

e an

tago

nism

, and

th

e sa

me

inte

rest

s ha

d to

cal

l fo

rth

gene

rally

sim

ilar

cust

oms

ever

y-

whe

re. W

ith it

s co

nditi

ons,

the

bour

geoi

sie

itsel

f de

velo

ps o

nly

grad

ually

, sp

lits

into

var

ious

fra

ctio

ns a

ccor

ding

to

the

divi

sion

of

labo

r, ((

It a

b-

sorb

s, f

irst

of

all,

the

bran

ches

of

labo

r be

long

ing

dire

ctly

to

the

stat

e,

then

all

mor

e or

les

s id

eolo

gica

l est

ates

.)) a

nd f

inal

ly a

bsor

bs a

ll ex

istin

g

144

Wri

tings

on H

isto

rica

l Mat

eria

lism

prop

ertie

d cl

asse

s (w

hile

it

deve

lops

mos

t of

the

for

mer

ly p

rope

rtyl

ess

clas

s an

d pa

rt o

f th

e pr

evio

usly

pro

pert

ied

clas

s in

to a

new

cla

ss,

the

prol

etar

iat)

to

the

exte

nt t

hat

all

exis

ting

prop

erty

is

tran

sfor

med

int

o in

dust

rial

or

com

mer

cial

cap

ital.

Var

ious

ind

ivid

uals

for

m a

cla

ss o

nly

inso

far

as t

hey

have

to

carr

y on

a j

oint

bat

tle

agai

nst

anot

her

clas

s.

Oth

erw

ise

they

are

hos

tile,

com

peti

ng w

ith e

ach

othe

r. O

n t

he o

ther

ha

nd,

a cl

ass

in t

urn

achi

eves

ind

epen

dent

exi

sten

ce i

n re

latio

n to

ind

i-

vidu

als

so t

hat

they

fin

d th

eir

cond

itio

ns o

f lif

e pr

edes

tined

, ha

ve t

heir

po

sitio

n in

lif

e an

d th

eir

pers

onal

dev

elop

men

t as

sign

ed,

and

are

sub-

su

med

und

er t

he c

lass

. Thi

s is

the

sam

e ph

enom

enon

as

the

subs

ump-

tio

n of

par

ticul

ar in

divi

dual

s und

er t

he d

ivis

ion

of l

abor

and

can

onl

y be

re

mov

ed b

y th

e tr

ansc

ende

nce

of p

riva

te p

rope

rty

and

of l

abor

itse

lf. W

e ha

ve a

lread

y in

dica

ted

seve

ral

times

, ho

w t

his

subs

umin

g of

ind

ivid

uals

un

der

the

clas

s is

acc

ompa

nied

by

thei

r su

bsum

ptio

n un

der

all k

inds

of

idea

s, e

tc.

If

one

cons

ider

s th

is e

volu

tion

of i

ndiv

idua

ls p

hilo

soph

ical

ly i

n th

e co

mm

on c

ondi

tions

of

exis

tenc

e of

es

tate

s an

d cl

asse

s fo

llow

ing

one

anot

her

and

in t

he a

ccom

pany

ing

gene

ral

conc

epti

ons

forc

ed o

n th

ose

indi

vidu

als,

it i

s ce

rtai

nly

very

eas

y to

im

agin

e th

at i

n th

ese

indi

vidu

als

the

spec

ies

or M

an h

as e

volv

ed, o

r th

at th

ey e

volv

ed M

an. I

n th

is w

ay o

ne

can

give

his

tory

som

e ha

rd b

low

s in

the

hea

d. O

ne c

an c

once

ive

thes

e va

rious

est

ates

and

cla

sses

as

spec

ific

term

s of

a g

ener

al e

xpre

ssio

n, a

s su

bord

inat

e va

riet

ies o

f th

e sp

ecie

s, a

s ev

olut

iona

ry p

hase

s of

Man

. T

his

subs

umin

g of

ind

ivid

uals

und

er d

efin

ite c

lass

es c

anno

t be

abo

l-

ishe

d un

til a

cla

ss h

as t

aken

sha

pe w

hich

no

long

er h

as a

ny p

artic

ular

cl

ass

inte

rest

to a

sser

t aga

inst

the

ruli

ng c

lass

. T

he

tran

sfor

mat

ion

of p

erso

nal

into

mat

eria

l po

wer

s (r

elat

ion-

sh

ips)

thro

ugh

the

divi

sion

of

labo

r ca

nnot

be

tran

scen

ded

by d

ism

issi

ng

the

gene

ral i

dea

of i

t fr

om o

ne's

min

d bu

t on

ly b

y in

divi

dual

s ag

ain

con-

tr

ollin

g th

ese

mat

eria

l po

wer

s an

d tr

ansc

endi

ng t

he d

ivis

ion

of l

abor

. ((

Feue

rbac

h: b

eing

and

ess

ence

)) T

his

is n

ot p

ossi

ble

with

out

the

com

- m

unity

. O

nly

in c

omm

unity

do

the

mea

ns e

xist

for

eve

ry i

ndiv

idua

l to

cu

ltiva

te h

is t

alen

ts i

n al

l di

rect

ions

. O

nly

in t

he c

omm

unity

is

pers

onal

fr

eedo

m p

ossi

ble.

In

prev

ious

sub

stit

utes

for

the

com

mun

ity, i

n th

e st

ate,

et

c., p

erso

nal f

reed

om h

as e

xist

ed o

nly

for

the

indi

vidu

als

who

dev

elop

ed

with

in t

he r

ulin

g cl

ass

and

only

ins

ofar

as

they

bel

onge

d to

thi

s cl

ass.

T

he

illus

ory

com

mun

ity, i

n w

hich

ind

ivid

uals

hav

e co

me

toge

ther

up

till

now

, alw

ays

took

on

an in

depe

nden

t exi

sten

ce in

rela

tion

to th

em a

nd w

as

at th

e sa

me

time

not o

nly

a co

mpl

etel

y ill

usor

y co

mm

unity

but

als

o a

new

fe

tter

beca

use

it w

as t

he c

ombi

natio

n of

one

cla

ss a

gain

st a

noth

er.

In a

re

al c

omm

unity

indi

vidu

als o

btai

ned

thei

r fr

eedo

m i

n an

d th

roug

h th

eir

asso

ciat

ion.

The G

erm

an Id

eolo

gy

145

Indi

vidu

als

have

alw

ays

star

ted

with

the

mse

lves

tho

ugh

with

in t

heir

gi

ven

hist

oric

al c

ondi

tions

and

rel

atio

nshi

ps,

not

with

the

"pu

re"

indi

- vi

dual

in

the

sens

e of

the

ide

olog

ists

. B

ut i

n th

e co

urse

of

hist

oric

al

deve

lopm

ent a

nd p

reci

sely

thro

ugh

the

inev

itabl

e fa

ct th

at i

n th

e di

visi

on

of l

abor

soc

ial r

elat

ions

hips

ass

ume

an i

ndep

ende

nt e

xist

ence

, the

re o

c-

curs

a d

ivis

ion

in th

e lif

e of

eac

h in

divi

dual

, ins

ofar

as

it is

per

sona

l an

d de

term

ined

by

som

e br

anch

of

labo

r an

d by

the

con

ditio

ns p

erta

inin

g to

it.

(T

his

does

not

mea

n th

at,

for

exam

ple,

the

ren

tier,

the

cap

italis

t, et

c.,

ceas

e to

be

pers

ons;

but

the

ir p

erso

nalit

y is

con

ditio

ned

and

dete

rmin

ed

by v

ery

defi

nite

cla

ss r

elat

ions

hips

, and

the

dif

fere

ntia

tion

appe

ars

only

in

the

ir o

ppos

ition

to

anot

her

clas

s an

d, f

or t

hem

selv

es, o

nly

whe

n th

ey

go b

ankr

upt.)

In

the

esta

te (

and

even

mor

e in

the

tri

be)

this

is

as y

et

conc

eale

d. A

nob

lem

an,

for

inst

ance

, will

alw

ays

rem

ain

a no

blem

an a

nd

a co

mm

oner

alw

ays

a co

mm

oner

apa

rt f

rom

his

oth

er r

elat

ions

hips

, a

qual

ity i

nsep

arab

le f

rom

his

ind

ivid

ualit

y. T

he

diff

eren

tiatio

n be

twee

n th

e pe

rson

al a

nd c

lass

indi

vidu

al a

nd t

he a

ccid

enta

l nat

ure

of t

he c

ondi

- tio

ns o

f lif

e fo

r th

e in

divi

dual

app

ears

onl

y w

ith t

he r

ise

of t

he c

lass

w

hich

itse

lf i

s a

prod

uct

of t

he b

ourg

eois

ie. C

ompe

titio

n an

d th

e st

rug-

gl

e of

ind

ivid

uals

am

ong

them

selv

es e

ngen

der

and

deve

lop

this

acc

iden

- ta

l cha

ract

er. I

n im

agin

atio

n, in

divi

dual

s see

m f

reer

und

er t

he r

ule

of t

he

bour

geoi

sie

than

bef

ore

beca

use

thei

r co

ndit

ions

of

life

seem

acc

iden

tal

to t

hem

. In

rea

lity

they

are

less

fre

e, b

ecau

se t

hey

are

mor

e su

bjec

ted

to

the

dom

inat

ion

of t

hing

s. T

he

diff

eren

ce f

rom

the

est

ate

is b

roug

ht o

ut

part

icul

arly

in

the

anta

goni

sm b

etw

een

the

bour

geoi

sie

and

the

pro-

le

tari

at.

Whe

n th

e es

tate

of

urba

n bu

rghe

rs, t

he c

orpo

ratio

ns,

etc.

, em

erge

d in

op

posi

tion

to t

he l

ande

d no

bilit

y, t

heir

con

ditio

n of

exi

sten

ce,

nam

ely,

m

ovab

le p

rope

rty

and

craf

t la

bor

alre

ady

exis

ting

late

ntly

bef

ore

thei

r se

para

tion

from

feu

dal

ties,

app

eare

d as

som

ethi

ng p

ositi

ve w

hich

was

as

sert

ed a

gain

st f

euda

l la

nded

pro

pert

y an

d he

nce

at f

irst

too

k on

a

feud

al fo

rm. C

erta

inly

the

esc

aped

ser

fs c

onsi

dere

d th

eir

prev

ious

ser

vi-

tude

as

som

ethi

ng a

ccid

enta

l to

the

ir p

erso

nalit

y. B

ut t

hey

wer

e on

ly

doin

g w

hat e

very

cla

ss fr

eein

g its

elf

from

a f

ette

r do

es. A

nd t

hey

did

not

free

them

selv

es a

s a

clas

s bu

t as

sep

arat

e in

divi

dual

s. T

hey

did

not

rise

ab

ove

the

syst

em o

f es

tate

s, b

ut m

erel

y fo

rmed

a n

ew e

stat

e an

d re

tain

ed

thei

r pr

evio

us m

ode

of l

abor

eve

n in

the

ir n

ew s

ituat

ion,

dev

elop

ing

it fu

rthe

r by

fr

eein

g it

from

its

ear

lier

fett

ers

whi

ch n

o lo

nger

cor

re-

spon

ded

to th

e de

velo

pmen

t alr

eady

atta

ined

. Fo

r th

e pr

olet

aria

ns,

on t

he o

ther

han

d, t

he c

ondi

tion

of t

heir

exi

s-

tenc

e, l

abor

, an

d th

us a

ll th

e co

nditi

ons

gove

rnin

g m

oder

n so

ciet

y ha

ve

beco

me

som

ethi

ng a

ccid

enta

l, so

met

hing

ove

r w

hich

the

y, a

s se

para

te

prol

etar

ians

, ha

ve n

o co

ntro

l an

d ov

er w

hich

no

soci

al o

rgan

izat

ion

can

146

Wri

tings

on H

isto

rica

l Mat

eria

listn

give

the

m c

ontr

ol.

Th

e co

ntra

dict

ion

betw

een

the

pers

onal

ity o

f ea

ch

sepa

rate

pro

leta

rian

and

lab

or,

the

cond

ition

of

life

forc

ed u

pon

him

, is

ve

ry e

vide

nt to

him

, fo

r he

is s

acri

fice

d fr

om h

is y

outh

on

and

with

in h

is

clas

s ha

s no

cha

nce

of a

rriv

ing

at c

ondi

tions

whi

ch w

ould

pla

ce h

im i

n an

othe

r cl

ass.

N

.B.

It m

ust n

ot b

e fo

rgot

ten

that

the

ser

fs v

ery

need

to

exis

t and

the

im

poss

ibili

ty o

f la

rge-

scal

e ec

onom

y w

ith

dist

ribu

tion

of

allo

tmen

ts

amon

g th

e se

rfs

soon

red

uced

the

dut

ies

of t

he s

erfs

to

an a

vera

ge o

f pa

ymen

ts in

kin

d an

d st

atut

e-la

bor

for

thei

r lo

rd.

Thi

s en

able

d th

e se

rf

to a

ccum

ulat

e m

ovab

le p

rope

rty,

fac

ilita

ted

his

esca

pe f

rom

the

pos

ses-

si

on o

f hi

s lo

rd,

and

gave

him

the

pro

spec

t of

m

akin

g hi

s w

ay

as a

bu

rghe

r. I

t al

so c

reat

ed g

rada

tions

am

ong

the

serf

s; t

he r

unaw

ay s

erfs

w

ere

alre

ady

half

burg

hers

. It

is o

bvio

us th

at t

he s

erfs

who

wer

e tr

aine

d in

a c

raft

had

the

bes

t cha

nce

of a

cqui

ring

mov

able

pro

pert

y.

Whi

le t

he r

unaw

ay s

erfs

onl

y w

ishe

d to

bec

ome

free

in

orde

r to

de-

ve

lop

and

asse

rt th

ose

cond

ition

s of

exi

sten

ce a

lrea

dy p

rese

nt a

nd h

ence

in

the

end

only

arr

ived

at f

ree

labo

r, th

e pr

olet

aria

ns,

if th

ey a

re to

ass

ert

them

selv

es a

s in

divi

dual

s, m

ust

abol

ish

the

very

con

diti

on o

f th

eir

exis

- te

nce

whi

ch h

as b

een

that

of

all

soci

ety

up t

o th

e pr

esen

t: la

bor.

Thu

s th

ey f

ind

them

selv

es d

irec

tly o

ppos

ed t

o th

e fo

rm i

n w

hich

ind

ivid

uals

co

mpo

sing

soc

iety

hav

e gi

ven

them

selv

es c

olle

ctiv

e ex

pres

sion

, the

sta

te:

and

they

mus

t ove

rthr

ow th

e st

ate

in o

rder

to r

ealiz

e th

eir

pers

onal

ity.

It i

s cl

ear

from

wha

t ha

s be

en s

aid

that

the

com

mun

al r

elat

ion-

sh

ip, i

nto

whi

ch t

he i

ndiv

idua

ls o

f a

clas

s en

tere

d an

d w

hich

was

det

er-

min

ed b

y th

eir

com

mon

inte

rest

s ov

er a

gain

st a

thi

rd p

arty

, was

alw

ays

a co

mm

unity

to w

hich

the

se i

ndiv

idua

ls b

elon

ged

only

as

aver

age

indi

vid-

ua

ls, o

nly

inso

far a

s th

ey li

ved

with

in t

he c

ondi

tion

s of

exi

sten

ce o

f th

eir

clas

s-a

rela

tions

hip

in w

hich

the

y pa

rtic

ipat

ed n

ot a

s in

divi

dual

s but

as

mem

bers

of

a cl

ass.

On

the

oth

er h

and,

it

is j

ust

the

reve

rse

with

the

co

mm

unity

of

revo

lutio

nary

pro

leta

rian

s w

ho t

ake

thei

r co

ndit

ions

of

exis

tenc

e an

d th

ose

of a

ll m

embe

rs o

f so

ciet

y un

der

thei

r co

ntro

l. T

he

indi

vidu

als

part

icip

ate

in t

his

com

mun

ity a

s in

divi

dual

s. I

t is

thi

s co

m-

bina

tion

of i

ndiv

idua

ls (a

ssum

ing

the

pres

ent

stag

e of

pro

duct

ive

forc

es,

of c

ours

e) w

hich

put

s th

e co

nditi

ons

of t

he f

ree

deve

lopm

ent a

nd m

ove-

m

ent

of

indi

vidu

als

unde

r th

eir

cont

rol,

cond

itio

ns w

hich

wer

e pr

e-

viou

sly

aban

done

d to

cha

nce

and

had

acqu

ired

ind

epen

dent

exi

sten

ce

over

aga

inst

sep

arat

e in

divi

dual

s be

caus

e of

the

ir s

epar

atio

n as

indi

vid-

ua

ls a

nd b

ecau

se o

f th

e ne

cess

ity o

f th

eir

com

bina

tion

whi

ch h

ad b

een

dete

rmin

ed b

y th

e di

visi

on o

f la

bor

and

thro

ugh

thei

r se

para

tion

had

beco

me

a bo

nd a

lien

to th

em.

Up

till n

ow t

he c

ombi

natio

n, b

y no

mea

ns

an a

rbitr

ary

one

as e

xpou

nded

in t

he C

ontr

at s

ocia

l bu

t a

nece

ssar

y on

e,

was

an

agre

emen

t on

thes

e co

nditi

ons

with

in w

hich

the

indi

vidu

als w

ere

The

Ger

man

Ideo

logy

14

7

free

to e

njoy

acc

iden

ts o

f fo

rtun

e (c

ompa

re,

for

exam

ple,

the

for

mat

ion

of t

he N

orth

Am

eric

an s

tate

and

the

Sou

th A

mer

ican

rep

ublic

s).

Thi

s ri

ght

to t

he u

ndis

turb

ed

enjo

ymen

t of

acc

iden

ts o

f fo

rtun

e, t

houg

h w

ithin

cer

tain

con

ditio

ns,

has

been

cal

led

pers

onal

fre

edom

.-The

se

cond

ition

s of

exi

sten

ce a

re,

of c

ours

e, o

nly

the

prod

uctiv

e fo

rces

and

fo

rms

of i

nter

actio

n of

the

par

ticul

ar t

ime.

[Com

mun

ism

: Pr

oduc

tion

of t

he F

orm

of

Inte

ract

ion

Itse

B C

omm

unis

m

diff

ers

from

all

prev

ious

mov

emen

ts b

ecau

se i

t ove

rtur

ns t

he b

asis

of

all

prev

ious

rel

atio

ns o

f pr

oduc

tion

and

inte

ract

ion,

and

for

the

fir

st t

ime

cons

ciou

sly

trea

ts a

ll na

tura

l pre

mis

es a

s cr

eatio

ns o

f m

en, s

trip

s th

em o

f th

eir

natio

nal c

hara

cter

, an

d su

bjec

ts t

hem

to

the

pow

er o

f un

ited

indi

- vi

dual

s. It

s or

gani

zatio

n, th

eref

ore,

is

esse

ntia

lly e

cono

mic

, the

mat

eria

l pr

oduc

tion

of t

he c

ondi

tions

of

this

uni

ty.

It t

urns

exi

stin

g co

nditi

ons

into

con

ditio

ns o

f un

ity.

Th

e re

ality

tha

t co

mm

unis

m c

reat

es i

s th

e ac

tual

bas

is f

or m

akin

g it

impo

ssib

le th

at a

nyth

ing

shou

ld e

xist

inde

pen-

de

ntly

of

indi

vidu

als,

ins

ofar

as

this

rea

lity

is o

nly

a pr

oduc

t of

the

pr

eced

ing

inte

ract

ion

of i

ndiv

idua

ls th

emse

lves

. C

omm

unis

ts in

pra

ctic

e tr

eat

the

cond

ition

s cr

eate

d un

til n

ow b

y pr

oduc

tion

and

inte

ract

ion

as

inor

gani

c co

nditi

ons,

with

out i

mag

inin

g, h

owev

er, t

hat

it w

as t

he p

lan

or

the

dest

iny

of p

revi

ous

gene

ratio

ns t

o pr

ovid

e th

em m

ater

ial a

nd w

ithou

t be

lievi

ng t

hat

thes

e co

nditi

ons

wer

e in

orga

nic

for

the

indi

vidu

als

crea

t-

ing

them

. T

he

diff

eren

ce b

etw

een

the

indi

vidu

al a

s a

pers

on a

nd w

hat

is a

cci-

de

ntal

to

him

is

not

a co

ncep

tual

dif

fere

nce

but

a hi

stor

ical

fac

t. T

his

dist

inct

ion

has

a di

ffer

ent

sign

ific

ance

in d

iffe

rent

per

iods

, fo

r ex

ampl

e,

the

esta

te a

s so

met

hing

acc

iden

tal

to t

he i

ndiv

idua

l in

the

eig

htee

nth

cent

ury

and

the

fam

ily m

ore

or l

ess

acci

dent

al t

oo.

We

do n

ot h

ave

to

mak

e th

is d

istin

ctio

n fo

r ea

ch a

ge;

rath

er,

each

age

its

elf

mak

es i

t fr

om

the

diff

eren

t el

emen

ts w

hich

it

find

s in

exi

sten

ce,

not

acco

rdin

g to

a

conc

ept

but

com

pelle

d by

mat

eria

l co

llisi

ons

of l

ife.

Ele

men

ts w

hich

ap

pear

acc

iden

tal

to a

lat

er a

ge i

n co

mpa

riso

n w

ith a

n ea

rlie

r on

e, i

n-

clud

ing

thos

e ha

nded

dow

n by

th

e ea

rlie

r ag

e, c

onst

itute

a f

orm

of

inte

ract

ion

whi

ch c

orre

spon

ded

to a

par

ticul

ar s

tage

of

prod

uctiv

e fo

rces

. T

he r

elat

ion

of t

he p

rodu

ctiv

e fo

rces

to

the

form

of

inte

ract

ion

is t

he

rela

tion

of t

he f

orm

of

inte

ract

ion

to t

he o

ccup

atio

n or

act

ivity

of

the

indi

vidu

als.

(O

f co

urse

, the

fun

dam

enta

l for

m o

f th

is a

ctiv

ity is

mat

eria

l; al

l ot

her

form

s, i

ntel

lect

ual,

polit

ical

, re

ligio

us, e

tc.,

depe

nd o

n it.

Th

e di

vers

e sh

apin

g of

mat

eria

l lif

e is

alw

ays

depe

nden

t on

nee

ds a

lrea

dy

deve

lope

d, a

nd t

he p

rodu

ctio

n as

wel

l as

sat

isfa

ctio

n of

the

se n

eeds

is

itsel

f a

hist

oric

al p

roce

ss n

ot f

ound

with

a s

heep

or

a do

g (t

he p

erve

rse

prin

cipa

l ar

gum

ent

of S

tirne

r's a

dver

sus

hom

inem

) th

ough

she

ep a

nd

Wri

tings

on

His

tori

cal M

ater

ialis

m

dogs

in

thei

r pr

esen

t fo

rm a

nd i

n sp

ite o

f th

emse

lves

are

pro

duct

s of

a

hist

oric

al p

roce

ss.)

Th

e co

nditi

ons

unde

r w

hich

ind

ivid

uals

inte

ract

so

long

as

cont

radi

c-

tion

is s

till

abse

nt a

re n

othi

ng e

xter

nal

to t

hem

but

are

con

diti

ons

per-

ta

inin

g to

the

ir i

ndiv

idua

lity,

con

diti

ons

unde

r w

hich

the

se p

artic

ular

in

divi

dual

s liv

ing

in p

artic

ular

cir

cum

stan

ces

can

prod

uce

thei

r m

ater

ial

life

and

wha

t is

con

nect

ed w

ith i

t. T

hey

are

the

cond

itio

ns o

f th

eir

self

- ac

tivity

and

are

pro

duce

d by

thi

s se

lf-a

ctiv

ity. (

(Pro

duct

ion

of t

he f

orm

of

inte

ract

ion

itsel

f.))

In t

he a

bsen

ce o

f co

ntra

dict

ion

the

part

icul

ar c

ondi

- tio

n un

der

whi

ch t

hey

prod

uce

thus

cor

resp

onds

to

the

actu

ality

of

thei

r co

nditi

oned

nat

ure,

th

eir

one-

side

d ex

iste

nce,

th

e on

e-si

dedn

ess

of

whi

ch s

how

s on

ly w

hen

cont

radi

ctio

n en

ters

and

thu

s on

ly e

xist

s fo

r la

ter

indi

vidu

als.

The

n th

is c

ondi

tion

app

ears

as

an a

ccid

enta

l fe

tter

, and

the

co

nsci

ousn

ess t

hat i

t is

a fe

tter

is im

pute

d to

the

earl

ier

age.

T

hese

var

ious

con

ditio

ns,

whi

ch a

ppea

r fi

rst

as c

ondi

tion

s of

se

lf-

activ

ity a

nd la

ter

as fe

tter

s up

on it

, for

m in

the

who

le e

volu

tion

of h

isto

ry

a co

here

nt s

erie

s of

for

ms

of i

nter

acti

on. T

he

cohe

renc

e co

nsis

ts o

f th

e fa

ct th

at i

n th

e pl

ace

of a

n ea

rlie

r fo

rm o

f in

tera

ctio

n, w

hich

has

bec

ome

a fe

tter,

is p

ut a

new

one

cor

resp

ondi

ng t

o th

e m

ore

deve

lope

d pr

oduc

- tiv

e fo

rces

and

thu

s to

an

adva

nced

mod

e of

the

sel

f-ac

tivity

of

indi

vid-

ua

ls,

a fo

rm w

hich

in

turn

bec

omes

a f

ette

r to

be

repl

aced

by

anot

her.

Si

nce

thes

e co

nditi

ons

corr

espo

nd a

t ev

ery

stag

e to

the

sim

ulta

neou

s de

velo

pmen

t of

pro

duct

ive

forc

es,

thei

r hi

stor

y is

at

the

sam

e ti

me

the

hist

ory

of t

he e

volv

ing

prod

uctiv

e fo

rces

take

n ov

er b

y ea

ch n

ew g

ener

a-

tion

and

henc

e th

e hi

stor

y of

th

e de

velo

pmen

t of

the

for

ces

of

the

indi

vidu

als

them

selv

es.

Sinc

e th

is e

volu

tion

proc

eeds

nat

ural

ly a

nd i

s no

t su

bord

inat

ed t

o a

gene

ral

plan

of

free

ly u

nite

d in

divi

dual

s, i

t st

arts

out

fro

m v

ario

us l

o-

calit

ies,

tri

bes,

nat

ions

, br

anch

es o

f la

bor,

etc

., ea

ch o

f w

hich

dev

elop

s in

depe

nden

tly o

f th

e ot

hers

and

onl

y gr

adua

lly e

nter

s in

to r

elat

ions

hip

with

the

oth

ers.

It

proc

eeds

onl

y ve

ry s

low

ly.

Th

e va

riou

s st

ages

and

in

tere

sts

are

neve

r co

mpl

etel

y ov

erco

me

but

only

sub

ordi

nate

d to

the

w

inni

ng i

nter

est

and

drag

alo

ng w

ith i

t fo

r ce

ntur

ies.

Th

us

we

see

that

ev

en w

ithin

a n

atio

n th

e in

divi

dual

s, a

part

fro

m t

heir

pec

unia

ry c

ircu

m-

stan

ces,

hav

e qu

ite d

iffe

rent

dev

elop

men

ts. W

e se

e th

at a

n ea

rlie

r in

ter-

es

t, w

hose

pec

ulia

r fo

rm o

f in

tera

ctio

n ha

s al

read

y be

en s

uppl

ante

d by

a

form

bel

ongi

ng to

a la

ter

inte

rest

, re

mai

ns f

or a

lon

g ti

me

afte

rwar

ds i

n po

sses

sion

of

a tr

aditi

onal

pow

er i

n th

e ill

usor

y co

mm

unit

y (s

tate

, la

w)

whi

ch h

as b

ecom

e in

depe

nden

t of

ind

ivid

uals

, a

pow

er t

hat

can

only

be

brok

en b

y re

volu

tion.

Th

is e

xpla

ins

why

, w

ith r

efer

ence

to

part

icul

ar

poin

ts w

hich

per

mit

a m

ore

gene

ral

sum

mar

y, c

onsc

ious

ness

can

som

e-

times

app

ear

furt

her

adva

nced

than

con

tem

pora

ry e

mpi

rica

l rel

atio

nshi

ps

The

Ger

mat

z Ide

olog

j~

so o

ne c

an q

uote

ear

lier

theo

retic

ians

as

auth

orit

ies

in t

he s

trug

gles

of

a la

ter

epoc

h.

In c

ount

ries

lik

e N

orth

Am

eric

a w

hich

beg

in i

n an

alr

eady

adv

ance

d hi

stor

ical

epo

ch,

deve

lopm

ent p

roce

eds

very

rap

idly

. Suc

h co

untr

ies

have

no

oth

er n

atur

al p

rem

ises

tha

n th

e in

divi

dual

s w

ho s

ettle

d th

ere

and

wer

e in

duce

d to

do

so b

ecau

se t

he

form

s of

in

tera

ctio

n in

th

e ol

d co

untr

ies

did

not

corr

espo

nd t

o th

eir

wan

ts.

Thu

s th

ey b

egin

with

the

m

ost

adva

nced

ind

ivid

uals

of

the

old

coun

trie

s an

d w

ith t

he c

orre

spon

d-

ingl

y m

ost

adva

nced

for

m o

f in

tera

ctio

n, e

ven

befo

re t

his

form

of

inte

r-

actio

n ha

s be

en e

stab

lishe

d in

the

old

cou

ntri

es. T

his

is t

he c

ase

with

all

colo

nies

whi

ch a

re n

ot m

ilita

ry o

r tr

adin

g st

atio

ns.

Car

thag

e, t

he G

reek

co

loni

es, a

nd I

cela

nd i

n th

e el

even

th a

nd t

wel

fth

cent

urie

s ar

e ex

ampl

es

of t

his.

A s

imila

r re

latio

nshi

p is

est

ablis

hed

by c

onqu

est

whe

n a

form

of

inte

ract

ion

whi

ch h

as e

volv

ed e

lsew

here

is

intr

oduc

ed c

ompl

ete

into

the

co

nque

red

coun

try.

Whi

le i

t w

as s

till

encu

mbe

red

with

int

eres

ts a

nd

rela

tions

hips

from

ear

lier

~e

rio

ds at

hom

e, it

can

and

mus

t be

esta

blis

hed

com

plet

ely

and

with

out

hind

ranc

e in

the

con

quer

ed c

ount

ry t

o as

sure

th

e co

nque

rors

' la

stin

g po

wer

. (E

ngla

nd a

nd N

aple

s af

ter

the

Nor

man

C

onqu

est,

whe

n th

ey r

ecei

ved

the

mos

t pe

rfec

t fo

rm o

f fe

udal

org

a-

niza

tion.

) Thi

s w

hole

inte

rpre

tati

on o

f hi

stor

y ap

pear

s to

be

cont

radi

cted

by

the

fact

of

conq

uest

. V

iole

nce,

war

, pi

llage

, mur

der,

etc

., ha

ve b

een

seen

as

the

mot

ive

forc

e of

his

tory

. We

mus

t lim

it ou

rsel

ves

here

to

the

chie

f po

ints

and

tak

e up

onl

y th

e m

ost

stri

king

exa

mpl

e, th

e de

stru

ctio

n of

an

old

civi

lizat

ion

by a

bar

baro

us p

eopl

e an

d th

e re

sult

ing

form

atio

n of

an

entir

ely

new

org

aniz

atio

n of

soc

iety

(R

ome

and

the

barb

aria

ns;

feud

alis

m

and

Gau

l; th

e B

yzan

tine

Em

pire

and

the

Tur

ks).

As

indi

cate

d ab

ove,

with

th

e co

nque

ring

bar

bari

an p

eopl

e, w

ar is

stil

l a re

gula

r fo

rm o

f in

tera

ctio

n w

hich

is

the

mor

e ea

gerl

y ex

ploi

ted

as t

he p

opul

atio

n in

crea

ses

and-

re

quir

es n

ew m

eans

of

prod

ucti

on t

o ta

ke t

he p

lace

of

the

trad

ition

al a

nd

the

only

pos

sibl

e cr

ude

mod

e of

pro

duct

ion.

In

Italy

, how

ever

, con

cent

ra-

tion

of l

ande

d pr

oper

ty (

caus

ed n

ot o

nly

by p

urch

ases

and

inde

bted

ness

, bu

t al

so b

y in

heri

tanc

e, s

ince

the

old

fam

ilies

die

d ou

t fr

om l

oose

liv

ing

and

rare

mar

riag

es a

nd t

heir

pos

sess

ions

fel

l int

o th

e ha

nds

of a

few

) an

d its

con

vers

ion

into

gra

zing

lan

d (c

ause

d no

t on

ly b

y co

mm

on e

cono

mic

fo

rces

stil

l ex

istin

g to

day

but

also

by

the

impo

rtat

ion

of p

lund

ered

and

tr

ibut

e gr

ain

and

the

resu

ltant

lac

k of

dem

and

for

Ital

ian

grai

n) m

ade

the

free

pop

ulat

ion

disa

ppea

r al

mos

t co

mpl

etel

y. S

lave

s di

ed o

ut a

gain

and

ag

ain

and

cons

tant

ly h

ad t

o be

rep

lace

d by

new

one

s. S

lave

ry r

emai

ned

the

basi

s of

the

ent

ire

prod

uctiv

e sy

stem

. T

he

pleb

eian

s st

andi

ng b

e-

twee

n fr

eem

en a

nd s

lave

s ne

ver

succ

eede

d in

bec

omin

g m

ore

than

pro

- le

tari

an ra

bble

. Ind

eed,

Rom

e ne

ver

beca

me

mor

e th

an a

city

. Its

con

nec-

150

Wri

tings

on H

isto

rica

l Mat

eria

lism

Th

e Ger

tnan

Ideo

logy

tion

with

the

pro

vinc

es w

as a

lmos

t ex

clus

ivel

y po

litic

al a

nd c

ould

eas

ily

be b

roke

n by

pol

itica

l eve

nts.

N

othi

ng i

s m

ore

com

mon

tha

n th

e no

tion

tha

t in

his

tory

up

till

no

w t

akin

g ha

s be

en

the

thin

g th

at c

ount

s. T

he

barb

aria

ns

take

the

R

oman

Em

pire

, an

d th

e tr

ansi

tion

fro

m t

he o

ld w

orld

to

the

feud

al

syst

em is

exp

lain

ed w

ith t

his

fact

of

taki

ng.

In th

is ta

king

by

barb

aria

ns i

t is

im

port

ant

whe

ther

the

con

quer

ed n

atio

n ha

s in

dust

rial

pro

duct

ive

forc

es,

as i

s th

e ca

se w

ith m

oder

n pe

ople

s, o

r w

heth

er i

ts p

rodu

ctiv

e fo

rces

are

bas

ed f

or t

he m

ost

part

mer

ely

on a

ssoc

iatio

n an

d co

mm

unity

. T

akin

g is

fur

ther

det

erm

ined

by

the

obje

ct t

aken

. A

ban

ker's

fo

rtun

e co

nsis

ting

of p

aper

can

not b

e ta

ken

wit

hout

the

take

r's s

ubm

itti

ng to

the

co

nditi

ons

of

prod

ucti

on a

nd i

nter

acti

on i

n th

e co

untr

y ta

ken.

It

is

sim

ilar

with

the

tot

al i

ndus

tria

l ca

pita

l of

a m

oder

n in

dust

rial

cou

ntry

. Fi

nally

, tak

ing

very

soo

n co

mes

to

an e

nd,

and

whe

n th

ere

is n

othi

ng

mor

e to

tak

e, o

ne m

ust b

egin

to

prod

uce.

Fro

m t

his

nece

ssity

of

prod

uc-

ing,

whi

ch c

omes

abo

ut v

ery

soon

, it

follo

ws

that

the

for

m o

f co

mm

unit

y ad

opte

d by

th

e se

ttli

ng c

onqu

eror

s m

ust

corr

espo

nd t

o th

e st

age

of

deve

lopm

ent o

f th

e pr

oduc

tive

forc

es th

ey f

ind

in e

xist

ence

; or

, if

this

is

not

the

case

fro

m t

he s

tart

, it m

ust c

hang

e to

acc

ord

with

the

pro

duct

ive

forc

es. T

his

expl

ains

wha

t peo

ple

say

they

hav

e no

ticed

eve

ryw

here

in

the

peri

od a

fter

the

Gre

at M

igra

tion

, na

mel

y, t

hat

the

serv

ant

was

mas

ter

and

that

the

con

quer

ors

very

soo

n ad

opte

d th

e la

ngua

ge,

cult

ure,

and

m

anne

rs o

f th

e co

nque

red.

T

he

feud

al s

yste

m w

as b

y no

mea

ns b

roug

ht c

ompl

ete

from

Ger

man

y.

As

far

as th

e co

nque

rors

wer

e co

ncer

ned,

it h

ad i

ts o

rigi

n in

the

org

ani-

za

tion

of t

he a

rmy

duri

ng t

he c

onqu

est

itsel

f an

d de

velo

ped

afte

r th

e co

nque

st i

nto

the

feud

al s

yste

m p

rope

r th

roug

h th

e ac

tion

of

the

pro-

du

ctiv

e fo

rces

fou

nd i

n th

e co

nque

red

coun

trie

s. T

o w

hat

exte

nt t

his

form

was

det

erm

ined

by

the

prod

ucti

ve f

orce

s is

sho

wn

by t

he a

bort

ive

atte

mpt

s to

ins

titu

te o

ther

for

ms

deri

ved

from

rem

inis

cenc

es o

f an

cien

t R

ome

(Cha

rlem

agne

, etc

.). T

o be

con

tinu

ed.

In b

ig i

ndus

try

and

com

peti

tion

all

the

cond

itio

ns o

f ex

iste

nce,

th

e de

term

inin

g fa

ctor

s, a

nd t

he b

iase

s of

ind

ivid

uals

are

fus

ed t

oget

her

into

the

tw

o si

mpl

est

form

s: p

riva

te p

rope

rty

and

labo

r. W

ith

mon

ey

ever

y fo

rm o

f in

tera

ctio

n, a

nd i

nter

acti

on i

tsel

f, i

s co

nsid

ered

acc

iden

tal

for

indi

vidu

als.

Mon

ey i

mpl

ies

that

all

prev

ious

int

erac

tion

was

onl

y co

mm

erce

of

indi

vidu

als

unde

r pa

rtic

ular

con

diti

ons,

not

of

indi

vidu

als

as i

ndiv

idua

ls. T

hese

con

diti

ons

are

redu

ced

to t

wo:

acc

umul

ated

lab

or

of p

riva

te p

rope

rty,

and

act

ual

labo

r. E

ven

if on

ly o

ne o

f th

ese

ceas

es,

inte

ract

ion

com

es to

a s

tand

stil

l. T

he

mod

ern

econ

omis

ts th

emse

lves

, for

ex

ampl

e, S

ism

ondi

, C

herb

ulie

z, e

tc.,

juxt

apos

e "a

ssoc

iatio

n of

ind

ivid

- ua

ls"

and

"ass

ocia

tion

of c

apita

l."

On

the

oth

er h

and,

the

ind

ivid

uals

them

selv

es a

re c

ompl

etel

y su

bsum

ed u

nder

the

div

isio

n of

lab

or a

nd

brou

ght

into

com

plet

e de

pend

ence

on

one

ano

ther

. Pr

ivat

e pr

oper

ty,

inso

far

as i

t is

opp

osed

to

labo

r w

ithin

lab

or i

tsel

f, e

volv

es o

ut o

f th

e ne

cess

ity o

f ac

cum

ulat

ion

and

has

at f

irst

the

for

m o

f co

mm

unity

. But

in

its f

urth

er d

evel

opm

ent i

t ap

proa

ches

mor

e an

d m

ore

the

mod

ern

form

of

pri

vate

pro

pert

y. F

rom

the

out

set,

the

divi

sion

of

labo

r im

plie

s di

visi

on

of t

he c

ondi

tions

of

1~60

1; of

too

ls a

nd m

ater

ials

, an

d th

e sp

litt

ing

up o

f ac

cum

ulat

ed c

apita

l in

to t

he h

ands

of

vari

ous

owne

rs,

and

thus

the

di

visi

on b

etw

een

capi

tal

and

labo

r an

d di

ffer

ent

form

s of

cap

ital

itsel

f.

Th

e fu

rthe

r di

visi

on

of

labo

r pr

ocee

ds

and

the

mor

e ac

cum

ulat

ion

grow

s, t

he m

ore

pron

ounc

ed

does

the

fra

gmen

tati

on b

ecom

e.

Lab

or

itsel

f ca

n ex

ist o

nly

unde

r th

e pr

emis

e of

thi

s fr

agm

enta

tion

. Pe

rson

al e

nerg

y of

the

ind

ivid

uals

of

vari

ous

natio

ns-G

erm

ans

and

Am

eric

ans-

ener

gy

gene

rate

d al

read

y th

roug

h cr

ossb

reed

ing-

he

nce

the

cret

inis

m o

f th

e G

erm

ans-

in

Fran

ce,

Eng

land

, et

c.,

fore

ign

peop

les

tran

spla

nted

to

a la

nd a

lrea

dy d

evel

oped

, in

Am

eric

a to

vir

gin

land

-in

Ger

man

y th

e na

tive

popu

latio

n qu

ietly

rem

aine

d in

its

loca

le.

Thu

s tw

o fa

cts

beco

me

clea

r. F

irst

, th

e pr

oduc

tive

for

ces

appe

ar

as a

wor

ld b

y th

emse

lves

ind

epen

dent

of,

rem

oved

fro

m,

and

alon

gsid

e in

divi

dual

s be

caus

e th

e in

divi

dual

s w

hose

for

ces

they

are

, exi

st a

s sp

lit u

p an

d op

pose

d to

one

ano

ther

. O

n th

e ot

her

hand

the

se f

orce

s ar

e on

ly r

eal

forc

es i

n th

e in

tera

ctio

n an

d as

soci

atio

n of

the

ind

ivid

uals

. T

hu

s w

e ha

ve,

on t

he o

ne h

and,

a t

otal

ity o

f pr

oduc

tive

for

ces

whi

ch,

so to

spe

ak,

have

ass

umed

mat

eria

l fo

rm a

nd a

re f

or t

he i

ndiv

idua

ls n

o lo

nger

the

fo

rces

of

indi

vidu

als

but

of p

riva

te p

rope

rty-

of

indi

vidu

als

only

inso

far

as t

hey

are

owne

rs o

f pr

ivat

e pr

oper

ty.

Nev

er b

efor

e ha

ve t

he p

rodu

ctiv

e fo

rces

take

n on

a f

orm

so

indi

ffer

ent t

o th

e in

tera

ctio

n of

ind

ivid

uals

as

indi

vidu

als,

bec

ause

the

ir i

nter

acti

on w

as s

till

res

tric

ted.

On

the

oth

er

hand

, op

posi

ng t

he p

rodu

ctiv

e fo

rces

, the

re i

s th

e m

ajor

ity o

f th

e in

di-

vidu

als

from

who

m t

hese

for

ces

have

bee

n w

rest

ed a

way

and

who

hav

e be

com

e ab

stra

ct

indi

vidu

als

depr

ived

of

al

l re

al

life

cont

ent.

Onl

y th

roug

h th

is f

act,

how

ever

, ar

e th

ey e

nabl

ed t

o en

ter

into

rel

atio

n w

ith

- -..-

one

anot

her

as i

ndiv

idua

ls.

Th

e on

ly c

onne

ctio

n st

ill l

inki

ng t

hem

with

th

e pr

oduc

tive

forc

es a

nd w

ith t

heir

ow

n ex

iste

nce,

lab

or,

has

lost

all

sem

blan

ce o

f se

lf-a

ctiv

ity a

nd s

usta

ins

thei

r lif

e on

ly b

y st

unti

ng i

t. W

hile

in

earl

ier

peri

ods

self

-act

ivity

and

the

pro

duct

ion

of m

ater

ial

life

--

~ -- --

- --

--

wer

e se

para

ted

by t

he f

act

that

th&

dev

olve

d on

dif

fere

nt p

erso

ns a

nd

beca

use

the

prod

ucti

on o

f m

ater

ial

life

was

con

side

red

a su

bord

inat

e m

ode

of s

elf-

activ

ity d

ue t

o th

e na

rrow

ness

of

the

indi

vidu

als

them

- se

lves

, the

y no

w d

iver

ge to

suc

h an

ext

ent t

hat m

ater

ial

life

appe

ars

as t

he

end,

and

lab

or, t

he p

rodu

cer

of t

his

mat

eria

l lif

e (n

ow t

he o

nly

poss

ible

bu

t neg

ativ

e fo

rm o

f se

lf-a

ctiv

ity, a

s w

e se

e), a

ppea

rs a

s m

eans

.

152

Wri

tings

on H

isto

rica

l Mat

eria

lism

Thi

ngs

have

com

e to

the

poi

nt w

here

ind

ivid

uals

mus

t app

ropr

iate

the

ex

istin

g to

talit

y of

pro

duct

ive

forc

es n

ot m

erel

y to

ach

ieve

sel

f-ac

tivity

bu

t to

sec

ure

thei

r ve

ry e

xist

ence

. T

his

appr

opri

atio

n is

det

erm

ined

by

the

obje

ct to

be

appr

opri

ated

-the

pr

oduc

tive

forc

es d

evel

oped

to a

tota

l-

ity a

nd e

xist

ing

only

with

in a

uni

vers

al i

nter

actio

n.

From

thi

s as

pect

al

one,

thi

s ap

prop

riat

ion

mus

t ha

ve a

uni

vers

al c

hara

cter

cor

resp

ondi

ng

to t

he p

rodu

ctiv

e fo

rces

and

int

erac

tion

. T

he

appr

opri

atio

n of

th

ese

forc

es is

itse

lf no

thin

g m

ore

than

the

dev

elop

men

t of

indi

vidu

al c

apac

i-

ties

corr

espo

ndin

g to

the

mat

eria

l in

stru

men

ts o

f pr

oduc

tion

. Fo

r th

is

very

rea

son,

the

app

ropr

iatio

n of

a to

talit

y of

ins

trum

ents

of

prod

ucti

on

is t

he d

evel

opm

ent o

f a

tota

lity

of c

apab

ilitie

s in

the

ind

ivid

uals

the

m-

selv

es. I

t is

furt

her d

eter

min

ed b

y th

e ap

prop

riat

ing

indi

vidu

als.

Onl

y th

e pr

olet

aria

ns o

f th

e pr

esen

t, co

mpl

etel

y de

priv

ed o

f an

y se

lf-a

ctiv

ity, c

an

achi

eve

a co

mpl

ete

and

unre

stri

cted

sel

f-ac

tivity

invo

lvin

g th

e ap

prop

ria-

tio

n of

a to

talit

y of

pro

duct

ive

forc

es a

nd c

onse

quen

tly t

he d

evel

opm

ent

of a

tota

lity

of c

apac

ities

. All

prev

ious

rev

olut

iona

ry a

ppro

pria

tions

wer

e re

stri

cted

. Ind

ivid

uals

, who

se s

elf-

activ

ity w

as r

estr

icte

d by

a c

rude

in-

st

rum

ent o

f pr

oduc

tion

and

limite

d in

tera

ctio

n, a

ppro

pria

ted

this

cru

de

inst

rum

ent

of p

rodu

ctio

n an

d m

erel

y at

tain

ed a

new

pla

teau

of

limita

- tio

n. T

heir

ins

trum

ent

of p

rodu

ctio

n be

cam

e th

eir

prop

erty

, bu

t th

ey

them

selv

es r

emai

ned

subj

ect

to t

he d

ivis

ion

of l

abor

and

the

ir o

wn

in-

stru

men

t of

prod

uctio

n. I

n al

l ap

prop

riat

ions

up

to n

ow a

mas

s of

ind

i-

vidu

als

rem

aine

d su

bser

vien

t to

a s

ingl

e in

stru

men

t of

pro

duct

ion.

In

the

appr

opri

atio

n by

the

pro

leta

rian

s, a

mas

s of

ins

trum

ents

of

prod

uc-

tion

mus

t be

subs

ervi

ent t

o ea

ch i

ndiv

idua

l and

the

pro

pert

y of

all.

Th

e on

ly w

ay f

or i

ndiv

idua

ls t

o co

ntro

l m

oder

n un

iver

sal

inte

ract

ion

is t

o m

ake

it su

bjec

t to

the

cont

rol o

f al

l. T

he

appr

opri

atio

n is

fur

ther

det

erm

ined

by

the

man

ner

in w

hich

it

mus

t be

carr

ied

thro

ugh.

It c

an o

nly

be a

ccom

plis

hed

by a

uni

on, u

nive

r-

sal

beca

use

of

the

char

acte

r of

th

e pr

olet

aria

t its

elf,

and

thr

ough

a

revo

lutio

n in

whi

ch t

he p

ower

of

the

soci

al o

rgan

izat

ion

and

of e

arlie

r m

odes

of

prod

uctio

n an

d in

tera

ctio

n is

ove

rthr

own

and

the

prol

etar

iat's

un

iver

sal c

hara

cter

and

ene

rgy

for

the

act o

f ap

prop

riat

ion

is d

evel

oped

. Fu

rthe

rmor

e, t

he p

role

tari

at m

ust g

et ri

d of

eve

ryth

ing

still

clin

ging

to it

fr

om it

s ea

rlie

r pos

ition

in s

ocie

ty.

Not

unt

il th

is s

tage

is r

each

ed w

ill s

elf-

activ

ity c

oinc

ide

with

mat

eria

l lif

e, w

ill i

ndiv

idua

ls b

ecom

e co

mpl

ete

indi

vidu

als.

Onl

y th

en w

ill t

he

shed

ding

of

all n

atur

al l

imita

tions

be

acco

mpl

ishe

d. T

he

tran

sfor

mat

ion

of l

abor

int

o se

lf-a

ctiv

ity c

orre

spon

ds t

o th

e tr

ansf

orm

atio

n of

the

pre

- vi

ous

rest

rict

ed i

nter

actio

n in

to t

he i

nter

acti

on o

f in

divi

dual

s as

suc

h.

With

the

app

ropr

iatio

n of

th

e to

tal

prod

uctiv

e fo

rces

thr

ough

uni

ted

indi

vidu

als,

priv

ate

prop

erty

cea

ses

to e

xist

. W

hile

in

prev

ious

his

tory

a

The

Ger

man

Ideo

logy

15

3

part

icul

ar c

ondi

tion

alw

ays

appe

ared

as

acci

dent

al,

now

the

iso

latio

n of

in

divi

dual

s an

d th

e pa

rtic

ular

pri

vate

gai

n of

any

indi

vidu

al h

ave

beco

me

acci

dent

al.

Indi

vidu

als

who

are

no

long

er s

ubje

cted

to

the

divi

sion

of

labo

r ha

ve

been

con

ceiv

ed b

y th

e ph

iloso

pher

s as

an

idea

l un

der

the

nam

e of

"M

an."

The

y ha

ve g

rasp

ed th

e w

hole

pro

cess

des

crib

ed a

s th

e ev

olut

ion-

ar

y pr

oces

s of

"M

an,"

so a

t eve

ry h

isto

rica

l sta

ge "

Man

" w

as s

ubst

itute

d fo

r in

divi

dual

s an

d pr

esen

ted

as t

he m

otiv

e fo

rce

of h

isto

ry T

he

who

le

proc

ess w

as s

een

as a

pro

cess

of

the

self

-alie

natio

n of

"M

an,"

es

sent

ially

be

caus

e th

e av

erag

e in

divi

dual

of

the

late

r st

age

was

alw

ays

fois

ted

on th

e ea

rlie

r sta

ge a

nd t

he c

onsc

ious

ness

of

a la

ter p

erio

d on

the

indi

vidu

als o

f an

ear

lier.

((Se

lf-a

liena

tion)

) T

hrou

gh t

his

inve

rsio

n, w

hich

fro

m t

he

begi

nnin

g ha

s be

en a

n ab

stra

ctio

n of

the

act

ual

cond

ition

s, i

t was

pos

si-

ble

to tr

ansf

orm

all

hist

ory

into

an

evol

utio

nary

proc

ess

of c

onsc

ious

ness

. C

ivil

soci

ety

com

pris

es t

he e

ntir

e m

ater

ial

inte

ract

ion

amon

g in

- di

vidu

als

at a

par

ticul

ar e

volu

tiona

ry s

tage

of

the

prod

uctiv

e fo

rces

. It

co

mpr

ises

the

enti

re c

omm

erci

al a

nd in

dust

rial

life

of

a st

age

and

henc

e tr

ansc

ends

the

sta

te a

nd t

he n

atio

n ev

en t

houg

h th

at l

ife,

on

the

othe

r ha

nd, i

s m

anif

este

d in

for

eign

aff

airs

as

natio

nalit

y an

d or

gani

zed

with

in

a st

ate.

Th

e te

rm "

civi

l so

ciet

y" e

mer

ged

in th

e ei

ghte

enth

cen

tury

whe

n pr

oper

ty r

elat

ions

had

alr

eady

evo

lved

fro

m t

he c

omm

unity

of

antiq

uity

an

d m

edie

val

times

. C

ivil

soci

ety

as s

uch

only

dev

elop

s w

ith t

he b

our-

ge

oisi

e. T

he

soci

al o

rgan

izat

ion,

how

ever

, w

hich

evo

lves

dir

ectly

fro

m

prod

uctio

n an

d co

mm

erce

and

in a

ll ag

es fo

rms

the

basi

s of

the

sta

te a

nd

the

rest

of

the

idea

listic

sup

erst

ruct

ure,

has

alw

ays

been

des

igna

ted

by

the

sam

e na

me.

Rel

atio

n of

tlze

Sta

te

and

Law

to

Prop

erty

T

he f

irst

for

m o

f pr

oper

ty i

n an

tiqui

ty a

s in

the

Mid

dle

Age

s is

tri

bal

prop

erty

, det

erm

ined

with

the

Rom

ans

chie

fly

by w

ar a

nd w

ith t

he G

er-

man

ic p

eopl

es b

y ca

ttle

bree

ding

. Si

nce

seve

ral t

ribe

s liv

ed t

oget

her

in

one

tow

n in

the

anc

ient

wor

ld, t

riba

l pro

pert

y w

as s

tate

pro

pert

y an

d th

e ri

ght

of

the

indi

vidu

al t

o it

was

mer

e Po

sses

sio,

con

fine

d lik

e tr

ibal

pr

oper

ty a

s a

who

le t

o la

nded

pro

pert

y on

ly.

With

the

anc

ient

s as

with

- ..-

mod

ern

natio

ns,

real

pri

vate

pro

pert

y be

gan

with

mov

able

Dro

Der

W-

. -

1

c---,

(sla

very

and

com

mun

ity)

(dom

iniu

m e

x ju

re Q

uiri

tum

[ow

ners

hip

from

th

e la

w o

f fu

ll R

oman

citi

zens

hip]

). I

n na

tions

evo

lvin

g fr

om t

he M

iddl

e .-

- -

Age

s, tr

ibal

pro

pert

y de

velo

ped

thro

ugh

seve

ral

stag

es-f

euda

l la

nded

pr

oper

ty, c

orpo

rativ

e m

ovab

le p

rope

rty,

man

ufac

turi

ng c

apita

l-to

mod

- er

n ca

pita

l de

term

ined

by

big

indu

stry

and

uni

vers

al c

ompe

titio

n, p

ure

154

Writ

ings

on H

isto

rica

l Mat

eria

lism

priv

ate

prop

erty

fre

e of

all

sem

blan

ce o

f a

com

mun

al i

nstit

utio

n an

d ex

clud

ing

the

stat

e fr

om a

ny in

flue

nce

on it

s de

velo

pmen

t. T

o su

ch m

oder

n pr

ivat

e pr

oper

ty c

orre

spon

ds th

e m

oder

n st

ate

whi

ch

has

been

gra

dual

ly b

ough

t by

pro

pert

y ow

ners

thr

ough

tax

es, h

as f

alle

n en

tirel

y in

to t

heir

han

ds t

hrou

gh t

he n

atio

nal

debt

, an

d ha

s be

com

e co

mpl

etel

y de

pend

ent

on t

he c

omm

erci

al c

redi

t th

ey, t

he b

ourg

eois

, ex-

te

nd to

it in

the

rise

and

fal

l of

gove

rnm

ent b

onds

on

the

stoc

k ex

chan

ge.

Bei

ng a

cla

ss a

nd n

o lo

nger

an

esta

te, t

he b

ourg

eois

ie is

forc

ed to

org

aniz

e its

elf

natio

nally

rat

her

than

loca

lly a

nd g

ive

a ge

nera

l for

m to

its

aver

aged

in

tere

st. T

hrou

gh t

he e

man

cipa

tion

of p

riva

te p

rope

rty

from

the

com

- m

unity

, th

e st

ate

has

beco

me

a se

para

te e

ntity

bes

ide

and

outs

ide

civi

l so

ciet

y. B

ut t

he s

tate

is

noth

ing

mor

e th

an t

he f

orm

of

orga

niza

tion

whi

ch t

he b

ourg

eois

by

nece

ssity

ado

pts

for

both

int

erna

l an

d ex

tern

al

purp

oses

as

a m

utua

l gu

aran

tee

of t

heir

pro

pert

y an

d in

tere

sts.

Th

e in

depe

nden

ce o

f th

e st

ate

is f

ound

toda

y on

ly in

cou

ntri

es w

here

est

ates

ha

ve n

ot fu

lly d

evel

oped

into

cla

sses

, whe

re e

stat

es, h

avin

g di

sapp

eare

d in

m

ore

adva

nced

cou

ntri

es,

still

hav

e a

role

to

play

, and

whe

re a

mix

ture

ex

ists

--co

untr

ies

whe

re n

o on

e se

ctio

n of

th

e po

pula

tion

can

atta

in

cont

rol

over

the

oth

ers.

Thi

s is

the

cas

e pa

rtic

ular

ly i

n G

erm

any.

Th

e pe

rfec

t ex

ampl

e of

the

mod

ern

stat

e is

Nor

th A

mer

ica.

Th

e m

oder

n Fr

ench

, E

nglis

h, a

nd A

mer

ican

wri

ters

all

expr

ess

the

opin

ion

that

the

st

ate

exis

ts o

nly

for

the

sake

of

priv

ate

prop

erty

; th

is f

act

has

ente

red

into

the

cons

ciou

snes

s of

the

ordi

nary

man

. Si

nce

the

stat

e is

the

for

m i

n w

hich

the

ind

ivid

uals

of

a ru

ling

cla

ss

asse

rt th

eir

com

mon

inte

rest

s an

d th

e en

tire

civ

il so

ciet

y of

an

epoc

h is

ep

itom

ized

, th

e st

ate

acts

as

an i

nter

med

iary

in

the

form

atio

n of

all

com

mun

al i

nstit

utio

ns a

nd g

ives

the

m a

pol

itica

l fo

rm.

Hen

ce t

here

is

the

illus

ion

that

law

is

base

d on

will

, th

at i

s, o

n w

ill d

ivor

ced

from

its

re

al b

asis

, on

free

will

. In

a s

imila

r fa

shio

n, r

ight

in

turn

is

redu

ced

to

stat

ute

law.

Civ

il la

w d

evel

ops

sim

ulta

neou

sly

with

pri

vate

pro

pert

y fr

om t

he d

isin

- te

grat

ion

of t

he n

atur

al c

omm

unit

y W

ith

the

Rom

ans

the

deve

lopm

ent

of p

rivat

e pr

oper

ty a

nd c

ivil

law

had

no

furt

her

indu

stri

al a

nd c

omm

er-

cial

con

sequ

ence

s be

caus

e th

eir

who

le m

ode

of p

rodu

ctio

n re

mai

ned

unch

ange

d. (

(Usu

ry!)

) In

mod

ern

natio

ns w

here

the

feu

dal

com

mun

ity

was

elim

inat

ed b

y in

dust

ry a

nd tr

ade,

the

re b

egan

with

the

ris

e of

pri

vate

pr

oper

ty a

nd c

ivil

law

a n

ew p

hase

cap

able

of

furt

her

deve

lopm

ent.

Th

e ve

ry f

irst

tow

n w

ith e

xten

sive

sea

trad

e in

the

Mid

dle

Age

s, A

mal

fi, a

lso

deve

lope

d m

ariti

me

law

. As

soon

as

indu

stry

and

tra

de d

evel

oped

pri

vate

pr

oper

ty f

urth

er,

firs

t in

Ital

y an

d th

en i

n ot

her

coun

trie

s, R

oman

civ

il law

was

ado

pted

in

a pe

rfec

ted

form

and

mad

e au

thor

itativ

e. W

hen

late

r th

e bo

urge

oisi

e ha

d ac

quir

ed s

o m

uch

pow

er t

hat

prin

ces

took

up

the

The

Ger

man

Ideo

logy

15

5

inte

rest

s of

the

bou

rgeo

isie

in o

rder

to to

pple

feu

dal n

obili

ty th

roug

h th

e bo

urge

oisi

e, t

he r

eal

deve

lopm

ent

of

law

beg

an i

n al

l co

untr

ies-

in

Fran

ce in

the

six

teen

th c

entu

ry. W

ith t

he e

xcep

tion

of E

ngla

nd,

it pr

o-

ceed

ed e

very

whe

re o

n th

e ba

sis

of t

he R

oman

Cod

ex. E

ven

in E

ngla

nd,

Rom

an le

gal p

rinc

iple

s ha

d to

be

adop

ted

to f

urth

er th

e de

velo

pmen

t of

civi

l law

, pa

rtic

ular

ly i

n re

gard

to

mov

able

pro

pert

y. (

It m

ust

not

be

forg

otte

n th

at la

w h

as ju

st a

s lit

tle in

depe

nden

t his

tory

as

relig

ion.

) In

civ

il la

w t

he e

xist

ing

prop

erty

rel

atio

nshi

ps a

re d

ecla

red

to b

e th

e re

sult

of a

gen

eral

will

. T

he

jus

uten

di e

t ab

uten

di [

righ

t of

usi

ng a

nd

cons

umin

g] it

self

exp

ress

es, o

n th

e on

e ha

nd,

the

fact

that

pri

vate

pro

p-

erty

has

bec

ome

entir

ely

inde

pend

ent

of t

he c

omm

unity

, an

d on

the

ot

her

the

illus

ion

that

pri

vate

pro

pert

y its

elf

is b

ased

sim

ply

on p

rivat

e w

ill,

on t

he a

rbitr

ary

disp

ositi

on o

f th

e th

ing.

In

prac

tice,

the

abu

ti ha

s ve

ry d

efin

ite e

cono

mic

lim

itatio

ns f

or th

e ow

ner o

f pr

ivat

e pr

oper

ty if

he

does

not

wis

h to

see

his

pro

pert

y an

d th

us h

is ju

s ab

uten

di p

ass

into

the

ha

nds

of a

noth

er p

erso

n, b

ecau

se t

he t

hing

, co

nsid

ered

onl

y w

ith r

efer

- en

ce t

o hi

s w

ill,

is n

ot a

thi

ng a

t al

l bu

t on

ly b

ecom

es a

ctua

l pr

oper

ty

thro

ugh

inte

ract

ion

and

inde

pend

ently

of

the

righ

t to

the

thi

ng (

a re

la-

tions

hip

whi

ch t

he p

hilo

soph

ers

call

an i

dea)

. ((

Rel

atio

nshi

p for

the

phi

- lo

soph

ers

= i

dea.

The

y on

ly k

now

the

rel

atio

nshi

p "o

f Man

" to

him

self

, an

d th

us a

ll ac

tual

rel

atio

nshi

ps b

ecom

e id

eas

for

them

.))

Thi

s ju

ridi

cal

illus

ion,

whi

ch r

educ

es la

w t

o m

ere

will

, in

furt

her d

evel

opm

ent o

f pr

op-

erty

rel

atio

nshi

ps n

eces

sari

ly l

eads

to

one's

hav

ing

lega

l tit

le t

o a

thin

g w

ithou

t act

ually

hav

ing

it. I

f fo

r ex

ampl

e th

e in

com

e fr

om a

pie

ce o

f la

nd

is l

ost

due

to c

ompe

titio

n, t

he o

wne

r, to

be

sure

, ha

s hi

s le

gal t

itle

to i

t al

ong

with

the

jus

uten

di e

t abu

tend

i. B

ut h

e ca

nnot

do

anyt

hing

with

it. I

f he

doe

s no

t ha

ve e

noug

h ca

pita

l to

culti

vate

his

land

he

owns

not

hing

as

a la

nded

pro

prie

tor.

Thi

s ill

usio

n of

law

yers

als

o ex

plai

ns w

hy f

or th

em,

as f

or e

very

cod

e, i

t is

alto

geth

er a

ccid

enta

l th

at i

ndiv

idua

ls e

nter

int

o-

rela

tions

hips

with

one

ano

ther

, fo

r ex

ampl

e, m

ake

cont

ract

ual

agre

e-

men

ts; w

hy t

hey

hold

the

vie

w t

hat

thes

e re

latio

nshi

ps [

can]

be

ente

red

into

or

not

at w

ill a

nd t

hat

thei

r co

nten

t [r

elst

s en

tirel

y on

the

indi

vidu

al

free

[w

ill]

of

the

cont

ract

ing

part

ies.

E

very

tim

e ne

w

form

s of

[c

omlm

erce

evol

ved

thro

ugh

the

deve

lop[

men

t] o

f in

dust

ry a

nd tr

ade,

for

[e

xam

ple]

ins

uran

ce c

ompa

nies

, et

c.,

the

law

was

com

pelle

d to

adm

it th

em a

mon

g th

e m

odes

of

acqu

irin

g pr

oper

ty.

[The

con

tinu

ous

text

in

Eng

els'

scri

pt e

nds

here

; di

rect

ly b

elow

, in

the

left

col

umn,

Mam

add

ed

the

follo

win

g no

tes.

]

Infl

uenc

e of

div

isio

n of

lab

or o

n sc

ienc

e.

Rep

ress

ion

in s

tate

, law

, mor

ality

, etc

. [I

n] l

aw

the

bour

geoi

s m

ust

pres

ent

them

selv

es

as u

nive

rsal

ju

st

156

Writ

ings

on H

isto

rica

l Mat

eria

lism

beca

use

they

rul

e as

a c

lass

(((C

atho

lic)

relig

ious

con

cept

ions

par

ticul

arly

co

rres

pond

to th

e "c

omm

unity

," to

thi

s bo

nd,

as it

app

ears

in t

he s

tate

of

antiq

uity

, in

the

feud

al s

yste

m, i

n ab

solu

te m

onar

chy)

).

Nat

ural

sci

ence

and

his

tory

. T

here

is n

o hi

stor

y of

pol

itics

, la

w,

scie

nce,

etc

., of

art

, re

ligio

n, e

tc.

Why

ideo

logi

sts

turn

eve

ryth

ing

upsi

de d

omrz

. R

elig

ioni

sts,

law

yers

, pol

itici

ans.

L

awye

rs,

polit

icia

ns (

gove

rnm

ent

offi

cial

s in

gen

eral

), m

oral

ists

, re

- lig

ioni

sts.

Fo

r th

is i

deol

ogic

al s

ubdi

visi

on w

ithin

a c

lass

, 1.

Occ

upat

ion

beco

mes

in

depe

nden

t thr

ough

the

div

isio

n of

lab

or;

ever

ybod

y th

inks

of

his

craf

t as

the

true

one

. B

ecau

se i

t is

det

erm

ined

by

the

natu

re o

f th

e cr

aft

itsel

f,

one

nece

ssar

ily h

as i

llusi

ons

abou

t th

e co

nnec

tion

of

his

craf

t w

ith r

eal-

ity

. In

jur

ispr

uden

ce,

polit

ics,

etc

., re

latio

nshi

ps t

urn

into

con

cept

s in

co

nsci

ousn

ess.

Sin

ce t

hey

do n

ot t

rans

cend

the

se r

elat

ions

hips

, th

e co

n-

cept

s be

com

e fix

atio

ns. A

jud

ge,

for

exam

ple,

app

lies

the

code

. F

or h

im

legi

slat

ion

is t

he t

rue,

act

ive

forc

e. R

espe

ct f

or t

heir

goo

ds b

ecau

se t

heir

oc

cupa

tion

invo

lves

the

univ

ersa

l. Id

ea o

f law

. Id

ea o

f st

ate.

In

ordi

nary

con

scio

usne

ss,

the

mat

ter

is

turn

ed u

psid

e do

wn.

R

elig

ion

from

the

out

set

is c

onsc

ious

ness

of

tr

ansc

ende

nce

[whi

ch]

aris

es fr

om a

rea

l nec

essi

ty.

Thi

s in

a m

ore

popu

lar

man

ner.

T

radi

tion,

in r

egar

d to

law

, rel

igio

n, e

tc.

Indi

vidu

als

have

alw

ays

begu

n, a

lway

s be

gin,

with

the

mse

lves

. T

heir

re

latio

nshi

ps a

re r

elat

ions

hips

of

thei

r ac

tual

lif

e-pr

oces

s. H

ow d

oes

it

happ

en t

hat

thei

r re

latio

nshi

ps b

ecom

e so

met

hing

ind

epen

dent

ove

r ag

ains

t the

m, t

hat t

he f

orce

s of

the

ir o

wn

life

over

pow

er th

em?

Bri

efly

: the

div

isio

n of

lab

or,

who

se l

evel

dep

ends

on

the

prod

uctiv

e po

wer

dev

elop

ed a

t the

tim

e.

Com

mun

al p

rope

rty.

L

ande

d pr

oper

ty, f

euda

l, m

oder

n.

Est

ate

prop

erty

. Man

ufac

turi

ng p

rope

rty.

Ind

ustr

ial

capi

tal.