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Revisions Rev Description DateNC Original DRAFT Release to initiate discussions with customer for Sections 1 through 4. 05/06/13A Export controlled release for delivery to customer only 09/11/15B Revisions throughout document to comply with Export Control requirements for public

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Table of Contents REVISIONS .................................................................................................................................................................I

TABLE OF CONTENTS ............................................................................................................................................ II List of Figures ...................................................................................................................................................... iii List of Tables ........................................................................................................................................................ iii

1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................................................... 1 1.1 Background ...................................................................................................................................................... 1 1.2 Scope ............................................................................................................................................................... 1 1.3 Purpose ........................................................................................................................................................... 2 1.4 Methods ........................................................................................................................................................... 2 1.5 Mission Concept of Operations ....................................................................................................................... 2

1.5.1 Phase 1: 1st Rover Delivery .................................................................................................................. 2 1.5.2 Phase 2: Cargo Missions ...................................................................................................................... 2 1.5.3 Phase 3: System Checkout and Crew Launch Verification .................................................................. 3 1.5.4 Phase 4: First Crew Arrival ................................................................................................................... 3 1.5.5 Phase 5: Crew Expansion .................................................................................................................... 3

1.6 Reference Documents ..................................................................................................................................... 4

2 SYSTEM-LEVEL DESIGN DRIVERS .................................................................................................................... 5 2.1 Overview .......................................................................................................................................................... 5 2.2 Atmospheric and Martian Surface Conditions ................................................................................................. 5 2.3 Other Considerations ....................................................................................................................................... 6

3 LEVEL I SES REQUIREMENTS ............................................................................................................................ 8 3.1 Functional Requirements ................................................................................................................................. 8

3.1.1 Atmosphere Management ..................................................................................................................... 8 3.1.2 Water Management ............................................................................................................................... 9 3.1.3 Food Management ................................................................................................................................. 9 3.1.4 Crew Waste Management ..................................................................................................................... 9 3.1.5 Thermal Management ............................................................................................................................ 9 3.1.6 Communications & Tracking .................................................................................................................. 9 3.1.7 Electrical Power ................................................................................................................................... 10 3.1.8 Command & Data Handling ................................................................................................................. 10 3.1.9 BioMedical ........................................................................................................................................... 11

3.2 Performance Requirements ........................................................................................................................... 11 3.3 Design & Construction ................................................................................................................................... 14 3.4 Interfaces ....................................................................................................................................................... 15

3.4.1 Human Interfaces ................................................................................................................................ 15 3.4.2 System Interfaces ................................................................................................................................ 15 3.4.3 Natural and Induced Environments ..................................................................................................... 16

3.5 Safety, Quality, and Mission Assurance ........................................................................................................ 18

4 FUNCTIONAL BASELINE DEFINITION .............................................................................................................. 21 4.1 Pressure Suit ................................................................................................................................................. 21

4.1.1 Helmet .................................................................................................................................................. 21 4.1.2 In-Suit Communication System ........................................................................................................... 22 4.1.3 Upper Torso ......................................................................................................................................... 22 4.1.4 Arms ..................................................................................................................................................... 22 4.1.5 Gloves .................................................................................................................................................. 22 4.1.6 Waist .................................................................................................................................................... 23 4.1.7 Brief/Hip/Thigh ..................................................................................................................................... 23 4.1.8 Legs ..................................................................................................................................................... 23 4.1.9 Boots .................................................................................................................................................... 24 4.1.10 Liquid Thermal Garment ...................................................................................................................... 24 4.1.11 Thermal Micrometeoroid Garment (TMG) ........................................................................................... 24

4.2 Portable Life Support System ........................................................................................................................ 24 4.2.1 Overview .............................................................................................................................................. 24 4.2.2 Communications .................................................................................................................................. 25 4.2.3 Power Storage, Distribution, and Generation ...................................................................................... 25

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4.2.4 Environmental Control and Life Support .............................................................................................. 25 4.2.5 Command and Data Handling ............................................................................................................. 27 4.2.6 Health Monitor ..................................................................................................................................... 28

4.3 Master Equipment List (MEL) ........................................................................................................................ 29

5 RISK AND OPPORTUNITY MANAGEMENT ...................................................................................................... 30 5.1 Cost and Schedule Risk Drivers .................................................................................................................... 30

5.1.1 Robustness of Design .......................................................................................................................... 30 5.1.2 Safety and Crew Productivity .............................................................................................................. 31 5.1.3 Environmental ...................................................................................................................................... 32

5.2 Opportunities to Reduce Risk ........................................................................................................................ 35 5.2.1 Future Studies ..................................................................................................................................... 35 5.2.2 Precursor Tests (Mars Rover 2020) .................................................................................................... 35 5.2.3 Minimize Suit Pressure ........................................................................................................................ 35 5.2.4 Additive Manufacturing ........................................................................................................................ 35 5.2.5 Common Parts ..................................................................................................................................... 36 5.2.6 Establish Common Interfaces Early .................................................................................................... 36

List of Figures Figure 1: External view of the Mars One Habitat Concept after the first crew landing (inflatable habitat modules

are out of view behind the landers). .................................................................................................................. 1 Figure 2: Internal view of the Mars One Habitat Housing Concept ........................................................................... 2 Figure 3: Surface SEA Suit System ........................................................................................................................... 8 Figure 4: Surface Exploration Pressure Suit Functional Flow Block Diagram .......................................................... 8 Figure 5: Surface SEA PLSS Functional Breakdown ................................................................................................ 8 Figure 6. Typical Spacesuit Configuration. ............................................................................................................. 21 Figure 7: Mars One Helmet Architecture ................................................................................................................. 21 Figure 8: Advanced Helmet Lighting System – Waist Entry I-Suit .......................................................................... 21 Figure 9: Heads-Free Communication System ....................................................................................................... 22 Figure 10: Waist Entry I-Suit Soft Upper Torso (SUT) ............................................................................................ 22 Figure 11: I-Suit Arm Architecture ........................................................................................................................... 22 Figure 12: Current Phase VI ISS EMU .................................................................................................................... 22 Figure 13: Rear Entry I-Suit Mobility Evaluation on an ATV ................................................................................... 23 Figure 14: Critical Surface EVA Operations Evaluated during NASA D-RATS Testing in Arizona ........................ 23 Figure 15: ILC Dover EMU LCVG ........................................................................................................................... 24 Figure 16: Power Subsystem Schematic................................................................................................................ 25 Figure 17: MTSA Pressure, Temperature and Air Revitalization System. ............................................................. 26 Figure 18: Command and Data Handling Subsystem Schematic .......................................................................... 27 Figure 19: Radiation Climate on Mars (source: Scientific American December 9, 2013) ....................................... 34 List of Tables Table 1: Paragon Documents ................................................................................................................................... 4 Table 2: Other Reference Documents ...................................................................................................................... 4 Table 3: SES MEL and On-back Mass Estimates .................................................................................................. 29

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1.6 Reference Documents

Table 1: Paragon Documents DocNumber TitleE999019 Configuration Management Plan 807300009 Mars One Habitat ECLSS Conceptual Design Assessment

Table 2: Other Reference Documents DocNumber TitleSP‐3006 Bioastronautics Data Book JSC‐20584 Spacecraft Maximum Allowable Concentrations for Airborne Contaminants (SMAC) JSC‐63414 Spacecraft Water Exposure Guidelines (SWEGs) NASA‐STD‐4003 Electrical Bonding for NASA Launch Vehicles, Spacecraft, Payloads, and Flight

Equipment MIL‐STD‐461 Requirements for Control of Electromagnetic Interference Characteristics of

Subsystems and Equipment JPR 8080.5 JSC Design and Procedural Standards JSC 65828 Structural Design Requirements and Factors of Safety for Space Flight Hardware JSC 65829 Loads and Structural Dynamics Requirements for Space Flight Hardware JSC 28918 EVA Design Requirements and Considerations NASA‐STD‐5017 Design and Development Requirements for Mechanisms NASA‐STD‐5019 Fracture Control Requirements for Spaceflight Hardware NASA‐STD‐6016 Standard Material and Process Requirements for Spacecraft NPR 7150.2A NASA Software Engineering Requirements NASA‐STD‐8719.13 Software Safety Standard NASA‐GB‐8719.13 Software Safety Guidebook NASA‐STD‐5005 Standard for the Design and Fabrication of Ground Support Equipment ANSI/AIAA S‐081A Space Systems ‐ Composite Overwrapped Pressure Vessels (COPVs) July 24, 2006 S‐080‐1998e AIAA Standard for Space Systems ‐ Metallic Pressure Vessels, Pressurized

Structures, and Pressure Components AIAA S‐120‐2006 Mass Properties Control for Space Systems ICES paper 2008‐01‐1990

Trade Study of an Interface for Removable/Replaceable Thermal Micrometeoroid Garment

ICES paper 760954 Study of Development of a Radiation Shielding Kit ICES paper 2006‐01‐2285

Micrometeoroid and Orbital Debris Enhancements of Shuttle Extravehicular Mobility Unit Thermal Micrometeoroid Garment

ICES paper 03ICES‐27 I‐Suit Advanced Spacesuit Design Improvements and Performance Testing ICES paper 2006‐01‐2141

Systems Considerations for an Exploration Spacesuit Upper Torso Architecture

ICES paper 2003‐01‐2330

Test Results of Improved Spacesuit Shielding Components

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2 System-Level Design Drivers

2.1 Overview The SES is designed to provide a controlled environment for a crew member while conducting surface excursion activities (SEA) outside of the Mars One Habitat or other pressurized surface elements. The following system-level Design Drivers are used in the derivation of the SES requirements and are derived from preliminary information exchanges with Mars One, presentations, physical conditions of the Mars environment, and initial assessments made by Paragon. Some modification of the Mission CONOPs (Section 1.5) and these system-level Design Drivers are expected during the early conceptual development phase and they will impact the subsequent SES requirements. As such, these initial inputs to the development of the SES architecture should be reviewed, vetted and agreed upon early in the design process to avoid significant impacts and costly corrections later in the program.

2.2 Atmospheric and Martian Surface Conditions [SLDD.xxx] Atmospheric Composition

Consists primarily of Carbon Dioxide (>95%).

Impact to the Design: The inert gases found in the Martian atmosphere have minimal impact to materials currently used in spacesuit design but will have an impact on technology choices for CO2 control.

[SLDD.xxx] Atmospheric Pressure

The average atmospheric pressure is 600 Pa (~ 0.087 psia).

Impact to the Design: The low atmospheric pressure will necessitate a spacesuit pressure equal to or greater than that historically used in both Lunar and microgravity space suits.

[SLDD.xxx] Temperature and Thermal Environment

Annual average temperature range is ‐140°C (‐220°F) to 20°C (70°F).

Impact to the Design: Solar cycle is very similar to Earth, but the variation is more extreme. Night excursions during the winter months would require that the spacesuit be designed for worst case conditions. Existing spacesuit technologies are sufficient to compensate for the temperature range; however, evaluations need to be performed regarding convective heat loss to the atmosphere. The spacesuit may be designed to accommodate various thermal kit options that would accommodate a winter night vs. a summer noon. As the typical conditions are very cold, it may make more sense to have a slightly “cold biased” suit that has nominal heating and make special provisions for the rarer times when cooling is needed.

[SLDD.xxx] Wind‐blown Regolith (i.e. dust)

Martian weather includes dust storms with potentially high wind velocity and lingering dust clouds.

Impact to the Design: Unexpected dust storms are likely to occur during long or short duration surface operations. The reduced visibility may necessitate a navigation system to be integrated to spacesuit. Communication systems must also be capable of operating during these conditions.

[SLDD.xxx] Electrostatic and Abrasive Regolith

Martian Dust may be highly charged and varies in consistency and composition.

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Impact to the Design: The regolith would likely be attracted to most qualified spacesuit design materials. Materials must be evaluated for abrasion, wear, and durability due to exposure to regolith. Testing is required to quantify this effect and identify mitigation strategies. This effort also consists of protection for mobility elements such as bearings. This will also affect suit element integration and cleaning. This is one of the most significant impacts to the spacesuit.

[SLDD.xxx] Superoxides

The Martian soil contains "superoxides".

Impact to the Design: In the presence of ultraviolet radiation, superoxides break down organic molecules. Materials of construction must be compatible with this environment. Corrosion to metallic parts must also be investigated and evaluated.

[SLDD.xxx] Radiation

There is essentially no protection from the atmosphere or any from a planetary magnetic field.

Impact to the Design: Unmitigated exposure over hundreds of hours of surface operations will cause long‐term medical harm to the crew and degradation of several known spacesuit materials of construction. Alternate materials will need to be identified and tested for longer durations than previous programs, and/or limited lifetimes established and strictly adhered to. Localized radiation shields may be employed in the spacesuit or undergarment to protect sensitive organs. Radiation exposure lifetime limits may curtail surface operations for crew members and restrict them from further surface exploration if mitigation approaches are not developed.

[SLDD.xxx] CONOPS and Terrain

Details of the habitat site and terrain need to be understood.

Impact to the Design: The ability to traverse relatively flat terrain and operate a rover in a spacesuit has been previously proven. The ability to climb rocks, construct a habitat in a gravity environment, and initiate a long‐term maintenance and repair capability for habitat systems such as primary structure, electrical power, life support and communications have not been developed. Along with these tasks comes the likelihood of falls and accidents while in the suit. Testing and evaluation need to be conducted to identify durability, mobility and structural requirements for the spacesuit.

2.3 Other Considerations [SLDD.xxx] Gravity

Mars has approximately 3/8th gravity of Earth.

Impact to the Design: The effective weight of the spacesuit will be more than double of those used on the lunar surface if suits and systems of equivalent mass are utilized. From this perspective, lighter wearable SES elements are more advantageous to reduce crew member fatigue.

[SLDD.xxx] Microbial Load

As with most objects in close proximity of working humans, the potential for microbial growth and associated loads on the system are high.

Impact to the Design: The spacesuit will need to be designed to inhibit microbial growth but also to accommodate the inevitable cleaning that will be required. Resistance to cleaning

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agents and repair of any abrasions created by the process of cleaning needs to be included and/or reapplication of anti‐microbial treatments.

[SLDD.xxx] Mass and Volume

It is anticipated that the mass and volume of the spacesuit, support equipment and spare parts is a significant factor for both launch mass and volume capacity.

Impact to the Design: There has always been an emphasis for a lighter, more robust spacesuit across every space program. Separate from mass and volume considerations with regards to surface operations, the transportation costs associated with delivering the SES to the surface will drive the development costs (the lower the allowable mass and volume, the higher the development costs). System mass and volume targets should be relaxed while still achieving required comfort, robustness, mobility, visibility and operational simplicity targets. Decreasing emphasis on maximizing mass and volume reductions minimizes development costs. It is critical that launch mass and volume limitations be defined early in the program as imposed limitations will lead to increased costs in the development of the SES as more complex, efficient and lower mass/volume product solutions are developed to meet launch constraints.

It is proposed that there would be substantial benefit to maintain smaller helmets and eliminating required “hard” elements (e.g. hard upper torso) to minimize storage volume.

[SLDD.xxx] Pressurized Element Airlock Interface

There are many other aspects of the Mars One mission that are expected to evolve and impact the SES design and operation. These include, but are not limited to: impact of or prevention of contamination to both Mars and the habitat; inclusion of additional system in the event that there is a PLSS failure in the PLSS; interfaces with other pressurized elements and emergency repair accommodations

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3.1.2 Water Management [SES.xxx‐PGM] Potable Water: The SES shall provide source of drinking water for crew during SEA operations.

Rationale: Access to water during SEAs is necessary to ensure the crew comfort and health, in addition, lack of water will significantly increase crew fatigue susceptibility.

Verification: (IDAT) – TBD

3.1.3 Food Management [SES.xxx‐PGM] Food: The SES shall provide source of high energy food for crew during SEA operations.

Rationale: Access to food during longer SEAs will be necessary for crew energy to return to the habitat. This may be accomplished through a liquid system and integrated with the potable water.


3.1.4 Crew Waste Management [SES.xxx‐PGM] Waste Management: The SES shall collect and contain feces and urine.

Rationale: Fecal waste collection must be performed in a manner that minimizes possible escape of fecal contents into the suit during SEA operations because of the high content of possibly pathogenic bacteria contained in the stool. In addition, there is the potential of injury to crew members and hardware that could result from such dissemination. The voided urine must be contained by the stowage and disposal hardware to prevent inadvertent discharge in the suit that could result in injury to crew member's mucous membranes or equipment.


3.1.5 Thermal Management [SES.xxx‐PGM] Thermal Management: The SES shall provide for thermal management of crew during SEA

operations.

Rationale: Maintaining appropriate temperature ranges maximizes crew productivity and maintains the overall health of the crew. The SES may in some conditions provide heating and in other conditions provide cooling.


3.1.6 Communications & Tracking [SES.xxx‐PGM] Integrated Communication: The SES shall provide voice communications between the Suit and

the Habitat and between multiple SES units operating at the same time.

Rationale: It is vital that suited crew members have two‐way voice communication with other suited crew members as well as crew members in the Habitat.


[SES.xxx‐PGM] Tracking: The SES shall provide a means of locating the suited crew member.

Rationale: If a crew member(s) fails to return from an SEA or requires assistance, a method of locating that person is needed. A simple radio beacon installed in the suit may satisfy this requirement.


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[SES.xxx‐PGM] HD Video: The SES shall create, record and transmit near real‐time (TBR) high definition motion imagery (TBR) from a mounted camera.

Rationale: For safety it is important that video image be recorded and also transmitted to the Habitat. This video may also be streamed to Earth.


3.1.7 Electrical Power [SES.xxx‐PGM] Power: The SES shall provide electrical power storage, distribution and may provide

emergency generation.

Rationale: Subsystems within the SES will require electrical power to perform their functions; as a result the SES will require the ability to store and distribute electrical power. In addition, in the event of an emergency situation, the ability to produce contingency electrical power is desired. The emergency power generation may be enough to maintain minimal life support and activate an emergency beacon, etc.


3.1.8 Command & Data Handling [SES.xxx‐PGM] Software Updates: The SES shall accept software updates between SEAs.

Rationale: The ability to reprogram devices and update software is needed for maintainability. Updates can be applied when the SES is not in use. Changes to configuration data and software patches are included in the scope of software updates. Firmware updates may be included where deemed feasible.


[SES.xxx‐SMA] Status: The SES shall transmit and display the status items.

Rationale: These are necessary to ensure the suit operator has adequate information to control the SES systems and to provide telemetry for remote tracking from the Habitat, suit trending, and possible failure investigations. A preliminary list of items which should be included as status items include: operational mode, absolute suit pressure, primary oxygen pressure, secondary oxygen pressure, CO2 helmet inlet partial pressure, battery current, battery voltage, liquid thermal garment (LTG) inlet temperature, ambient environment pressure, oxygen time remaining, power time remaining, and SEA time elapsed.


[SES.xxx‐SMA] Indicate Pressure: The SES shall indicate to the suited crew member the internal pressure of the suit without the use of power.

Rationale: Internal suit pressure is considered a critical operating parameter and should be available to the crew during any suited pressurized operation.


[SES.xxx‐SMA] Caution & Warning Control System (CWCS) Detection: The SES shall detect and indicate to the crew member faults, significant performance degradation and excessive resource usage.

Rationale: Indication of these conditions must include both an audible tone and a message on the display which provides additional information about the condition. Examples of conditions

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which need to be detected include, but are not limited to, sensor failures, oxygen leakage, water leakage, high/low electrical current and abnormal metabolic rate.


3.1.9 BioMedical [SES.xxx‐PGM] Biomedical: The SES shall monitor, record, and transmit heart rate of the crew member during

suited operations as well as other parameters defined by the Mars One medical team (TBR).

Rationale: Biomedical data transmission to the habitat will be required for medical evaluation of crew members, including during suited operation. The collection and transmission of biomed data must not limit the transmission rate of the remaining suit data.


3.2 Performance Requirements [SES.xxx‐PGM] Exploration Walking: When in the SES, the crew member shall be capable of walking up a 20

degree incline (TBR) forwards and sideways when 20% (TBR) of the area is covered by 12.5cm (5 inch) (TBR) diameter rocks on the Martian surface.

Rationale: Lower body mobility is essential to exploring in terrestrial environments. Balancing center of gravity to ensure proper body control and the ability to recover from falls and kneel is also imperative to exploration. This requirement is intended to capture necessary suit functional capability for walking in a Mars equivalent gravity field.


[SES.xxx‐ENG] SEA Nominal Operation Duration: The SES shall sustain the life of the crew member for at least eight (8) hours (TBR) independent of other systems during nominal SEA operations.

Rationale: 8 hours has been determined to be acceptable amount of time to complete an SEA objective while considering consumables management and balancing crew exertion.


[SES.xxx‐ SMA] Useful Life: The SES shall have a useful life of at least 250 SEAs.

Rationale: This is a Mars One program office requirement. The requirement can be met at the system level with the use of spares and allowable preventive and limited life maintenance activities.


[SES.xxx‐PGM] Emergency Life Support: The SES shall provide at least 45 minutes (TBR) of emergency life support independent of umbilical services during SEA operations after failure of primary oxygen, vent loop, and/or thermal loop.

Rationale: In the case of a suit failure, the suit must be able to provide life support for a sufficient time for the crew to reach a safe haven. Emergency life support includes oxygen for metabolic consumption and leakage make‐up, pressure control to prevent pressures below 3.0 psia, thermal control, and CO2 washout.


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[SES.xxx‐PGM] Emergency Life Support Interfaces: The SES shall interface to external umbilical services for sustaining life support or recharging the SEA system for extended missions.

Rationale: In the event the crew leaves the base with a rover, the SES will be required to be in operations for durations greater than the nominal 8 hours while not in contingency operations. For these operational scenarios, umbilical interfaces are required for the crew to switch over from a PLSS to a fixed supply of consumables.


[SES.xxx‐ENG] Nominal Suit Pressure : The SES shall have a selectable suit pressure of between 29.65 kPa (0.29 atm, 4.3 psi) and 44.82 kPa (0.44 atm, 6.5 psi) with a minimum of 3 distinct set points.

Rationale: The suit pressure takes into consideration potential vehicle operating pressure, decompression sickness (DCS) risk, and operational efficiencies, among other values. The distinct set points should be divided evenly within the pressure range.


[SES.xxx‐ENG] System Charging: The rechargeable systems shall be rechargeable from discharge to 100% capacity within four (4) hours (TBR).

Rationale: To minimize down time and allow for verification of charging and time between installations, 4 hours is considered acceptable but further studies will be required. This need also imposes requirements on the charging station, which must have sufficient power and consumable fluids to recharge the suit in 4 hours.


[SES.xxx‐ENG] Limit Inspired CO2: The SES shall nominally limit average inspired CO2 below 3.8 mmHg (TBR) and below 20.0 mmHg (TBR) during emergency operations.

Rationale: The suit must have a ventilation path such that efficient CO2 washout is achieved in the helmet. Excessive CO2 build up could lead to an onset of cognitive deficit which may pose a hazard to crew during critical operations.


[SES.xxx‐ENG] Metabolic Rate: The SES shall accommodate the nominal metabolic profile in TBD with an average metabolic rate of 350 Watts (1200 BTU/hr) (TBR) for the Autonomous Operational Duration.

Rationale: The suit must be capable of providing thermal control, oxygen supply, and CO2 scrubbing under the variable metabolic loads expected during a nominal SEA.


[SES.xxx‐ENG] Thermal Protection Performance: The SES shall be compatible with temperatures from ‐128°C (TBR) to 77°C (TBR) for incidental contact and from ‐93°C (TBR) to 57°C (TBR) for extended contact.

Rationale: The suit must be designed to withstand these limits without affecting the structural integrity of the pressure garment or burning the crew member. This requirement will drive materials selection for the pressure garment, particularly the gloves. Incidental contact is defined as ~3 second bump contact (7 kPa) or 30 second brush contact (0.7 kPa). Extended contact is not bound by either time durations or pressure range.

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[SES.xxx‐ENG] Touch Temperatures: The SES shall maintain the internal surface temperature within the range of 10°C (50°F) (TBR) and 45°C (113°F) (TBR) during SEA operations.

Rationale: These values are derived from the current ISS suit capability and the touch temperature limits necessary to prevent injury.


[SES.xxx‐ENG] Relative Humidity Tolerance: The SES shall restrict average relative humidity levels inside the pressure garment within the range of 15% RH (TBR) and 85% RH (TBR) without the use of a humidifier.

Rationale: Average humidity must be maintained above the lower limits stated to ensure that the environment is not too dry for the nominal functioning of mucous membranes. Humidity must be maintained below the upper limits for crew comfort, to allow for effective evaporation, and to limit the formation of condensation. Excess moisture in the glove can contribute to trauma at the fingertips.


[SES.xxx‐ENG] Potable Water: The SES shall provide 1kg (TBR) of potable water for consumption by the suited crew member during SEA operations.

Rationale: In order to maintain proper hydration during SEA, the suited crew member must be able to consume water or other rehydratable nutritional supplements. 1 kg is approximately 34 fluid ounces which is a standard for an 8hr working EVA on ISS. Further evaluation of workload and water requirements while on a Martian surface is required to finalize this requirement.


[SES.xxx‐ENG] ORU Change‐out Time: The SES shall permit any operational replacement unit (ORU) operations to be performed IVA within 30 minutes (TBR) without the use of special tools.

Rationale: This requirement is necessary to maximize crew efficiency on SEA days in preparation for the SEA and to limit ORU change‐outs to simple hand motions and eliminate need for special tools.


[SES.xxx‐ENG] Data Storage: The SES shall record all sensor readings and faults at a minimum 10 Hz (TBR) during a single SEA.

Rationale: Data recording will provide a record of the suit health and status during an SEA and other suit events and will maintain the record should there be an interruption of communication between the suit and the Habitat. This will assist not only for trending data during SEA operations and to facilitate maintenance, but is also intended to function like an aircraft “black box” should retrieval of failure data be necessary after catastrophic events. Recording will last from the time the suit is powered on until the time it is powered off.


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[SES.xxx‐ENG] Speech Intelligibility: The SES auditory speech annunciations and communications shall provide a level of speech intelligibility equivalent to a 95% (TBR) word identification rate.

Rationale: This requirement ensures that auditory speech annunciations and communications are sufficiently salient and intelligible. The 5% allowable word identification loss is through the entire suit system and assumes no loss at the interface.


[SES.xxx‐PGM] Purge Efficiency: The SES shall have a purge efficiency as good as or better than the ISS space suit capability.

Rationale: This requirement has historically driven the need for a vent tree inside the pressure garment. Decreased purge efficiency will result in the usage of additional consumables and longer purge times.


3.3 Design & Construction [SES.xxx‐PGM] Unassisted Suit Operation: The SES shall provide for unassisted operation of all suit functions.

Rationale: It is necessary that the crew member can use all features of the suit without assistance, including but not limited to donning, doffing, umbilical operations, controls, and status selections. Controls should include, but are not limited to; operational mode, radio mode, radio volume, caution and warning status and acknowledge, display lighting intensity level, power mode, thermal comfort level and auxiliary heating/cooling.


[SES.xxx‐ENG] Don/Doff Times: The SES shall be designed to support donning and doffing times of less than 10 minutes (TBR) with assistance, and 30 min (TBR) without assistance.

Rationale: To support break times and crew comfort, donning and doffing time duration of 10 min with the assistance of another crew is desired by the Mars One program office. However, in contingency operations another crew member may not be available, and as such, additional time may be required to don or doff the suits without assistance.


[SES.xxx‐ENG] Stowed Volume: The SES shall have a PLSS volume that does not exceed TBD dimensions.

Rationale: The PLSS must not significantly interfere with crew member mobility and vision. Additionally, the PLSS will be hard volume that cannot be compressed, meaning storage volume will be a significant consideration.


[SES.xxx‐ENG] Surface SES Mass: The SES shall have a loaded on back mass of equal to or less than 125 kg (275 lbm) (TBR).

Rationale: This control mass is needed to ensure compatibility with mass capability and the suit’s ability to meet functional and performance requirements. Loaded mass is defined as a fully charged unit, with water, oxygen, cooling, and food sources, as well as with any tools or other ancillary hardware.


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3.4 Interfaces

3.4.1 Human Interfaces [SES.xxx‐ENG] Exploration Anthropometry: The SES shall be customizable to fit the full size range of crew

members from the 5th (TBR) percentile Japanese (TBR) female to the 95th (TBR) percentile American (TBR) male.

Rationale: The full size range of suited crew members must be able to fit, reach, view, and operate required interfaces involved in planned tasks. Designers shall closely examine shoulder mobility issues and hip mobility issues experienced with the EMU in order to protect 5th to 95th percentile crew from injury. It is assumed that actual suit fitting for each crew member will be required for these ranges, but compatibility of common parts is required.


[SES.xxx‐ENG] In‐Suit Noise: The SES shall limit the noise measured at the crew member's head to an A‐weighted Sound Pressure Level (SPL) of less than 55 dB (TBR) for continuous noise.

Rationale: The noise attenuation effectiveness of hearing protection or communications headsets may not be used to satisfy this requirement. The value defined in this requirement is the amount of sound pressure created by the suit to which the crew member is exposed. Exterior acoustical environments are not considered.


[SES.xxx‐PGM] Valsalva: The SES shall allow a suited crew member to perform a hands‐free Valsalva maneuver.

Rationale: The Valsalva maneuver is performed by forcibly exhaling against closed lips and pinched nose, forcing air into the middle ear through the Eustachian tube. The maneuver is used by crew members during suit pressurization and depressurization to avoid injury to the inner ear. The Valsalva maneuver must be performed hands‐free due to the crew member being unable to access their nose with their hands to perform the maneuver while wearing the pressurized suit.


3.4.2 System Interfaces [SES.xxx‐SMA] Buddy System: The SES shall provide capability to support another SES with one SES on an

umbilical for 30 min (TBR).

Rationale: In the event of a PLSS failure, one crew member can connect their PLSS to the incapacitated PLSS or suit as an emergency system. Failures of a PLSS should not preclude the ability to operate in the “buddy” mode.


[SES.xxx‐ENG] Radio Standard: The SES shall transmit and receive data and voice over a TBD wireless interface.

Rationale: Radios will be necessary for communications between suited crew members and the Habitat and Rovers.


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[SES.xxx‐ENG] Radiation Monitoring: The SES shall interface with a real‐time emergency radiation monitoring system.

Rationale: This requirement is intended to make the suit compatible with a powered radiation monitoring system near the habitat that notifies the crew for absorbed dose and dose equivalent detecting and may also include individual passive monitoring systems per individual.


[SES.xxx‐ENG] Tether points: The SES shall provide structural attachment points for tethers located TBD.

Rationale: The crew members may conduct SEA in terrain that requires tethered operations for safety (e.g. areas of extreme incline).


[SES.xxx‐ENG] Auxiliary Lighting: The SES shall provide auxiliary lighting of the surroundings.

Rationale: The ability to see in the shadows on the planet surface or equipment is necessary to allow the crew member to safely complete tasks.


[SES.xxx‐ENG] Electromagnetic Interference and Compatibility: The electromagnetic signals from voice communications, data transmittal, video transmittal and other electronic components shall not interfere with each other or cause malfunction.

Rationale: Electromagnetic Interference (EMI) and electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) are key considerations for any electrical system, particularly for systems that transmit and receive signals.


[SES.xxx‐ENG] Habitat: The SES shall interface with the habitat for ingress and egress of crew, recharging the SEA consumables, and for servicing of the suits.

Rationale: The suit will enter and exit the habitat on a regular basis for crew usage, refurbishment and recharging. It is assumed a standard airlock will be used consisting of a depressurization/pressurization vestibule that will isolate the SEA member from the rest of the habitat. Upon equalization with the external environment when egressing, or the internal environment for ingressing, the crew will perform the don/doffing as required. Alternative architectures such as a rear entry suit may be employed based on future studies that show benefit to reduce mass, crew time, or consumables; or to improve overall safety and reliability of the integration system.


3.4.3 Natural and Induced Environments [SES.xxx‐ENG] Exposure to Magnetic Field: The SES shall meet its requirements during and after exposure to

a DC Magnetic Field of 250 Gauss (TBR).

Rationale: Legacy systems typically require that the vehicle limit magnetic fields within SEA worksites and translation path to 250 Gauss. The suit is not expected to shield the crew member from this field, but it is expected to function nominally in this environment.


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[SES.xxx‐ENG] Solar Ultraviolet: The SES exposed materials shall withstand solar ultraviolet exposure of 100‐150nm (TBR) wavelength at an intensity of 7.5x10‐3 w/m2 (TBR) over the useful life of the suit.

Rationale: The SES will be exposed to various solar ultraviolet levels during SEA, and the suits must be able to continue nominal operation during and after these exposure periods. NOTE: This will need to be revisited once the Martian environment is explicitly defined. These values are based on a suit designed for LEO and Lunar operations.


[SES.xxx‐ENG] Extreme UV Protection: The SES exposed materials shall withstand extreme UV of 10‐100nm (TBR) wavelength at an intensity of 2x10‐3 w/m2 (TBR) over the design life of the suit.

Rationale: The suits will be exposed to various solar ultraviolet levels during SEA, and they must be able to continue nominal operation during and after these exposure periods. Exposed materials must withstand this environment. NOTE: This will need to be revisited once the Martian environment is explicitly defined. These values are based on a suit designed for LEO and Lunar operations.


[SES.xxx‐ENG] X‐ray Protection: The SES materials shall withstand X‐rays of 1‐10nm (TBR) wavelength at an intensity of 5x10‐5 w/m2 (TBR) over the design life of the suit.

Rationale: The suits will be exposed to x‐ray radiation during an SEA, and they must be able to continue nominal operation during and after these exposure periods. Any material that is not specifically shielded from x‐rays must be considered. NOTE: This will need to be revisited once the Martian environment is explicitly defined. These values are based on a suit designed for LEO and Lunar operations.


[SES.xxx‐ENG] Solar Ionizing Radiation: The SES shall meet its performance requirements after exposure to the radiation dose environment defined in TBD.

Rationale: The suits will be exposed to various ionizing radiation levels during SEA, and they must be able to continue nominal operation during and after these exposure periods. Galactic cosmic particles pose a particular problem. Individual cosmic particles are so energetic as to require impractical amounts of shielding. Hence, a few random failures or temporary anomalies of the electronic system may be expected from this source as long as they do not result in catastrophic events. While utilization of rad hardened components is expected, special shielding of electronics from highly energetic particles is not required.


[SES.xxx‐ENG] Plasma: The SES shall protect the crew from electrical shock and meet all its requirements while operating in a plasma environment from ‐80V (TBR) to ‐5V (TBR) floating potential.

Rationale: Electrical arcing between systems at different potentials is a possible hazard. This potential difference can arise during SEA operations near power generation sites such as solar power farms. Designs may employ grounding interfaces to control the path of electrical shock to avoid damaging soft goods.


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[SES.xxx‐ENG] High Abrasion Dust: The SES shall meet its performance requirements after exposure to Martian dust.

Rationale: Based on experience during the Apollo program, it was recognized that dust on the lunar surface can be especially harsh to equipment and poses a potential hazard to crew members if carried inside the habitable volumes. It is believed that the Martian regolith would have some of the same potential effects. Mitigation strategies may include, but are not limited to, manual cleaning operations, prevention of dust intrusion, dust immobilization, protective personal equipment, design for reliability, etc.


[SES.xxx‐ENG] Material Compatibility: The SES shall be designed with materials compatible with other environments defined in TBD.

Rationale: As the program matures, a materials compatibility document will need to be developed and matured and will address things such as superoxides and chemical resistance to the Martian environment.


[SES.xxx‐ENG] Visibility, Vision, and Clarity: The SES shall provide a viewing range of at least 120 degree horizontal and at least 90 degree vertical with a clarity of TBD under nominal conditions.

Rationale: A wide range of vision is necessary for the crew member’s visual situational awareness.


3.5 Safety, Quality, and Mission Assurance [SES.xxx‐SMA] High Voltage Exposure: The SES shall protect the suited crew member in the event that any

suit surface touches a voltage source of TBD Volts for TBD seconds.

Rationale: The Mars One program office intends on using high voltage power systems to minimize system sizing and loads with voltages potentially on the order of 1000VDC. Given the high voltage and rarefied Martian Atmosphere, there is a risk that the suited crew members may be exposed to arcing or inadvertent contact. This issue needs to be resolved with an appropriate control put in place in the suit system by design or operations.


[SES.xxx‐ SMA] Mean time Between Failures (MTBF): The SES shall have a mean time between failures (MTBF) of not less than 22,500 hours (TBR) of SEA utilization.

Rationale: Only failures which result in loss of crew are considered for this requirement. The number in this requirement is similar to the NASA estimates for a lunar outpost LOC/LOM requirements (LOC=1/17, LOM=1/12 with a hardware usage time of 9404 hours, 3200 of which was EVA time).


[SES.xxx‐ SMA] Mean time to Repair (MTTR): The SES shall have a mean time to repair (MTTR) of not more than TBD hours.

Rationale: Despite preventative maintenance and rigorous qualification testing, it can be expected that some parts of the SES will break. The suit must be designed to be repaired quickly.

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[SES.xxx‐SMA] Impact Performance: The SES shall meet its requirements following impact at any point with a 5 cm (TBR) diameter ball having the energy equivalent to the worst case rigidly attached mass of the suit, umbilical, tools, and crew member traveling at a rate of at least 60 cm/s (TBR).

Rationale: This requirement ensures that the suit components (whether hard or soft) will continue to operate normally following an impact during SEA. The impact energy must be specified as a function of system mass and anticipated SEA translation and possible fall and/or translation velocities. This requirement must be met at the highest and lowest suit pressures.


[SES.xxx‐SMA] Eye Protection: The SES shall limit crew exposure to spectral radiance and irradiance at the crew members' eyes to levels equivalent or lower than current ISS suit performance.

Rationale: This requirement is necessary to prevent retinal photochemical injury from exposure.


[SES.xxx‐SMA] Power System Duration: The SES shall have a power system life of at least 2 years (TBR) and 750 charge/discharge cycles (TBR).

Rationale: Current ISS spacesuit batteries are expected to have a life of 2 years. Batteries are expected to last a full SEA without recharge or swap out. Alternative power sources may be developed or envisioned but will need to accommodate the frequency of SEAs and time between supply drops.


[SES.xxx‐SMA] Fault Tolerance: The SES shall be two fault tolerant (TBR) for catastrophic hazards and single fault tolerant (TBR) for critical hazards or shall receive approval for Design for Minimum Risk (DFMR).

Rationale: This establishes a minimum of two fault tolerance or DFMR to control catastrophic hazards and single fault tolerance to control critical hazards. It is anticipated that many functions and components of the suit will pursue DFMR (e.g. oxygen storage tanks).


[SES.xxx‐SMA] Pre‐SEA Operations Preventative Maintenance: The SES flight hardware shall require no preventive or limited life maintenance prior to first use (TBR).

Rationale: This requirement addresses the desire to design suit hardware such that maintenance not be required during the 32 month period prior to first use (time in transit and on the surface prior to first use). Activities associated with wipe down and cleaning to ensure viability of hardware are not considered within the definition of maintenance for this requirement. Battery maintenance is generally excluded from this requirement; however crew‐time for battery maintenance must be minimized as much as possible.


[SES.xxx‐SMA] Post‐SEA Operations Preventative Maintenance: The SES hardware shall require no preventive or limited life maintenance prior to the completion of four 8‐hour SEAs (TBR).

Rationale: This requirement addresses the desire to design suit hardware such that preventive or limited life maintenance occurs no more frequently than once every four SEA cycles.

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Activities associated with wipe down and cleaning to ensure viability of hardware are not considered within the definition of maintenance for this requirement. Battery maintenance is generally excluded from this requirement; however crew‐time for battery maintenance must be minimized as much as possible.


[SES.xxx‐ENG] SOW Standards: The following technical and process standards are derived from NASA’s human spaceflight program and should be adhered to unless alternative standards are approved by the chief engineer, program manager and customer.

Rationale: This list represents a preliminary snapshot of known standards used by NASA and recognized as industry standard. Standards will continue to be used to ensure hazard and quality controls for critical systems. If there are preferred (company or industry) standards, some effort should be expended to ensure they are aligned with the intent of the NASA standards to ensure historical human spaceflight lessons learned are not lost.

• NASA‐STD‐4003 Electrical Bonding for NASA Launch Vehicles, Spacecraft, Payloads, and Flight Equipment

• MIL‐STD‐461‐F Requirements for Control of Electromagnetic Interference Characteristics of Subsystems and Equipment

• JPR 8080.5 JSC Design and Procedural Standards • JSC 28918 EVA Design Requirements and Considerations • JSC 65828, Structural Design Requirements and Factors of Safety for Space Flight Hardware • JSC 65829, Loads and Structural Dynamics Requirements for Space Flight Hardware. x NASA‐STD‐5017 Design and Development Requirements for Mechanisms x NASA‐STD‐5019 Fracture Control Requirements for Spaceflight Hardware • NASA‐STD‐6016 Standard Material and Process Requirements for Spacecraft• NASA‐

STD‐6016 Standard Materials and Processes Requirements for Spacecraft • NPR 7150.2A NASA Software Engineering Requirements • NASA‐STD‐8719.13 Software Safety Standard • NASA‐GB‐8719.13 Software Safety Guidebook • NASA‐STD‐5005 Standard for the Design and Fabrication of Ground Support Equipment • ANSI/AIAA S‐081A‐ Space Systems ‐ Composite Overwrapped Pressure Vessels (COPVs) July

24, 2006 x ANSI/AIAA‐120A Mass Properties Control for Space Systems • S‐080‐1998e AIAA Standard for Space Systems ‐ Metallic Pressure Vessels, Pressurized

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4.2.2 Communications Two-way radios will be used to facilitate voice communications between crew members and the habitat. A multi-channel system in which the user will be able to select the channel, enable or disable the microphone, or as required go into a voice-activated mode will enable multiple crews to function without creating a significant amount of chatter from the Mars One population. The communications subsystem requires a significant amount of interface definition with the other systems and as such the specifics of a baseline are not available.

4.2.3 Power Storage, Distribution, and Generation Power storage would be provided by rechargeable primary batteries, most likely lithium ion. Power would be limited to 28VDC and 5VDC power for pumps/fans and electrical instrumentation, respectively. Small form factor batteries for power storage represent a high technical risk for SEA operations. Due to the limited number of charge/discharge cycles that a battery can endure, a power storage design that utilizes power carts to the maximum extent possible would be considered. In future suit upgrade cycles, it may be possible to integrate thin film solar panels into the suit to produce electrical power and minimize the discharge of the batteries.

Figure 16: Power Subsystem Schematic

4.2.4 Environmental Control and Life Support Environmental control is provided by a system based on Paragon’s patented Metabolic Temperature Swing Adsorption (MTSA) technology, as shown in Figure 17. There are three main loops to this system. The first loop (green) is the air revitalization system that removes CO2, moisture and trace contaminants from the exhaled gas. The second loop shown in blue is a fluid loop that provides temperature control to the suited crew member. Last is a CO2 circuit that uses liquid CO2 to facilitate MTSA operation and provide cooling supplemental cooling.

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In the preceding paragraph two different MTSA beds were described. Each MTSA bed has a finite capacity to adsorb CO2. When that limit is reached it is switched with the other MTSA bed that has been desorbing. Depending upon the sizing of the beds this switching could be a physical swap or accomplished via manual or automated valves.

4.2.4.2 Temperature Control The temperature control loop keeps the suited crew member comfortable, allowing them to perform their tasks at high efficiency. Warm cooling water exits the suit and enters a reservoir (the same reservoir that accepted the condensed moisture from the air revitalization system). A pump pulls water from the reservoir and forces it through a series of heat exchangers. The first HX thermally conditions the oxygen returning to the crew member. The next two cool the water by utilizing the same CO2 used to cool the second MTSA bed. This thermally conditioned water then returns to the suited crew member. The liquid CO2 required for the environmental control system is produced at the Habitat modules as part of the In Situ Gas Processor.

The environmental control will likely require provisions for both heating and cooling, depending on the environment and operational scenario. Paragon’s experience shows that the wearing of thermal undergarments, the use of cooling and heating loops and/or electrical heaters, etc. are all very specific to the operating environment. The baseline system would be a liquid thermal garment with peripheral heaters for extremities combined with selected undergarments (long underwear, socks and gloves) that would be tried, tested and evaluated by each member of the crew and customized to their preference. While detailed thermal modeling is still required, having a slightly “cold biased” suit will probably be the best approach given the environmental conditions. This means that the nominal thermal control will be heating with cooling only required on occasion. A system-level trade is required to develop the optimum solution as more heating requires additional electrical power.

4.2.5 Command and Data Handling The Command and Data Handling (CDH) system monitors the data being generated by various SES sensors and subsystems, accepts commands from the suited crew member and makes the necessary adjustments to the suit’s operating parameters. Additionally, the CDH also sends data to the Habitat and receives commands in the event that the crew member is incapable of doing so. Finally, the CDH records and displays data, including caution and warning information.

Figure 18: Command and Data Handling Subsystem Schematic

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4.2.6 Health Monitor The health monitor records and transmits information on the suited crew member’s heart rate, heart rhythm and other potential parameters such as breathing rate, core temperature and skin temperature. There are multiple ways to obtain this information, ranging from sensors attached to the skin, chest straps and swallowed data pills that transmit wirelessly. This data is then fed to the CDH subsystem where it is read, recorded and transmitted to the Habitat. Balancing the needs of medically necessary data with the opportunity to gather scientific information on Martian colonists will ultimately determine the breadth of data recorded.

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4.3 Master Equipment List (MEL) Table 3 shows a breakdown of the estimated on-back mass of the conceptual SES (including wet mass) broken down to the primary subsystem-level components, and total estimated mass to complete 1000 surface excursions. Per AIAA S-120A, a 30% mass growth allowance (MGA) is added given this early level of design fidelity.

Table 3: SES MEL, On‐back Mass, and Mission Mass Estimates

Subsystem Component Mass (kg)

Pressure Suit

Helmet/Protective Visor 3.2Shoulder (Pair) 3.6Lower Arm (Pair) 2.7SUT 2.3Waist 3.6Hip/Brief 5.9Leg 4.1Boot 3.2Cover Layer 2.3

Subtotal 30.9

PLSS

Structure 17.2ECLSS 28.6Avionics 11.8

Subtotal 57.6 SES Dry Mass Total 88.5Wet Mass Liquid CO2 Coolant 8.0 Gaseous O2 (primary and emergency) 4.0 Coolant Water 1.0 Food 0.1 Drinking Water 1.0 Subtotal 14.1 On‐back SES Dry + Wet Mass Total 102.6Spares Estimated mass of spares to complete 1000 SEAs (250 per SES) 1200.0

Pre‐Deployed SES Assets

Four SES (dry mass) 354.090% of Spares 1080.0

Subtotal 1434.0SES Assets Delivered with the Crew

Four SES (dry mass) 354.010% of Spares 120.0

Subtotal 474.0 Eight Suits + Spares to Complete 1000 SEAs (250 per SES) 1908.0SES Total 30% MGA 572.4 Total Estimated Dry Mass with MGA 2480.4

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5 Risk and Opportunity Management

5.1 Cost and Schedule Risk Drivers

5.1.1 Robustness of Design

5.1.1.1 Service Life Due to the unique nature of the mission, a service life must be established for the SES at the system and subsystem level. Service life will have to account for the fact that replacement parts and suits will require significantly better logistical management due to the time and distance required for transport. Service life needs to be magnitudes higher than any previously developed suit system.

Historically, spacesuit life is driven by cycle life. Simply put, mobility joints can only be flexed so many times and bearings can only be rotated under load for some time before bearings balls or races exhibit unacceptable wear. Cycle life is usually tracked at the component level and sometimes lower. For the ISS EMU program, glove life is defined at the pressure bladder, restraint and TMG level. Each of these subcomponents has a different life based on results of Certification Cycle Testing.

The current ISS EMU is certified for 25 EVAs. NASA requires a factor of safety of 2 on cycle life resulting in a minimum of 50 EVAs worth of manned cycling. During the original ISS EMU suit certification, most of the suit was actually cycled to 100 EVAs because there is a requirement to cycle the suit on both primary axial restraint webbings and secondary restraint webbings. All of this testing was performed at 4.3 psid to a micro-G cycle model developed by reviewing Skylab EVAs and early EMU EVAs. This resulted in a cycle model that is very arm and glove cycle intensive with very little waist and lower torso cycles.

A SEA cycle model does not currently exist. There is some operational experience from Apollo but the duration was very limited with only three days on the lunar surface per mission. NASA has done some recent work looking at what types of motions or activities a suited crew member will have to perform. This includes activities like hammering, digging, lifting, kneeling to pick up an object on the ground, walking, jogging and surface vehicle ingress/egress. Significant forward work will be required to define all activities, number cycles, cycle rates, tool interfaces and surface object interfaces like rocks. It should also be noted that the only operational EVA suit (ISS EMU) has been cycled to at most 100 EVAs. The current requirement for Mars One is 250 SEAs. This is more than twice any previous operational EVA suit has been cycled to. Given that this is a SEA cycle model coupled with a dusty environment, obtaining the required cycle life will be much more challenging than for micro-G EVA. This uncertainty drives the spares mass to be conservatively high at this point in the program phase.

5.1.1.2 Serviceability There is a need to evaluate the ability of using the specialized equipment and materials in the Mars One habitat. The SES subsystems could be specifically designed for ease of serviceability, however, the effort to train the crew members will be substantial. Hard goods should be designed extremely robust to ensure a long service life or be repairable or modified using a “plug and play” mentality of smaller easily transported spare parts. This requirement will take some development effort.

5.1.1.3 Maintainability The suit must be maintainable by the crew with limited supply of tools and equipment as resupply will be costly and infrequent. The time available to maintain the suit is unknown at this time but may be assumed to be short for early missions due to the unknowns of other system requirements, so Mean Time to Replace (MTTR) is particularly important.

The suit must be designed for simplicity, reliability and ruggedness. The first objective should be to reduce the need for maintenance; 2nd should be to make maintenance easy; and 3rd should be to minimize limited life items that require replacement.

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5.1.1.4 Mass Typical of all launch programs, mass is critical. As a result, the drive to reduce the overall mass of the SES will increase the complexity and cost of the suit. Spacesuit mass is always a significant requirement on any space program. The two primary mission phases that drive mass requirements are vehicle launch mass and suit mass enabling efficient locomotion in partial G SEA. Current chemical rocket technology limits the mass of the vehicle, crew and supplies in order to escape earth’s atmosphere and provide propulsion to make the long trip to Mars. This is normally the driving constraint on deep space programs. Once on the Martian surface, astronauts will experience 3/8G when performing an SEA. The most efficient (lowest energy expended) method of locomotion is affected by the suit system mass and center of gravity (CG). A light weight suit may not allow for normal walking or jogging motions. The suit mass and mobility must be evaluated in environments such as zero G aircraft in order to understand and train for the most efficient Martian surface locomotion.

5.1.1.5 Stowage Volume Stowage volume for the suit will be at a premium, both for the transit phase to Mars and while on the planet. It will be imperative to minimize this volume as much as practical.

5.1.2 Safety and Crew Productivity

5.1.2.1 Suit Pressure The pressure of the suit will drive all structural components of the suit design. Choice of suit pressure is a multivariable trade space, highly linked with choice of habitat pressure, the desired pre-breath cycle time, mobility requirements and CONOPS. Suit pressure is a driving requirement but also one that is often not well understood. In the spacesuit design world, 3.5 psia is about the lowest allowable pressure that can ensure human physiological safety, but operation in this regime requires significant pre-breathe time. Higher pressures reduce the need for pre-breathe, but decrease suit mobility. The current ISS EMU EVA spacesuit operates nominally at 4.3 psia to minimize the forces affecting suit torque and range of motion but this pressure still requires significant oxygen pre-breathe time. If operating from a vehicle or habitat environment at 14.7 psia, NASA considers the lowest pressure requiring zero pre-breathe to be approximately 8.3 psia. However, if the crew members can be acclimated to lower pressures, then both suit pressure and pre-breathe time can be reduced.

5.1.2.2 Anthropometric Range The suit design must accommodate the challenges associated with outfitting the specified anthropometric range. Legacy EVA Suit systems have not been able to preserve the intended functionality for operators who are on the smaller end of the typical NASA anthropometric range. This may drive the program towards custom suits, but this may affect the interchangeability of the suit components. Suits in a few basic sizes that are adjustable over a smaller range may be alternate approach.

5.1.2.3 Mobility The suit must provide adequate mobility to construct and maintain the Martian outpost as well as provide the ability to explore the Martian surface. Tasks that may be performed include fine motor skills (i.e. using tools to build the outpost), walking, climbing (climbing ladders or a Martian cliff), bending over to pick up an item, and driving rovers. It is expected that this requirement will evolve as the CONOPS matures.

5.1.2.4 Dexterity The SES gloves will drive advancements of existing EVA glove technologies. Traditionally, gloved-hand dexterity has come at the expense of accommodating durability and environmental protection requirements – all of which will need to be improved for a manned mission to Mars.

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5.1.2.5 On-Back Mass On-back mass is the complete mass of the suit system that the crew must wear during excursions. Although Mars gravity is ~37% of Earth’s, the crew may be over-taxed by the weight of the suit when they first get to Mars when it is envisioned that many SEAs are required.

Suit mobility for walking and working requires bearings—especially at the higher pressures needed to preclude or reduce pre-breathing requirements, and bearings have historically been heavy components. Aluminum or composite bearing housings, holding steel bearing races will reduce weight compared to traditional all-steel bearings, and will last considerably longer than all-aluminum bearings.

One option may be to forego the PLSS for some tasks that are in close proximity to the Habitat or perhaps a mobile support cart. The crew members could then be serviced by an umbilical rather than the PLSS, thereby reducing on-back mass. This of course does limit crew member range.

5.1.2.6 Tracking and Communication System Communication is a critical safety feature and will likely require redundancy in the event of a failure. This is especially critical during long excursions on a rover where visual contact to the habitat is lost and support is needed.

Identifying the best means of remotely tracking a crew member will be important as well. This will allow fast recovery should the crew member become stranded or incapacitated over the horizon.

5.1.3 Environmental

5.1.3.1 Dust/Contamination Mitigation The outer layer of the SEA Suit and cleaning systems must provide adequate dust mitigation to protect the suit and maintain functionality. The SEA Suit and cleaning systems must mitigate Martian regolith contamination of the living environment. The don/doff methods and location must mitigate contamination into the suit or onto the undergarments. Methods for cleaning undergarments must be incorporated into the habitat design.

Very little work has been done to understand the impacts to spacesuits from Martian regolith. NASA JSC has constructed a “Martian Rock Yard” to perform analog testing but this regolith does not take into account all the information learned from the JPL Mars Rover programs.

The largest body of data is experience from Project Apollo and testing performed by NASA on and off over the last 20 years as part of Desert RATS planetary analog testing. The Apollo experience exemplifies the concerns with future planetary SEAs as several issues became apparent after only 3 days of lunar EVA:

x Spacesuit leakage rose significantly in only 3 days of EVAs

x Zippers and hard closure mechanisms started to bind

x Dust brought back into the lunar lander created a bad odor when exposed to oxygen

A significant body of work is required to develop materials that will repel and/or keep dust from penetrating into the suit layers. Dust intrusion not only damages suit materials it can also change the outer layer optical properties thereby changing the overall suit emissivity and degrading thermal performance.

5.1.3.1.1 Dust Tolerant Bearing Seals The current state of the art is oil-loaded felt seals. There is limited data on the performance of this technology against Apollo regolith simulant and no testing against Mars regolith simulant. NASA is

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starting work in this area again but the current focus is lunar soil. Development work is needed to understand the limits of current environmental seals and what technology is needed to obtain a reasonable time before maintenance.

5.1.3.1.2 Dust Tolerant Materials and Attachment Methods for Planetary TMGs Technical paper 2008-01-1990 from the International Conference on Environmental Systems (ICES) discusses some of the recent work performed in this area. This paper is provided with this Mars One Conceptual Design paper.

5.1.3.2 Thermal Comfort Mars has a thin atmosphere that minimizes the effectiveness of MLI, so alternate methods of thermal protection from the environment will be required. In colder conditions the suit may require additional insulating layers similar to a winter jacket (and LTG cooling in warmer conditions) that do not reduce mobility.

5.1.3.3 CO2 Removal The MTSA system for the PLSS requires the use of zeolite beds that have a finite CO2 adsorbtion capability. In the system shown in Figure 17 two beds are in the system. One is adsorbing while the other is desorbing. Detailed design is needed to determine the optimum size of these beds and the method of switching the mode from adsorption to desorption. It may make sense to use smaller beds that are fixed in place with valving to switch modes. Switching could also be done manually, or larger beds could be used that would last the entire mission. In this case the switching would be done as part of post SEA refurbishment.

5.1.3.4 Radiation Protective Materials The need for advanced flexible materials for radiation protection on spacesuits has been around for more than 20 years. The materials must be lightweight, flexible and high in hydrogen. Limited testing and evaluation has been done with polyethylene based materials and tungsten-loaded silicone. The ICES paper “Study of Development of a Radiation Shielding Kit” is provided with the Mars One Suit Conceptual Design paper. This paper discusses flexible radiation material requirements, selection and incorporation into an astronaut protective vest and blanket.

Radiation dosage over the length of Mars mission is a concern that must be addressed. Recent data from the Mars Curiosity Rover shows that radiation dosage for the transit to Mars is much worse than exploration on the Martian surface. However, the total exposure for long duration stays on the surface is still a question. In any event, concerns about an increased risk of cancer from radiation exposure must be tempered by the inherent risks with this mission. The following text is an excerpt from an article in Scientific American December 9, 2013.

A mission consisting of a 180-day cruise to Mars, a 500-day stay on the Red Planet and a 180-day return flight to Earth would expose astronauts to a cumulative radiation dose of about 1.01 Sieverts, measurements by Curiosity's Radiation Assessment Detector (RAD) instrument indicate. To put that in perspective: The European Space Agency generally limits its astronauts to a total career radiation dose of 1 Sievert, which is associated with a 5-percent increase in lifetime fatal cancer risk. A 1-sievert dose from radiation on Mars would violate NASA's current standards, which cap astronauts' excess-cancer risk at 3 percent.

"It's certainly a manageable number," said RAD principal investigator Don Hassler of the Southwest Research Institute in Boulder, Colo., lead author of a study that reports the results Dec. 9 in Science.

NASA is working with the National Academies’ Institute of Medicine to evaluate what appropriate limits would be for a deep-space mission, such as one to Mars.

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5.2 Opportunities to Reduce Risk

5.2.1 Future Studies The following studies are recommended prior to significant investments to minimize the risk for development and the ultimate mass of SES hardware transported to the Martian surface.

x SEA cycle model development and optimized sparing/refurbishment plan

x Certification protocol – tools/interfaces, test scenario definition, cycle rates, etc.

x Radiation dosage over total SEA time – limits, Martian surface condition, suit TMG protection level

x TMG layup and attachment method (multi-mission: space vacuum & Mars atmosphere)

5.2.2 Precursor Tests (Mars Rover 2020) The following tests are recommended to validate design assumptions required for developing man rated surface suit systems.

x Evaluation of rotary bearing dust seals in rover vehicle

x Evaluation of ability of proposed suit TMG materials to shed or repel Mars dust

x Continued measurements of surface radiation levels at planned Mars One landing site

5.2.3 Minimize Suit Pressure Pressure suit systems such as the current EMU experience development and certification anomalies primarily due to mobility requirements. These anomalies usually result in significant cost and schedule impacts. They usually arise from repetitive motion of the person against the suit bladder, hardware and soft-goods rubbing and abrading, and local stress concentrations at fabric seams and axial restraint attachment interfaces during pressure and/or range of motion cycling. The potential for these anomalies goes up as pressure increases.

Minimizing suit pressure is key to reducing cost, schedule risk, suit complexity, and increasing reliability. Significant testing in industry has occurred for suits at or below 29.65 kPa (0.29 atm, 4.3 psi). As stated in sections 4.1.7 and 4.1.8, ILC has done some testing at 57.23 kPa (0.56 atm, 8.3 psi) but there is no operational experience and there is limited data on reliability. There is some industry experience with soft and hard mobility joints up through operation at 101.35 kPa (1 atm, 14.7 psi) but again the operational use data is limited. The Mars One program would benefit from choosing a vehicle/habitat pressure that allows zero pre-breathe suit operation at or around 29.65 kPa (0.29 atm, 4.3 psi). This merely requires proper acclimatization. The city of El Alto, Bolivia sits at an elevation of 13,615 ft (8.8 psia). Almost one million people live in this city. In the USA, Leadville, Colorado is at over 10,000 ft elevation (10 psia). People have been living and working in this mining town for over 150 years. Therefore it would seem reasonable to have a habitat pressure of 9-10 psia with a 20% oxygen concentration without adverse health effects. This would then allow the suit pressures and pre-breathe times to be reduced.

5.2.4 Additive Manufacturing One technology area that has the potential to greatly reduce cost and risk, and in fact might be considered almost essential for Mars One, is Additive Manufacturing or 3D printing. Given the limited amount of supplies that will be available to the Mars One crew, it will be impossible to bring spares of all parts to account for any potential contingency or needed repair. With developments in 3D printing technology, the crew members would not need to bring any spares; instead they could make the

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needed parts as different needs arise. The crew members would need to bring the 3D printing machines and raw materials with them, and if the need arises for a replacement item such as a spare nut or bolt, a specialty tool, etc. then they could just “manufacture” it as needed. This eliminates the need to prepare the crew members for every possible contingency, and also eliminates the worry that they will get to the surface of Mars and realize they desperately need something that they don’t have – and won’t get for at least two years. Ideally, the parts for the original equipment would already be designed and built using 3D printing to the greatest extent possible to ensure that replacement parts could be generated.

Many current space suit components could be manufactured with 3D printing. Additionally, 3D printing of textiles is just beginning to emerge as a viable technology. Given the structured nature of space suits (as compared to traditional garments); it is possible to envision many of the suit components being manufactured by 3D printing. This technology could significantly reduce the need for serviceability and long service life items. However, for the near-term, suit fabrics and all but rudimentary non-structural parts are only envisioned, but Mars One could push this technology for future missions.

5.2.5 Common Parts As much as practical, use of common parts and interchangeable components throughout the vehicle would enable the crew to reuse components from systems that are broken to support maintenance on other systems. The Mars One program should work to establish standards for use on the Martian outpost (i.e. Metric or English) and be prepared to prioritize commonality over optimization.

5.2.6 Establish Common Interfaces Early As the SEA Suit requirements will be driven by interfaces with the rover, air-lock, SEA tools and recharge system, establishing common interfaces early supported by a strong systems engineering team with excellent communication between the designers will ensure any interfaces issues will be minimized.