Marquee Science & Technology Courses

A successful example of cross-

disciplinary course developmentJordan GoodmanDepartment of PhysicsUniversity of Maryland

November 2009

National need for an understanding of science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM) Cannot be addressed only by educating future scientistsThe problem is deeper, more systemic, and solutions must extend to improved education for non-science majors. Non-scientists are called on to make decisions based on science

Discussion in the early spring of 07UG Dean Donna Hamilton, Jim Gates, and JGDonna was concerned that many of our best students on campus never took science

Many would “AP” out of science when they came inMany would be in majors like Business where more science wouldn’t be required

Donna organized a group (~15) of interested people who meet in the spring of 07

Call for Proposals from Undergraduate Studies:Signature program that:

Engages senior facultyCreatively addresses the challenge

“Teach” the process of scienceElucidate how science addresses world problems

Satisfies General Education (CORE) expectationsHas departmental and college support

Deans picked from proposalsEngages 100+ students

How does science attack problems to which the answer is not known

Most (virtually all) science courses we teach are about subjects that the answers are knownControversy is only presented historically and often parenthetically Conclusions are offered as if any reasonable person would have figure it out themselves

Even subjects like relativity

Summer 2007 – full day workshopFall 2007-PresentThe Faculty became a Learning

Community Met regularly over lunchReviewed and discussed best practicesShared ideas for engaging students in process of scienceAgreed upon common attributes of coursesDeveloped learning goals and assessment measuresMet with advisors to foster full course enrollment

The Marquee Faculty Research-Active Tenured Faculty Interdisciplinary (3 colleges and 6 disciplines)

At the completion of a Marquee Course in Science and Technology students will be able to: Look at complex questions and identify the science in the

question and how it impacts and is impacted by political, social, economic, and ethical dimensions

Understand the limits of scientific knowledge Critically evaluate science arguments Ask good questions Find information using various sources and evaluate the veracity

of the information Communicate scientific ideas effectively Relate science to a personal situation

Marquee Course Learning Goals

At the completion of a Marquee Course in Science and Technology students will be able to: Look at complex questions (e.g. global warming, medical technology,

biodiversity) and identify the science in the question and how it impacts and is impacted by political, social, economic, and ethical dimensions

Critically evaluate science arguments (e.g. those that are made in a news article, a student presentation, on a TV show, presented to a lay person by a physician etc)

Marquee Course Assessment

Assessment

• VOSTS - Views on Science, Technology and Society

• http://www.surveymonkey.com/s.aspx?sm=r1lGbjCzTmW1FNtZW172gQ_3d_3d

2. Scientists and engineers should be the ones to decide what types of energy we will use in the future (for example, nuclear, hydro, solar, or coal burning) because scientists and engineers are the people who know the facts best. What is your position, basically? Scientists and engineers should decide:

• because they have the training and facts which give them a better understanding of the issue.

• because they have the knowledge and can make better decisions than government bureaucrats or private companies, both of whom have vested interests.

• because they have the training and facts which give them a better understanding; BUT the public should be involved -- either informed or consulted.

• The decision should be made equally; viewpoints of scientists and engineers, other specialists, and the informed public should all be considered in decisions which affect our society.

• The government should decide because the issue is basically a political one; BUT scientists and engineers should give advice.

• The public should decide because the decision affects everyone; BUT scientists and engineers should give advice.

• The public should decide because the public serves as a check on the scientists and engineers. Scientists and engineers have idealistic and narrow views on the issue and thus pay little attention to consequences.

First CORE courses offered by College of Engineering !

Courses Piloted 2007-2008Met first year enrollment goals

Attracted non-majors

*Other – category includes students from 7 colleges

CourseARTS/HUMANITIES

BUSINESS BEHAV. SOC. SCI UNDECIDED OTHER* TOTAL

AOSC200 27 23 45 54 33 182BSCI120 30 12 28 22 30 122ENMA150 10 11 14 18 6 59GEOL124 11 2 15 25 7 60PHYS105 21 10 13 56 16 116

Fall 2008 Total 539

Updated Enrollment Data

PHYS 105Physics for Decision Makers:

The Global Energy Crisis

Steve RolstonJordan GoodmanBill DorlandDan LathropDepartment of Physics

PHYS 105Physics for Decision Makers:

The Global Energy CrisisThis topic could change:EnergyTransportationMaterialsSpace

Learn physics of energy in the context of the global energy crisis and the real world

PhysicsBiologyEconomicsPolitics

Energy conceptsPopulation and growth

Fossil FuelsGlobal warmingEnergy sources

Possible outcomes/solutions

We ran pilot as honors course

We taught the prototype as an honors course (Fall 07)Our group met weekly to discuss courseWe wanted to learn what the best students could do in a small setting before trying it on a large classI taught the 60 student version (non-honors) in Spring 08We expanded it to 110 in Fall 08Added a new colleague (Lathrop) in 2009

Course structured with two 75 min. lectures and one 50 min. group (20 student) sectionsExtended group projects (4-5 students)Expose students to technologySmall group activities rather than traditional “recitation” sections

Assigned seating in lecture according to discussion groupThink, pair, share works only if they are willing to talk to each otherMoved Honors students

TA involvement and buy-in is essentialThis is a different kind of TA assignmentFirst time I had two good TAs

One got itThe other…

This time hand selected TAsThis was an excellent way for them to learnWe are working on creating a Marquee TA program

Example from student project - McKeldin Library

McKeldin LibraryAverage daytime energy use: 200-250 KWH

Average nighttime energy use: 150-200 KWH

Example discussion section activity

Carbon Reduction TreatyYour challenge is to negotiate a treaty to reduce global carbon emissions by 50% by the year 2030. To simplify, we divide the

world (and your class) into two groups, developed countries (represented by the US) and developing countries (represented

by China). You should consider each other’s needs and consequences to quality of life as you negotiate (remember that negotiation is the art of compromise). Listed below are various

facts about each country to help you in formulating your arguments. Of the 50% reduction, how much should come from

the US and how much from China?Do the Chinese have the “right” to use as much energy per person as we do in the

US?

Keep it currentHomework included investigating reading George Will article in the Washington Post and letters that followed (Nov 09)Visit campus Co-generation plantHonors section will do congressional visitsDiscussion of current events

SciencePolitics

Read & Discuss the IPCC reportGuest speakers

Campus Conservation ManagerHouse Science Committee StafferScience Journalist

Sample lecture topic

Daytime Running Lights – DRLs

Are they worth the energy they consume?

Energy Usage by Daytime Running Lights

How do we figure it out?Estimate how much power 1 pair usesThen figure out how many cars there areEstimate how many hours DRLs would be on per carPut it together and get the energy usageCompare this to their benefits

Energy Usage by Daytime Running Lights

A typical pair headlights uses about 110 watts

Daytime running lights run at a lower wattage so they use less power.Estimate how much wattage a pair of DRLs uses

1. 10 Watts

2. 30 Watts

3. 50 Watts

4. 70 Watts

Energy Usage by Daytime Running Lights

How many cars are there in the US?First we should ask:

How many people are there in the US?1. 100 Million2. 300 Million 3. 500 Million4. 700 Million5. 1 Billion

Energy Usage by Daytime Running Lights

How many cars are there in the US?300 Million People (adults and children)

How many families?1. 50 Million2. 75 Million 3. 100 Million4. 150 Million5. 200 Million

Energy Usage by Daytime Running Lights

How many cars are there in the US?(100 Million families)

How many cars/family?1. 0.52. 13. 1.54. 25. 2.5

Energy Usage by Daytime Running Lights

How many cars are there in the US? – 200 Million

How far does the average car go per year?

1. 8,000 miles2. 12,000 miles3. 16,000 miles4. 20,000 miles

Energy Usage by Daytime Running Lights

How many cars are there in the US? – 200 Million

How far does a car go per year? – 12,000 miles

Vehicles in the US drove 2.5 trillion miles 2.5 x 1012 mi

To figure out how many hours car lights are on time= distance/<speed>

How fast does a car go on the average? (highway and city stop and go)

1. 20 MPH

2. 30 MPH

3. 40 MPH

4. 50 MPH

5. 60 MPH

Energy Usage by Daytime Running Lights

How long are they on for?Vehicles in the US drove 2.5 trillion miles 2.5 x 1012 miles(100 million families – 2 cars/fam. 12k miles/car)Assume average speed say 30 mph2.5 x 1012 miles/ 30 mph = 8 x 1010 (80 billion) hours of driving

At 50 Watts – 4 x 1012 Whrs - 4 x 109 kWh (4 Billion kWh), but they we must subtract the time the headlights would be on…

Energy Usage by Daytime Running Lights

What fraction of the driving is at night when the headlights would be on anyway?1. 5%2. 15%3. 25%4. 35%5. 45%

Energy Usage by Daytime Running Lights

Say you drive normally 25% of the time at night where the lights would be on anyway -> 0.75 x 4 x 109 kWh

So we use 3 x 109 kWh extra electrical power in our cars

A gallon of gas contains about 130 MJ/gal or 36 kWh/gal

The car engine is about 30% efficient so we get 10kWh/gal

3 x 109 kWh extra electrical power means 3 x 108 (300 million) gallons of gas/yr on DRLs

At $2.50 a gallon - $750M year and 5 Billion pounds of CO2

Realistically its probably less that as most DRLs use less power

Are they worth it?

Benefit of Daytime Running LightsStudies show anywhere from 7%-18% reduction

in daytime accidents from use of DRLs (mostly head-on left-turns)6,420,000 auto accidents in the United States in 2005. The financial cost of these crashes is more than $230 BillionIf there is a only a 5% reduction in crashes because of DRLs then you save ~$10 Billion per year 30,000 fatalities each year – 5% saves 1,500 lives (at $5M each -> $7.5B)

Students were asked:Why the trend?

“The economy has displaced global warming from the news”“It’s the scientists fault for not being definitive enough”

Why, since this is a scientific question, do the responses break down on party lines?

Dems want green industriesRepublicans want to protect big businessThey get their news from different sources

“balance” in news reporting – Curt Suplee

“Yes it is” “No, it’s not!”

One nut = biased coverage

2 nuts = balanced coverage

2 nuts = balanced coverage that ignores the consensus

“We found that … through

adherence to the norm of balance,

the U.S. press systematically proliferated an informational

bias.”

-- Fairness and Accuracy in Media, 2002

report

Final Exam (typical question)One gallon of gasoline today costs ~$2.50 &contains 1.3 x 108 J (130MJ) of energy –

Compute the cost of the equivalent amount of electrical energy (at $0.10/kWh from Pepco).

  J=1 Watt Sec Hour=3600 sec so 1kWh = 3.6MJ

130MJ/3.6(MJ/kWh) =  36 kWh @ $0.10 = $3.60 Approximately how much would the gasoline cost @$2.50/gal to generate 130MJ of electrical energy using a gasoline-powered generator that uses an internal combustion engine (like a Honda generator). ~25% efficient so 4 gallons - so ~$10

Hamburger meat has about 1,300kcal/pound and costs about $3/pound. How much would it cost to get the equivalent energy to 1 gallon of gasoline from hamburger meat?

1 kcal = 4184 joules  130MJ = 31,000 kcal /(1,300kcal/lbs) = 24 lbs

-> $72 There are about 8MJ in a pound of refined sugar and it costs $2 for a five-pound bag. How much would it cost to get the equivalent energy to 1 gallon of gasoline from refined sugar?

  130/8 = 16 lbs so 3.2 - 5 lb bags ->$6.40

How do the answers to c & d above relate to the Trophic Pyramid

Cow/meat is an expensive way to store energy because it is higher up on the food chain! – It takes a 10 Kcal of grass to make 1 Kcal of cow

Other Exam Questions• Estimate the number of people who are

born in the US every year. (Hint: What fraction of the population is a woman of child-bearing age and how many children will she have?) Show your work (justify your assumptions).

• “Ozone in the atmosphere is both good and bad.” Explain this statement

• If I keep my refrigerator door open, it WILL NOT cool my apartment. If I keep my oven door open (and turned on) it WILL heat my apartment. Explain why the difference

CAFÉ Standards

Energy needs per adult (kcal/person/day)

Primitive – 2,000Hunter-gatherer – 5,000Early agriculture – 12,000Later agriculture – 20,000Early industrial – 60,000Modern industrial – 125,000Current U.S. – 250,000

Kill something and eat itKill something, cook it and

eat itUse a horse or ox to plow

fieldUse a windmill or waterwheelSteam, coal, wood - make

steelElectricity, oil, coal, nat. gas

U.S. Energy Use

250,000 kcal/person/day – 300 Million peopleUS estimated use is 1020 J = ~100 quadsHow much is a quad?

1 quad = 1.05 x 1018 J1 quad = 1015 (1,000,000,000,000,000) BTUs1 BTU = energy required to warm 1 lb water 1 oF

How much is a Quad? - 1% of US consumption/yr

472,000 Barrels of Oil/Day for 365 Days or 172,280,000 Barrels of Oil

75 Supertankers500,000 Railroad

Cars of Coal

Annual Production of 20 Three Mile Island Nuclear Plants

→

World and US Energy Usage

U.S. Energy Flow, 2004 (Quads)

33% of U.S. primary energy is imported

U.S. Energy Flow, 2004 (Quads)

86% of primary energy is from fossil fuels, with 69% of the petroleum

imported

What are students expectations?

Students just want me to tell them “the answer”

What makes them think I know it?

Why should they believe it if I told them one?

Student Comments (about the class) “The topics are current so it makes for a really interesting

class and it is really well-developed.” “This is a great class that everyone should be required to

take.” “…the course was awesome!!! I really dont like science at all

but I loved this class!!” “I absolutely loved this class! I'm so glad that it was offered

this year, and I would recommend it to almost anyone. The material covered was very interesting and very relevant. The class was kept engaging by clicker questions, occasional experiments or fun tasks, and discussions about interesting issues”

“Very interesting course but too many group assignments. ... I did however learn a lot and the course covers a lot of extremely relevant material to the world today. “

“this course was good shit”

An aside on clickers Facts (from my point of view) about clickers Clickers work to keep the class engaged Clickers work for attendance Clickers can tell you what your class is thinking Clickers can tell you when your class does or

doesn’t understand a concept Clickers can be royal pain in the ass for the

teacher!

Dealing with getting id #’s straightDealing with lost/forgotten clickersDealing with minor technical issues

Still I think they are worth the trouble

The Bonus Question idea

A bonus point is given if the majority of the class gets the correct answer

Students need to convince their classmates Only students who vote get the point, but it

doesn’t matter if you are right or wrong Lively discussions ensue

What makes Marquee courses different from most other courses at

the University?•The goals of the courses are independent of the subject matter – they are truly cross-disciplinary•The subject matter doesn’t drive the course•Community involvement in the process

•We meet over lunch for 2-hrs 3 times a semester•We have special sessions for “Marquee TAs”

Community

Community involvement in the process Senior faculty

People used to collaboration Strong institutional support: buy-in from the

colleges Community within the disciplines

We plan to keep course changing within the goals of the course (this week we talked about “Super Freaknomics” and geoengineering

This community provides innovative ideas and keeps the focus on the overall educational goals – rather than the subject material

Provides a focus for TAs

Pitfalls of course development Lot’s of smart people develop new

courses People spend considerable effort doing

research Course often start off great and slowly

deteriorate

Courses and random walk If each new person changes a

course in their own way it takes you away from the starting point in a random walk pattern

If each person combines their changes with previous work in a systematic way – you can converge to better course

The n+2 problem Mathematical induction says if I can show

something works for integers 0 or 1 and I can show it works for an arbitrary number n and that it also works for n+1 then it works for all integers n

In course development induction goes like this

I can develop a course and show it works for meI can pass it on (successfully to the next person teaching it)Therefore it should work for everyone

But it doesn’t always work for n+2 and beyond

The n+2 problem Example

Physics 261/271 – engineering labStudents complained like crazy – they hated the labWe did a study and found several major problems

The pre-labs took forever because they were graded with more spread than the rest of the somewhat cookbook labs

Students spent way too much time on this prelab

We also found students were expected to take data, go home and figure it out and write it up

They had no help at home from the TAThey may have not recorded the correct thing or missed somethingThey didn’t really know how to analyze data

The n+2 problem We changed the lab

We changed the grading of the prelabs to a 0, 10, 20 point system

We put computers in the labs and had them do all their analysis in class

We put in lab tests to see if they were actually learning the material and made them think about it…

We passed this course on to a colleague (who was very good).

He came to us with questions

“Why do this crazy prelab grading system?”

We had answers

When he went to pass the course on (n+2) the next person had questions too – he didn’t have many of those answersMuch of the research was lost

Teaching as the opposite of scienceScience – builds on previous knowledge attained through study or practice.Most times when we teach we ignore all previous knowledge about the course from others

What did the students learnWhat did they have trouble withDid the course accomplish its aims

Another example Physics 174 – a first lab course for Physics majors

(1996)

Course was created after a survey of faculty and students agreed on fundamental problems with our labsStudents didn’t know how to make basic measurements or hook up simple circuitsStudents didn’t understand error analysisIt was possible to miss the entire purpose of the course and get a “B”

The new lab was designed to solve these issues

Required mastery of certain skillsStudents couldn’t miss the key elements of the course and still get a good grade

Physics 174

One lab was designed to show them that they could fit data to any function by minimizing chi-squared

They took data with the digital scope fed it into a spreadsheet – then fit it

Several years ago I taught the lab for a colleague

This lab had evolved so that the measurement was done differently and the objective which was the fitting was lost altogether.

Lesson – if you don’t make the educational objective clear, it may be lost…

The software development model Courses need to be “owned” by a Department or a

group Material changes should encouraged, but be vetted

before they are permanently accepted The software development model

People write code and demonstrate it works

They provide test data to show it works

It’s checked into a library as the production version

Other people can check out private copies and modify/improve it as they see fit

Before it’s checked back in as the new production version it has to be vetted and tested by the group

This way things improve not just random walk!

My mother and curriculum My mother in the school

cafeteriaWhy do you give them spinach if they all throw it out?

“They need it for a nutritious meal”

Many course have spinach for content

It doesn’t matter how good it is for the students they don’t get it

There is the counter argument that says “some actually do get it”.

My View

You could sink the Dover to Calais ferry half way across the English Channel and some people would make it to France, but would you schedule it this way?

What are our plans?• New course on the Chesapeake Bay• Develop a mentoring program for young

faculty so that so we train our successors, thereby building more sustainability into the program

• Raise funds for an endowed Marquee chair--that would rotate among the faculty

• Organize a Marquee poster day

AOSC 200 BSCI 120 ENEE 132 ENMA 150 GEOL 124 PHYS 1050

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

Respondents by Course- Fall 2009 Pretest

AOSC 200 BSCI 120 ENEE 132 ENMA 150 GEOL 124 PHYS 1050

20

40

60

80

100

120

Respondents by Course- Spring 2009 Posttest

1. Science and technology are closely related to each other. Your position basically:

Answer Pretest PosttestA. Because science is the basis of all technological advances; though its hard to see how technology could aid science.

3.0% 6.2%

B. Because Scientific research leads to practical applications in technology, and technological developments increase the ability to do scientific research. 87.4% 76.2%

C. Because although there are different, they are linked so closely that it’s hard to tell them apart.

4.4% 5.4%

D. Because technology is the basis of all scientific advances; though it’s hard to see how science could aid technology.

2.2% 4.6%

E. Science and technology are more or less the same thing.0.0% .0.8%

F. I don’t understand. 0.0% 0.0%G. I don’t know enough about this subject to make a choice.

0.7% 5.4%H. None of these choices fits my basic viewpoint.

2.2% 1.5%

2. Scientists and engineers should be the ones to decide what types of energy the United States will use in the future (for example nuclear, hydro, solar, or coal burning) because scientists and engineers are the people who know the facts best. Your position basically:

Answer Pretest PosttestA. Scientists and engineers should decide because they have the training and facts which give them a better understanding of the issue. 4.4% 7.8%

B. Scientists and engineers should decide because they have the knowledge and can make better decisions than government bureaucrats or private companies, both of whom have vested interests. 10.4% 10.9%

C. Scientists and engineers should decide because they have the training and facts, which give them a better understanding; BUT the public should be involved.

28.1% 18.0%

D. The decision should be made equally; viewpoints of scientists and engineers, other then specialists and the informed public should all be considered in decisions which affect our society.

39.3% 42.2%

E. The government should decide because the issue is basically a political one; BUT scientists and engineers should give advice. 7.4% 8.6%F. The public should decide because the decision affects everyone; BUT scientists and engineers should give advice. 4.4% 5.5%G. The public should decide because the public serves as a check on the scientists and engineers. Scientists and engineers have idealistic and narrow views on the issue and thus pay little attention to consequences. 0.0% 0.0%

H. I don’t understand 0.7% 0.8%I. I don’t know enough about this subject to make a choice. 3.0% 4.7%J. None of these choices fits my basic viewpoint. 2.2% 1.6%

3. In your everyday life, knowledge of science and technology helps you personally solve practical problems. Your position basically:

Answer Pretest PosttestA. The systematic reasoning taught in science class (for example hypothesizing, gathering data, being logical) helps me to solve some problems in my daily life. 12.7% 10.1%B. The systematic reasoning taught in science class (for example hypothesizing, gathering data, being logical) gives me a greater knowledge and understanding of every day problems. However, the problem solving techniques we learn are not directly useful in my daily life.

13.4% 17.1%

C. Ideas and facts I learn from science classes sometimes help me solve problems or make decisions about such things as cooking, keeping healthy, or explaining a wide variety of physical events.

21.6% 16.3%

D. The systematic reasoning and the ideas and facts I learn from science classes help me a lot. They help me solve certain problems and understand a wide variety of physical events.

14.2% 22.5%

E. What I learn from science class generally does not help me solve certain problems and understand a wide variety of physical events. 26.1% 16.3%F. Biology, chemistry, and physics are not practical for me. They emphasize theoretical and technical detail and have little to do with my day-to-day world. 3.7% 5.4%G. My problems are solved by past experience or by knowledge unrelated to science or technology. 4.5% 9.3%H. I don’t understand. 0.0% 0.0%I. I don’t know enough about this subject to make a choice. 0.0% 0.8%J. None of these choices fits my basic viewpoint. 3.7% 2.3%

4. Science classes have given me the confidence to figure out and decide if something (for example an advertisement) is true or not. Because of my science classes I have become an informed citizen. Your position basically:

Answer Pretest PosttestA. Science classes have helped me become an informed citizen because science has given me valuable facts and ideas. 26.1% 18.8%B. Science classes have helped me become an informed citizen because science teaches the scientific method for figuring things out. 6.0% 10.9%C. Science classes have helped me become an informed citizen because science teaches valuable facts and the scientific method for figuring things out.

23.1% 29.7%

D. Science classes have helped me become an informed citizen because science teaches valuable facts and the scientific method for figuring things out. 14.9% 15.6%

E. Science classes have NOT helped me become an informed citizen even though science teaches valuable facts and the scientific method. 9.7% 7.0%F. Science classes have NOT helped me become an informed citizen because citizens are influenced by their upbringing, their family, or what they hear or see. The process of being informed citizen is not influenced by science. 4.5% 5.5%

G. Science classes have NOT helped me become an informed citizen because science classes have nothing to do with policy or the real world. For example, photosynthesis, atoms, and density do not help me make better political decisions.

2.2% 3.1%

H. I don’t understand. 0.0% 1.6%I. I don’t know enough about this subject to make a choice.

2.2% 0.8%J. Non of these choices best fits my basic viewpoint.

11.2% 7.0%

5. Even when investigations are done correctly, the knowledge that scientists discover from those investigations may change in the future. Your position: Scientific knowledge changes…

Answer Pretest Posttest

A. Because new scientists disprove the theories or discoveries of old scientists. Scientists do this by using new techniques or improved instruments, by finding new factors overlooked before, or by detecting errors in the original “correct” investigation.

43.6% 43.8%

B. Because old knowledge is reinterpreted in light of new discoveries. Scientific facts can change. 29.3% 29.7%

C. Scientific knowledge APPEARS to change because the interpretations of the application of the facts can change. 10.5% 10.2%

D. Scientific knowledge APPEARS to change because new knowledge is added on to old knowledge; the old knowledge doesn’t change. 7.5% 5.5%

E. I don’t understand. 3.8% 4.7%F. I don’t know enough about this subject to make a choice.

4.5% 4.7%G. None of these choices fits my basic viewpoint.

0.8% 1.6%

6. The best scientists are those who follow the steps of the scientific method. Your position:

Answer Pretest Posttest

A. The scientific method ensures valid, clear, logical, and accurate results. Thus, most scientists will follow the steps of the scientific method. 31.1% 28.1%

B. The scientific method should work well for most scientists; based on what we learned in school. 9.6% 11.7%

C. The scientific method is useful in many instances, but it does not ensure results. Thus the best scientists will also use originality and creativity. 40.0% 37.5%

D. The best scientists are those who use any method that might get favorable results (including method of imagination and creativity. 7.4% 6.3%

E. Many scientific discoveries were made by accident, and not by sticking to the scientific method. 7.4% 10.2%F. I don’t understand.

0.0% 0.8%G. I don’t know enough about this subject to make a choice.

3.0% 2.3%H. None of these choices fits my basic viewpoint.

1.5% 3.1%