margaret river water recycling water balance and cost benefit analysis

ETC cover page

Shire of Augusta – Margaret River

Margaret River Wastewater Reuse

Water Balance & Cost Benefit Analysis Report

21/2/2008

Margaret River Wastewater Reuse Project - Stage 1 Report

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Authors: This report has been prepared by Cameron Everard, Dr Stewart Dallas and Dr Martin Anda of the Murdoch University Environmental Technology Centre (ETC).

Document Governance and Intended Usage This document has been produced for the sole use of the client only and any use by a third party may lead to inappropriate use of information. This document is deemed correct at the time of publication and its accuracy and appropriateness may change when further knowledge becomes available. Murdoch University and the Environmental Technology Centre accept no responsibility for inappropriate use of this document and may take legal action where copying and reproduction of the materials within this document are used for consultancy and education without written prior permission from the Client and the Environmental Technology Centre management.


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Margaret River Wastewater Reuse Project - Stage 1 Water Balance and Cost Benefit Analysis Report

Executive Summary The Shire of Augusta-Margaret River commissioned Murdoch University Environmental Technology Centre to conduct a study into the options for wastewater reuse in and around the town of Margaret River. The objectives of this Stage 1 report were:

• Preparation of a water balance to demonstrate the amount of water available and the area and/or number of lots that could be provided with treated wastewater;

• Preparation of a cost benefit analysis to demonstrate economic viability of the project; and

• Identify management plans that will be required. The water balance portrays three stages with four different scenarios and along with the net present value (NPV) costs are summarised below: Stages of Development

(Chronological) Scenarios Cost NPV

$ per kL of reused wastewater Stage 1 Scenario – 1: Existing POS Areas (28 ha) 10.49 Stage 2 Scenario – 2: Margaret River Golf Course (25 ha) 13.00 Stage 3 Scenario – 3: Third Pipe to Future Urban Areas 12.50 OR Stage 3 Scenario – 4: DWWTP: Part A 13.00 Scenario – 4: DWWTP: Part B (winter – recharge) 21.46 Scenario – 4: DWWTP: Part B (summer) 21.46 Note: Scenarios 1-3 exclude cost of wastewater treatment. Scenario 4 includes full wastewater treatment with some allowance for reduction in wastewater headworks and CSOs, The potential impact of both headworks and CSOs is significant and is discussed in detail in the Cost Benefit Analysis. Stage One - Scenario 1 – Existing POS areas Scenario one would include irrigation of all current Shire POS areas with treated wastewater from the MRWWTD, (includes schools, Gloucester Park and East Margaret River (EMR) POS (Riverslea, Rapids Landing and Brookfields) (28 ha). Does not include third pipe connection for household toilet flushing or garden irrigation to these subdivisions. Stage Two - Scenario 2 – Margaret River Golf Course This scenario would comprise irrigation of all current Shire POS areas with treated wastewater from the MRWWTD, (includes schools, Gloucester Park and EMR POS [Riverslea, Rapids Landing and Brookfields], 28 ha). This scenario also includes irrigation of the Margaret River Golf Course of approximately 25 ha. Scenarios 1 and 2 are also included in Scenario 3 below. Stage Three (centralised) - Scenario 3 – Third pipe to future urban areas (East and West) This scenario would include installation of a third pipe to all new subdivisions - all water supplied from MRWWTD to subdivision households (for garden irrigation and toilet flushing) and irrigation of subdivision POS. Will require mains sewerage connection to the MRWWTD and third pipe connection to subdivision. Alternatively, the Shire may choose to pursue a decentralised option as follows: Stage Three (decentralised) - Scenario 4 - Integration of Decentralised Wastewater Treatment Plants (DWWTP)


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Scenario 4 consists of two parts, Part A comprises the existing third pipe facilities from the MRWWTD to the Shire POS areas and the MRGC undertaken in Scenarios 1 and 2. As this infrastructure will have already been established it is considered separate to Part B. Part B would include the establishment of DWWTP’s to each new subdivision. All wastewater produced in the subdivision will be directed to subdivision scale DWWTP for treatment. Treated water from this unit could be used directly for irrigating POS within the subdivision during the summer months and supplied to the households for toilet flushing and garden irrigation. The subdivision would be considered a closed loop system, collecting treating and recycling the wastewater within the subdivision. Each DWWTP would be designed to accommodate the estimated volumes of water produced within the subdivision. In Scenario 4 excess wastewater during winter could be diverted to irrigation if practical. Third pipe connection from DWWTP will be required for summer irrigation of the subdivision POS. As this scenario is considered to be a closed loop system it does not require third pipe connection from the MRWWTD and due to low winter volumes should not need main sewerage connection. Greywater could be either treated and recycled at the household scale or directed to the DWWTP. The Management Plans that the Shire will need to prepare for Scenarios 1 to 3 will include:

• Operation and Maintenance Plan (DoH); • Nutrient and Irrigation Management Plan (DoW); • Community Consultation Outcomes Report; and • Works Approvals and Licenses (DEC).

In addition if Scenario 4 is developed, independent of the Water Corporation, the Shire will need to use the services of a licensed sewerage service provider or secure its own Water Service Providers License (Sewerage Services) from the ERA or in some instances where appropriate require land developers to secure their own license. The ecological benefits of Stage 1 of the project include a considerable increase in environmental flows for the Margaret River (approximately 169,000 kL/per year) (based on 2007 abstraction rates) and the associated indirect downstream ecological benefits as a result of increased water volumes in the river. If the MRGC were supplied with treated wastewater, there would be a decrease in the groundwater abstraction from the local aquifer and therefore associated indirect benefits. There would also be a further reduction in future water needs as Stage 3 was commissioned to supply a third pipe to new subdivisions. In addition to the ecological benefits, the project will provide social and aesthetic benefits due to the increased river flows, these include; a healthier looking river and the potential for increased downstream eco-tourism activities in the river during the summer months, due to the reduction in river abstraction. The treated wastewater will secure a water source for the irrigation of parks and public facilities into the future. The project also presents a positive message to the local Margaret River community in terms of sustainable water management and urban wastewater reuse and sets a precedent for other urban wastewater reuse projects in Western Australia. The reuse of treated wastewater has been successfully undertaken by more than 60 Shire councils around Western Australia for several decades in order to secure sustainable water management practices. The State Water Strategy has also set a target of reusing 20% of treated wastewater sources by 2012.


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CONTENTS Executive Summary...................................................................................................ii Introduction ...............................................................................................................1

Background ...........................................................................................................1 Recent Policy Developments..................................................................................1 Objectives..............................................................................................................2

Treatment Processes ..................................................................................................3 Water Balance ...........................................................................................................4

Water Supply - Inputs ............................................................................................4 Water Demand - Outputs .......................................................................................4

Scenarios for Water Recycling...................................................................................6 Scenario 1 – Existing POS Areas (Stage One)........................................................6 Scenario 2 – Margaret River Golf Course (Stage Two) ..........................................6 Scenario 3 - Third Pipe to Future Urban Areas (Stage Three).................................7 Scenario 4 – Decentralised Wastewater Treatment Plant (Stage Three) ................ 10 Centralised vs Decentralised Treatment Systems.................................................. 12 Summary of Water Reuse Scenarios .................................................................... 13

Cost Benefit Analysis .............................................................................................. 14 Management Plans................................................................................................... 16 Community Consultation ......................................................................................... 16 Ecological and Social Benefits of the Project ........................................................... 18 Recommendations ................................................................................................... 19 References ............................................................................................................... 21 Appendix 1: Margaret River Wastewater Reuse Scenarios - Water Balance ............. 22 Appendix 2: Water Balance Assumptions ................................................................ 23 Appendix 3: Guidelines for the Use of Recycled Water in Western Australia........... 25 Appendix 4: Net Present Value (NPV) Calculations...................................................1

List of Tables

Table 1: Current irrigated areas and volumes within the SAMR.................................5 Table 2: Scenario 1 – Summary of water balance calculations....................................6 Table 3: Scenario 2 – Summary of water balance calculations....................................7 Table 4: Assumptions for predicted future urban areas...............................................9 Table 5: Scenario 3 – Summary of water balance calculations – 2026 third pipe to

future urban areas...............................................................................................9 Table 6: Scenario 4: Part A – Summary of water balance calculations...................... 11 Table 7: Scenario 4: Part B – Summary of water balance calculations for decentralised

WWTP self contained subdivision of 650 lots .................................................. 11 Table 8: Annual rainwater tank yields for Perth ....................................................... 12 Table 9: Advantages and disadvantages of centralised and decentralised treatment

systems ............................................................................................................ 12 Table 10: Summary of water balance under each scenario........................................ 13 Table 11: Summary of water balance and capital costs under each scenario ............. 14


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Introduction

Background In response to the increasing demand on natural potable water sources and a decrease in annual precipitation, the Shire of Augusta Margaret River (SAMR), propose to use treated wastewater to irrigate their Public Open Space (POS), such as sports ovals and schools. The reuse of treated wastewater has been successfully undertaken by more than 60 Shire councils around Western Australia (Neil McGuinness, WA Department of Health, 2007) for several decades in order to secure sustainable water management practices. The State Water Strategy has also set a target of reusing 20% of treated wastewater sources by 2012. It is envisaged that the treated wastewater will reduce and replace the current dependence on existing water sources such as abstraction from the Margaret River and local groundwater sources. The SAMR are considering using the water to irrigate other POS around the townsite in the future. Investigations are under way for supplying a third pipe, to future residential areas for toilet flushing, garden irrigation and POS. Third pipe with recycled wastewater is yet to be undertaken in Western Australia, and if implemented will set a new precedent in urban water use management. The first third pipe development in Western Australia was completed by Water Corporation at Brighton in the northern suburbs of Perth for the POS and home gardens irrigation but this was only using community bore groundwater. Several studies to date have been undertaken in relation to the Project, they include:

• Feasibility Investigation Report on the Margaret River Waste Water Reuse, (Wood and Grieve Engineers, 2006);

• Preliminary Figures (HydroPlan Pty Ltd, 2005); and • East Margaret River Public Open Space and Landscape Development Guidelines

(Shire of Augusta-Margaret River, 2007).

Recent Policy Developments It should be noted that as of September 2008 the provision for third pipe connection will be mandatory for all new subdivisions and homes in Western Australia for greywater and alternative water supply. The State Government has recently introduced the 5 Star Plus Building Code, which encourages the reduction of water and energy use. The aims of the water use code are to reduce the consumption of water in residential homes by requiring water efficient fittings, minimising the wastage of water and facilitating the appropriate use of alternative sources of water such as grey water and rain water (Government of Western Australia, 2007) The installation of these alternative water sources for new subdivisions is strongly encouraged and discussed further in Section 3.6. 5 Star Plus will be applicable to new homes approved for construction after 1 September 2007. It is expected that the State Government will investigate measures to apply the 5 Star Plus provisions to existing homes by 2008 (Government of Western Australia, 2007). Moreover, the WA Government Department of Premier and Cabinet is currently formulating the State Water Recycling Strategy. The provision of recycled water to homes via third pipe will now be possible under the new WA Department of Health (DoH) regulations from the current 16 January 2007 “Guidelines


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for the Use of Recycled Water in Western Australia” (Appendix 3). Water is required to be treated to different standards depending on its final use. Water for irrigation of POS areas can be treated to Class B or C, whereas water for urban non-potable use will need to be treated to Class A as specified in the DoH guidelines. At a national level the “Australian Guidelines for Water Recycling: Managing Health and Environmental Risks” Phase 1 (Environmental Protection Heritage Council, 2006) have recently been finalised as a part of the National Water Quality Management Strategy. The project will be conducted in accordance with these guidelines.

Objectives The objectives of this Stage 1 report as outlined in the proposal accepted by SAMR were:

• Preparation of a water balance to demonstrate the amount of water available and the area and/or number of lots that could be provided with treated wastewater;

• Preparation of a cost benefit analysis to demonstrate economic viability of the project; and

• Identify management plans that will be required. (NB Upon completion of this Stage 1 study it was proposed that a Stage 2 contract include: supply modelling, (components, operation funding), treatment levels, licensing requirements and management plans). The present study has investigated and quantified the current supply of wastewater available at the Margaret River wastewater treatment dam (MRWWTD) with the demand for irrigating POS within the SAMR and to assess the feasibility of various scenarios for third pipe connections to future residential areas. Preliminary figures have been calculated on projected volumes of wastewater to quantify supply and demand of wastewater streams up to 2026 (Scenario 3). The Water Corporation’s 2026 input volumes to the MRWWTD includes sewage from the townsite of Margaret River and exclude Witchcliffe and Gracetown townsites. These projected figures are based on information provided by the Water Corporation and are considered assumptive. It is envisaged that through the implementation of this proposal that a socially acceptable, economically sound and ecologically sustainable outcome can be achieved for the local community, water users and the SAMR.


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Treatment Processes At present the Water Corporation treats sewage at its Margaret River Wastewater Treatment Plant located approximately 2.5 km north east of the Margaret River townsite. Sewage is pumped from the town via a 375 mm diameter rising main to the treatment plant. The treatment process consists of the following components:

• Inlets works, complete with tanker receival facility, mechanical screening and screw-wash-press;

• An Intermittent Decant Extended Aeration (IDEA) tank equipped with floating surface aerators and a decanting mechanism;

• A chemical dosing facility, consisting of alum and caustic dosing; • A mechanical sludge dewatering system, including a gravity drainage deck and belt

filter press; and • A treated effluent storage dam with a designed storage capacity of 450 ML.

The Margaret River plant currently treats water to a Class C quality (Water Corp, 2008). Treated water is stored in the dam then sand filtered and chlorinated prior to irrigating the adjacent pine plantations. Irrigation to the pine plantations is conducted throughout the year, with irrigation rates to the pines based on soil saturation rates. The pine plantations are irrigated in winter if there is a dry period. The Water Corporation use a basic criteria of “no surface runoff or ponding” when irrigating the adjacent plantation (Water Corporation, pers comm.). It is understood that the wastewater will not be required to undergo further treatment to be suitable for irrigation purposes, however the chlorine dosing rate will be increased to account for the increased pipe distances. If treated water from the plant is to be used for a third pipe system in future urban areas for internal non-potable purposes then further treatment and costs will be incurred due to treating the water from Class C to Class A. It is envisaged that an investigation of further treatment and costs will be undertaken in the next stage of the project. Under the proposed irrigation system, the treated water will be pumped via a 250 mm pipe to balance tanks located at the Margaret River Weir. It is expected that the existing pumping rate of 60 L/second will be sufficient to pump the water to the balance tanks. Water will be pumped to the POS areas from the balance tanks via a 150 mm pipe. Further technical investigations will be necessary to ascertain pumping rates, pipe sizes and balance tank sizes.


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Water Balance The following key tasks have been calculated as a part of the water balance (Refer to Appendix 1):

1. Quantification of incoming wastewater and incident rainfall flows and evaporation

from the treatment dam (Supply); and 2. Future public and urban areas to be irrigated (Demand).

Water Supply - Inputs As of April 2007 approximately 1,768 dwellings were connected to the main sewer of 2734 available (Water Corporation, pers comm.), which feed into the MRWWTD. During the summer and public holidays there will be an increase in tourist numbers visiting the town and therefore an increase in inflows to the treatment dam. The Margaret River Visitor Centre reported that the months of highest visitation was January, April and December. It is understood that most visitors to the Shire would be spread across accommodation facilities located in sewered and unsewered areas. Wastewater generated from visitors to the sewered areas would already be accounted for in the inflow volumes to the treatment dam. Visitors to unsewered areas are not likely to contribute to the increase in flows to the dam as wastewater from these accommodation facilities would treated through a septic tank or alternative treatment system approved by the SAMR. The summer holiday months of December, January and April usually correspond to higher inflow volumes at the treatment dam. The increase in absentee land owners occupying properties in sewered areas during the summer months will also increase inflow volumes to the treatment dam. The wastewater treatment dam is located approximately 2.5 kms from town and receives approximately 359,000 kL of wastewater per year (982 kL per day). The treatment dam has a designed storage capacity of 450,000 kL. Rainfall to the MRWWTD minus evaporation reduces the volume of water by 14,000 kL per year on average. Therefore, the approximate volume of water available for use in the MRWWTD is 345,000 kL (345 ML) per year. The area of the MRWWTD has been estimated at 30,000m2. The treated wastewater from the MRWWTD is currently drip irrigated to the adjacent pine plantation at approximately 323,000 kL/per year. Informal discussions with the Water Corporation in June 2007 have identified that the Forest Products Commission plan to harvest the surrounding pine plantations that are currently irrigated in 2009. Therefore an alternative use for the water will need to be established by this time.

Current volume of water available for irrigation = 345,000 kL (345 ML) per year.

Water Demand - Outputs The SAMR currently abstracts water from the Margaret River Weir for irrigation purposes. The water is pumped via an automated system (150mm pipe) to irrigate schools, POS and ovals. Irrigation of the ovals occurs twice per week, approximately 30mm/per week


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(15mm/session). The main irrigation pump has been designed to pump at 12.25L/second at 600kPa. Water required for irrigating schools, POS and ovals (except Riverslea Subdivision) is 134,000 kL/per year (17.8 ha) or approximately 7,528 kL/ha/year. Based on the above irrigation rate, approximately 35,000 kL/per year is abstracted from the Margaret River for the Riverslea Subdivision. Therefore it is estimated that approximately 169,000 kL/per year is currently abstracted for the irrigation of 22.4 ha of Shire POS. A breakdown of the POS areas that are irrigated by the SAMR, their size and irrigation volumes are provided in Table 1. Table 1 does not include the POS areas of Brookfield and Rapids Landing. It is understood that these areas are not currently irrigated by river water. These two additional areas have been included in the water balance calculations for Scenario 1 and total 28 ha (refer to Table 2).

Table 1: Current irrigated areas and volumes within the SAMR Irrigated Areas Hectares (ha) Approximate Volume (kL)

(based on 7,528 kL/ha/yr) Gloucester park 11 83,000 Reuther park/ bowling green 1 7,500 Two state schools 5.8 44,000 Riverslea subdivision 4.6 34,500 Total (approximate) 22.4 169,000 Table 1 highlights the importance of a wastewater reuse scheme; approximately 169 ML a year will need to be abstracted from the Margaret River in 2008 for irrigation of the above areas. It is understood that the SAMR are currently renewing their water abstraction licence administered through the Department of Water (DoW). Abstraction of river water could still be used to offer a supplementary supply, provided volumes were within DoW licensed limits. The assumptions used in the water balance are provided in Appendix 2.


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Scenarios for Water Recycling The water balance is presented in Appendix 1 and portrays three stages with four different scenarios. The four scenarios have been created and refined from several discussions with the SAMR. It is understood that the SAMR will implement the three stages in succession. The scenarios are summarised below and described in detail in this section: Stages of Development (Chronological) Scenarios Stage 1 Scenario – 1: Existing POS Areas (28 ha) Stage 2 Scenario – 2: Margaret River Golf Course (25 ha) Stage 3 Scenario – 3: Third Pipe to Future Urban Areas OR Stage 3 Scenario – 4: DWWTP: Part A Scenario – 4: DWWTP: Part B (winter – recharge) Scenario – 4: DWWTP: Part B (summer)

Scenario 1 – Existing POS Areas (Stage One) Scenario 1 includes the irrigation of all current Shire POS and existing subdivisions (East Margaret River EMR POS) from the MRWWTD. Table 2 below summarises the outcomes of the water balance calculations. Under this scenario, approximately 134,000 kL of water would be available for other irrigation purposes, such as the adjacent pine plantation or third pipe applications.

Table 2: Scenario 1 – Summary of water balance calculations Irrigated Areas Approximate Volume (kL) pa Total available water for irrigation in MRWWTD 345,000 Shire irrigation 28 ha (schools, ovals, EMR POS) 211,000 Dam level and water available for other irrigation following irrigation of Shire POS

134,000

The current average irrigation rate for other POS and turfed areas in the SAMR is in the order of 7528 kL/ha/year. On this basis, approximately 17 ha of POS could potentially be irrigated with the remaining water available in the dam.

Scenario 2 – Margaret River Golf Course (Stage Two) Further opportunities to use treated wastewater include the Margaret River Golf Course (MRGC), which is located approximately 5.3 km by road from Gloucester Park. The MRGC currently obtains water from on-site dams and groundwater bores and is assessing the costs and benefits of pumping treated wastewater for irrigation purposes. A report undertaken by Hydroscapes Australia Pty Ltd in June 2007 estimated the current designed irrigation system can deliver up to 396,000 kL/per year (over 9 months), however actual water usage rates for the MRGC are in the order of 188,000 kL/per year (based on 7500 kL/ha/year for 25 ha). No irrigation is undertaken at the golf course during the winter months. Scenario 2 includes the irrigation of all current Shire POS areas with treated wastewater from the MRWWTD, (includes schools, Gloucester Park and EMR POS) and irrigation of the MRGC (approximately 25 ha). Table 3 below summarises the outcomes of the water balance calculations. In this scenario approximately 54,000 kL of additional water would be required to be derived from other


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sources such as bore or river water for the months of February, March and April. It is recommended that the MRGC investigate ways of reducing overall water use based on current best practice in the industry.

Table 3: Scenario 2 – Summary of water balance calculations Irrigated Areas Approximate Volume (kL) pa Total available water for irrigation in MRWWTD 345,000 Shire irrigation 28 ha (schools, ovals, EMR POS) 211,000 Margaret River Golf Course (25 ha) 188,000 Total water required 399,000 Water required from other sources 54,000 Based on data extrapolated from Water Corporation predictions, preliminary calculations indicate that the 400,000 kL of irrigation water required for Scenario 2 could be available by 2009 (refer to Figure 1 below).

Scenario 3 - Third Pipe to Future Urban Areas (Stage Three) Scenario 3 consists of installing a third pipe connection system to all new subdivisions. Water would be supplied from the MRWWTD to the subdivision for irrigation of the POS and include connection to each household for garden irrigation and toilet flushing. This scenario has not factored in the installation of household onsite greywater systems. The new subdivisions will require mains sewerage and third pipe connection to the MRWWTD. Volumes of water required for scenarios 1 and 2 are also included in the scenario 3 calculations. Predicted inflow volumes to the MRWWTD have been obtained from the Water Corporation and are as follows:

2007 = 358,526 kL per year (982 kL/ per day) (actual recorded volume); 2015 = 550,000 kL (1507 kL/ per day) (Water Corporation prediction); and 2026 = 910,000 kL (2493 kL/ per day) (Water Corporation prediction).

According to the SAMR the population of Margaret River in June 2007 was approximately 5,400. The current inflow into the MRWWTD is 358,526 kL/per year, with approximately 1768 connections (or 203 kL/connection/year). The Water Corporation has projected a steady increase reaching approximately 550,000 kL/per year in 2015 to 910,000 kL/per year by 2026, based on a population of approximately 12,500. Based on these figures, approximately 4,482 connections would be contributing to the MRWWTP in 2026. However, it should be noted that there is likely to be an increase in household water usage over time associated with increasing standards of living, e.g dishwashers and spa baths. This would result in similar volumes of water with fewer connections. Therefore this figure is considered assumptive. Various occupancy rates are available ranging from 2.4 – 2.7 occupants per dwelling, for the purpose of this report an average 2.6 occupants per dwelling has been selected in line with the recent Rapids Landing development. Additions from rainfall and losses through evaporation were calculated at approximately 14,000 kL per year. The following estimates have been made with respect to water availability for third pipe usage in the future urban areas:


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2007 = 345,000 kL per year 2015 = 536,000 kL per year 2026 = 896,000 kL per year

(Calculations are provided in Appendix 1) Figure 1 below shows a gradual increase in the volume of water available for reuse. Figure 1. Available wastewater volumes from MRWWTP 1998 – 2026

Note: Volumes include additions from rainfall and losses from evaporation. Note that with the increasing acceptance of greywater reuse and water conservation strategies at all levels of government and the community, there could be a reduction in the volume of wastewater discharged into the main sewerage system. On the contrary, a doubling of the residential population may actually result in more wastewater inflows due to additional connections to the main sewerage system within existing developed areas due to sewerage infill. The MRWWTD has a designed capacity of 450,000 kL, based on current increases in inflow volumes it will be at full capacity by 2010. An alternative reuse/disposal option will need to be assessed and commissioned as the adjacent pine plantations are earmarked for harvesting in 2009. However with the commencement of irrigation of POS and golf course and commissioning of a third pipe to future urban areas the volume of dam water will be reduced and therefore provide increased capacity. Controlled releases to water courses from winter storage dams may also be feasible subject to water quality objectives. The recent Rapids Landing subdivision (formerly termed Lot 27 subdivision) has been used as a standard subdivision template. The Rapids Landing subdivision is expected to house approximately 1,690 people and comprises a total land area of 82.5 ha of which 6 ha have been allocated for POS. The area has been subdivided into 650 lots with an occupancy rate of 2.6 per lot (Simon Munckton, Lester Group, pers comm.). In the absence of any planning data (except population increases) for future subdivisions, the Rapids Landing subdivision figures were extrapolated to account for an increase in population.


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Future total population figures have been based on Water Corporations projections of approximately 12,500 in 2026. It has been assumed that this would consist of approximately 7,000 from existing town areas, infill and EMR areas and approximately 5,500 in future urban areas (new subdivisions). It has been assumed that of the 4,482 connections potentially available in 2026, approximately 44% or 1,972 connections could be connected to future urban areas. When a population of 5,500 was applied to the future urban areas at an occupancy rate of 2.6 (comparable with Rapids Landing) approximately 2,115 lots/connections resulted. Therefore an average of 2000 connections for future urban areas has been assumed for this scenario. Based on 4,482 connections and an occupancy rate of 2.6 the population would be approximately 11,600, the Water Corporation has used an occupancy rate of 2.7 (12,100). The SAMR has estimated that the population in 2026 will be between 10,200 and 12,900. A population of 12,500 has been selected in line with the Water Corporation, however is considered assumptive at this stage. Inflow volumes for dwellings have been assumed at approximately 203 kL per year. The following assumptions (Table 4) were made regarding the future urban areas up to 2026.

Table 4: Assumptions for predicted future urban areas Element

Rapids Landing Subdivision (Actual)

Future Urban Areas (with 3rd pipe) – 2026 (Predicted)

Population 1,690 5,500 (Total MR popln: approx 12,500) No. of lots/connections 650 2,115 (approx 2000) No. of subdivisions 1 3 POS (ha) 6 18 Occupancy rate per lot 2.6 2.6 Table 5 below summarises the results of the water balance calculations. In this scenario approximately 68,000 kL would be available for other uses (9 ha of POS). The volumes in table 5 for third pipe for toilet, irrigation and POS are only for the 3 subdivisions in new areas and not for existing areas (town, infill and EMR area). At this stage these figures should be considered assumptive.

Table 5: Scenario 3 – Summary of water balance calculations – 2026 third pipe to future urban areas Irrigated Areas Approximate Volume (kL) pa Total available water for irrigation in MRWWTD 896,000 Shire irrigation 28 ha (schools, ovals, EMR POS) 211,000 Margaret River Golf Course (25 ha) 188,000 Future 3rd pipe to subdivisions (3 sub) (toilet, irrigation) 294,000 Future 3rd pipe to subdivisions (3 sub) (POS, 18 ha) 135,000 Total water required 828,000 Dam level/ available water 68,000 Inflow volumes outlined in Table 5 have been sourced from the Water Corporation’s 2026 predictions (assuming additional 3 subdivisions for future residential areas). Preliminary estimates show that the total required water to accommodate scenario 3 (approximately 828,000 kL) could be available by 2025, based on Water Corporations inflow volumes.


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If scenario 3 only included Shire POS, MRGC and POS with the future residential areas (18 ha), then 534,000 kL per year would be required. This volume could be available by 2015.

Scenario 4 – Decentralised Wastewater Treatment Plant (Stage Three) Scenario 4 consists of two parts; Part A comprises the existing third pipe facilities from the MRWWTD to the Shire POS areas and the MRGC. As this infrastructure will have already been established it is considered separate to Part B. As Part A would be operational, Part B would run concurrently as each subdivision was approved and constructed. As Part B is considered a closed looped system in terms of wastewater treatment and reuse the stand alone development can be considered in isolation to the other scenarios. Part B would include the establishment of Decentralised Wastewater Treatment Plants (DWWTPs) to each new approved subdivision. Decentralised systems involve the collection, treatment and reuse of wastewater from homes or communities at or near the point of generation (Tchobanoglous, 1995). Centralised treatment on the other hand, consist of conventional systems (sewers), centralised treatment plants and disposal/reuse of the treated effluent, usually far from the point of origin (Tchobanoglous, 1996). All wastewater produced in each new subdivision will be directed to a subdivision scale DWWTP for treatment. Treated water from this unit could be used directly for irrigating POS within the subdivision during the summer months and supply households with non-potable water for toilet flushing and garden irrigation. The subdivision would be considered a closed loop system, collecting treating and recycling the wastewater within the subdivision. Each DWWTP would be designed to accommodate the estimated volumes of water produced within the subdivision. Excess treated wastewater during the winter could be diverted to an irrigation/pasture area or reinjected into the local aquifer through a Managed Aquifer Recharge (MAR) process. Alternatively, if practical, the water could be discharged into a constructed wetland area or engineered water feature and allowed to naturally infiltrate into the local superficial aquifer. The most appropriate method would have to be assessed on a site-by-site basis taking into consideration issues associated with winter storage of treated wastewater. Third pipe connection from the DWWTP will be needed for summer irrigation of POS. This scenario does not require third pipe connection from the MRWWTD and ideally should not need main sewerage connection due to low volumes of water produced in winter and the potential for onsite reuse. Greywater treatment systems could be installed at the household level to irrigate private gardens or connected to the DWWTP. If newly approved subdivisions do adopt this closed loop water management strategy they are likely to be self sufficient in terms of water treatment capacity and irrigation reuse. There will be no need for main sewerage connection and therefore no contributions to the MRWWTD. Predicted inflows into the MRWWTD for Part A of this scenario have been based on current 2007 inflow volumes (345,000 kL/per year) plus an extra 30,000 kL per year to account for additional connections from the existing Cowaramup townsite and infill within the Margaret River townsite, as no additional water would be discharged back to the MRWWTD from the new subdivisions.


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Creating future subdivisions that are closed looped and self sufficient in terms of water treatment and reuse would shift more responsibility onto the developer to provide appropriate water treatment facilities during the design and costing of the subdivision. The volumes used for Scenario 4 Part B are based on a single subdivision such as Rapids Landing. This assumes the subdivision has approximately 1,690 people with 6 ha of POS and 650 lots. A summary of the water balance calculations is provided in Tables 6 and 7 below.

Table 6: Scenario 4: Part A – Summary of water balance calculations Irrigated Areas Approximate Volume (kL) Total available water for irrigation in MRWWTD 345,000 + 30,000 Shire irrigation 28 ha (schools, ovals, EMR POS) 211,000 Margaret River Golf Course (25 ha) 188,000 Total water required 399,000 Water required from other sources 24,000

Table 7: Scenario 4: Part B – Summary of water balance calculations for decentralised WWTP self contained subdivision of 650 lots Irrigated Areas Approximate Volume (kL) Total available water for irrigation from DWWTP* 119,000 3rd pipe from DWWTP within subdivision (for toilet)* 26,000 3rd pipe from DWWTP within subdivision (for irrigation)* 69,000 3rd pipe from DWWTP within subdivision (for POS 6 ha)* 45,000 Total water required 140,000 Water to be irrigated/recharged locally (winter) 38,000 Water required from other sources (summer) 60,000 *Volumes based on Water Corporation’s Domestic Water Use Study, 2001. Based on the assumption of an additional 30,000 kL contribution of wastewater for Part A, 24,000 kL of water would be required from other sources. In reality, this figure could be somewhat higher than the assumed 30,000 kL, in which there would be enough water available to irrigate the Shire POS areas and the MRGC. It is anticipated that sufficient water will be available for Part A, due to a yearly increase of approximately 30,000 kL. For Part B, approximately 7,500 kL of water per month will need to be reused or stored during the May to September period or approximately 38,000 kL over the 5-month period. This water could be reused in several different ways depending on the opportunities and constraints presented at each individual subdivision. Further feasibility studies would need to be undertaken early in the planning stages to allow for the integration of these systems. For example additional POS or a designated wetland landscaped area with high water and nutrient uptake plants could be included in the subdivision design. During summer, approximately 60,000 kL of additional water will be required for irrigation of the POS, toilet flushing and garden irrigation within each subdivision of approximately 650 lots. The majority of this water will be used for household garden irrigation during summer and could be reduced if strict water conservation measures are applied to households in line with other states. This scenario has the potential to save up to 119,000 kL of scheme water per year, per subdivision of this size (similar to Rapids Landing) and could easily accommodate irrigation of the subdivision POS.


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Rainwater tanks could be fitted and plumbed to each house to harvest rainwater for in-house and ex-house purposes. Due to the Mediterranean climate experienced in the south west of Western Australia, winters are wet and cold, while summers are dry and hot, rainwater tanks are most useful when plumbed for in-house use to take advantage of high winter rainfall. This water can be used for toilet flushing and washing machines and contributes to the overall reduction of scheme water over the year. In addition, a small amount of rainwater could be used in the garden to offset a portion of the water required by the third pipe system. A study undertaken by Marsden Jacob and Associates in March 2007 shows rainwater yields from various roof areas and rainwater tanks plumbed for in-house and ex-house use. The results summarised below in Table 8 are based on Perth rainfall and therefore are considered slightly conservative.

Table 8: Annual rainwater tank yields for Perth Tank Size 2 kL 5 kL 10 kL Roof Area 50m2 200m2 50m2 200m2 50m2 200m2 Annual Yield (KL) 29 58 30 74 30 84

Adapted from Marsden Jacob Associates (2007) Houses with a 50m2 roof area and 2,000 L rainwater tank would yield approximately 29,000 L a year. Larger houses with a roof area of 200m2 would yield approximately 58,000 kL per year. On this basis, the installation of rainwater tanks plumbed to the house for in-house and ex-house use should be strongly encouraged in new subdivisions. Installing rainwater tanks to all new houses would also reduce the demand for scheme water supply to the subdivision. If rainwater tanks where installed to supply 100% of the needs of internal potable water use (drinking, washing, etc), then a roof area between 200 and 250 m2 and a tank size between 45 kL and 70 kL would need to be established in order for the 99% reliability criteria to be met (GHD, 2007).

Centralised vs Decentralised Treatment Systems The water balance calculations have identified that there is sufficient water to proceed with Stages 1 and 2 of the project. There are two possible options that could be considered for the future urban areas (Stage 3). Two different scenarios have been assessed for the development of Stage 3. Scenario 3 involves a conventional centralised treatment system requiring main sewerage and third pipe connection to all new subdivisions. Scenario 4 involves provision for subdivision scale decentralised systems and would involve subdivisions to be self sufficient in water treatment and reuse. Table 9 below briefly summarises the advantages and disadvantages of centralised and decentralised systems.

Table 9: Advantages and disadvantages of centralised and decentralised treatment systems Treatment System Advantages of system Disadvantages of system

Scenario – 3 Centralised Third-Pipe System from MRWWTP

• Shire can defer responsibility for management of the expanded system to Water Corporation;

• Preferred by WA Dept of Health.

• Cost and energy use for installation and operation;

• Conventional and expensive deep sewerage with pump stations;

• Disturbance to townsite during installation.

Scenario – 4 • Closed loop system, whereby water • Shire and/or developers may need to


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Subdivision scale Decentralised Treatment Plant

and nutrients treated and reused onsite;

• Reduced pumping and energy costs; • Less expensive shallow sewerage

and fewer pump stations; • Reduced disturbance to townsite

during installation; • In the event of a breakdown, only the

subdivision is impacted.

develop new internal systems or subcontract arrangements to manage and maintain the DWWTP;

• Need to develop winter storage or recharge facilities on a case by case basis;

• Water Service Providers License may be required from ERA;

• Regular monitoring and reporting to regulatory authorities.

The Murdoch University Environmental Technology Centre has prepared a database of over 150 commercially available DWWTPs from around Australia and the world and categorised them in terms of their treatment type and application.

Summary of Water Reuse Scenarios The water available or required under each scenario is summarised in Table 10 and discussed below.

Table 10: Summary of water balance under each scenario Scenarios Available water per year

(kL) Water required from other

sources per year (kL) Scenario – 1: Existing POS Areas (28 ha) 134,000 0 Scenario – 2: Margaret River Golf Course (25 ha) 0 54,000* Scenario – 3: Third Pipe to Future Urban Areas 2026 68,000 0 Scenario – 4: DWWTP: Part A – 1 subdivision 0 24,000* Scenario – 4: DWWTP: Part B (winter – recharge) 38,000 0 Scenario – 4: DWWTP: Part B (summer) 0 60,000* * Water required from other sources (e.g. river water, rainwater tanks or dam water) Scenario 1 – no additional water is required and approximately 134,000 kL of water is available for further irrigation use. This could be disposed to the adjacent pine plantation until 2009 or treated to a suitable quality for aquifer recharge. Scenario 2 - approximately 54,000 kL of additional water would need to be derived from other sources such as groundwater for the months of February, March and April to supplement the third pipe water. Scenario 3 – no additional water is required and approximately 68,000 kL would be available for other uses in 2026. Estimates show that the total required water to accommodate scenario 3 (approximately 828,000 kL) could be available by 2025. Scenario 4 - approximately 7,500 kL of water per month will need to be reused during the May to September period or approximately 38,000 kL over the 5-month period. This water could be reused in several different ways depending on the opportunities and constraints presented at each individual subdivision. During summer, approximately 60,000 kL of additional water will be required for irrigation of the POS, toilet flushing and garden irrigation within the subdivision. The majority of this water will be used for household garden irrigation. The additional water could be obtained from a combination of sources such as groundwater and rainwater tanks plumbed to the house for in-house and ex-house use.


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Cost Benefit Analysis The water available or required and associated capital costs under each scenario are summarised in Table 11 and discussed below (Refer to Appendix 4 for NPV calculations).

Table 11: Summary of water balance, NPV and NPV/kL under each scenario Scenarios Reused

wastewater (kL)

Available water p.a. (kL)

Water required from

other sources p.a.

(kL)

NPV ($m) over 25 years at

10%

NPV ($) over 25 years at

10% per kL of recycled

wastewater Scenario – 1 Existing POS Areas (28 ha)

211,000 134,000 0 2.21 10.49

Scenario – 2 Margaret River Golf Course (25 ha)

399,000 0 54,000* 5.18 13.00

Scenario – 3 Third Pipe to Future Urban Areas

828,000 88,000 0 10.34 12.50

Scenario – 4 DWWTP: Part A 399,000 0 24,000* 5.18 13.00

Scenario – 4 DWWTP: Part B (winter – recharge)

38,000 0 21.46

Scenario – 4 DWWTP: Part B (summer)

140,000

0 60,000*

2.56

21.46

• Water required from other sources (e.g. groundwater, river water, rainwater tanks or dam water) • Note CSO and headworks reductions for Scenario 4B. Refer text below.

The costs presented in Table 11 build on the previous costing done by Wood and Grieve (2006) with additional development to account for in-house third pipe and decentralised systems. Wood and Grieve (2006) estimated an “order of magnitude” capital cost of $1,890,000 (plus GST) for a 135ML/year reuse system. In order to normalise the capital and operating costs for the various scenarios net present values (NPV) have been calculated assuming an effective life of 25 years (with depreciation to 10%) and 10% discount rate. A sensitivity analysis was conducted with 7%, 10% and 15% discount rates. Supply mains as expected are the single largest component of these costs for all scenarios, except Scenario 4, due to the relatively large distances involved in the transfer of treated wastewater. Annual pumping costs have been calculated but are relatively minor. Other costs to be incurred but not as yet quantified are ongoing water quality monitoring costs as required by the relevant regulatory authorities. Sale of the treated wastewater (third pipe water and golf course) can be expected to contribute to offsetting these annual operating costs. Scenarios 2 and 3 are comparable in terms of dollars per kilolitre of wastewater treated ($13/kL and $12.5/kL respectively) despite the near doubling in size of infrastructure capital outlay. This is due to the efficiencies to be gained in Scenario 3 due to the increased volumes being supplied, again nearly double.


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Scenario 4B represents a near doubling ($21.46/kL) in the cost of treated wastewater on a $/kL basis when compared to Scenarios 2 and 3 on a pure ‘infrastructure only with some rebate’ basis. The external factors which have a significant impact on this outcome are:

• Cost of treating the wastewater and providing potable water. All other scenarios do not include the cost of treating the wastewater (Customer Service Obligations (CSO) are currently borne by Water Corp/State Government and are typically $3,000-$4,000 pa/connection for water and wastewater service);

• Headworks charges. Headworks per lot are water = $3,278, wastewater = $1,514 at full rates; and

• Increasing tariffs. It can be assumed that the cost to the consumer for the provision of potable water and wastewater treatment is likely to rise above historic rates in the near future.

Scenarios 1-3 do not include the cost of wastewater treatment by the Water Corporation, typically $3,000-$4,000 pa/connection for water and wastewater service. In order to allow a true comparison of the various scenarios on an economic basis is necessary therefore that the true cost of wastewater treatment either be added to these scenarios (1-3) OR deducted from Scenario 4. The latter approach has been taken here. CSOs were identified as a significant issue in the Gracetown Development Project (GHD, 2007). On this basis for Scenario 4 an annual CSO equivalent of $1,000pa/connection has been applied with a full one-off headwork reduction for wastewater of $1,514. That is, no reductions in potable water and full reductions (100%) for wastewater have been applied. Despite this the NPV/kL is still approximately twice the other scenarios. Of note however is the significant impact that would occur with reductions in headworks and CSOs for potable water. This has been illustrated as Scenario 4B with full water rebate as shown in Appendix 4 and reveals a NPV of +$95/kL. The implication of this for future standalone developments is that subdivisions that are able to operate completely independent of the Water Corporation and receive headworks reductions and CSO returns under the current rebate policy would return a positive cashflow to the developer (or community). Several additional issues that may need to be addressed include:

a) The state of the existing pump station at the Margaret River crossing. Wood and Grieve (2006) have allowed a provisional $50,000 to upgrade however this may be inadequate in the short term and certainly in the medium term;

b) The hours during which irrigation with treated effluent may occur. Experience from the McGillvray Oval scheme indicates that subject to DoH conditions, and the high use of the Gloucester Park ovals, increased main sizes may be required to ensure all irrigation occurs in a reduced irrigation time window. This has a significant cost implication;

c) Gypsum injection is often recommended for treated wastewater irrigation schemes and while it represents additional costs (capital and on-going) there exist merits for its consideration.


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Management Plans The Health Act 1911 contains a number of provisions that regulate the use of recycled water. The WA Department of Health (DoH) requires the preparation of the following documents for approval of the Project:

• Operation and Maintenance Plan; • Monitoring Plan; and • Reporting regime.

The DoH has recently published guidelines on providing homes with recycled water via third pipe systems. The “Guidelines for the Use of Recycled Water in Western Australia” (Appendix 3) were released in January 2007. In summary the guidelines provide information to planners, designers, installers and users of recycled water systems, with the objectives of:

• Encouraging and providing guidance on the beneficial use of recycled water; • Reducing impact to public health and the environment; • Providing guidance for the planning, design, operation and monitoring of recycled

water systems; and • Outlining statutory approvals needed for reuse schemes.

(Department of Health, 2007). For wastewater reuse schemes the DoW has two Water Quality Protection Notes (WQPN) that outline procedures that should be followed:

• WQPN 22, July 2006 Irrigation with nutrient-rich wastewater; and • WQPN 33, July 2006 Nutrient and irrigation management plans.

Nutrient and irrigation management plans (NIMPs) are detailed guidelines for the establishment and growing of crops, gardens, trees or turf. NIMPs demonstrate that inputs such as water and fertiliser should be well matched to the plant growth cycle resulting in minimal contaminant leaching into the surrounding environment. The DoW requires NIMPs for rural and recreational land areas exceeding 5,000 square metres where vegetation is irrigated, fertiliser is applied, animals are held intensively in paddocks and/or organic solids containing nutrients are spread onto the land. NIMPs are also suited to sites where industrial or municipal wastewater rich in nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) is applied to foster the growth and maintenance of healthy vegetation. They may be required for lesser areas where local water values are particularly sensitive to nutrient contamination. If the Shire decides to run the DWWTP itself independent from Water Corporation it will need to use a licensed subcontractor or secure a Water Service Providers License (Sewerage Services) from the Economic Regulation Authority of Western Australia (ERA). This will require preparation of all of the plans above beforehand and approvals from the agencies mentioned above before the licence can be granted. These provisions are listed under the Water Services Licensing Act 1995.

Community Consultation A community consultation program for the Project has been initiated by the SAMR. To date various publications, surveys and information have been distributed to the community of Margaret River. These include:

• Specific stakeholder consultation with developers and catchment groups;


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• Articles in the local newspaper; • Discussions with local radio; • Inclusion of water recycling in the 2007 community survey; and • Articles in local shire briefs/publications.

Informal discussions with the SAMR have indicated that the Margaret River community has been very supportive of the Project so far. Ongoing consultation will be required by the SAMR and a Community Consultation Outcomes Report submitted to the relevant agencies in order to proceed through the approvals process.


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Ecological and Social Benefits of the Project The ecological benefits of the project include a considerable increase in environmental flows for the Margaret River (approximately 169,000 kL/per year) (based on 2007 abstraction rates) and the associated indirect downstream ecological benefits as a result of increased water volumes in the river. If the MRGC were supplied with treated wastewater, there would be a decrease in groundwater abstraction from the local aquifer (up to approximately 188,000 kL/per year, 2007 rates) and therefore associated indirect benefits. In addition to the ecological benefits, the project will provide social benefits due to the increased river flows, these include; a healthier looking river and the potential for increased downstream eco-tourism activities in the river during the summer months, due to the cessation of river abstraction. The quality of recreational facilities will also be able to maintained by the SAMR as a secure source of treated water will available for irrigation purposes. The project also presents a positive message to the local Margaret River community in terms of sustainable water management and urban wastewater reuse and sets a precedent for other urban wastewater reuse projects in Western Australia.


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Recommendations The following recommendations are provided:

• Undertake further feasibility studies to identify potential opportunities and constraints

of centralised and decentralised wastewater treatment systems in future subdivisions (Scenario 3 and 4);

• The MRGC investigate ways of reducing overall water use based on current best

practice in the industry;

• Plan to incorporate sustainable water use options in all future residential areas. A comparison of the costs/benefits of mandatory onsite greywater treatment units, water efficient appliances and domestic rainwater tanks (plumbed) for future subdivisions would be of merit;

• The SAMR formulate strategies for reducing and phasing out river abstraction in

consultation with the DoW and other key stakeholders; and

• Investigate concerns/issues that the public may have with respect to the implementation of DWWTP and third pipe projects through a community consultation process.

Future tasks would include:

• Supply modelling - Identify the necessary supply elements from source to final application including hardware, supply organisations’ and consumers’ responsibilities in terms of operation and maintenance;

• Treatment level - Investigate current and possible treatment levels with existing

infrastructure, treatment levels required for different supply models;

• Determine the existing and likely future legal requirements pertaining to Customer Service Obligations. Refer ERA (2007);

• Regulatory requirements under various State legislation such as:

o Environmental Protection Act 1986 (Works Approval and Operating

Licence) administered under DEC; o Health Act 1911 (Guidelines for the Use of Recycled Water) administered

under DoH; and o Water Services Licensing Act 1995 (Water Service Providers License)

administered under ERA.

• Prepare appropriate management plans for government regulatory departments, these include, Nutrient and Irrigation Management Plan (DoW) and an Operation and Maintenance Plan (DoH).

Following the findings of this report, it is recommended that the SAMR move towards the use of recycled water for non-potable purposes such as irrigation of POS and the golf course (scenarios 1 and 2).


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In the longer term, the SAMR should consider the integration of current best practice and planning into all new future residential areas with the aim that newly developed areas are self sufficient in terms of water treatment and reuse based on decentralised treatment systems, or provision for a third pipe, where practical. Rainwater harvesting for internal potable purposes should also be considered as a part of the overall water management strategy of future urban areas.


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References Department of Health (2007) Guidelines for the Use of Recycled Water in Western Australia. January 2007. Environmental Protection Heritage Council (2006) Australian Guidelines for Water Recycling: Managing Health and Environmental Risks” Phase 1. National Water Quality Management Strategy. November 2006. Economic Regulation Authority (2007). Draft Report. Inquiry on Competition in the Water and Wastewater Services Sector. ERA WA. GHD (2007) Gracetown Development Project - Phase 1 Sustainable Water and Wastewater Services. Prepared for Landcorp. August 2007. Government of Western Australia (2007) 5 Star Plus – Energy Use in Houses Code and Water Use in Houses Code. Department of Housing and Works. May 2007. HydroPlan (2005) Preliminary Figures. HydroPlan Pty Ltd. November 2005. Marsden Jacob and Associates (2007) The Cost-Effectiveness of Rainwater Tanks in Urban Australia. Prepared for the Australian Government National Water Commission. March 2007. Shire of Augusta-Margaret River (2007) East Margaret River Public Open Space and Landscape Development Guidelines. Prepared by the Shire of Augusta-Margaret River 2007. Tchobanoglous, G. (1995) Decentralised Systems for Wastewater Management. Presented at the Water Environment Association of Ontario Annual Conference, Toronto, Canada. Tchobanoglous, G. (1996) Appropriate Technologies for Wastewater Treatment and Reuse, Australian Water and Wastewater Association. Water Journal, Vol.23, No.4. Water Corporation (2001) Domestic Water Use Study in Perth, Western Australia 1998 – 2001. March 2001. Wood and Grieve (2006) Margaret River Waste Water Reuse Feasibility Investigation Report. Prepared for the Lester Group. May 2006.


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Appendix 1: Margaret River Wastewater Reuse Scenarios - Water Balance


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Appendix 2: Water Balance Assumptions The following assumptions and calculations have been applied to the water balance model:

1. No industrial wastewater is included in the volumes; 2. Estimated area of wastewater treatment dam - 300m x 100m = 30,000m2;

3. Water required for irrigation of schools and ovals (except Riverslea subdivision)

(2007) approximately 134,000 kL/per year (17.8 ha) or 7528 kL/per ha/per year (7 months);

4. Irrigation of Shire POS areas (including Riverslea subdivision) = 168,626 kL (22.4

ha) for 7 months (note April and October halved and added to summer months December and January);

5. 2026 Population projections - 12,500 (Source: Water Corporation);

6. Wastewater inflow volumes (Source: Water Corporation)

2007 = 358,526 kL per year (982 kL per day);

2015 = 550,000 kL per year (1507 kL per day); 2026 = 910,000 kL per yer (2493 kL per day);

7. Available wastewater volumes (plus rainfall - evaporation) minus 14,000 kL per year




8. Scenario 3: Third pipe water usage for toilet flushing and irrigation at future urban areas = 2000 houses within approximately 3 subdivisions; Toilet flushing = 112 L/hse/day, garden irrigation (ex-house) = 500 L/hse/day = 612 L/hse/day. (Data derived from single residential figures [Perth Domestic Water Study] and Water Corporation figures; Summer: Oct - Apr = 612 L/hse/day x 2000 hse/lots = 1224 kL/day x 212 days = 260,000 kL/year (toilet flushing and irrigation); Winter: May - Sep = 112 L/hse/day x 2000 hse/lots = 224 kL/day x 153 days = 34,000 kL/year (toilet flushing, no irrigation); Total = 294,000 kL/per year for toilet flushing and garden irrigation (ex-house activities); Summer garden irrigation only = 500 L/hse/day x 2000 hse/lots x 212 days = 212,000 kL (summer) (Source: Perth Domestic Water Study, Water Corporation 2001);


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Scenario 3: Third pipe water usage for POS at future urban areas (Stage 3), 18 ha @ 7528 kL/ha/year = 135,000 kL/year. An irrigation year = 7 months or 212 days (No irrigation May - Sep); Scenario 3 - Future population (2026) = 7,000 (MR Town, infill and EMR area) + 5,500 (Future Residential Areas) = 12,500;

9. Scenario 4: Total in-house water use (1 subdivision to DWWTP) (based on single residential figures + Water Corporation) = 500 L/hse/day x 365 days x 650 hse/lots = 118,625 kL/year; Blackwater = 112 L/hse/day (toilet) + 75 L/hse/day (Tap), Greywater = 170 L/hse/day (Bath and Shower) + 130 L/hse/day (Washing Machine), Other = 13 L/hse/day. Total = 500 L/hse/day (Water Corporation projections);

10. Scenario 4 - treated water usage: Toilet flushing = 112 L/hse/day, garden irrigation (ex-house use) = 500 L/hse/day = 612 L/hse/day (Data based on single residential figures - Perth Domestic Water Study); Summer: Oct - Apr = 612 L/hse/day x 650 houses/lots = 398 kL/day x 212 days = 84,376 kL/year (toilet flushing and irrigation, ex-house); Winter: May - Sep = 112 L/hse/day x 650 houses/lots = 72.8 kL/day x 153 days = 11,138 kL/year (toilet flushing, no irrigation); Total yearly for 1 subdivision (650 lots) = 95,514 kL/per year for toilet flushing and garden irrigation; Yearly volume - toilet flushing = 112L/hse/day x 650 houses/lots x 365 days = 26,572 kL/year;

Yearly volume - irrigation, ex-house (Oct-Apr) = 500L/hse/day x 650 houses/lots x 212 days = 68,900 kL/year;

11. Rapids Landing (Lot 27 subdivision), total land area 82.5 ha, 650 lots @ 2.6 occupants per lot = 1690 persons (Simon Munckton Lester Group, pers comm);

12. Third pipe water usage for POS (6 ha) at Rapids Landing subdivision, 7528

kL/ha/year = 45,168 kL/year. Irrigation year consists of 7 months or 212 days (No irrigation between May and September);

13. BoM data (rainfall and evaporation) sourced from Witchcliffe and Jarrahwood

respectively; and 14. Margaret River Golf Course irrigation rates based on 25 ha @ 7500 kL/ha = 187,500

KL no winter watering between June and August. Note May and September halved and added to summer months December and January.


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Appendix 3: Guidelines for the Use of Recycled Water in Western Australia

Appendix 1

Wastewater Reuse Study - Water BalanceShire of Augusta Margaret River

Main Sewer connections 1768Available sewer connections 2734(Source: Water Corporation) (2007)

Wastewater treatment dam - surface area 30,000 (m2)Evaporation factor of storage area 1Max designed capacity of treatment dam 450,000 (kL)

Vegetation type of irrigated area TurfCrop factor 0.6Irrigation efficiency 85 (%)Total irrigated area (Shire area 07/08) 28 (ha)

Monthly Rainfall and Evaporation Data May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr TotalMonthly rainfall (mm) - Witchcliffe 2006 50.8 88.6 139.8 194 73.2 66.6 68.8 10 18.2 3.8 26.4 35.4 776Monthly evaporation (mm) - Jarrahwood 2006 (sum of availble daily totals) (Source: BoM)

-56 -38.6 -52.2 -65.6 -71.1 -120.4 -133.4 -183.1 -158 -148 -135.6 -66.6 -1,229

Rainfall to treatment dam minus evap (kL)(-ve values represents evaporation from dam)

-156 1,500 2,628 3,852 63 -1,614 -1,938 -5,193 -4,194 -4,326 -3,276 -936 -13,590

Wastewater May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr TotalWastewater inflow at treatment dam (kL) 28,582 26,070 27,280 33,821 29,610 30,938 30,540 30,256 31,372 27,720 31,527 30,810 358,526Wastewater inflow at treatment dam (kL/day) 922 869 880 1,091 987 998 1,018 976 1,012 990 1,017 1,027 982(Source: Water Corporation)Total monthly wastewater plus rainfall-evap 28,426 27,570 29,908 37,673 29,673 29,324 28,602 25,063 27,178 23,394 28,251 29,874 344,936(Available for irrigation) (kL)

No Shire irrigation undertaken during winterIrrigation Requirements May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr TotalShire irrigation POS Stage 1 (28 ha) (kL) 0 0 0 0 0 15,056 30,112 45,168 45,168 30,112 30,112 15,056 210,784Golf course irrigation requirements (25 ha) (kL) 10,416 0 0 0 10,416 20,833 20,833 31,249 31,249 20,833 20,833 20,838 187,500Future urban areas third pipe (toilet/garden) (kL) 5,300 5,300 5,300 5,300 5,300 38,175 38,175 38,175 38,175 38,175 38,175 38,175 293,725Future urban areas third pipe (for POS, 25.8 ha) (kL) 0 0 0 0 0 13,873 27,746 41,619 41,619 27,746 27,746 13,873 194,222Total irrigation requirements 15,716 5,300 5,300 5,300 15,716 87,937 116,866 156,211 156,211 116,866 116,866 87,942 886,231(Source: SoAMR)

Current pine plantation irrigation May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr TotalTotal monthly wastewater available 28,426 27,570 29,908 37,673 29,673 29,324 28,602 25,063 27,178 23,394 28,251 29,874 344,936Pine irrigation (Source:Water Corporation) 30,028 0 2,070 36,435 49,003 14,894 37,409 34,361 34,884 24,539 34,061 26,013 323,697Dam level (kL) -1,602 27,570 27,838 1,238 -19,330 14,430 -8,807 -9,298 -7,706 -1,145 -5,810 3,861 21,239

Scenario 1 - Shire POS (28 ha) May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr TotalSupply StartTotal available wastewater for irrigation (kL) Dam 28,426 27,570 29,908 37,673 29,673 29,324 28,602 25,063 27,178 23,394 28,251 29,874 344,936Demand Level Pine plantation irrigation 06/07 (not included) 0 30,028 0 2,070 36,435 49,003 14,894 37,409 34,361 34,884 24,539 34,061 26,013 323,697Existing Shire irrigation POS (28 ha) (kL) (kL) 0 0 0 0 0 15,056 30,112 45,168 45,168 30,112 30,112 15,056 210,784Dam level/avail for pines (kL) cumulative 28,426 55,996 85,904 123,577 153,250 167,518 166,008 145,903 127,913 121,195 119,334 134,152 134,152

Scenario 2 -Shire POS (28 ha) + Golf Course (25 ha)

May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr Total

Supply StartTotal available water for irrigation (kL) Dam 28,426 27,570 29,908 37,673 29,673 29,324 28,602 25,063 27,178 23,394 28,251 29,874 344,936Demand Level Existing Shire irrigation POS Stage 1 (28 ha) (kL) 0 0 0 0 0 0 15,056 30,112 45,168 45,168 30,112 30,112 15,056 210,784Golf course irrigation requirements (25 ha) (kL) (kL) 10,416 0 0 0 10,416 20,833 20,833 31,249 31,249 20,833 20,833 20,838 187,500Total water required (kL) 10,416 0 0 0 10,416 35,889 50,945 76,417 76,417 50,945 50,945 35,894 398,284Dam level (kL) cumulative 18,010 45,580 75,488 113,161 132,418 125,853 103,510 52,156 2,917 -24,634 -22,694 -6,020 0Water required from other sources - approx -24,634 -22,694 -6,020 -53,348

Scenario 3 - third pipe to future urban areas (3 subdivisions-18 ha POS) 2026 (+ scenario 1 and 2)


SupplyTotal available water for irrigation (kL) Start 74,666 74,666 74,666 74,666 74,667 74,667 74,667 74,667 74,667 74,667 74,667 74,667 896,000Demand Dam

Existing Shire irrigation POS Stage 1 (28 ha) (kL) Level 0 0 0 0 0 15,056 30,112 45,168 45,168 30,112 30,112 15,056 210,784 Golf course irrigation requirements (25 ha) (kL) 0 10,416 0 0 0 10,416 20,833 20,833 31,249 31,249 20,833 20,833 20,838 187,500Future urban areas third pipe (for toilet/garden) (kL) (kL) 6,800 6,800 6,800 6,800 6,800 37,142 37,143 37,143 37,143 37,143 37,143 37,143 294,000Future urban areas third pipe (for POS, 18 ha) (kL) 0 0 0 0 0 9,644 19,286 28,927 28,927 19,286 19,286 9,644 135,000Total water required (kL) 17,216 6,800 6,800 6,800 17,216 82,675 107,374 142,487 142,487 107,374 107,374 82,681 827,284Dam level (kL) cumulative 57,450 125,316 193,182 261,048 318,499 310,491 277,784 209,964 142,144 109,437 76,730 68,716 68,716Water required from other sources - approx 0

Scenario 4 - Part A existing third pipe facilites from MRWWTD to POS + MRGC. Part B - DWWTP + third pipe from DWWTP for future urban areas (1 subdivision only) POS (6 ha) + household toilet and garden


Part ASupply (2007 volumes plus additional 30,000 kL/per year)Total available water for irrigation (kL) (2007 volumes) Start 31,250 31,250 31,250 31,250 31,250 31,250 31,250 31,250 31,250 31,250 31,250 31,250 375,000Demand DamExisting Shire irrigation POS Stage 1 (28 ha) (kL) Level 0 0 0 0 0 15,056 30,112 45,168 45,168 30,112 30,112 15,056 210,784Golf course irrigation requirements (25 ha) (kL) 0 10,416 0 0 0 10,416 20,833 20,833 31,449 31,449 20,833 20,833 20,838 187,900Total water required (kL) (kL) 10,416 0 0 0 10,416 35,889 50,945 76,617 76,617 50,945 50,945 35,894 398,684Dam level (kL) cumulative 20,834 52,084 83,334 114,584 135,418 130,779 111,084 65,717 20,350 655 -19,040 -4,644 0Water required from other sources - approx -19,040 -4,644 -23,684

Part B

Subdivision scale water balance (stand alone) - based on 650 persons per 1 subdivision (DWWTP)SupplyWastewater from subdivision to DWWTP (In-house blackwater and greywater) (kL)

9,885 9,885 9,885 9,885 9,885 9,885 9,885 9,885 9,885 9,885 9,885 9,890 118,625

DemandFuture subdivision third pipe from DWWTP for toilet/garden (kL)

2,228 2,228 2,228 2,228 2,226 12,053 12,053 12,053 12,053 12,053 12,053 12,058 95,514

Future subdivision third pipe from DWWTP for POS (6 ha) (kL) (Based on 7528 kL/per ha/per year)

0 0 0 0 0 2,845 6,453 10,061 10,061 6,453 6,453 2,845 45,168

Total water required (kL) 2,228 2,228 2,228 2,228 2,226 14,898 18,506 22,114 22,114 18,506 18,506 14,903 140,682Available water after reuse 7,657 7,657 7,657 7,657 7,659 -5,013 -8,621 -12,229 -12,229 -8,621 -8,621 -5,013

Water to be recharged locally (Winter) 7,657 7,657 7,657 7,657 7,659 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 38,287Water required from other sources - approx (summer)

0 0 0 0 0 -5,013 -8,621 -12,229 -12,229 -8,621 -8,621 -5,013 -60,344

Summary - Irrigation Scenarios

Stage 1

Scenario 1 - existing Shire POS areas (28 ha) includes schools, gloucester park and EMR POS (Riverslea, Rapids Landing and Brookfield)

Stage 2

Scenario 2 - existing Shire POS areas (28 ha) includes schools, gloucester park and EMR POS (Riverslea, Rapids Landing and Brookfield) - Golf Course (25 ha)

Stage 3

Scenario 3 - existing Shire POS areas (28 ha) includes schools, gloucester park and EMR POS (Riverslea, Rapids Landing and Brookfield) - Golf Course (25 ha) OR - third pipe to future urban areas (approx 3 subdivisions) POS (18 ha), and household toilet flushing and garden irrigation from MRWWTP (2026)

Scenario 4 - Part A - existing Shire POS areas (28 ha) includes schools, gloucester park and EMR POS (Riverslea, Rapids Landing and Brookfield) - Golf Course (25 ha)

- Part B - Installation of Decentralised Wastewater Treatment Plant (DWWTP) to each new subdivision - third pipe from DWWTP to POS (6 ha) and toilet flushing and garden irrigation, local irrigation, no third pipe from MRWWTD


26

Appendix 4: Net Present Value (NPV) Calculations

ECONOMIC ASSESSMENT OF MARGARET RIVER WASTEWATER REUSE

AssumptionsDescription Value

Mains electricity price ($/kWh) 0.13

Synergy buyback price ($/kWh) 0.13 Not used Mains water price ($/kL) 0.60 Not used

Discount rate 0.10

All cash flows are incremental, replacing baseline or default equipment

NPV Model

Item

Effective life

(yrs)

Headworks

savings ($) -

Note 1

Capital cost

($)

Revenue

($/yr) -

Note 2

Operational

cost ($/yr)

Maintenance

cost -

nominal

($/yr)

Value of

energy/water

saved ($/yr)

Salvage value

($ @ end of

life)

NPV

($)

Volumes

(ML) NPV ($/kL)

Development scenarios 10%

Scenario W&G 25 Payable $1,925,000 $3,700 $1,000 $1 $192,500 -$1,949,886 135 -$14.444

Scenario 0 25 Payable $1,925,000 $4,700 $1,000 $1 $192,500 -$1,958,963 170 -$11.523



Scenario 3 25 Payable $10,112,100 $34,500 $1,000 $1 $1,011,210 -$10,340,995 827 -$12.504

Scenario 4A 25 Payable $5,020,693 $22,200 $1,000 $1 $502,069 -$5,184,932 399 -$12.995

Scenario 4B 25 $984,100 $7,135,000 650,000 $260,000 $1,000 $1 $713,500 -$2,554,069 119 -$21.463

Scenario 4B with full water rebate 25 $3,114,800 $4,020,200 1,950,000 $260,000 $1,000 $1 $402,020 $11,348,035 119 $95.362

Note 1: Headworks cost savings/lot assuming no reduction for water and 100% reduction for wastewater ($1514). Full potential reduction for water (100% = $3278).

Note 2: Annual CSO equivalent of wastewater has been assumed at 100% (=$1000pa). Allow 0% reduction in potable water due to recycled water for potable water supply for Scenario 4.

Total potential CSO is $3,000pa/connection for water ($2000) and wastewater ($1000).

Guidelines for the use of Recycled Water in Western Australia -30/08/06 Page 1 of 66

Guidelines for the Use of Recycled Water in Western Australia

16 January 2007


Table of Contents 1. Introduction .......................................................................................................4

1.1 Objective.................................................................................................4 1.2 Scope of the Guidelines..........................................................................4 1.3 Regulatory Framework ...........................................................................5 1.4 Approval Process....................................................................................5

2. Recycled Water Quality and Treatment .........................................................6 2.1 Pathogens ..............................................................................................6 2.2 Physical and Chemical Contaminants ....................................................7 2.3 Treatment and Classification Overview ..................................................7 2.4 Recycled Water Treatment .....................................................................9 2.5 Disinfection Methods ............................................................................10 2.6 Helminth Control ...................................................................................12 2.7 Treatment Reliability .............................................................................12

3 Acceptable Uses and Site Specific Controls ................................................13 3.1 Urban (Non potable) Reuse..................................................................13

3.1.1 Residential and municipal reuse with uncontrolled public access ....13 3.1.2 Municipal reuse with controlled public access..................................14

3.2 Agricultural Reuse ................................................................................14 3.2.1 Livestock ..........................................................................................14 3.2.2 Horticulture.......................................................................................17

3.3 Indirect and Direct Potable Reuse ........................................................19 3.4 Aquifer Recharge..................................................................................19 3.5 Industrial Use........................................................................................19 3.6 Fire Fighting..........................................................................................19 3.7 Water Features and Ornamental Water Bodies....................................20

4 Roles, Responsibilities.................................................................................20 4.1 Suppliers...............................................................................................20 4.2 Users ....................................................................................................21 4.3 Agreements ..........................................................................................21

5 Safeguards and Controls .............................................................................23 5.1 Warning Signs ......................................................................................23 5.2 Distribution Reliability ...........................................................................23 5.3 Public Education...................................................................................23 5.4 Access ..................................................................................................23 5.5 Plumbing...............................................................................................23 5.6 Irrigation Method and Design................................................................23 5.7 Spray Drift.............................................................................................23 5.8 Runoff ...................................................................................................23 5.9 Occupational Health and Safety ...........................................................23 5.10 Storage Facilities ..................................................................................23 5.11 Algae ....................................................................................................23 5.12 Mosquito Management .........................................................................23

6 Recycled Water Quality Management Plans................................................23 6.1 Operation and Maintenance Manuals...................................................23

6.1.1 Contingency Plans ...........................................................................23 6.1.2 Maintenance Program.........................................................................23

6.2 Risk Management Program for Class A and A+ Schemes ....................23 6.2.1 The twelve steps of HACCP ...............................................................23


6.2.2 Validation ............................................................................................23 7. Monitoring and Reporting................................................................................23

7.1 Monitoring Program ..............................................................................23 7.1.1 Bacteriological Monitoring ................................................................23 7.1.2 Monitoring of Class A recycled water..................................................23

7.1.2.1 Cessation of Supply...................................................................23 7.1.3 Notification Limits................................................................................23

7.2 Reporting ..............................................................................................23 7.2.1 Emergency reporting........................................................................23

7.3 Auditing .....................................................................................................23 8 Appendices ......................................................................................................23

Appendix A: Glossary......................................................................................23 Appendix B: Application checklist....................................................................23 Appendix C: Approval Flow Chart ...................................................................23 Appendix D: List of References .......................................................................23

List of Tables Table 1. Classes of Recycled Water .....................................................................8 Table 2. Recommended recycled water quality (median) pre-disinfection (adapted from UWRAA, 1996) ............................................................................11 Table 3: Acceptable Livestock Uses ...................................................................16 Table 4: Acceptable Horticultural Uses ...............................................................18 Table 5: Examples of Validation monitoring for health risks................................23 Table 6: Examples of Operational Monitoring and supporting programs for health risks. ...................................................................................................................23 Table 7: Examples of Verification monitoring......................................................23 Table 8. Microbiological notification limits for recycled water classes other than Class A................................................................................................................50 Table 9: Recycled Water Uses, Required Class, Recommended Monitoring and Site Management Controls..................................................................................52


1. Introduction A combination of the current water shortages and the growing population is reducing the availability of our water supplies. Therefore, wastewater management practices that protect, conserve and fully utilise water resources are vital to Western Australia.

1.1 Objective The overall objective of this Guideline is to maximise the reuse of recycled water through minimising and managing any risks associated with its use. These guidelines provide information for the planners, designers, installers, operators, users and regulators of recycled water systems, with the objectives of:

i) Encouraging the beneficial use of recycled water and providing guidance on how this might be accomplished without negatively impacting on public health or the environment;

ii) Providing guidance for the planning, design, operation and monitoring of recycled water systems in order to minimise the risks to public health; and

iii) Outlining the statutory approvals needed for a recycled water reuse scheme.

1.2 Scope of the Guidelines These Guidelines primarily deal with effluent from municipal wastewater treatment plants treating mainly domestic and some industrial waste, as well as system serving individual commercial premises that may generate large wastewater flows (for example hotels, motels, mining camps, schools, caravan parks etc). These Guidelines do not deal with recycled wastewater from individual household systems for example sullage, greywater or effluent from septic tanks. These guidelines present a generic framework for managing water recycling schemes, predominately focussing on Class B, C and D water recycling schemes. Whilst these guidelines allow reuse of Class A recycled water they do not provide detail or guidance on managing the specific risks associated with Class A water recycling. The Western Australian Government supports a national approach to water recycling in Australia. To this end, these guidelines have been aligned with the draft National Guidelines for Water Recycling which are being developed by the Natural Resource Management Ministerial Council and the Environment Protection and Heritage Council. The draft national guidelines describe a generic process for development and implementation of preventative risk management systems for water recycling. The first phase of the national guidelines covers recycled water sourced from sewage treatment plants as well as domestic greywater. The second phase of the guidelines is expected to include reuse of


urban stormwater, aquifer storage and recovery and indirect potable use of recycled water.

1.3 Regulatory Framework The Health Act 1911 contains a number of provisions that regulate the use of recycled water Section 98 – prohibits sewage being put anywhere unless it is authorized. Section 107 – prohibits the use of any apparatus for the treatment of sewage unless approved by the Executive Director of Public Health. Section 129 – prohibits the pollution of any water supply. The Department of Environment and Conservation also regulates the use of recycled water on land under Part V of the Environmental Protection Act 1986.

1.4 Approval Process The applicant should apply in writing to the Department of Health (DOH) for the approval of any recycled water scheme and may also need to apply to the Department of Environment and Conservation. The information required for an application should be appropriate to the scale of the proposed reuse scheme (see appendix B for list of information that may be required and Appendix C for the Approvals Process Flow Chart). Before recycled water can be used

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(a)27163194.48103.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm g ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 12 485.n) Tj 6194.48103.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 q 1 0854518 480104.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm o ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 155.853918 480104.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm p ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 13m B95318 480104.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm e ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 199cm95318 480104.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm r ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 113 1185318 480104.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm a ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 207.115218 480104.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm t ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 123919 5218 480104.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm i ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 267.115118 480104.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm o ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 33m B95218 480104.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm n ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 39m9115218 480104.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm , ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 14T 2715318 480104.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 149 085618 480104.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm a ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 56 0 85618 480104.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm n ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 623.185618 480104.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm d ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 169m6785618 480104.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 176 (r15818 480104.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm t ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 179 2715918 480104.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm h ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 1853j 618 480104.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm i ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 88 33 618 480104.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm s ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 944.63618 480104.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 21201186218 480104.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm c ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 20701186218 480104.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm a ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 212 19 6118 480104.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm n ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 220d313618 480104.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 2246m B6118 480104.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm i ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 22 249 6118 480104.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm n ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 232 1 B6218 480104.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm c ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 2499 1 6118 480104.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm l ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 24477986118 480104.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm u ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 25135116318 480104.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm d ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 25270 86518 480104.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm e ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 26 471 6618 480104.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 271 ( 16718 480104.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm m ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 380j.516818 480104.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm o ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 2821.987118 480104.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm n ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 29830 87418 480104.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm i ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 29701187418 480104.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm t ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 30035.87318 480104.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm o ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 3077( 7618 480104.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm r ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 3BT 03 7918 480104.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm i ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 31 391 7918 480104.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm n ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 320 Q 8818 480104.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm g ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 317T1119418 480104.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 33913388318 480104.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm a ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 340 0j88318 480104.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm n ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 346j.518618 480104.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm d ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 3530.988918 480104.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 35 2998918 480104.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm a ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 3666.689318 480104.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm s ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 3723.689318 480104.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm s ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 3783.689318 480104.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm e ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 9 5249 1118 480104.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm s ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 391249 1118 480104.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm s ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 397249 1118 480104.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm m ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 417 03 1218 480104.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm e ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 4131 081518 480104.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm n ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 42035.81818 480104.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm t ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 423919 1718 480104.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 730 3.81818 480104.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm o ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 43730382118 480104.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm f ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 440 Q 81918 480104.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 446 6382118 480104.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm e ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 45913382518 480104.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm n ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 460 0j82818 480104.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm v ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 465T19 2918 480104.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm i ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 4616.682918 480104.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm r ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 470 m B3218 480104.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm o ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 479 2713518 480104.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm n ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 4853j 3818 480104.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm m ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 49505983618 480104.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm e ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 500 3.83918 480104.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm n ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 50 20384218 480104.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm t ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 51910 84418 480104.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm a ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 51 30 84118 480104.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm l ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 n) Tj 4118 480104.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm f ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 q 1 08537166688104.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm i ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 924.63535166688104.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm m ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 02524853166688104.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm p ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 1083.1853166688104.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm a ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 Q5m6j 52166688104.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm c ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 2171 52166688104.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm t ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 192504853166688104.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm s ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 131504853166688104.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm . ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 34 30854166688104.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 39m B956166688104.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 43 11858166688104.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm N ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 524.6358166688104.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm o ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 151.33858166688104.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 6441 B6166688104.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm c ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 7041 B6166688104.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm o ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 176 33 6166688104.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm n ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 8913386166688104.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm d ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 81.19 59166688104.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm i ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 19237m96166688104.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm t ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 195019 61166688104.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm i ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 1987.1161166688104.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm o ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 225 9.161166688104.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm n ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 212 1 B62166688104.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm s ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 21f (r16166688104.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 220 .1161166688104.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm a ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 22 249 61166688104.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm r ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 23Tm51862166688104.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm e ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 24310 862166688104.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 244779863166688104.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm a ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 251351165166688104.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm p ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 25270 868166688104.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm p ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 26 471 69166688104.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm l ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 267 3517166688104.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm i ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 27310 871166688104.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm e ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 276443874166688104.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm d ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 28 341175166688104.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 28830 874166688104.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm f ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 291 12872166688104.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm o ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 2911 1 76166688104.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm r ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 302 1 B78166688104.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 06443877166688104.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm a ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 31 39488166688104.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 1270 88166688104.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm r ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 322j 1 12166688104.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm e ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 328779883166688104.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm g ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 3333.9.86166688104.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm i ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 338 Q 883166688104.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm s ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 4) Q 883166688104.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm t ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 347 .9883166688104.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm r ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 351 12885166688104.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm a ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 3511 1 88166688104.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm t ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 36179. 166688104.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm i ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 36) 3.1166688104.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm o ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 2 1)375r3166688104.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm n ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 377T 0 06166688104.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm , ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 38 487 06166688104.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 9 526j205166688104.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm a ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 31910 /F8166688104.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm s ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 911 /F8166688104.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm f ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 4121.1208166688104.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm i ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 405083208166688104.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm t ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 4083.1/F8166688104.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm f ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 4131 0 06166688104.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm i ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 416403907166688104.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm s ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 422 /F8166688104.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm f ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 417T19907166688104.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm ad

r155139 28105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm h ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 194 33 56139 28105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm e ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 212059856139 28105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm r ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 225 63 56139 28105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm e ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 212 1 B55139 28105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 2172cm955139 28105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm a ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 22T 69 55139 28105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 23 41 B57139 28105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm r ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 23450 857139 28105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm e ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 2403.1857139 28105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm g ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 247249 58139 28105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm i ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 250 3 859139 28105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm s ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 256j3136139 28105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm t ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 259m67859139 28105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm r ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 26Tm51862139 28105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm a ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 27310 865139 28105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm t ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 279133864139 28105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm i ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 27610 865139 28105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm o ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 282343868139 28105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm n ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 289m67871139 28105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 2Ef ( 7139 28105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm h ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 301 1 73139 28105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm o ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 30 40 874139 28105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm l ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 3BT 27 75139 28105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm d ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 317 99878139 28105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm e ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 32 471 81139 28105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm r ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 328757194139 28105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 32470j883139 28105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm h ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 340779883139 28105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm a ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 347 .9886139 28105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm s ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 3530.9886139 28105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 359 27194139 28105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm b ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 65199887139 28105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm e ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 3723.689139 28105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm e ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 379m B997139 28105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm n ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 9 521 001139 28105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 39171 99139 28105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm c ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 9771 99139 28105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm o ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 404 /F2139 28105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm n ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 411Tm /F5139 28105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm v ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 416487 06139 28105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm i ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 4191 0 06139 28105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm c ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 4151 0 06139 28105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm t ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 428487 06139 28105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm e ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 435057909139 28105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm d ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 440 31912139 28105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 448 cm 1139 28105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm o ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 4547m 991139 28105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm f ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 457m9191139 28105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 46326j208139 28105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm a ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 47010 991139 28105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm n ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 476 33912139 28105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 4824039 139 28105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm o ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 481.339 3139 28105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm f ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 49237m912139 28105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm f Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992559 59 0 0 496jcm 1139 28105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm e ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 500 m 991139 28105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm n ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 50 227/14139 28105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm c ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 (a)27/11139 28105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm e ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 5141.5908139 28105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 q 1 08545115160105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm u ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 155.8539115160105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm n ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 13m B953115160105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm d ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 199cm953115160105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm e ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 16403 52115160105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm r ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 207.1152115160105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 279cm953115160105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm t ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 131527 55115160105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm h ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 1371 0854115160105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm e ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 4455.855115160105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 51 1 54115160105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm E ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 151.59854115160105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm n ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 66j31354115160105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm v ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 172j31354115160105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm i ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 1743.1854115160105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm r ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 7 203854115160105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm o ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 1853 0854115160105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm n ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 19235.855115160105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm m ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 300 cm855115160105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm e ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 218779855115160105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm n ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 2133.9.55115160105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm t ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 21f Tj157115160105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm a ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 225059857115160105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm l ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 22835.858115160105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 239967859115160105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm P ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 242 12859115160105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm r ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 247267859115160105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm o ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 25) Q 861115160105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm t ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 257m51862115160105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm e ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 26410 865115160105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm c ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 27310 865115160105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm t ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 279133864115160105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm i ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 27610 865115160105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm o ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 282343868115160105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm n ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 289m67871115160105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 296 33 69115160105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm A ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 304j.5168115160105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm c ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 310j.5168115160105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm t ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 31441 B66115160105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 321 11865115160105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm i ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 323 11866115160105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm n ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 933147167115160105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 337394868115160105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm r ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 3ET 7517115160105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm e ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 34835.873115160105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm l ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 351 11874115160105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm a ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 357.19 78115160105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm t ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 360443877115160105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm i ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 363.19 78115160105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm o ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 2 0757191115160105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm n ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 977 27184115160105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 38435.873115160105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm t ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 387.19 71115160105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm o ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 2147m B75115160105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 40 T75176115160105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm t ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 404 87B75115160105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm h ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 411T12879115160105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm e ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 418j 1 12115160105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 425 .9883115160105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm p ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 43230 886115160105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm r ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 4361 1 88115160105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm e ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 442 03891115160105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm m ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 452403892115160105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm i ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 455 .9892115160105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm s ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 461 .9892115160105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm e ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 46160 895115160105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm s ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 47460 895115160105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm , ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 477.12894115160105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 484j.5195115160105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm o ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 491527 96115160105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm r ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 495133898115160105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 500 m 99115160105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm h ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 50 227/02115160105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm a ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 (a)99/02115160105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm s ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 n

791BT 68105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm d ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 331394881BT 68105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 3333751791BT 68105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm t ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 33 30 8771BT 68105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm h ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 345.19 811BT 68105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm e ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 3527571941BT 68105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 356403 821BT 68105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm p ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 363.351861BT 68105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm r ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 67249 871BT 68105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm e ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 37441 B141BT 68105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm m ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 383 08151BT 68105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm i ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 386403 151BT 68105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm s ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 319103 151BT 68105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm e ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 391.338181BT 68105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm s ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 4050338181BT 68105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 40 249 171BT 68105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm i ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 4Q2j 1 181BT 68105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm n ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 4191038211BT 68105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 42390 8191BT 68105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm a ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 421.19 231BT 68105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 43 3918211BT 68105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm m ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 442 518221BT 68105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm a ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 45310 8221BT 68105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm n ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 4564438251BT 68105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm n ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 46326j8281BT 68105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm e ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 47010 8321BT 68105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm r ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 47465.8331BT 68105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 4787571321BT 68105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm w ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 4864438311BT 68105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm h ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 49326j8341BT 68105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm i ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 4946508381BT 68105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm c ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 500 m 351BT 68105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm h ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 50 2278381BT 68105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 51330 8411BT 68105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm i ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 (a)998411BT 68105.1 0 0 1 0 0 cm s ( ) Tj ET Q q 1 0 0 1 0 0 cm BT 11.992 59 0 0 n


2. Recycled Water Quality and Treatment The sewerage systems we have today have been the most important contributor to our standard of living and the elimination of waterborne disease. To protect public health, it is important to recognise the risk factors associated with recycled water. Human contact with recycled water creates a risk of infection from micro-organisms. The quality of wastewater varies depending on its source and the level of treatment applied to it. The health risks from using the recycled water depends not only the source and the treatment systems used but also how the water is reused, how well the system is managed and the potential for human exposure. There are many ways of possible exposure to recycled water including:

Direct ingestion of recycled water, droplets or airborne particles, Direct ingestion of food that has been exposed to recycled water, Indirect ingestion via hand to mouth contact or ingestion of contaminated

objects, and Direct contact with recycled water.

2.1 Pathogens Microbial pathogens found in effluent can be divided into three groups: bacteria, viruses and pathogenic protozoa and helminths. These pathogens can cause a number of health complaints including vomiting, diarrhoea, respiratory illness, anaemia, hepatitis, meningitis, paralysis and eye and skin infections. Pathogenic bacteria (such as Salmonella, Campylobacter and Shigella) can

be excreted by an apparently healthy population and many of the very large numbers of bacteria found in the wastewater can cause disease. Some bacteria, particularly thermotolerant coliforms (also known as faecal coliforms), are indicators of faecal contamination. Thermotolerant coliforms consist chiefly of Escherichia coli and are found in the intestinal tract of humans and other warm blooded animals. Legionella sp., the causative agent of the human form of Legionnaire’s disease, has previously been isolated from wastewater streams.

Viruses (such as rotavirus, hepatitis A virus and enterovirus) derived from

human faeces are present in wastewater in numbers up to 100,000 infectious organisms per litre. They can survive for long periods in recycled water systems and can be shed by healthy people.

Protozoa (including Cryptosporidium and Giardia) can cause disease in

humans and infective forms may be present in wastewater as cysts. Enteric protozoa, including Giardia spp, and Cryptosporidium spp., are of particular importance and can cause moderate to severe enteritis.

Helminth parasites (worms) include: tapeworms or cestodes (e.g. Taenia

saginata and T. solium); roundworms or nematodes (e.g. Ascaris


lumbricoides) which also includes hookworms (e.g. Ancylostoma sp. and Necator sp.), whipworms (e.g. Trichuris trichiura) and pinworms (e.g. Enterobius vermicularis); and flukes or trematodes (e.g. Schistosoma mansoni). Helminths are generally large enough to be visible to the naked eye but their ova (eggs) can be microscopic. Ova are the infective stage in the life cycle of helminths.

2.2 Physical and Chemical Contaminants The presence of chemicals in recycled water at levels that could potentially pose a health risk is not anticipated for most schemes, particularly those recycling water from predominately domestic sewage. Chemicals are usually only considered a health risk if Indirect Potable Reuse or Aquifer Recharge is proposed (see table 1). Chemicals entering the sewerage system are managed through trade waste control, substantially diluted in other waste and generally removed or degraded by treatment processes. Therefore, chemicals of health concern are usually orders of magnitude below the levels either permitted in our drinking water supply or routinely consumed through dietary exposure. For this reason, specific water quality objectives for heavy metals and organic contaminants have not been established. For irrigation of agricultural crops, reference should be made to Section 9.2 of the Australian and New Zealand Guidelines for Fresh and Marine Water Quality, Volume 3, Primary Industries - Rationale and Background Information (Chapter 9). However, for schemes where industrial or trade waste inputs are significant, specific management controls may be required. 2.3 Treatment and Classification Overview The classification criterion for recycled water is provided in Table 1. As described in this Table, recycled water is classified into five “Classes” (A+ to D), principally on the basis of:

Generic categories of treatment processes known to result in particular levels of pathogen reduction required for a range of end uses;

Physical-chemical water quality (for example, turbidity and biochemical oxygen demand (BOD)) and E.coli which are designed to ensure optimal performance of the treatment processes (including disinfection where required) and provides a mechanism for monitoring performance; and

Adoption of a specific measure known to remove pathogens that may otherwise not be adequately controlled under the above process provisions (such as, Helminth removal which required lagoon storage or filtration prior to reuse).


Table 1. Classes of Recycled Water Class Recycled Water Quality

Objectives1 Treatment Process2 Range of Uses12

A+

Turbidity < 2 NTU6 < 10 / 5 mg/L BOD / SS pH 6 – 9 7 1 mg/L Cl2 residual (or equivalent disinfection)8

<1 E.coli per 100 mL <1 helminth per litre < 1 protozoa per 50 litres < 1 virus per 50 litres <2-10mg/L nitrogen Meet DOH Chemical

Guidelines for Recycled Water

Secondary2 Filtration3 Disinfection4 Advanced

treatment5

Indirect Potable Reuse11

Aquifer Recharge11 Firefighting: eg potential for worker saturation and first aid treatment of burns victims

A

Turbidity < 2 NTU6 < 10 / 5 mg/L BOD / SS pH 6 – 9 7 1 mg/L Cl2 residual (or equivalent disinfection)8 <10 E.coli per 100 mL <1 helminth per litre < 1 protozoa per 50 litres < 1 virus per 50 litres

Secondary2 Filtration3 Disinfection4

Urban (non-potable): with uncontrolled public access Agricultural: eg human food crops consumed raw with edible parts exposed to recycled water Industrial: open systems with worker exposure potential

B <100 E.coli org/100 mL pH 6 – 97 < 20 / 30 mg/L BOD / SS10

Secondary2 and pathogen reduction9

Agricultural: eg dairy cattle grazing with unrestricted irrigation method Industrial: eg washdown water

C <1000 E.coli org/100 mL pH 6 – 97 < 20 / 30 mg/L BOD / SS10

Secondary2 and pathogen reduction9

Urban (non-potable): with controlled public access Agricultural: eg human food crops cooked/processed, grazing/fodder for livestock, human food crops consumed raw edible part, not exposed to recycled water or sub surface irrigation Industrial: systems with no potential worker exposure

D <10000 E.coli org/100 mL pH 6 – 97 < 20 / 30 mg/L BOD / SS10

Secondary2 Agricultural: non-food crops including instant turf, woodlots, flowers

1. Unless otherwise noted, recommended quality limits apply to the recycled water at the point

of discharge from the Wastewater Treatment Plant (WWTP) 2. Secondary Treatment processes include activated sludge processes, trickling filters, rotating

biological contractors, and may include stabilization ponds and ponds based waste water treatment plants.


3. Filtration means the passing of recycled water through natural undisturbed soils or filter media such as sand and/or anthracite, filter cloth, or the passing of recycled water through micro-filters or other membrane processes.

4. Disinfection means the destruction, inactivation, or removal or pathogenic microorganisms by chemical, physical, or biological means.

5. Advanced recycled water treatment processes include chemical clarification, carbon adsorption, reverse osmosis and other membrane processes, air stripping, ultrafiltration, and ion exchange.

6. Turbidity limit is a 24-hour median value measured pre-disinfection. The maximum value is five NTU.

7. pH range is 90th percentile. A higher upper pH limit for lagoon-based systems with algal growth may be appropriate, provided it will not be detrimental to receiving soils and disinfection efficacy is maintained.

8. Chlorine residual limit of greater than one milligram per litre after 30 minutes (or equivalent pathogen reduction level) is suggested where there is a significant risk of human contact or where recycled water will be within distribution systems for prolonged periods.

9. Helminth reduction is either detention in a pondage system for greater than or equal to 30 days, or by a DOH approved disinfection system (for example, sand or membrane filtration).

10. Where Class C or D is via treatment lagoons, although design limits of 20 milligrams per litre BOD and 30 milligrams per litre SS apply, only BOD is used for ongoing confirmation of plant performance. A correlation between process performance and BOD / filtered BOD should be established and in the event of an algal bloom, the filtered BOD should be less than 20 milligrams per litre.

11. Draft guidelines are presently being prepared, however it is likely to be some years before a scheme will be approved. Significant research is currently being undertaken in this area.

12. It is assumed that heavy metal and other contaminant levels are not of concern, or that they comply with relevant guideline values in NWQMS document.

13. Refer to Tables 3 and 4 for specific permitted livestock and horticultural uses.

2.4 Recycled Water Treatment The level of treatment required depends on the proposed use. The broad categories are:

Primary treatment: this is the initial treatment which involves screening and sedimentation to remove gross and settleable solids.

Secondary treatment: this is the minimum standard required for most

agricultural and municipal recycled water schemes. Secondary treatment follows primary treatment and is typically regarded as low rate stabilisation processes such as facultative lagoons or biological/mechanical treatment such as biofiltration, trickling filter, intermittently decanted extended aeration (IDEA) or activated sludge plants. Detention in a multiple lagoon system for 20-25 days should provide effluent containing less than 1000 thermotolerant coliforms/100mL while more than 60 days could be required to remove intestinal protozoa and viruses. Longer detention time may be required for cooler climates.

Tertiary treatment: this is the treatment of recycled water beyond the secondary biological stage. It normally implies the removal of a high percentage of suspended solids and/or nutrients through additional filtration processes such as membrane filtration followed by disinfection.


Source Control It is important to control the inputs of pollutants into the source water. All sewerage service providers who are considering water recycling should have trade waste agreements with their industrial and commercial customers that contain provisions for continuous improvement in environmental performance over time.

2.5 Disinfection Methods Disinfection of the recycled water is the most important part of the treatment process to protect public health. Generally disinfection is the final step in the treatment process. The level of disinfection required depends on the intended final use of the recycled water and the likely level of human contact. Disinfection methods should include standby systems, automatic alarms, effective maintenance and quality assurance programs. Disinfection of recycled water is achieved using a variety of methods, including:

- chemical (for example, chlorination, ozonation); - physical (for example, ultraviolet radiation, microfiltration); and - biological (for example, detention lagoons).

There are two key control steps for producing recycled water, which depending on the end uses, will be of sufficient quality that it poses no unacceptable risk to human health, livestock or the environment.

1. The first control step is the adequate pre-treatment of the effluent to ensure that selected disinfection processes work efficiently. Table 2 provides indicative recycled water quality criteria required to ensure effective pathogen reduction for each disinfection method. These values may vary depending on other recycled water qualities and as such are only a guide.

2. The second control step is to ensure that the actual disinfection produces

an effluent meeting the required quality standards. The primary indicator used to assess the efficacy of the disinfection process is the concentration of E.coli bacteria. It is important that the use of E.coli is not taken out of context, as it has been well documented that there can be poor correlations between E.coli levels and the concentrations of pathogenic organisms.

E.coli is used as an indicator of the treatment/disinfection efficiency. When coupled with other treatment process indicators (BOD for example), specific treatment methods, and direct verification of pathogen removal (for Class A reuse schemes) the result is an integrated measure of effluent quality. Thermotolerant coliforms (of which E.coli are a major component) are also used as a treatment process indicator. However, E.coli is the DOH preferred indicator. Where thermotolerant coliforms are used, the E.coli criterion is applied directly as the thermotolerant coliform limit.


Table 2. Recommended recycled water quality (median) pre-disinfection (adapted from UWRAA, 1996)

1. If a significant reduction in the number of pathogens is required (that is, less than ten E.coli organisms per 100 millilitres), the turbidity of the pre-disinfected recycled water should be less than two NTU (median) for any method. 2. Presence of ammonia with chlorine causes chloramination, which is a less effective disinfection method than chlorine; however, formation of toxic by-products is minimised. The required level of ammonia, therefore, depends on whether chloramination or chlorination is the disinfection process. 3. The transmission capacity of the recycled water is the most important parameter affecting the disinfection efficiency of UV and should be greater than six. Lagoons The storage of secondary treated recycled water in pondage systems (nominally 30 days) allows natural disinfection to take place before discharging or reusing the treated recycled water. Natural disinfection can occur via sunlight and/or natural microbial die-off. Natural disinfection processes can be affected by a number of factors such as the:

turbidity of the recycled water, as it affects sunlight penetration; amount of suspended matter in the water, as viruses and bacteria may be

shielded from the rays of the sun by being absorbed into surface pores; ineffectiveness of sunlight in seawater compared with freshwater, and dense plant growth on the surface (eg duckweed).

Temperature, pH, adsorption and sedimentation further influence the natural disinfection and inactivation processes occurring in recycled water stored in lagoons. The ability of ponds to remove or reduce the number of pathogens depends on such factors as the load of incoming solids and microorganisms, temperature, sunlight and pond design related to detention time. Algal blooms in the ponds over summer will also reduce the efficiency of the natural disinfection process. Systems using only detention do not typically result in a Class A effluent and are unsuitable as the sole means of pathogen reduction for high contact uses. Detention can be used to achieve a Class C effluent.

Disinfection Method

SS (mg/L)

BOD (mg/L)

Turbidity (NTU)1

Nitrate (mg/L)

Ammonia (mg/L)2

pH

Chlorination <20 <20 <10 NA See note 2

6.0-9.0

Ozone <10-15 <20 <5 Maximised <1 6.0-9.0 UV3 <10 <20 <5 Maximised NA NA

Microfiltration NA NA <10 NA NA Neutral Detention Lagoons

NA NA NA NA NA Neutral


2.6 Helminth Control Helminths are parasitic worms that are transmitted to humans through contact with contaminated soil containing faeces. The most common method of exposure is from walking barefoot on the soil where the eggs (ova) and larvae can be present. Helminths are endemic to the Kimberley region, north of the 20th parallel. Helminth control is necessary in the following locations:

- north of the 20th parallel to irrigate public open spaces (parks, sports fields and municipal areas) and

- where the recycled water is used to irrigate pasture and fodder for beef cattle; or

- where the recycled water is used to irrigate pasture and fodder for dairy animals; or

- where the recycled water is used for drinking water for stock (except pigs, see section 3.2); or

- where the recycled water is used to wash down water for dairies. Conventional primary and secondary treatment processes, including disinfection via chlorination or UV, may not ensure adequate removal of helminths such as intestinal nematodes. The specified treatment measures to reduce helminths numbers are:

at least 25 days detention in treatment lagoons (this may include either primary, secondary or maturation lagoons provided the helminth settling process is not disturbed by processes such as mixing, aeration or any other process) or a storage facility where all recycled water must be detained for at least 30 days from the time of the last discharged into the storage facility, or

an approved method of filtration, such as sand or membrane filtration.

2.7 Treatment Reliability Generally, a higher quality of recycled water requires a greater importance placed on treatment reliability measures. The following measures should be considered to improve treatment reliability: - minimise the concentrations of potential contaminants entering the sewer

through a trade waste management program (for example, generators having waste management plans or cleaner production programs);

- adoption of QA systems; - duplicate and/or provide standby facilities for power, treatment units, pumps

and disinfection systems; - flexible modes of operation; - independence of multiple treatment processes or barriers; - alarm systems and automatic controls; - appropriately trained and experienced operators; - effective inspection, maintenance and monitoring programs; - contingency plans such as diversions for noncompliant events and

emergencies (for example, unacceptable recycled water quality, treatment


plant and disinfection system failures, transfer pipeline bursts, illegal waste discharges, overflows or spills); and

- provision for emergency storage. 3 Acceptable Uses and Site Specific Controls Recycled water must be treated to a level that is “fit for purpose”, that is, recycled water must be treated to a level that is suitable for its end use. The level of treatment that is required depends on the final application of the recycled water. Where there is limited exposure to the general public and controls and safeguards can be applied, lower levels of treatment may be used. Conversely, where there will be more direct contact by the general public with the recycled water and safeguards are not strictly enforceable, higher levels of treatment will be needed.

3.1 Urban (Non potable) Reuse Recycled water is suitable for a range of urban non potable uses. The potential level and likelihood of exposure to recycled water determines the Class that is suitable. The potential level of exposure is influenced by a number of factors including:

the distance from residential areas, the use of signage and/or fencing to restrict site access, the irrigation method used, and/or the use of restricted watering times (for example night time watering).

3.1.1 Residential and municipal reuse with uncontrolled public access

Class A recycled water must be used for residential or municipal reuse schemes where there is limited control of public access and therefore a potentially higher exposure of the recycled water to humans. This includes residential schemes for garden watering, toilet flushing and third pipe systems. The following is a list of Class A recycled water uses considered acceptable from a human health perspective, however other issues and controls are relevant, such as environmental and plumbing controls.

Irrigation of public open spaces, such as parks, sports fields and municipal areas, where public access is unrestricted and any irrigation method can be used.

Domestic garden watering, including vegetable gardens Toilet flushing Washing machine use (dedicated cold connection tap only) General outdoor uses such as car washing, construction and wash down.


Filling water features and ornamental ponds that are not used for swimming.

Industrial and commercial uses including construction, wash down, dust suppression, use in cooling towers and toilet or urinal flushing.

(Refer to Table 1. Classes of Recycled Water) Class A recycled water is not acceptable for the following uses;

drinking cooking or other kitchen purposes bathing or showering filling swimming pools and spas.

3.1.2 Municipal reuse with controlled public access Municipal reuse includes the irrigation of open spaces, parks, sportsgrounds, golf courses, median strips etc. Class B and C recycled water may be used for municipal schemes provided public access can be controlled. Controlled public access means that the recycled water user must maintain effective control over public access to the areas being irrigated. The most common method of controlling public access is by night time irrigation. Night time irrigation is not to commence before 9.00pm and must cease at least one hour before sunrise and to provide a withholding period of nominally 4 hours or until the irrigated area is dry. Night time watering should not be the only method of restricting access employed. Additional methods such as simple non-continuous barriers that direct the public towards signage or fencing with lockable gates may also be required. (See section 5.6 also)

3.2 Agricultural Reuse 3.2.1 Livestock Beef Cattle If cattle are exposed to untreated sewage or wastewater, the human tapeworm Taenia saginata can develop into the parasitic cysts (Cysticercus bovis) or “beef measles”. Consumption of contaminated, poorly cooked meat by meat by humans would then result in the tapeworm infestation and an established cycle of infection. The grazing of cattle on pasture or fodder irrigated by Class C recycled water (including helminth reduction) requires a withholding period of four hours or until the pasture or fodder is dry. Only recycled water that has had a helminth reduction process (that is a minimum of 30 days pondage or an approved method of filtration) may be used for a scheme involving cattle grazing. Without adequate treatment and management, helminths in sewage applied to grazing land have potential to


establish cycles of infection between humans and animals (such as Taenia or tapeworms in humans and pigs, and Cysticercosis or “beef measles” in cattle). Consumption of contaminated and uncooked meat by humans can complete infection cycles from animals back to humans. Pigs Pigs must not be fed or exposed to any pasture of fodder produced or irrigated with recycled water. Pigs must also not be allowed to drink any recycled water. No treatment standard has been approved for pigs. This restriction reflects that Taenia solium (a helminth with pig-human lifecycle), which can cause severe neurological disease in people. Although pork measles (Cysticercosis) has not been detected in Australia, the tapeworm is known to affect some people who have lived or visited overseas, and it is important that exposure to pigs is prevented. Dairy Animals The grazing of dairy animals on pasture or fodder irrigated with Class B (including helminth reduction) recycled water requires a minimum withholding period of four hours or until the pasture or fodder is dry. If Class C recycled water (including helminth reduction) is used, then a withholding period of five days is necessary. Recycled water should not be used as wash down for milking machinery. Class B (including helminth reduction) is the minimum quality required if dairy animals are to drink recycled water. Fodder or pasture for Grazing Animals Class C is the minimum quality required for the grazing of sheep, horses, goats etc on pasture or fodder irrigated recycled water. Helminth reduction is not necessary. A withholding period of four hours or until the pasture or fodder is dry must also be achieved. If fodder is to be sold, growers should ensure that is to be fed to livestock appropriate to the class of recycled water used for irrigation. This assurance could be achieved through only selling the fodder to defined users, or if the fodder is for a broader market, labelling with the relevant prohibitions (for example, “recycled water irrigated fodder not fit for consumption by pigs”).


Table 3: Acceptable Livestock Uses

Reuse category Minimum

water Class

Irrigation method

Key management controls for use eg. withholding period

Livestock Class B (including helminth reduction)

Unrestricted

Withholding period of 4 hours before pasture use, dry or ensile fodder. Washdown water not to be used for milking machinery. Controls to ensure pigs are not exposed to pasture or fodder.

Irrigation of pasture and fodder for dairy animals

Class C (including helminth reduction)

Unrestricted

Withholding period of 5 days before pasture use, dry or ensile fodder. Controls to ensure pigs are not exposed to pasture or fodder.

Irrigation of pasture and fodder for beef cattle

Class C (including helminth reduction)

Unrestricted Withholding period of 4 hours before pasture use, dry or ensile fodder. Controls to ensure pigs are not exposed to pasture or fodder.

Irrigation of pasture and fodder for sheep, goats, horses, etc

Class C (no helminth reduction necessary)

Unrestricted Withholding period of 4 hours before pasture use, dry or ensile fodder. Controls to ensure pigs are not exposed to pasture or fodder.

Livestock drinking water or washdown water for dairy sheds.

Class B

-

Washdown water not to be used for milking machinery. Recycled water with a blue green algae bloom not suitable for stock drinking. Pigs not to come into contact with recycled water.

Note: it is assumed that heavy metal and other chemical contaminant levels are not a concern, or that they comply with relevant guideline values in NWQMS.


3.2.2 Horticulture When recycled water is to be used for human food crops the required water quality depends on:

the potential for the edible portion of the crop to come into direct contact with the recycled water. This reflects both the irrigation method and the crop involved (that is, whether the produce is grown in contact with the soil or the produce has a protective and inedible covering), and

the level of processing or cooking of the food prior to consumption. Food crops that are consumed raw and are likely to be in direct contact with recycled water, must be irrigated with Class A recycled water only. Food crops that will be either cooked at greater than 70 0C for two minutes, or processed (such as cereals, wheat, grapes for wine production, etc) prior to sale to the domestic market, may be irrigated with Class C recycled water. Food crops that are not in direct contact with recycled water such as fruit trees may be irrigated with Class C recycled water. Class D recycled water is not suitable for use with human food crops. Recycled water must not be used for washing or packaging of food after processing for sale or distribution. Recycled water must also not be used for washdown water for food packaging or processing machinery. The Commonwealth Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry has produced Guidelines for On-farm Food Safety for Fresh Produce (AFFA, 2001) that provide a single consolidated source of information relating to on-farm food safety for fresh produce crops. They are designed to help assess the risks of food safety during on farm production of fresh crops and provide information on good practice to prevent, reduce or eliminate the hazards, including the risk of contaminating produce when using water. Non food crops such as cotton, trees, woodlots, turf farms and wholesale plant nurseries that can be irrigated in areas where public access can be excluded may use Class D recycled water, provided appropriate occupational safety and health requirements are adhered to.


Table 4: Acceptable Horticultural Uses

Reuse category Minimum

water Class

Irrigation method

Key management controls for use eg. withholding

period

Raw human food crops exposed to recycled water

Crops grown close to the ground and consumed raw (eg. celery, cabbage)

Class A Unrestricted

Root crops consumed raw (eg. carrots, onions, radish)

Class A Unrestricted

Human food crops cooked (>70°C for 2 minutes) or pr ocessed before human consumption, or consumed raw but with edible parts not exposed to recycled water

Class A Unrestricted Crops grown over 1 metre above the ground and eaten raw (eg. apples, pears, apricots, table grapes, olives) Class C

Flood, furrow, drip, sub-surface

Dropped produce not to be harvested

Class A Unrestricted Crops which are skinned, peeled or shelled before consumption (eg. nuts, watermelons, rockmelons)

Class C Flood,

furrow, drip, sub-surface

Produce should not be wet from recycled water irrigation when harvested. Dropped produce not to be harvested.

Crops to be cooked (>70°C for 2 minutes) or processed before sale to consumers* (eg. wheat, wine grapes, potatoes, beetroot)

Class C Unrestricted Produce should not be wet from recycled water irrigation when harvested

Non food crops Crops not for consumption (eg. woodlots, turf growing, flowers)

Class D Unrestricted Restrict public access to application area. Harvested products not to be wet from recycled water when sold

* Crops that are cooked prior to consumption can be sold uncooked to consumers provided the safety of the practice (such as considering the irrigation steps, preparation prior to sale and domestic cooking) can be demonstrated to the satisfaction of relevant Government agencies, the DOH for example. Note: 1. The health risks associated with hydroponics has not been adequately assessed, therefore hydroponic crops consumed raw must currently use Class A recycled water. 2. It is assumed that heavy metal and other chemical contaminant levels are not a concern, or that they comply with relevant guideline values in NWQMS.


3.3 Indirect and Direct Potable Reuse There is currently not enough information available to develop generic guidelines for the use of recycled water as a direct or indirect potable water source. Proposals under these categories will need to be assessed on a case by case basis. Draft guidelines are currently being investigated, however it is likely to be some years before a scheme will be approved.

3.4 Aquifer Recharge Aquifer recharge involves the recharge of aquifers with recycled water for storage and later use. For information on aquifer recharge please see the DOH 'Recycled Water - Groundwater Recharge Guidelines' in the Environmental Protection Authority Section 16(e) advice on Managed Aquifer Recharge at www.epa.wa.gov.au.

3.5 Industrial Use Recycled water may be used for a range of industrial processes such as:

cooling water make up water, boiler feed water, process water, washdown water, fire protection, and dust control/suppression at construction sites, quarries and mines etc.

When considering the use of recycled water in industrial process consideration must be given to the quality of the water and the protection of the process and/or machinery. For example the nutrients in the water may cause slime formation and microbial growth, while the suspended solids could cause blockages and fouling. The Australian and New Zealand Guidelines for Fresh and Marine Water Quality (ANZECC, 2001) provides guidance on appropriate water quality for a range of industrial uses. If the recycled water is to be used in an “open system” where there is a potential for workers to be exposed, Class A recycled water must be used. This includes recycled water used for dust suppression where workers and passing cars may be subject to spray drift or direct wetting. If the recycled water is to be used in a “closed system” then Class C recycled water may be used however this is subject to the need for additional treatment to prevent fouling, scaling, corrosion, foaming or biological growth within pipe work.

3.6 Fire Fighting Where possible, fire fighters need to have access to high quality water because the water they use to fight fires often saturates them, they ingest aerosols fighting a fire and water from fire hoses is sometimes used in first aid treatment of burns


victims at the scene of the fire. In urban areas the highest quality water is supplied through the reticulated potable water system. Use of Class A+ recycled water for fire fighting represents a negligible health risk for fire fighters (WSAA 2004). This is because the high level of treatment of Class A+ recycled water removes pathogens to such an extent that the likelihood of any health impact on fire fighters, given their infrequent exposure, would be negligible. Also, although there can be trace chemical residues in Class A+ recycled water (unpublished EPA data), the levels are so low that occasional exposure from fire fighting would not be expected to present a health hazard to fire fighters.

3.7 Water Features and Ornamental Water Bodies Determination of the appropriate class of recycled water for fountains and ornamental water bodies should only take place after an appropriate assessment of the risks of human contact has been undertaken. Amongst the factors that should be considered are the likelihood and frequency of human exposure to recycled water, the effectiveness of disinfection, the extent of aerosol generation and the prominence and wording of signage. For example, where there is a likelihood of human contact with the water (e.g. wading on hot days or occasional accidental ingestion of water) it may be appropriate to use only Class A recycled water. If there is certainty about no human contact (e.g. no physical access or no aerosol generation) class B or C recycled water could be used.

4 Roles, Responsibilities Recycled water suppliers and users have responsibilities to ensure that the recycled water used causes no adverse impact on public health.

4.1 Suppliers Ultimately it is the suppliers responsibility to ensure that the reuse scheme is managed and operated in accordance with the DOH conditions of approval and this guideline. It is also the ultimate responsibility of the supplier of the recycled waste to ensure that the scheme has the necessary approvals from the DOH and DEC, if required to operate. Suppliers of recycled water have the following responsibilities:

Deliver recycled water to the user that is of a quality fit for its intended purpose. To ensure the quality is maintained the supplier should develop and maintain an effective quality management system including documented standard operating procedure, training schemes and manuals, and a written log. The log should contain details of standard operating procedures, all audit checks, and include system failures and violations, and details of corrective action taken both at the time and to prevent recurrences.

Ensure the entire system for producing and using the recycled water, including each site where recycled water is used is covered by a Recycled Water Quality Management Plan (see section 6).


Ensure that all schemes claiming water from their premises (i.e. the users) are approved by the DOH to use the water.

Provide each user with relevant information about recycled water in regards to human health.

Keep a register of all users to which they supply the recycled water. Negotiate an agreement of supply with all users (see section 4.3) and

keep to the terms of the agreement. Alert each user if any problems relating to the quality or supply occur as

soon as practicable. Participate in audits conducted by the DOH. Notify the DOH if they become aware of any misuse of the recycled water

by the user. This may involve terminating supply to that user.

4.2 Users Users of recycled water have the following responsibilities:

Adhere to the conditions of approval set by the DOH. Adhere to the terms of the Agreement of Supply entered into with the

Supplier (see Section 4.3). Regularly inspect the system to ensure it is operating correctly. Provide employees with appropriate and up to date training and education

on the hazards of recycled water and personal protective equipment. Ensure that only suitably trained personnel operate the recycled water

system and that appropriate health and safety measures and procedures are in place to protect operators and any others exposed to the recycled water.

Inform all visitors and employees to the irrigation site of the use of recycled water

Keep a register of complaints Maintain the site and system so that the recycled water does not pose a

public health risk. Participate in audits conducted by the DOH Notify the DOH and the supplier of any exceedences or incidents.

4.3 Agreements A recycled water supply agreement must be made between the supplier and the user of the recycled water. A recycled water supply agreement ensures both parties know their responsibilities. The agreement should include:

obligations and responsibilities of supplier and user, recycled water characteristics (source, quality, quantity, pressure, flow

variations), responsibility for operation, maintenance, monitoring and auditing

processes, restrictions on use, reliability of supply,


liabilities and insurance, financial arrangements, contract duration and conditions for termination, ownership of facilities. contingency measures should problems arise.


5 Safeguards and Controls Safeguards and controls are necessary to avoid potential risks to public health. The safeguards and controls required will depend on the recycled water quality and recycled water end use.

5.1 Warning Signs Wherever recycled water is being used, erect prominent warning signs indicating, in English and any other primary languages predominately spoken in the area: “RECYCLED WATER – DO NOT DRINK – AVOID CONTACT” Warning signs should be designed with reference to AS 1319 (Safety signs for the occupational environment 2004) and AS 2416 (Design and application of water safety signs 2002). Signs must be a minimum size of 20cm x 30cm on a white background with black lettering of at least 20mm in height. The sign should also contain the recommended International Public Information – Drinking Water Symbol with the Prohibition Overlay in RED. All signs should be in compliance with AS1319 – 1994 Safety Signs for the Occupational Environment. The number of signs and size of wording should be determined on the basis of the visual distance from the observer. In addition to the irrigation area, individual fixtures and points of access to the recycled water system should have warning signs. All recycled water ponds, dams and tanks should also be clearly sign posted. The wording of these signs should state “WARNING – RECYCLED WATER – DO NOT DRINK OR SWIM”. Variations of wording and colour may be acceptable provided they are appropriate to the possible exposure route, check with the Department of Health. 5.2 Distribution Reliability To improve distribution reliability, distribution systems (including all pipe work, fittings and drainage of the recycled water) should be designed: - in accordance with AS/NZS 3500 series - National Plumbing and Drainage

Standards and other relevant Australian Standards; - to ensure the separation and prevention of cross connection between

recycled water and potable water systems; and - to allow the disinfection or slug dosing of distribution pipe work with

disinfectant or algicide to control biological solids and bacterial re-growth. (The discharge of recycled water drained or scoured from these


procedures should, where practicable, be to land or back to the treatment and/or storage facilities).

5.3 Public Education An early, open, and thorough public awareness effort on the part of entities utilizing recycled water is very effective in diminishing the fears and suspicions frequently encountered when considering the use of recycled water. To promote consumer acceptance of recycled water, the DOH recommends that the public be continually informed, especially potential users, of project status as regulatory and infrastructure decisions are being formulated. This should aid in the public’s understanding of the safeguards and rigorous consideration the project is being given and will provide a sense of involvement and inclusion. Key messages should include;

appropriate/acceptable uses of recycled water inappropriate or potentially unsafe uses of recycled water the risks of inappropriate uses of recycled water the identification of the recycled water infrastructure versus the drinking

water infrastructure the responsibilities of the recycled water users, for example:

- using recycled water appropriately and responsibly - advising visitors of appropriate uses of recycled water - undertaking cross connection tests - maintaining recycled water infrastructure on own property

where to get further information and advice. For in house use of recycled water the supplier should provide all potential residential customers with user-friendly materials and guidance (for example a fact sheet or frequently asked questions) about the third pipe scheme. Information that should be supplied to residential users includes:

the customers’ responsibilities in using the recycled water, the use of only licensed plumbers for installation and maintenance of

the recycled water systems, the suppliers right to enter the customers’ property for checking and

testing for cross connections and taking meter readings, the customers use of recycled water in a safe and responsible manner

consistent with the suppliers guidance information and DOH guidelines, the ongoing management of the third pipe scheme including periodic

testing for cross connections with the drinking water supply, a list of permitted uses including: watering of gardens and lawns, toilet

flushing, washing of cars and boats on lawns, a list of uses not permitted including: human drinking water, washing of

driveways, and washing of cars and boats on surfaces having direct discharge to stormwater drains,


guidance on safe and efficient use of recycled water including tips on good practice garden watering and maintenance of healthy plants with the recycled water, and

what to do and who to contact in emergencies (for example pipe failure).

5.4 Access Access control to the recycled water irrigation area may be required for the public and/or livestock. No restriction of public access is required when the recycled water is Class A or when sub-surface irrigation (a minimum depth of 150mm below the ground surface) is used. When using Class B, C or D public and livestock access must be restricted. The level of access control will depend on the Class of recycled water irrigated. Class C recycled water must have “controlled public access”. This means that the recycled water user must maintain effective control over public access to the areas being irrigated. The most common method of controlling public access is by night time irrigation. Night time irrigation is not to commence before 9.00pm and must cease at least one hour before sunrise and to provide a withholding period of nominally 4 hours or until the irrigated area is dry. Night time watering should not be the only method of restricting access employed. Additional methods such as simple non-continuous barriers that direct the public towards signage or fencing with lockable gates may also be required.

5.5 Plumbing All pipework associated with recycled water schemes should be installed in accordance with AS/NZS 3500 (Plumbing and Drainage Code; Standards Australia, published in parts from 1996 to 2003), whereas dual-reticulation systems should be installed in accordance with the relevant supplement to the Water Supply Code (WSAA 2002b). A fundamental requirement in all recycled water schemes is maintaining separation from drinking water systems or from potential sources of drinking water. To protect public health, it is essential that direct connection of recycled water systems to drinking water supplies is not permitted. If drinking water is supplied as make-up water or as a supplementary source of water, an approved air gap or backflow prevention device must be installed, as specified by AS/NZS 3500 (Plumbing and Drainage Code; Standards Australia, published in parts from 1996 to 2003). Complete pipe work plans should be maintained and updated to provide a permanent record of the location and depth of the recycled water pipes.


Recycled water pipes installed as a part of an irrigation system should comply with AS2698.2 Plastic Pipes and Fittings for Irrigation and Rural Applications. All pipework should be marked as indicated in AS/NZS 3500 (Plumbing and Drainage Code; Standards Australia, published in parts from 1996 to 2003) and the Water Supply Code (WSAA 2002b). Where possible, public access to valves and fittings should be prevented, and all such facilities should be distinctly marked and labelled (eg ‘Warning — recycled water — not for drinking’). Outlets and taps should also be clearly marked.

5.6 Irrigation Method and Design The type of irrigation method can influence the Class of recycled water that is used and the extent of public access control required. The method of irrigation can also affect the design of runoff controls that may be needed. The recycled water quality limits in Table 1 are based on spray irrigation. A lesser quality may be approved if application methods such as sub-surface, trickle or micro-irrigation systems are used. It will need to be demonstrated that public health will be adequately protected and no runoff occurs. In the case of horticulture the irrigation system must be designed so that the correct amount of recycled water is applied at the right time to meet the crop requirements, and to ensure that runoff and percolation are minimised as much as possible. In planning an irrigation system a water balance should be established to determine the maximum volume of recycled water which could be sustainably utilised per year, on average, by the receiving crop type. Irrigation pipes should be capable of being drained or flushed to allow odorous recycled water or decomposing matter to be run to waste before beginning any application. This is particularly important after the system has not been in used for an extended period of time (eg after the winter period) and recycled water has sat in pipes or when the recycled water does not comply with the prescribed standard and must not be used.

5.7 Spray Drift Spray drift should be minimised when using Class A recycled water however there are no specific restrictions. When using Class B, C or D recycled water spray drift into areas of public access must be minimised. This may be achieved by using some of the following methods:

buffer zones,


tree/shrub screens, selection of large droplet design sprays, choice of spray height, anemometer switching systems, and not irrigating in weather conditions that would cause spray drift.

Spraying of public drinking fountains, natural or artificial water bodies, buildings, playgrounds, and barbeque and picnic areas is not permitted. Where spray irrigation is used, establish buffer zones from the edge of the irrigation area to the nearest dwellings or public areas where contact with the recycled water could be likely. The required buffer zone will vary depending on the methods employed to minimise drift. However, the standard buffer zones required are as follows: 30 meters for Class B 50 meters for Class C 100 meters for Class D

Wind direction and speed should be monitored continuously and the system shut down if speed or direction becomes a concern, some schemes may require anemometer switching systems.

5.8 Runoff Irrigation systems should be installed and operated so that surface runoff and ponding does not occur. The nutrients in treated recycled water can potentially cause pollution of groundwater and surface water and a reduction in soil quality if the treated recycled water is over-used. Over-use can mobilize the nutrients into the groundwater and local wetlands. This could cause algal blooms in lakes and rivers. Avoiding over-watering will also minimise runoff and reduces the amount of water that reaches the groundwater table. For this reason, irrigation should be turned off when it rains. To reduce runoff:

Irrigation should only be conducted under dry weather conditions. Choose an irrigation site that:

- has a slope of no more than 10% - has permeable, well drained soil, - provides adequate protections for groundwater, and - is not prone to frequent flooding.

Apply recycled water in accordance with the vegetation requirements. The volume of water applied should not exceed that used by the crop or lost via evaporation or deep drainage to prevent waterlogging within the rootzones, so that a ‘water balance’ is achieved.

Diversion drains upslope may be required to control the flow of stormwater onto the site.


5.9 Occupational Health and Safety Suppliers and users of recycled water schemes should ensure that only suitably trained personnel operate the treatment and irrigation system and that appropriate health and safety measures and procedures are in place to protect operators and any others exposed to recycled water. Employers should make themselves aware of their responsibilities and duties under the Occupational Health and Safety Act 1984 The employer is responsible for ensuring: Training and education is provided on the hazards of recycled water and

sewage. Access to clean water and soap for washing hands. Access to disinfectant and dressings for wounds, cuts or lacerations that

occur during work hours. The right personal protective equipment (PPE), such as gloves, goggles, a

face shield, water-resistant suit, or respirator depending on the job. Clean areas set aside for eating and smoking. Access to cleaning facilities or services for clothing and equipment. Simple preventative mechanisms can reduce the risk of contamination and the potential for infection. To avoid infection: Practice a high level of personal hygiene. Thoroughly wash hands before

eating, drinking and smoking. Cover cuts and abrasions with gloves or a waterproof dressing. Disinfect and dress skin wounds, cuts and lacerations that occur as soon

as possible. Don’t work on active sprinklers or a pressurised system. Don’t drink water from the irrigation system. Consider vaccination. Vaccination is recommended for Hepatitis A only for

workers that have ongoing exposure to recycled water. For contractors and others with short-term exposure, vaccinations may not be as successful as good hygiene practices due to the delayed effects between immunisation and immunity. Contact your local GP to discuss the recommended vaccinations.

Ensure staff received regular training in safe work and hygiene practices. All new staff and contractors should read the Operational Procedures and be aware of hygiene practices before commencing work.

Assume all irrigation water is treated recycled water unless you have flushed the system or your supervisor tells you that the system has been flushed.

All groups who use the irrigation area should be advised that all cuts and grazes obtained on the grounds must immediately be treated with disinfectant and covered with a dressing.

Staff should be informed verbally and in writing of the potential health hazards associated with the use of recycled water and the safety precautions to be followed. A commonsense approach should be used when working in areas that utilise recycled water.


At a minimum, employee training should cover: the principles of risk management knowledge and awareness of the Recycled Water Quality Management

Plan (RWQMP), including roles, responsibilities and liabilities the recycled water system, including its operation and the control

measures that are in place to ensure public health protection the organisation’s protocols and policies for the system, such as system

management and maintenance, sampling and analysis of water, consumer complaints, or incident and emergency plans

statutory requirements relating to the recycled water system the roles and responsibilities of individuals and agencies that relate to the

recycled water system, both internal and external to the organisation the documentation, reporting and auditing of the system.

5.10 Storage Facilities Storage of recycled water is required due to seasonal and daily supply demands to prevent runoff and hydraulic overloading during periods when irrigation is not appropriate, such as extended periods of rain and for temporary detention in the event of system malfunction. The recycled water being discharged to storage facilities should already be treated to a Class such that it is suitable for the intended use. Either emergency storage facilities should be provided for overflows and inadequately treated recycled water (or the RWQMP must demonstrate that public health can be protected in another manner, such as the capacity to exclude the public from irrigated areas) until it can be demonstrated that the water meets the required water quality. The size of the operational storage depends on the variations in supply and demand and on the availability of supplementary sources of supply. Facilities for recycled water storage and disposal by land irrigation should be designed and constructed to contain all wastes in at least the 90th percentile wet year. In practice, this means that in order for a treatment plant to be recognised as not discharging to surface waters, that plant needs to have a management framework enabling the handling of all effluent in a 90th percentile wet year. For a ‘normal’ reuse site, this is likely to involve storage facilities, and/or reserve land, to cater for the excess of recycled water caused by reduced demand during particularly wet periods. Recycled water supply reservoirs which are closed to the public, shall be enclosed within a fenced area or other enclosure to restrict public access. All recycled water storage facilities shall be identified by signs on the surrounding fence or facility containing a pictorial sign in accordance with AS1319 and the words: “WARNING: RECYCLED WATER – DO NOT DRINK OR SWIM” Storage tanks that are used to store recycled water should be structurally sound. Certification form a practicing licensed structural engineer may be


required to verify that they are appropriate for their intended use. An appropriately designed cover needs to be provided to these tanks.

5.11 Algae Storage of recycled water in open storages at any stage of the treatment or distribution has the potential to promote the growth of algae. These may be harmless green algae or the potentially toxic blue green algae (cyanobacteria). Algae in recycled water can significantly reduce its quality for many applications. Some species of blue green algae have the potential to produce toxins which can pose a risk to human and stock health. An onsite worker who comes into direct contact with recycled water containing high numbers of blue green algae may be at risk of developing skin and eye irritation or gastric inflammation. If blue-green algae are applied to pasture the health of grazing livestock may be affected unless an appropriate withholding period is implemented and stock are grazed on dry land. Livestock may also be adversely affected if they drink the contaminated water and/or eat mats of dried algae left on shorelines. The risk of algal blooms is increased when nutrients (in particular phosphorus) are present at high enough concentrations and when water temperature is elevated. If there is a risk of algal blooms in stored recycled water, the treatment system should be adjusted so that phosphorus concentrations are reduced to appropriate levels or aquatic plants should be established within storages so that excess nutrients can be taken up. Destratification of water storages may reduce the tendency for algal blooms, especially some toxic forms of blue green algae. Air flotation treatment of recycled water in ponds has proven to be highly effective at both phosphorus and algae reduction. For schemes subject to regular algal blooms, a blue green algal emergency response plan should be developed. The emergency response plan should detail: - allowance for alternative supply systems; - measures to allow the screening or filtering of recycled water before supply

or application; - suitable mechanisms to clean and flush the distribution system; - a blue-green algal monitoring program; and - threshold blue-green algal cell numbers that trigger actions, such as

cessation of supply for stock drinking.

5.12 Mosquito Management In Western Australia mosquitoes can be serious pests as well as potential vectors of disease-causing viruses and parasites. Ross River virus disease and Barmah Forest virus disease occur state wide in environmentally-driven cycles and the rare, but the potentially fatal Murray Valley encephalitis occurs in the northern half of the State.


Mosquitoes breed in fresh, brackish, salt and polluted water in natural and artificial situations, as well as artificial containers. Examples of recycled water reuse infrastructure that may support mosquitoes include water and effluent storage tanks, evapotranspiration beds, drains, leaking or pooling irrigation systems, and compensation basins. It is essential that the implementation of water recycling does not enhance mosquito breeding and the transmission of disease. Some key preventative measures that relate to the design and maintenance of infrastructure are discussed below.

Constructed wetlands, water impoundments, grass swales, open earth drains and other infrastructure must be designed to minimise mosquito breeding. Additionally, water level fluctuations, flow rates, and evaporation and infiltration rates must be managed in a manner that does not promote breeding of mosquitoes. Recommendations for design parameters can be found in the references listed at the end of this section.

Regular maintenance of all structures associated with storage or treatment of recycled water is necessary to minimise mosquito breeding. For example, the growth of invasive vegetation into the margins of water storage facilities will provide ideal habitat for mosquito larvae and will prevent predators from effectively reducing their numbers. Therefore infrastructure should be designed to minimise vegetation growth in shallow water and maintenance programs should include provision for the removal of invasive vegetation, aquatic emergent vegetation or mats of algae if they develop.

Funding for an ongoing maintenance program (vegetation harvesting, mosquito larviciding etc) must be part of the original project approval request for any recycled water reuse infrastructure.

Irrigation systems that will utilise recycled water should be designed to prevent surface ponding by appropriate irrigation scheduling and by ensuring that there is no leakage at pipe junctions.

Holding tanks for recycled water, rainwater or stormwater should be designed and maintained so as to permanently prevent the entry of mosquitoes. Larvicides are available that are suitable for water storage requirements, including potable water, however this approach requires ongoing, regular and costly application.

Open recycled water storages should be monitored regularly to identify the presence of mosquito larvae to allow physical or chemical control procedures to be undertaken.

Biological control using locally sourced native fish species known to prey upon mosquito larvae may be considered for some permanent water situations, but regular larval monitoring will also be required to assess the effectiveness of the fish. The use of non-native fish species (e.g. Gambusia sp.) is not appropriate because they will compete for resources or predate on native species if they escape into natural waterways.

Chemical control of larvae should only be considered as part of an appropriate integrated pest management program using only chemicals


registered for mosquito control. If chemicals are used, this must not contaminate the recycled water so that it is no longer fit for its intended purpose.

Information on the design and management of recycled water reuse infrastructure to minimise mosquito breeding may be obtained from the Mosquito-Borne Disease Control Branch at the Department of Health (Phone 08 9385 6001) or from the following publications: Department of Health Western Australia (2004) Mosquito Management

Manual. Copies available from the Mosquito-Borne Disease Control Branch on Ph: 08 9385 6001.

Mosquito Control Association of Australia (2002) Australian Mosquito Control Manual. Copies available from www.mcaa.org.au


6 Recycled Water Quality Management Plans It is essential that recycled water schemes operate reliably and consistently to provide recycled water of the specified quality and quantity. A Recycled Water Quality Management Plan (RWQMP) must be completed by the supplier of all schemes. Each user of the recycled water must also complete a RWQMP; however, the detail of this plan will depend on the scope of the final use. The RWQMP should ensure that the treatment plant will produce water that meets the required microbial criteria, and that the water quality is not comprised downstream of the treatment process. In most cases, the supplier should lead the process for development of the user’s plan as the supplier will generally have greater resources and expertise in the handling of recycled water and in risk assessment. But by the same token, recycled water users must take responsibility for their own safe use of recycled water so it is important that each user maintains ownership and control over those parts of the plan that have a critical role in their use of recycled water. The RWQMP should include every stage in the production and use of recycled water. This will include: source control treatment disinfection transport storage use (including both onsite and off site impacts). For Class B, C and D schemes the RWQMP should consist of:

i. The treatment process’s capability to meet the microbial criteria ii. An operations and maintenance manual containing the supporting

programs required for the treatment process and management program to be effective, such as standard operating procedures, equipment maintenance and calibration programs.

For Class A and A+ schemes the RWQMP should consist of:

iii. The treatment process’s capability to meet the microbial criteria iv. A risk management program for achieving and maintaining the

microbial criteria. This program should identify significant risks to the water quality and management controls for these risks.

v. An operations and maintenance manual containing the supporting programs required for the treatment process and management program to be effective, such as standard operating procedures, equipment maintenance and calibration programs.


6.1 Operation and Maintenance Manuals RWQMP must be developed to detect any process failure, detail contingency operations and ensure ongoing compliance with all conditions of approval. The RWQMP must include supporting programs required for the treatment process and management program to be effective, such as standard operating procedures, equipment maintenance and calibration programs. This plan should be in the form of an operations and maintenance manual. Procedures should be developed for each process step or significant risk, i.e. for every activity that is necessary for the safe operation of the system. This will include routine maintenance, corrective actions and emergency response. Each procedure should contain the following information: - The purpose of the procedure. - Who is responsible for maintaining the procedure (i.e. who is responsible

for updating the procedure and ensuring its ongoing relevance, including managers who are responsible for the regular review of procedures).

- What tasks must be performed under the procedure, when and by whom: this will include relevant operational employees and supervisors.

- Which parameters must be monitored including, where relevant, critical limits for each parameter.

- Record keeping requirements for each procedure. - Corrective actions in the event of a non-conformance with the procedure. Operation and Maintenance Manuals should include (but not be limited to) the following information for each recycled water scheme. Operation and Maintenance of the Wastewater Treatment Plant

Operations of the plant A contingency plan detailing corrective and preventative actions to be

taken in the event of system failure. Maintenance Procedures, Schedules and Records. Operating records

Operation and Maintenance of the Recycled Water Scheme.

Map of pipeline route from WWTP to irrigation sites including location of chlorinators, surge tanks, storage dams, pump stations, sample points etc.

Description and plans of control mechanisms including signage, fencing, access, mosquito management, etc

Plan of all sites and their irrigation method and design layout. Delegated areas of responsibility for all staff involved with the scheme. Maintenance Procedures (see section 6.1.2), Schedules and Records. Surveillance of operation. Irrigation schedule and methods for control spray drift and runoff. A contingency plan detailing corrective and preventative actions to be

taken in the event of system failure (see section 6.1.1).


Induction/handover procedures for operators and new staff. Health and safety issues when dealing with recycled water (see section

5.8). Contact names and telephone numbers of all people involved in the

scheme. Including the Department of Health contact details.

Wastewater Management Branch Department of Health PO Box 8172 Perth Business Centre WA 6849 Telephone No: (08) 9388 4999 Fax: (08) 9388 4910

Operation and Maintenance of the Disinfection Unit.

Clear procedure of maintenance and operation of the disinfection unit. A log book is to be kept to detail all actions and inspections that have

been carried out. Safety and health section. It must be remembered that proper training

must be given to anyone handling chlorine or other chemicals. Contact details of those people responsible for maintaining disinfection

unit.

Program for Monitoring the Recycled Water Scheme. Monitoring Procedures, Schedules and Records. Sampling Protocol. Where and when to collect samples. Include the

DOH pamphlet “Recycled Water Sampling Technique.” Where and how to send samples to the National Association of Testing

Australia (NATA) accredited laboratory to be analysed. What to do if results are elevated. Copy of a correctly completed NATA accredited laboratory “Sample

Request Form”. The form should state that the operator be notified when results are above the approved standard.

Operational records of monitoring.

6.1.1 Contingency Plans Contingency Plans should be developed for recycled water reuse schemes for possible occurrences of a non-compliance event. The contingency plan should include, but not limited to: Treatment Plant Failures, Disinfection System Failures, Non-compliance of Water Quality Standard, Irrigation Failures, Failure of backflow prevention devices, and Spills or Overflows. The contingency plan should also include: a list of conditions which would require an immediate diversion and/or

shutdown to take place, a description of the diversion and/or shutdown procedures,


a description of the diversion area including capacity, holding time and return capabilities,

a description of plans for the activation of supplemental supplies (if applicable),

a plan for the disposal or treatment of any inadequately treated effluent, a description of fail safe features in the event of a power failure, and a plan (including methods) for notifying the recycled water user(s), the

Local Government, the DOH and other agencies as appropriate, of any treatment failures that could result in the delivery of inadequate treated recycled water to the use area.

6.1.2 Maintenance Program A preventative maintenance program must be developed to ensure equipment is kept in reliable operating condition. Maintenance must be regularly conducted to ensure the scheme complies with the conditions of approval and the following operational issues are managed: Unapproved uses: uses other than those approved by the DOH are

strictly prohibited. Prevention of Cross-Connections: a cross connection is defined as an

unprotected actual or potential connection between a potable water system used to supply water for drinking purposes, and the recycled water system.

Equipment maintenance: all equipment shall be maintained in good working order. Broken or faulty irrigation components shall be promptly repaired. All signs, equipment identification devices, and colour coding shall be maintained.

Runoff: all irrigation systems shall be designed, constructed and operated to minimise the runoff of recycled water outside of the approved area.

Ponding: All irrigation systems shall be designed, constructed and operated to minimise the ponding of recycled water both inside and outside of the approved area.

Windblown Spray: All irrigation system shall be designed, constructed and operated to minimise, to the fullest extent, the possibility of recycled water spray being carried outside of the approved area.

No Overspray: Recycled water shall not be sprayed on people, food handling facilities, playground equipment, BBQ’s or drinking fountains.

If treated recycled water is to be left in the system over winter, it is likely to experience regrowth and lead to odour issues at the start of the next season. If the pipes cannot be flushed with bore or fresh water then the system should be super-chlorinated.


6.2 Risk Management Program for Class A and A+

Schemes A risk assessment must be completed for all projects where production and use of recycled water may involve risks to human health. The risks involved with using recycled water will be dependant on the source of water, the treatment process, the use to which it is applied, the site of application and the management system used. The risk management approach contained in these guidelines is based on the draft National Guidelines for Water Recycling (NRMMC and EPHC) and the HACCP (Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point) system (CAC 1997). Risk assessment is best guided using a preventative risk management framework such as HACCP. A HACCP Plan is a well recognised procedure of analysing a process to identify the critical points in that process which will affect the output. The key elements of HACCP should be integrated into the plan to ensure that all recognisable risks to human health from the proposed recycled water use have been identified, monitored and controlled. The steps in risk assessment involve consideration of the consequence of all hazards (i.e. their severity), their likelihood (or probability) and the exposure of the target organism, population or ecosystem to the hazard (eg how many people are likely to be affected). This allows the overall risk (i.e. consequence, likelihood and exposure) to be estimated. a hazard is a biological, chemical, physical or radiological agent that has

the potential to cause harm. A hazardous event is an incident or situation that can lead to the presence

of a hazard (what can happen and how). A risk is the likelihood of identified hazards causing harm in exposed

populations in a specified timeframe, including the severity of the consequences.

There are 12 steps in HACCP, including 5 preliminary steps and 7 principles.


Figure 1: The HACCP Process

6.2.1 The twelve steps of HACCP Step 1 - Assemble HACCP Team The HACCP Team should be a multidisciplinary team knowledgeable of the process and product, with a broad range of expertise and skill in all aspects of the recycled water system. The team plans, develops, verifies and implements the HACCP plan. Step 2 - Describe Product A full description of the recycled water is documented. This description may include: water source; treatment processes; storage and distribution; and any special considerations to maintain recycled water safety.


Step 3 - Identify Intended Use The expected use of the recycled water is documented including: how the recycled water is to be used; consumer instructions for recycled water use; and who the recycled water is intended for. Step 4 - Construct Flow Diagram Flow diagram must clearly indicate all process steps in the operation. The flow chart must state when the company’s responsibility starts (bulk treated water, raw source water) and ends (at the meter box, at consumer tap). Steps prior to and after the organisation’s direct responsibility should also be included. Step 5 - Confirmation of Flow Diagram The HACCP team confirms that the flow diagram is both complete and accurate as it is used in the hazard analysis. The best validation is to walk through and verify the set up of the system and processes. If this is not possible, those with operational knowledge of the system can validate the flow diagram. Step 6 - Conduct a Hazard Analysis [Principle 1] A significant hazard is one that must be prevented, eliminated or reduced to an acceptable level to produce safe recycled water. Hazards may be biological, chemical or physical. Generally the hazards of greatest concern for the recycled water plant are those that are biological (pathogens). However, it may be appropriate to consider chemical and physical hazards, such as those that may result in chemical contamination of the recycled water or physical damage to the recycled water plant or reuse area. The hazard analysis consists of three steps, which should be documented: Identify hazardous events at each step in the process that may impact on

water quality. Determine the risk and significance of each hazardous event. This is the

product of how frequently the hazardous event is expected to occur and what the consequences of that event occurring are.

Identify control measures for each hazardous event. These include

system input management, physical barriers (such as treatment steps), monitoring, standard operating procedures and personnel training. More than one control measure may be required to control a particular hazard, and more than one hazard may be controlled by a particular measure.

Step 7 - Determine Critical Control Points (CCPs) [Principle 2] A CCP is a point, step or procedure at which control can be applied and a hazard can be prevented, eliminated, or reduced to acceptable levels. The decision tree in Figure 2 may be used to determine if a process step is a CCP.


Figure 2: Decision tree to identify CCPs

Step 8 - Establish Critical Limits [Principle 3] Critical limits are assigned to each control measure at a CCP. All CCP’s must have limits for their operational parameters that are defined and validated. A critical limit distinguishes between acceptable and unacceptable performance. When a critical limit is not met, corrective actions should be immediately instituted to resume control of the process. Step 9 - Monitoring [Principle 4] Monitoring is planned observations or measurements to provide a record. All critical limits have associated monitoring activity to ensure that the critical limit is met. A monitoring regime that identifies the location and frequency of


monitoring, and a description of the method or procedure of monitoring must be established. If monitoring indicates that the critical limit has not been met, then corrective action must be taken. Step 10 - Establish Corrective Actions [Principle 5] Corrective actions are taken when a critical limit is not met. If a critical limit is indicative of the treatment process providing sufficient pathogen removal, then the corrective action for not meeting that limit might be to stop water delivery to end users. Corrective actions ensure that the CCP is brought under control. Corrective actions can include: immediate action, responsibility for corrective action, disposition of recycled water and the root cause of the problem. The documentation of corrective actions must include what immediate action is required to resolve the problem, who is responsible for undertaking the corrective action, and who must be notified. Step 11 - Establish Verification Procedures [Principle 6] Verification procedures are used to determine whether the control measures are effective and whether the water quality management plan is being implemented appropriately. Verification includes: testing the monitoring and procedures identified in the HACCP plan during

commissioning of the treatment process. Validation of critical limits Equipment calibration Cleaning and maintenance programs HACCP plan reviews and internal/external audits Ongoing evaluation of monitoring data to assess the overall performance

of the treatment process and HACCP plan. Step 12 - Establish Documentation and Record Keeping [Principle 7] Documentation is required as proof of compliance to the HACCP plan and to provide a legal defence for due diligence. HACCP records should be dated and signed. Records should provide recycled water traceability. Appropriate documentation provides the foundation for establishing and maintaining an effective HACCP plan. Documentation should include:

information used to develop the HACCP plan CCPs, critical limits, monitoring and corrective actions standard operating procedures relied upon or specifically developed for

the HACCP plan verification activities, including the validation of critical limits records generated as a result of monitoring reviews and modifications to the HACCP plan.

6.2.2 Validation The validation of critical limits is essential for substantiating that the system can be controlled to meet the water quality objectives, and the associated monitoring activities will be able to effectively indicate this. Validation must occur before supply of recycled water can commence.


The first stage of validation is to consider data that already exists. This can include data from the scientific literature, existing guidance, historical data (for example from other schemes) and supplier knowledge. The second stage of validation is to determine whether additional testing is required – for example, whether specific on-site studies are necessary – and to collect and analyse the appropriate data. As validation is not used for the day-to-day management of the system, parameters that may be inappropriate for operational monitoring can be used. These may include microorganisms or tracer studies.


7. Monitoring and Reporting The aim of a monitoring program is to demonstrate that the recycled water is achieving the required level of treatment for its intended use. The level of monitoring required will depend on the reliability of the treatment process, the method of irrigation and the risk to public health. Monitoring within a recycled water scheme has three core components, these are:

1. Validation monitoring: (Will it work?) Is monitoring that proves that the system delivers the expected water quality. It takes place during the commissioning phase before the scheme goes live, and again after changes are made. Monitoring is focused on microbiological indicators.

Table 5: Examples of Validation monitoring for health risks

Process step to be validated Validation monitoring

Associated monitoring: items that will subsequently

be routinely monitored during operational

monitoring Sewer catchment trade waste controls

On-site inspection of the trade waste and sewer protection controls at major hazard facilities and examination of their technical validity

• Trade waste licence agreements

Primary settling system

Inlet and outlet microbial indicator concentrations:a • Monitoring should at the very least include E. coli, would ideally include coliphage and clostridial spores, and may include some pathogens.

• Flow rate through the system • Solids depth

Secondary treatment system


• Flow rate through the system • Sludge blanket depth

Lagoon Inlet and outlet microbial indicator concentrations:a • Monitoring should at the very least include E. coli, would ideally include coliphage and clostridial spores, and may include some pathogens.

• Flow rate through the system • Toxic blue-green algal levels and toxin concentrations • Microbial indicator concentrations

Media filtration plantb


• Turbidity upstream and downstream of system • Head loss across system • Particle counts on outlet • pH and temperature • Coagulant dosage rate • Streaming current

Membrane plant

Inlet and outlet microbial indicator concentrations:a • Monitoring should at the very least include E. coli, would ideally include coliphage and clostridial spores, and

• Turbidity upstream and downstream of system • Head loss across system • Particle counts on outlet


may include some pathogens. Ultraviolet plant


• Turbidity upstream of disinfection system • UV transmissivity • UV intensity and/or calculated dose • Flow rate to enable calculation of retention times • Ballast functionality, lamp power and lamp status

Chlorination plantb


• Turbidity upstream of disinfection system • Free chlorine, temperature and pH at downstream monitoring point, certainly well after the point at which the immediate chlorine demand has been satisfied, and ideally at a point representing a significant proportion of the total required contact time • Flow rate to enable calculation of Ct

Cross-connection control

Check every drinking-water property connection by turning off the drinking-water supply at each property in series, leaving the recycled supply turned on (charged with drinking water); then check all drinking and recycled water outlets to confirm that only the recycled water outlets on the property are live and that no drinking-water outlets are live.

• Flow rate measured through meters

Accidental ingestion control

Confirm that minimum heights, labelling, colouring, threads and fittings are in use by inspecting all connected properties and their outlets.

• Inspection of labels and fittings

User agreements

Confirm that all users have been bound by their user agreements by direct telephone interview or through written reply and signature.

• Oversight of usage practices

Ct = contact time a: If inlet microbial indicator concentrations are too low to enable validation of the required log reduction, seeding of challenge microorganisms is required. b: For conventionally filtered or membrane filtered effluent with a turbidity that does not exceed 2 NTU (nephelometric turbidity units), or lagoon treated water with a turbidity that does not exceed 5 NTU, partly theoretical validation based on the objective measurement of Ct and what is known about microbial inactivation is acceptable and microbial indicator validation is not essential; some such monitoring will be undertaken as part of verification monitoring. Source: National Guidelines for Water Recycling (NRMMC and EPHC in draft)


2. Operational Monitoring: (Is it working now?) Is the routine monitoring conducted to ensure the system is operating as intended. Monitoring involves a broad range of parameters with both observation (eg warning signs in place), electrochemical devices (eg pH, turbidity and chlorine), and microbiological indicators.

Table 6: Examples of Operational Monitoring and supporting programs for health risks.

Process step to be monitored Operational monitoring Supporting programs

Media filtration plant

• Turbidity downstream of system • Head loss across system • pH and temperature

• Instrument calibration • Asset maintenance program

Primary settling system

• Flow rate through the system • Solids depth


Secondary treatment system

• Flow rate through the system • Sludge blanket depth


Lagoon

• Flow rate through the system • Toxic blue-green algal levels and toxin concentrations • Microbial indicator concentrations


Membrane plant

• Turbidity downstream of system • Head loss across system • Particle counts on outlet


Ultra violet (UV) plant

• Turbidity upstream • UV transmissivity • UV intensity and/or calculated dose • Flow rate • Ballast functionality • Lamp power • Lamp status • Cleaning frequency


Chlorination plant

• Turbidity upstream • Free chlorine, temperature and pH at downstream monitoring point • Flow rate to enable calculation of Ct


Over-irrigation control

• Soil moisture content • Irrigation time


Accidental ingestion control

• Timing of irrigation • Direction of sprinkler throw prior to application • Wind direction prior to application • Presence, currency and comprehension of user agreements • Presence, integrity and clarity of fittings, signage and other end user controls


Source: National Guidelines for Water Recycling (NRMMC and EPHC in draft)


3. Verification Monitoring: (Did it work?) Is the monitoring conducted to ensure compliance with the RWQMP.

Table 7: Examples of Verification monitoring

Process steps Verification monitoring At recycled water treatment plants

• Check that calibration schedules comply with requirements for monitoring equipment used for operational monitoring. • Check that preventative maintenance schedules are being adhered to for equipment that controls recycled water quality. • Check that log books or recording systems are being completed to report the results of operational monitoring and details of the corrective actions taken in response to any deviations detected.

At the point of supply immediately downstream of the completion of final disinfection, but upstream of any open lagoons or basins

Monitoring of the microbial indicator concentrations should at the very least include E. coli weekly, would ideally include coliphage and clostridial spores weekly for higher grade systems (eg for a typical dual reticulation system median E. coli < 1 per 100 mL, somatic phage < 10 pfu/100 mL, Clostridium perfringens < 1 per 1 L), and may include some pathogens monthly or quarterly for the highest grade systems.

At the point of use

Check that log books or recording systems are being completed to report the results of operational monitoring and details of the corrective actions taken in response to any deviations detected.

Source: National Guidelines for Water Recycling (NRMMC and EPHC in draft) 7.1 Monitoring Program The development of a monitoring program that meets the provisions listed in Table 9 is an essential element of a sustainable recycled water scheme. In addition, for irrigation schemes, a program should be developed to monitor the potential impacts on the receiving environment. It must be documented in the RWQMP and describe the organisation that has responsibility for undertaking the monitoring. Usually it is the recycled water supplier that will undertake the monitoring for water quality. Factors such as the quantity and quality of recycled water and the risks associated with use should be considered when developing the receiving environment monitoring program. For example, the monitoring requirements for a 10 kilolitres per day reuse scheme will generally be significantly less than those for a 10 megalitres per day scheme. A recycled water monitoring program should:

i. Specify flow-monitoring provisions. The volume of recycled water flowing to the reuse scheme should be monitored and recorded;

ii. Specify the parameters to be monitored. Monitoring of the water quality parameters listed in Table 9 should be undertaken. In addition, monitoring practices for potential contaminants and toxicants (heavy metals, organics and inorganics) in irrigation water containing trade and other industrial wastes may be required. Monitoring for these additional parameters will depend on the source/s of recycled water (for example,


domestic, industrial or animal waste sources), the concentrations of contaminant/s present, and the reuse schemes;

iii. Define appropriate sampling locations. The point at which the quality of the recycled water is to be demonstrated should be described; and

iv. Specify sampling frequencies. Default sampling frequencies are specified in Table 9.

Records of monitoring results should be kept in order to demonstrate ongoing compliance with conditions of approval. Records to be kept include:

i. exceedences of quality limits and corrective action taken, ii. details of incidents and corrective action taken, iii. inspection and maintenance reports, and iv. monitoring data.

Reuse Area Monitoring The monitoring program developed should be able to identify changes that may occur at or around the application site as a result of recycled water irrigation. It should provide the operator with an early warning of any risk to public health. Regular monitoring of the irrigation area should ensure no ponding or runoff is occurring, signage is in place and not damaged and the irrigation systems is working properly. Soil quality should be monitored to ensure that no harm is being done to soil structure and chemistry. The recycled water piping system should be inspected and the operation tested at all new services at installation, all services on change of ownership, all services following completion of property extension or plumbing modification and at least every 5 years. Groundwater monitoring In areas where the soils are porous and/or the groundwater is close to the surface, it may be necessary to conduct groundwater monitoring either under or down-gradient of the irrigation area to ensure that the quality of the groundwater is not compromised for any other beneficial uses. Of particular concern would be nitrate or bacteriological contamination of groundwater that might be used for drinking. A risk assessment should be carried out to determine the need for such monitoring and if it is required, where sampling is needed, how often, and what the water should be tested for.

7.1.1 Bacteriological Monitoring The DOH requires that all recycled water use is subject to samples of the recycled water being submitted for bacteriological examination on a regular basis and it is notified if there is a failure or the system operation and the water quality requirements. Sampling points should be located immediately after disinfection. Monitoring regimes in Table 9 are the minimum recommended where there may be a risk to public health. All users must conduct initial and periodic


monitoring to establish effluent quality and the reliability of the treatment process. Demonstration that treatment processes are satisfactory and that quality assurance processes are operating is an acceptable alternative to regular ongoing monitoring in some instances. All sampling protocols used and monitoring programs undertaken during the production and use of recycled water should take place in accordance with either of the following publications Water Quality Monitoring and Reporting (ANZECC and ARMCANZ 2000) or the DOH “Standard Recycled Water Sampling Technique”. The recycled water samples are to be analysed by a National Association of Testing Authority (NATA) registered laboratory. If microbiological samples exceed the required limit contact the DOH immediately. Investigate the cause of the exceedences and resample as soon as possible. It may be required to shut down the system or ensure that there is no public access to the area irrigated until the problem can be rectified. The system should not be reconnected until the recommended water quality has been met. Suppliers should periodically undertake investigations for the presence of toxicants such as heavy metals and organic chemicals in recycled water. Such toxicant investigations should occur when a modification to a treatment plant process commences operation, or when significant changes occur within the sewerage catchment (such as a new or modified trade and/or industrial waste connections).

7.1.2 Monitoring of Class A recycled water Although demonstration of recycled water quality prior to supply is important for all classes, a formal pre-commissioning phase is critical for Class A recycled water. The verification of the water quality as Class A must be supported by a period of microbial monitoring (a pre-commissioning, or plant verification program). Monitoring should occur over a minimum of two-months. The pre-commissioning phase must be described in the RWQMP. For Class A schemes, continuous monitoring to demonstrate treatment reliability must be undertaken. This includes online monitoring of turbidity and disinfection efficiency (such as chlorine residual). Weekly monitoring of other indicators and daily inspections of the disinfection unit are also suggested best practice. The need for an ongoing monitoring program to confirm removal of pathogenic organisms will also need to be assessed and described in the RWQMP. For treatment trains without a performance record, it is expected that the commissioning phase would at least involve monitoring of raw sewage and recycled water to detect E.coli, adenoviruses, rotaviruses, enteroviruses, reo viruses, hepatitis A, Cryptosporidium and Giardia. For treatment trains that have a demonstrated track record of achieving a Class A quality water, a reduced pre-commissioning phase may be appropriate.


Below is an example of monitoring that may be required for the following example wastewater treatment plant. “Example” Class A Wastewater Treatment Plant

Screens Ultrafiltration Chlorination/StorageC D EB

Activated sludge

Discharge

Influent(raw sewage)

A

Class A treatmentprocess

“Example” Water Quality Sampling Program

Organism Location Volume Frequency Duration E.coli A, B, D, E 100 mL Weekly 8 weeks FRNA phage A, B, D, E 100 mL Weekly 8 weeks Adenovirus* A, B, D, E** 50 L Fortnightly 8 weeks Enterovirus* A, B, D, E** 50 L Fortnightly 8 weeks Reovirus* A, B, D, E** 50 L Fortnightly 8 weeks Cryptosporidium A, B, D 50 L Fortnightly 8 weeks Giardia A, B, D 50 L Fortnightly 8 weeks Helminths A, B, D 1 L Four-weekly 8 weeks * Adenovirus, enterovirus and reovirus can be sampled together from the one 50L volume. ** Given it is anticipated that all enteric viruses will be removed by the ultrafiltration step, sampling at point E is optional. It should be noted, however, that if samples at point D are positive for these organisms, then sampling at E will be required. Notes Sampling from the influent to the existing secondary treatment process (i.e. raw sewage)

is also required – this will indicate the log reductions of organisms that are achieved by treatment at this step and the reasonable worst-case scenario for pathogens hitting the Class A plant if the WWTP fails to perform.

The final water quality must meet the following: o <1 E.coli/100mL o <1 Enteric virus/50L o <1 protozoa/50L o <1 helminth/L

7.1.2.1 Cessation of Supply Schemes that require Class A recycled water must have automatic shut down mechanisms in place. This ensures that there is no supply at times of non-compliance with specific treatment and water quality. The triggers for cessation of supply will depend on the treatment train used and will need to be specified in the RWQMP, after endorsement by DOH. Indicative triggers are:

greater than 40 E.coli per 100 millilitres; any plant failure;


any failure of the disinfection unit; a turbidity reading that exceeds the maximum of five NTU; an average 24 hour turbidity reading that exceeds two NTU; a reduction in disinfection efficiency or reduction in chlorine residual

below one milligram per litre.

7.1.3 Notification Limits Cessation of supply and any other non-compliant results for Class A recycled water must be immediately reported to the DOH. Supply will only be resumed after the DOH has granted approval. Table 8 lists the microbiological notification limit for all schemes other than Class A. These limits apply at the end of the treatment process (that is, prior to discharge to storage facilities). If the notification limits are exceeded, immediate re-sampling should be undertaken. If they are exceeded on two consecutive occasions, supply should cease, an investigation undertaken and corrective action taken. The user and the DOH need to be notified immediately. Supply may resume when the problem has been rectified. The action/s taken to rectify the problem should be documented. Table 8. Microbiological notification limits for recycled water classes other than Class A

Class Microbiological limits (E. coli per 100mL)

Notification limits

B <100 400 C <1,000 4,000 D <10,000 40,000

7.2 Reporting Records of all monitoring results and analyses should be kept for at least ten years in order to analyse trends and demonstrate ongoing compliance with the objectives of these Guidelines. Records should include:

an analysis of trends in the parameters monitored; the exceeding of quality limits and corrective action taken; details of incidents and corrective action taken; inspection and maintenance reports; monitoring data; and record of flow data.

Suggested measures for reporting by suppliers should include:


A listing or register of supplied reuse schemes, including quality, quantity and type of reuse supplied to.

Regular inspections and maintenance of treatment, reticulation and reuse facilities.

These records should be made available to the DOH and users upon request. Suppliers of recycled water must submit a summary report on the above information to the DOH annually.

7.2.1 Emergency reporting In the event of an emergency incident, the user and/or supplier must notify the DOH, any other relevant regulatory body and affected parties as soon as practicable. Notification should be prompt and include details of corrective and future preventative action being taken. 7.3 Auditing Auditing is important to ensure that suppliers and those who reuse meet their obligations under these Guidelines. Auditing ensures:

that the supplier and user/s are meeting their obligations under these Guidelines and any other relevant legislation, policies, standards and guidelines;

whether the RWQMP is being implemented resulting in compliance with the Guidelines; and

any inadequately managed risk exposures (environmental, human and stock health) and possible adverse publicity associated with the reuse scheme are identified.

The process for undertaking audits and the people or organisations involved in the process should be described in the RWQMP. This guideline does not include formal requirements for a DOH appointed auditor to undertake scheme audits. Although large schemes should consider a third party audit process. Audits undertaken in accordance with other QA systems such as the HACCP will satisfy the provisions under these Guidelines, provided the system fully addresses the use of recycled water. Audit frequency will depend upon the size of the scheme and the level of risk posed but should occur every two years for schemes that use more than 1 ML/d. It is suggested that smaller reuse schemes be audited at least every three years. As discussed, the DOH will conduct selected audits of reuse schemes to ensure compliance with these Guidelines. Audits will also identify the effectiveness of such guidelines in the minimisation of risks associated with reuse schemes.


Table 9: Recycled Water Uses, Required Class, Recommended Monitoring and Site Management Controls.

Type of Reuse Class Recycled Water Quality Monitoring* Site Management Controls

URBAN (non potable) Residential - garden watering - toilet flushing - third pipe systems

A

Indicative monitoring** - pH, BOD, SS, E.coli weekly - turbidity and chlorine residual

continuous - disinfection system daily1

- Appropriate signage in accordance with AS 1319 – Safety Signs - Monitoring and Audit Programs - RWQMP

Municipal with uncontrolled access - irrigation of ovals, parks, median strips, golf courses etc

A

Indicative monitoring** - pH, BOD, SS, E.coli weekly - turbidity and chlorine residual


- Appropriate signage in accordance with AS 1319 – Safety Signs. - Monitoring and Audit Programs. - RWQMP.

Municipal with controlled public access - irrigation of ovals, parks,

median strips, golf courses etc

- ornamental ponds

C

- pH, BOD, SS2, E.coli monthly - disinfection system daily1

- Restrict public access during irrigation period and for a period of 4 hours after irrigation or until dry3.

- If offsite discharge is likely recycled water of Class A or B quality may be required.

- Appropriate signage in accordance with AS 1319 – Safety Signs. - Monitoring and Audit Programs. - RWQMP

Fire fighting A+

Indicative monitoring** - pH, BOD, SS, E.coli weekly - disinfection system daily - turbidity and chlorine residual

continuous - initial suite of chemical

analysis from DOH Chemical Guidelines

- Appropriate signage in accordance with AS 1319 – Safety Signs - Monitoring and Audit Programs - RWQMP

AGRICULTURAL Food crops Class A uses Indicative monitoring** - Appropriate signage in accordance with AS 1319 – Safety Signs


(table 4) - consumed raw or sold to consumers uncooked or unprocessed grown less than 1 metre above ground, with direct contact with recycled water.

A - pH, BOD, SS, E.coli weekly - turbidity and chlorine residual


- Monitoring and Audit Programs - RWQMP

Food crops Class C uses (table 3) - sold to consumers cooked or processed, grown over 1 metre above the ground, not in direct contact with recycled water.

C

- pH, BOD, SS2 monthly - E.coli weekly

- RWQMP - Restrict public access during irrigation period and for a period of 4

hours after irrigation or until dry. - Specific agriculture controls as per section 3.2 and Table 4 eg

withholding periods. - Dropped produce that is potentially consumed raw is not to be

harvested. - Crops required to be cooked or processed must be cooked

(>70°C for at least 2 minutes) or commercially proc essed before sale for domestic use.

- Appropriate signage in accordance with AS 1319 – Safety Signs. - Monitoring and auditing programs.

Non food crops - turf, woodlots, forestry, flowers etc

D - pH, BOD, SS2 monthly - E.coli weekly

- Restrict public access or harvesting during irrigation period and for a period of 4 hours after irrigation or until dry3.

- Appropriate signage in accordance with AS 1319 – Safety Signs. - Monitoring and auditing programs.

- Irrigating Pasture or Fodder for dairy animals - Livestock drinking water (except pigs) - Washdown water for dairy sheds and stockyards (but not milking equipment)

B

- pH, BOD, SS2, E.coli weekly - disinfection system daily1

- Restrict public and stock access during irrigation period and for a period of 4 hours after irrigation or until dry3, drying or ensiling of fodder must be undertaken.

- Appropriate signage in accordance with AS 1319 – Safety Signs. - Monitoring and auditing programs. - RWQMP. - Specific agriculture controls as per section 3.2 and Table 4 eg

withholding periods. Irrigating Pasture or Fodder C - pH, BOD, SS2 monthly - Restrict public and stock during irrigation period and for a period


for grazing animals (except pigs)

- E.coli weekly of 4 hours after irrigation or until dry3, drying or ensiling of fodder. - Helminth control for cattle or dairy grazing with dairy animals also

requiring a 5 day withholding period. - Specific agriculture controls as per section 3.2 and Table 3 eg withholding periods - Appropriate signage in accordance with AS 1319 – Safety Signs. - Monitoring and auditing programs. - RWQMP

INDUSTRIAL

Open systems (high human contact) - wash down water - dust suppression /control

A - pH, E.coli weekly - turbidity and chlorine residual


- Appropriate signage in accordance with AS 1319 – Safety Signs - Monitoring and Audit Programs. - RWQMP. - Additional treatment may be required to prevent scaling,

corrosion, biological growth, fouling and foaming. - Class A recycled water generally recommended but could be site

specific eg Class B is acceptable for saleyards or stockyard washdown.

- Controls to be implemented (eg protective clothing and equipment) to prevent exposure of workers to spray drift, aerosols, etc.

Closed systems (low human contact) - boiler feed - cooling water

C - Site and process specific

- Class C recycled water is generally recommended but could be site specific.

- Additional treatment may be required to prevent scaling, corrosion, biological growth, fouling and foaming.

- RWQMP Notes to Table 6 1. Disinfection systems refer to chlorination, UV or other chemical/physical disinfection systems. Monitoring requirements include checking chlorine residual or operational checking of equipment. Inspection frequency does not apply to lagoon-based systems. 2. Suspended solids are not used for monitoring the performance (water quality) of lagoon systems. 3. Public access restrictions do not cover on-site workers. On-site worker access should be restricted as far as it does not impede on their duties and to ensure compliance with any occupational health and safety guidelines.


* A monitoring frequency reduced below that described in this table may be acceptable for small treatment plants that have demonstrated reliability of performance coupled with uses that do not require high quality recycled water (for example, Class C). ** Monitoring described is indicative since monitoring programs for schemes requiring class A recycled water will need to be customised to reflect the treatment train process used and the available information on the treatment train efficiency and reliability. A commissioning phase with more detailed microbiological testing and an ongoing program for verification of pathogen (such as virus and protozoan) removal will also be undertaken (7.1).


8 Appendices Appendix A: Glossary ANZECC: Australian and New Zealand Environment and Conservation Council ARMCANZ: Agricultural and Resource Management Council of Australia and New Zealand AS/NZS: Australian and New Zealand Standard BOD: Biological Oxygen Demand - a measure of the oxygen demanding substances required for the breakdown of organic material; usually refers to a five day test of the total BOD in a sample and may then also be referenced as BOD5; expressed in milligrams per litre (mg/L). cfu: colony forming unit Chlorination: the application of chlorine or chlorine compounds to water or recycled water, usually for the purpose of pathogen reduction, but often to provide chemical oxidation and odour control. Controlled access: Areas where public or livestock access is restricted for defined periods of time so as to minimise the likelihood of direct physical contact with recycled water. Control measure: Any action or activity that can be used to prevent or eliminate a hazard or reduce it to an acceptable level. Critical control point: A point, step or procedure in a recycled water process at which control can be applied, and a safety hazard can as a result be prevented, eliminated or reduced to acceptable levels. Critical limit: The maximum or minimum value to which a physical, biological or chemical parameter must be controlled at a critical control point to prevent, eliminate or reduce to an acceptable level the occurrence of the identified safety hazard. Cross-connection: A physical connection between the recycled water and drinking water supply systems. Disinfection: A process which destroys, inactivates or removes pathogenic micro-organisms. DOH: Department of Health, Western Australia Drinking water: Water intended primarily for human consumption. Also known as potable water.


Dual reticulation system: two separate and distinct piping systems; one of which is used to transport water for potable use and the other for non-potable use. Sometimes referred to as a ‘third pipe scheme’ or ‘dual pipe scheme’. Effluent: Treated or untreated wastewater flowing out of a wastewater treatment plant or transfer system. E coli: Escherichia coli. A thermotolerant coliform organism, predominantly faecal coliforms; used as an indicator of faecal contamination. It is expressed as organisms per 100mL. Ensiling: Process for preservation of animal fodder crops by storage in silos, pits or trenches with exclusion of air. Filter: A device or structure for removing solid or colloidal material from liquids by physically trapping the particles and removing them. Flocculation: The formation of settleable particles from destabilised colloidal-sized particles. Furrow irrigation: A method of irrigation whereby water is applied via small ditches or furrows that lead from the supply channel, thus wetting only part of the ground surface. Groundwater: Subsurface water from which wells, springs, or bores are fed. HACCP: Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point. An industry recognised risk management system to control safety hazards in a process by applying a two part technique: first, an analysis that identifies hazards and their severity and likelihood of occurrence; and second, identification of critical control points and their monitoring criteria to establish controls that will reduce, prevent, or eliminate the identified hazards. Hazard: A biological, chemical, physical or radiological agent that has the potential to cause harm. Hazardous event: An incident or situation that can lead to the presence of a hazard. Helminths: Parasitic worms including roundworms, tapeworms, hookworms and pinworms Indirect Potable: The derivation of drinking water from surface or groundwater reclamation containing some proportion of treated recycled water. Lagoon: A large pond or holding dam used to contain and/or treat recycled water.


Membrane filtration: Recycled water is passed through porous membranes, with differentiation between classes of membranes typically on the basis of the maximum molecular weight or size of compound capable of passing through the membranes. Membrane techniques such as microfiltration typically have pores from 50 to 10,000 nm, ultrafiltration usually involves pores from 1 to 100 nm, while nanofiltration and reverse osmosis typically have filtration equivalent to pores of 0.1 to 1 nm. mL: millilitre 90th percentile: When expressed as a limit, ninety percent of the samples taken over a specified period must not exceed the prescribed value, that is, the 90th percentile of the available data’s statistical distribution. NHMRC: National Health and Medical Research Council. NATA: National Association of Testing Authorities Non-potable: Water not suitable for human consumption. Non-potable purposes: The use of water for purposes other than drinking, cooking, bathing and laundry; for example irrigation of gardens, lawns and toilet flushing. NTU: Nephelometric Turbidity Unit – units of measure of the turbidity of water due to suspended solids using a nephelometre. NWQMS: National Water Quality Management Strategy Operator: The responsible person or organisation managing and operating a recycled water scheme. Passive Recreation: Recreational activities such as boating, picnicking or fishing that do not involve bodily contact with the water. Pathogens: Disease causing microbes eg viruses, bacteria, helminths and protozoa. Potable Water: Water of a quality suitable for drinking, cooking, bathing and laundry purposes. Primary contact recreation: Recreational activities involving immersion of a person in water eg swimming, skiing, surfing. Primary treatment: The initial treatment which involves screening and sedimentation to remove gross and settleable solids. Public Drinking Water Source Areas (PDWSA): areas declared under the Metropolitan Water Supply, Sewerage and Drainage Act 1909, and the Country Areas Supply Act 1947 for the management and protection of water


sources used for public drinking water supply. They include Underground Water Pollution Control Areas, Water Reserves and Catchment Areas. Recycled Water: Water derived from sewerage systems or industrial processes and treated to a standard that is satisfactory for its intended use. Also known as Recycled Water and Recycled Wastewater. Reuse: The utilisation of appropriately treated recycled water for some further beneficial purpose. Risk: The likelihood of identified hazards causing harm in exposed populations in a specified time frame, including the severity of consequences. Risk Assessment: The overall process of using available information to predict how often hazards or specified events may occur (likelihood) and the magnitude of their consequences. RWQMP: Recycled Water Quality Management Plan. Secondary treatment: follows primary treatment and is typically regarded as low rate stabilisation processes such as facultative lagoons or biological/mechanical treatment such as biofiltration, trickling filter, intermittently decanted extended aeration (IDEA) or activated sludge plants. Sewage: Any waste containing human excreta or domestic wastewater. Spray irrigation: means the application of recycled water to crops to maintain vegetation or support growth of vegetation by applying it from sprinklers. Storage lagoon: A lagoon used to store treated recycled water prior to application. SS: Suspended Solids – the non filtrable residual solids which are suspended in sewage or effluent. It is expressed in milligrams/litre (mg/L). Supplier: A person or organisation that supplies recycled water for use. Tertiary treatment: The treatment of wastewater beyond the secondary biological stage. It normally implies the removal of a high percentage of suspended solids and/or nutrients followed by disinfection. Thermotolerant coliforms: A subset of coliforms found in the intestinal tract of humans and other warm blooded animals. Consists of chiefly Ecoli. Used as an indicator of faecal pollution and effectiveness of disinfection processes and measured as a colony forming unit or cfu/100mL. Treatment lagoon: Any large pond or holding used to contain recycled water while treatment processes including sedimentation and biological oxidation occur. Stabilisation and maturation lagoons are examples of treatment lagoons.


Uncontrolled access: (or open access) areas where recycled water is used and public access is unrestricted. User: A person or organisation that uses recycled water. Water Quality: refers to chemical, physical, biological, bacteriological, radiological, and other properties and characteristics of water which affect its use. Wastewater: The used water of a community or industry collected and transported through the sewerage system. WWTP: Wastewater Treatment Plant


Appendix B: Application checklist Suggested checklist Type of reuse (including quantity and quality of recycled water used) Treatment, maintenance and water distribution reliability controls. Operations Manual Plan showing location of prominent warning signs in accordance with the

principles of AS 1319 - Safety Signs for the Occupational Environment) and sensitive features within 200 metres of the reuse site

Occupational health and safety controls. Spray drift controls (if relevant). Access controls – public and/or stock, including withholding periods (if

relevant). Inspection and maintenance programs. Training program. Contingency plans. Recycled water monitoring program (including identification and

measurement of chemical contaminants if significant trade waste present). Reporting program. Auditing program. Recycled water quality management plan. Irrigation schemes A 1:100 minimum scaled locality plan of the reuse site showing site

characteristics (eg slope, soil, groundwater characteristics) and sensitive features within 200 metres of the irrigation boundary areas.

Water budget (including irrigation scheduling). Irrigation method, operation and maintenance procedures. Winter storage requirements. Leaching controls. Groundwater controls if relevant. Drainage (if relevant) and stormwater run off and collection controls. Produce safety controls (if relevant). Receiving environment monitoring and reporting programs (including

livestock monitoring program, if relevant).


Appendix C: Approval Flow Chart

RECYCLED SCHEME

DOH approval (section 98 of Health Act 1911)

Is the daily volume greater than 20m3/d?

YES NO

DEC works approval No further action (Category 85 sewerage facility) Is the daily volume greater than 100m3/d? YES DEC licence required Designated Licensed Sewerage Facility (Category 54 of Environmental Protection Act)


Appendix D: List of References (This list is not exhaustive, representing only key literature for further reading or reference.) AGWEST (1997) SQF 2000CM Quality Code: 1997. A HACCP Quality Code for the Food Industry. 2nd edition, Aug 1997. AGWEST Trade and Development, Agriculture, Western Australia. ANZECC (1992) Australian Water Quality Guidelines for Fresh and Marine Waters. National Water Quality Management Strategy. Australian and New Zealand Environment Conservation Council. Available at www.deh.gov.au/water/quality ANZECC (1994) Guidelines for Sewage Systems Acceptance of Trade Wastes (Industrial Wastes) National Water Quality Management Strategy. Australian And New Zealand Environment Conservation Council. ANZECC (1997) Australian Guidelines for Sewerage Systems – Effluent Management. National Water Quality Management Strategy. Australian and New Zealand Environment and Conservation Council, Agriculture and Resource Management Council of Australia and New Zealand. ANZECC (2000) Guidelines for Sewerage Systems – Recycled Water. National Water Quality Management Strategy. Australian And New Zealand Environment Conservation Council, Agriculture And Resource Management Council Of Australia And New Zealand, National Health And Medical Research Council. ANZECC (2001) Australian New Zealand Guidelines for Fresh and Marine Water Quality. National Water Quality Management Strategy. Australian and New Zealand Environment Conservation Council. Available at: www.environment.gov.au/science/water/index.html) Anzfa (1987-2000). Food Standards Code Schedule A12 Metals And Contaminants In Food. Incorporating amendments up to and including Amendment 47 Nov./Dec. 1999. Originally published by the National Health and Medical Research Council in the Commonwealth of Australia, Gazette, No. P27, 27 August 1987. ARMCANZ (1996) Australian Drinking Water Guidelines. National Water Quality Management Strategy. Agriculture And Resource Management Council Of Australia And New Zealand, National Health And Medical Research Council. ARMCANZ (2000) Revision Of The Australian Drinking Water Guidelines. Public Consultation Document. National Water Quality Management Strategy. Agriculture And Resource Management Council Of Australia And New Zealand, National Health & Medical Research Council, June 2000.


Blumenthal UJ et al (2000) Guidelines For The Microbiological Quality Of Treated Wastewater Used In Agriculture: Recommendations For Revising The WHO Guidelines. Blumenthal U.J., Mara D.D., Peasey A., Ruiz-Palacios G. and Stott R. Bulletin of the World Health Organisation (WHO) 2000, 78(9), pp 1104-1116. CAC 1997, Hazard analysis and critical control point (HACCP) systems and guidelines for its application. Annex to CAC/RCP 1-1969, Rev 3, Codex Alimentarius Commission, Geneva. CSIRO (1995) Effluent Irrigated Plantations: Design and Management. CSIRO (Division of Forestry) Technical Paper No.2, Canberra 1995. CSIRO (1999) Sustainable Effluent-Irrigated Plantations. An Australian Guideline. CSIRO Forestry and Forest Products, Land and Water, Canberra 1999. Available at: www.ffp.csiro.au/pff//effluent_guideline/ Cunliffe D. & Stevens M. 2003, Success of HACCP in the drinking water industry – can it be adapted to reuse schemes? Proceedings of 2nd National Water Recycling Conference, Brisbane, September 2003. DHS South Australia (1999) Recycled Water Guidelines, Treated Effluent. Department of Human Services and Environment Protection Agency. Adelaide, South Australia. Available at: www.environment.sa.gov.au/epa/pdfs/recycled.pdf DPH & DFA (1992) Code of Practice Piggeries. Department of Planning and Housing (DPH), Department of Food and Agriculture (DFA), Revised 1992. EPA Victoria (2002) Guidelines for Environmental Management: Use of Recycled Water, Publication 464, August 2002, Victoria. EPA Victoria (2003) Environmental Guidelines for the Disinfection of Recycled Water, Publication No. 730.1, Victoria. EPA Victoria (2005) Dual Pipe Water Recycling Schemes – Health and Environmental Risk Management, Consultation Draft, Publication 993, May 2005, Victoria. Feacham R.G. et al (1983) Sanitation and Disease: Health Aspects of Excreta and Wastewater Management. Feacham R.G., Bradley D.J., Garelick H. and Mara D.D. World Bank Studies in Water Supply and Sanitation 3. Published for World Bank by John Riley and Sons. Fegan N., Gardner T. and Blackall P. (1998) Health Risks Associated With The Reuse Of Effluent For Irrigation. A literature review. State of Qld Dept of Natural Resources, Dept of Primary Industries.


Mara D. and Caincross S. (1989) Guidelines For The Safe Use Of Wastewater And Excreta In Agriculture And Aquaculture. Published by the World Health Organisation in collaboration with the United Nations Environment Programme. National Academy of Sciences (1996) Use of Recycled Water and Sludge in Food Crop Production. Committee on the Use of Treated Municipal Wastewater Effluents and Sludge in the Production of Crops for Human Consumption. Water Science and Technology Board. Commission on Geosciences, Environment and Resources. National Research Council. National Academy Press, Washington DC, USA, 1996. NRA (2000). “MRL Standard”. Maximum Residue Limits Of Agricultural And Veterinary Chemicals And Associated Substances In Food Commodities. National Registration Authority for Agricultural and Veterinary Chemicals (NRA) Available at: www.affa.gov.au:80/nra/mr11.html. NRE (2000) Draft Code of Practice Piggeries. November 2000 draft for public consultation. Department of Natural Resources and Environment. NRMMC/EPHC in draft, National Guidelines for Water Recycling: Managing Health and Environmental Risks Natural Resource Management Ministerial Council/Environment Protection and Heritage Council, Canberra. NSW Recycled Water Coordination Committee (1993) “NSW Guidelines for Urban and Residential Use of Recycled Water”, 1st Edition, May 1993 Queensland EPA (2004) Queensland Guidelines for the Safe use of Recycled Water, Public Consultation Draft. Available at: http://www.epa.qld.gov.au/environmental_management/water/safe_use_of_recycled_water/ Standards Australia (1997) Australian Standard. Guide To The Sampling And Investigation Of Potentially Contaminated Soil. Part 1: Non-Volatile And Semi-Volatile Compounds. AS 4482.1 – 1997. Standards Australia, Homebush, NSW. Available at: www.standards.com.au Shuval H. et al (1997) Development Of A Risk Assessment Approach For Evaluating Wastewater Reuse Standards For Agriculture. Shuval H., Lampert Y. and Fattal B. Water Science & Technology, Vol. 35, No. 11-12, pp15-20, 1997. Toze S. (1997). Microbial Pathogens in Wastewater. Literature Review for Urban Water Systems Multi-divisional Research Program. CSIRO Land and Water Technical Report No 1/97. Available at: www.clw.csiro.au/publications/technical/tr1-97.pdf


US EPA (1992) Manual - Guidelines for Water Reuse. Technology Transfer, EPA/625/R-92/004, Sept 1992. United States Environmental Protection Agency. VDIA (1999) Recycled Water on Dairy Farms. General Information and Requirements for Users. Victorian Dairy Industry Authority (VDIA), Abbotsford, Victoria WSAA 2004, Health Risk Assessment of Fire Fighting from Recycled Water Mains Water Services Association of Australia Occasional Paper No. 11, November 2004. Available at: www.wsaa.asn.au