Many people who are sure they know what plagiarism is are less confident when faced with specific examples that seem to fall into gray areas. One of the most confusing issues for many students is the question of what constitutes “common knowledge.”

  Everyone knows that you do not need to provide a citation for “common knowledge.”

But what is common knowledge? A fact that may be commonly known by researchers in the field may be new to you. Conversely, after researching a paper for several weeks, you may know some things very well that would not be recognized as common knowledge. So, how do you know when to include a citation?

The Purdue University’s Online Writing Lab suggests three criteria for identifying something as common knowledge:

“Material is probably common knowledge if . . . You find the same information undocumented in at least five other sources You think it is information that your readers will already know You think a person could easily find the information with general reference sources” (http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/research/r_plagiar.html)

Consider the following scenarios, and decide whether or not you need to include a citation.

  In your paper for your genetics class, you note that humans have

23 pairs of chromosomes. You didn’t know this before you took the course, but decide not to provide a citation for this information, since all biology textbooks contain this information.

You find a really good journal article about the psychology of adolescent girls with eating disorders. You use some of the ideas, but don’t quote directly. Since nearly every book and article you looked at referred to this article, you don’t cite it, because it is common knowledge.

 

You decide to introduce your paper on Jane Austen with a quote from Northanger Abbey. Since your professor will know where the quote came from, you don’t include a citation.

You find some interesting information on fractals on the web. You don’t cite it, because material on the web is considered common knowledge.

The proverb “The early bird catches the worm” seems particularly apropos to the subject of your paper, so you decide to quote it. You go the library and find a book of proverbs so that you can provide a citation.

1. The reasoning here is correct; you do not have to provide a citation for information that appears in all textbooks on the subject, even if the information is new to you.

2. This would be plagiarism. The fact that most of the books or articles you read referred to this particular article merely illustrates that it is an important and well-regarded piece of work. It does not, however, make the material in the article “common knowledge.” The article should therefore be cited in your paper wherever you refer to ideas it contains, even if you don’t quote from it directly. It should also be included in your bibliography.

3. The quotation from Northanger Abbey might be well-known to the professor and everyone else in the class; however, it is still not common knowledge, and should therefore be cited.

4. This would be plagiarism. Information on the web, while easily accessible and free, is not common knowledge; ideas and words taken from a website need to be cited like any other source.

5. You’re going to a lot of unnecessary work. A proverb is a form of common knowledge, and does not need to be cited.

Summarizing and paraphrasing require important thinking and writing skills which are crucial to success at university. Paraphrasing and summarizing allows you to demonstrate your understanding and interpretation of a text, and are powerful tools for reshaping information to suit the many writing tasks that will be required of you.

Much of the work you produce at university involves the important ideas, writings and discoveries of experts in your field of study. The work of other writers can provide you with information, evidence and ideas, but must be incorporated into your work carefully.

In your assignments, lecturers expect more than copied (plagiarized) passages from books or journals. They expect you to demonstrate an understanding of the major ideas/concepts in the discipline. Quoting, paraphrasing, and summarizing are all different ways of including the work of others in your assignments.

Quoting: matches the source word for word; is usually a brief segment of the

text; appears between quotation marks; must be attributed to the original

source.Paraphrasing:

does not match the source word for word; involves putting a passage from a source

into your own words; changes the words or phrasing of a

passage, but retains and fully communicates the original meaning; must be attributed to the original source.

Summarising: does not match the source word for word; involves putting the main idea(s) into

your own words, but including only themain point(s);

presents a broad overview, so it is usuallymuch shorter than the original text;

must be attributed to the original source.

A quotation is an exact reproduction of spoken or written words. Directquotes can provide strong evidence, act as an authoritative voice, orsupport a writer's statements.

How to do it: Make sure that you have a good

reason to use a direct quotation. Quoting should be done sparingly

and should support your own work, not replace it.

For example, make a point in your own words, then support it with anauthoritative quote.

Every direct quotation should appear between quotation marks (" ") and exactly reproduce text, including punctuation and capital letters.

A short quotation often works well integrated into a sentence.

Longer quotations (more than 3 lines of text) should start on a new line, use single-line spacing, be indented, and in italics.

When to Quote? when the author’s words convey

a powerful meaning. when you want to use the author

as an authoritative voice in your own writing.

to introduce an author's positionyou may wish to discuss.

to support claims in, or provideevidence for, your writing.

Here is a passage from David Guterson, Enclosed. Encyclopedic. Endured.: One Week at the Mall of America. Harper's August 1993:51. The "success" mentioned in the first sentence refers to the commercial success of the first arcades.

There is, of course, nothing naturally abhorrent in the human impulse to dwell in marketplaces or the urge to buy, sell, and trade. Rural Americans traditionally looked forward to the excitement and sensuality of market day. Native Americans traveled long distances to barter and trade at sprawling, festive encampments. In Persian bazaars and in the ancient Greek agoras the very soul of the community was preserved and could be seen, felt, heard, and smelled as it might be nowhere else. All over the planet the humblest of people have always gone to market with hope in their hearts and in expectation of something beyond mere goods -- seeking a place where humanity is temporarily in ascendance, a palette for the senses, one another.

adapted from: Rosen, L.J. and Behrens, L. (1997). The Allyn & Bacon Handbook. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.   quotation:  

 

 

 

 

Paraphrasing is a way of presenting a text, keeping the same meaning, but using different words.

Paraphrasing is used with short sections of text, such as phrases and sentences.

A paraphrase may result in a longer, rather than shorter, version of the original text. It offers an alternative to using

direct quotations and helps students to intergrate evidence/ source material into assignments.

How to do it:

Start by reading a short text and highlighting the main points as you read.

Rewrite each main point, sentence by sentence, using synonyms (words or expressions which have a similar meaning) where possible.

Change the sentence structure:- break up a long sentence into two smaller ones- combine two short sentences and simplify their structure- change the voice (active/passive).- change the order in which ideas are

presented (as long as they still make sense

in a different order). If you use any unique or specialist

phrases, use quotation marks (" ").

When to Paraphrase?

Paraphrase short sections of work only: a sentence or two or a short paragraph.

as an alternative to a direct quotation.

to rewrite someone else’s ideas without changing the meaning.

to express someone else's ideas in yourown words.

to support claims in, or provide evidence for, your writing.

Subject to (a) infinite variables of winds and currents, of (b) supply and demand, of crops and markets, trade has a way of (c) carving its own paths not always obedient to (d) the mercantilist faith. The faith (e) was embodied in Britain’s Navigation Act, enacted under Oliver Cromwell in 1651 in the interests of (f) the rising middle class and the industrial towns and major trading ports- the so-called Cinque Ports, so long (g) influential in British history. Aimed specifically at the Dutch to protect British trade against its (h) most dangerous rival, the Act raised (i) a wall of customs duties, and permitted (j) transshipment of goods only in British (k) bottoms calling at British ports. The natural result had been (l) maritime war with Holland and (m) bitter resentment of customs duties in the Colonies, feeding the (n) spirit of rebellion which led to the American war. For Britain, the expense of fighting the Dutch and trying to (o) suppress the American revolt was more costly than anything that could be gained by the trade laws, causing (p) higher taxes at home and their natural consequence, a rise in (q) domestic disaffection. That was not the least of Britain’s (r) affliction in her (s) embattled time. Barbara W. Tuchman, The First Salute

a) unlimited possibilities j) transfer of merchandise b) resources and desires k) ships c) going its own way l) naval battles d) commercial assumptions m) animosity e) was contained n) defiant temper f) growing bourgeois class o) put down the American revolution g) a force p) greater levies h) greatest enemy q) discontent among the people i) tariff barriers r) ills s) period of struggle

A summary is an overview of a text. The main idea is given, but details, examples and formalities are left out. Used with longer texts, the main aim of summarizing is to reduce or condense a text to it's most important ideas.

Summarizing is a useful skill for making notes from readings and in lectures, writing an abstract/synopsis and incorporating material in assignments.

How to do it:

The amount of detail you include in a summary will vary according to the length of the original text, how much information you need and how selective you are:• Start by reading a short text and highlighting the main points as you read.• Reread the text and make notes of the main points, leaving out examples, evidence etc.• Without the text, rewrite your notes in your own words;

restate the main idea at the beginning plus all major points.

When to Summarize?

Summarize long sections of work, like a long paragraph, page or chapter.

to outline the main points of someone else’s work in your own words, without the details or examples.

to include an author's ideas using fewerwords than the original text.

to briefly give examples of several differing points of view on a topic.

to support claims in, or provide evidence for, your writing.

1) The Elizabethan Age takes its name from the queen who reigned over England and Ireland from 1558 to 1603. She was an intelligent and gifted ruler, managing for decades to escape political disasters at home and abroad. Always an insightful judge of character, she achieved her success in large part because of her tendency to make use of the shrewdest people around her. However, her clear awareness of what she wanted and why she wanted it sometimes led her to go her own way, using a variety of means to reach the ends she desired. She was on occasion devious, even false, but she managed to outwit her opposition time after time. As a result, it was a glorious time in the history of Britain, for under her rule the nation rose from a relatively weak position among the nations of Europe to the highest rank. England’s power and success grew rapidly in the sixteenth century, leaving it, at the death of Elizabeth I, a leader in navigation and exploration, in literary productivity- particularly in the drama- and in colonization of the New World.

(2) To the non-Scot, the tartan is perhaps the most picturesque and original costume in Europe. To a Scot, it is a costume of national distinction. Even without considering the causes for the veneration paid to it by the Highlanders, its merits are several. For one, it bears extraordinarily well the inclemency of weather. It also is economical, light, and uncumbering to the wearer, making it comfortable to wear in a variety of situations. In addition, the plaid of the tartan designates the clan, or family, of the wearer. In the mid-eighteenth century it came to be such a powerful symbol of Scottish culture that it was banned by the English in a law that was not repealed until 1782.