MMedieval edieval MManuscriptsanuscripts

Everything You Wanted to Know But Were Afraid to Ask

English 328 (Fall 2005)English 328 (Fall 2005)

BBefore the efore the BBook...ook...

•There was no paper.

•There was no pencil.

•There was no printing press.

•Word-processors? Ha!

Mesopotamian scribes used clay tablets and pressed designs into the wet clay using a reed stylus.

The script the Sumerians invented and handed down to later Semitic peoples is called cuneiform, which is derived from two Latin words: cuneus , which means "wedge," and forma , which means "shape.” Below, we see a series of cuneiform words for animals. The scribe would rapidly press the end of the reed into clay to “stamp” various combinations of shapes.

Advantages?Advantages?• Once dried or baked, cuneiforms tablets

were difficult to alter. They were excellent for records and legal documents.

• Potential to make rubbings of tablets as copies.

• Cheap and plentiful mud is the building material.

• Using reed stylus to imprint clay is speedy--up to 40 ideographs a minute.

Disadvantages?Disadvantages?• Very heavy--up to 2.3 pounds per “page.” Difficult to transport!

• Melts or weathers away in all climates but arid ones without firing.

• Breaks if dropped.

To the right, we see broken remains of a treatise on divination from lizard movement (circa 650 BCE) located in the British Museum

Papyrus scrolls were an Papyrus scrolls were an Egyptian alternative. . . .Egyptian alternative. . . .

• Easy to make by pounding or weaving reed fibers into a mat.

• Lasts centuries in dry climates.

• Absorbs ink readily

But. . . .But. . . .Papyrus reeds only grow in hot, dry climate with seasonal flooding.

Image of the Dead Sea Scrolls

Later civilizations used scrolls, which one read by unrolling them along a horizontal frame. Scrolls were compact, but unwieldy for rapid transition from one passage to another. Any damage to a scroll would affect large swathes of the text, rather than one page alone.

Paper would not be Paper would not be invented until the 12th invented until the 12th century in the Middle century in the Middle East. It would not be East. It would not be widely used in Europe widely used in Europe until the early until the early Renaissance. . . .Renaissance. . . .

Classical and ancient Classical and ancient scribes needed an scribes needed an alternative way to store alternative way to store writing. But what?writing. But what?

The answer came in a The answer came in a new structurenew structure and and alternative materialsalternative materials….….

The new structure was The new structure was the the codexcodex. By putting . By putting sheets of papyrus on sheets of papyrus on top of each other, with top of each other, with a protective cover on a protective cover on the top and bottom, the top and bottom, readers had two major readers had two major advantages.advantages.

AA:: The hard outer covering The hard outer covering protected the internal pages. protected the internal pages. This covering--usually two This covering--usually two pieces of wood or metal with a pieces of wood or metal with a narrow spine connecting them--narrow spine connecting them--was easier to make than carving was easier to make than carving out a hollow scroll tube from out a hollow scroll tube from bone, ivory, or wood. It also bone, ivory, or wood. It also remained attached to the book remained attached to the book while in use, providing further while in use, providing further protection. Ancient codices have protection. Ancient codices have a much higher rate of survival a much higher rate of survival than ancient scrolls do.than ancient scrolls do.

As this poor copy of a As this poor copy of a biblical scroll of Isaiah biblical scroll of Isaiah illustrates….illustrates….

Above: Q Isaiah-b X: Isaiah 57.17-59.8

As an added artistic bonus, this hard As an added artistic bonus, this hard surface gives the book-builder a surface gives the book-builder a chance to decorate…chance to decorate…

Left: a jeweled book cover for a medieval psalter, made of hammered gold.

Turning theTurning theliteraryliteraryobject into object into even more even more valuable art…valuable art…

Right: Cover of the Codex Aureus, which uses over 120 precious and semi-precious stones.

BB:: As an additional benefit, it was As an additional benefit, it was possible to possible to browsebrowse through a codex through a codex or book. One could mark pages, or book. One could mark pages, compare passages, and flip back and compare passages, and flip back and forth.forth.

Scrolls required laborious rolling Scrolls required laborious rolling and unrolling. In the case of the and unrolling. In the case of the Hebrew Torah, it might take a rabbi Hebrew Torah, it might take a rabbi twenty or thirty minutes to roll back twenty or thirty minutes to roll back to the opening section of Genesis to the opening section of Genesis from the end of Leviticus. It’s hard from the end of Leviticus. It’s hard to cross-reference scrolls!to cross-reference scrolls!

The codex was a The codex was a fantasticfantastic innovation in late Roman and early innovation in late Roman and early Patristic times. But where would Patristic times. But where would European book-makers find an European book-makers find an equivalent for Egyptian papyrus?equivalent for Egyptian papyrus?

The answer lies with . . .The answer lies with . . .

Our good friend, the Our good friend, the cow….cow….

Cow skin, goat skin, and Cow skin, goat skin, and sheep skin provide a fairly sheep skin provide a fairly flat but somewhat flexible flat but somewhat flexible surface. The skin holds inks, surface. The skin holds inks, paints, or even gold foil. paints, or even gold foil. Properly preserved, such Properly preserved, such skins could last for long skins could last for long centuries.centuries.

Mind you. This was no Mind you. This was no cheap material. cheap material. Step #1:Step #1: You must kill You must kill poor Bessie…poor Bessie…

#2:#2: Cut away the skin in a Cut away the skin in a rectangular patternrectangular pattern

(It’s trickier (It’s trickier than you’d than you’d think, given the think, given the gruesome gruesome geometry geometry involved in involved in irregular animal irregular animal bodies.)bodies.)

#3:#3: De-hair the skin by De-hair the skin by rubbing off the hair with a rubbing off the hair with a stone or knife.stone or knife.

#4:#4: Treating the pages with Treating the pages with limelime and and waterwater will help will help dissolve any hairs you missed dissolve any hairs you missed on the “hair side” of the sheet. on the “hair side” of the sheet. The lime additionally helps The lime additionally helps keep bookworms from eating keep bookworms from eating the sheets. Sprinkling the sheets. Sprinkling chalkchalk on on the surface and rubbing in the the surface and rubbing in the powder will fill in the pores powder will fill in the pores and irregularities on the “skin and irregularities on the “skin side” of the sheet.side” of the sheet.

#5:#5: Measure out a number of Measure out a number of lines for text, and then mark the lines for text, and then mark the lines by using chalk. lines by using chalk. Alternatively, “prick” the line by Alternatively, “prick” the line by using a needle to punch a dotted using a needle to punch a dotted line across the page.line across the page.

Left: Natural chalk deposit from a seaside cliff.

#6#6:: Fold the skin as Fold the skin as appropriate for the size of appropriate for the size of final book.final book.

One fold = folioOne fold = folioTwo folds = quartoTwo folds = quartoThree folds = octavoThree folds = octavoFour folds = duodecimoFour folds = duodecimo

#7:#7: Sew the “leaves” (pages) Sew the “leaves” (pages) together in bundles or leaflets together in bundles or leaflets called “called “quiresquires.” Each quire might .” Each quire might contain 8-16 sheets or so. Then contain 8-16 sheets or so. Then sew the quires together to make a sew the quires together to make a larger collection of leaves. Each larger collection of leaves. Each page requires twenty to forty page requires twenty to forty stitches.stitches.

Scholars commonly refer to medieval Scholars commonly refer to medieval manuscripts not by page numbers, but manuscripts not by page numbers, but by the side of the individual “leaf” or by the side of the individual “leaf” or page.page.

The back side of a leaf, called the The back side of a leaf, called the versoverso side, appears as the left page of an open side, appears as the left page of an open book if you are sitting down to read. book if you are sitting down to read. The front side of a leaf, called the The front side of a leaf, called the rectorecto side, is on the right.side, is on the right.

Thus, the scholarly abbreviation Thus, the scholarly abbreviation MS MS Hengwrt f. 32 vHengwrt f. 32 v stands for stands for “Hengwrt “Hengwrt Manuscript folio leaf 32 Manuscript folio leaf 32 versoverso side.” side.” If If you work with medieval manuscripts at you work with medieval manuscripts at a museum or library, these are the sort a museum or library, these are the sort of references you will find in catalogs of references you will find in catalogs of medieval manuscripts and citations of medieval manuscripts and citations of specific manuscripts.of specific manuscripts.

It took up toIt took up to 100100 sheep to sheep to makemake an average book…. That’s an average book…. That’s a significant percentage of a a significant percentage of a population’s wealth, when that population’s wealth, when that leather is desperately needed for leather is desperately needed for other purposes. other purposes.

Larger bibles might requireLarger bibles might require 500500 sheep. Books were rare and sheep. Books were rare and expensive items in the medieval expensive items in the medieval period.period.

Animals hides from goats or Animals hides from goats or sheep are generically called sheep are generically called parchmentsparchments. If the skin comes . If the skin comes from a calf, lamb, or kid, it is from a calf, lamb, or kid, it is technically called technically called vellumvellum. In . In practice, the two terms are often practice, the two terms are often used interchangeably by used interchangeably by scholars--especially after DNA scholars--especially after DNA testing proved in the 1980s that testing proved in the 1980s that it’s very hard to distinguish it’s very hard to distinguish between them by sight alone.between them by sight alone.

Now that we have pages and are ready to write, what do we use for ink? What for a pen?

Near the Mediterranean, monks would use squid ink to make black, blue, or purple ink.

In Europe, the best black ink came from oak gall, the seepage that comes from oak trees infested with larval parasites.

Right: grub larvae within a gall in the quercus rubras species of red oak

Truly impoverished monasteries would use ashes mixed with water to make a thin, diluted ink.

Goose quills, cut with a knife to a sharp point, were the preferred writing instrument. Every few pages, the scribe would need to take a knife and cut the quill anew in case ink had dried on the tip or the tip had grown dull from friction.

By now, this book is now becoming a luxury item. The ink should be supplemented with flashier materials in the most valuable manuscripts.

Crushing semi-precious gems or using rare dyes could result in brilliant red or blue inks. Gold foil can be attached with wax to the page, or molten gold poured (very carefully!) to create reflective artwork on the page.

Adding gold to a manuscript is Adding gold to a manuscript is calledcalled illuminationillumination. .

Adding colored ink, Adding colored ink, especially red ink, is calledespecially red ink, is called

rubricationrubrication..

TThe term he term initialinitial refers to any refers to any enlarged letter at the beginning enlarged letter at the beginning of a section of a book. These of a section of a book. These first letters are often elaborately first letters are often elaborately illuminated or rubricated. For illuminated or rubricated. For instance, let us take a look at the instance, let us take a look at the opening of the Psalms, “opening of the Psalms, “Beatus Beatus virvir,” in ,” in Dagulf’s PsalterDagulf’s Psalter. . . .. . . .

All that stuff that looks yellowish in the photograph of Dagulf’s Psalter is gold leaf. The entire manuscript shimmers incandescently. Notice the elaborate Celtic knotwork in the initial “B.”

If there is an animal, scene, or person If there is an animal, scene, or person inside the letter’s artwork, we have inside the letter’s artwork, we have what is called an what is called an inhabited inhabited initial. initial.

They range from the grandiose and They range from the grandiose and the pious to the absurd and the the pious to the absurd and the obscene. obscene.

……To pictures of the author To pictures of the author himselfhimself

Left: The Hoccleve Portrait of Geoffrey Chaucer

The borders of medieval manuscript are The borders of medieval manuscript are also lavishly depicted. Scribes also lavishly depicted. Scribes intentionally left wide margins, partly to intentionally left wide margins, partly to allow the leaves to be trimmed if the allow the leaves to be trimmed if the book needed rebinding in a century or book needed rebinding in a century or two, but also to leave room fortwo, but also to leave room for marginaliamarginalia. . Marginalia includesMarginalia includes glossesglosses (marginal notes added by (marginal notes added by later readers) and artwork provided by later readers) and artwork provided by illuminators and rubricators.illuminators and rubricators.

The Ellesmere manuscript of The Ellesmere manuscript of Chaucer is particularly lush with Chaucer is particularly lush with vinery or “vinery or “vine-workvine-work.” The .” The illuminators probably spent illuminators probably spent several days decorating each page. several days decorating each page. Remember that much of the Remember that much of the vinery is gold. Here’s a closer look vinery is gold. Here’s a closer look on the next slide.on the next slide.

The beginning and ending of The beginning and ending of each section would be marked each section would be marked with Latin phrases.with Latin phrases. “Incipit…”“Incipit…” (“Here begins…”)(“Here begins…”) andand “Explicit”“Explicit” (“Here ends…”).(“Here ends…”).

Altogether, these disparate elements Altogether, these disparate elements created an elegant, pleasing organic created an elegant, pleasing organic unity. But the most beautiful manuscripts unity. But the most beautiful manuscripts were huge endeavors. A scriptorium of were huge endeavors. A scriptorium of twenty monks took nearly ten years to twenty monks took nearly ten years to produce the beautiful Utrecht Psalter for produce the beautiful Utrecht Psalter for Duke Udolphus. Similar effort must have Duke Udolphus. Similar effort must have gone into the Duc du Barry’s gone into the Duc du Barry’s Les Trés Les Trés Riches HeuresRiches Heures, a gorgeous book of , a gorgeous book of hours.hours.

And it was all done by patient monks And it was all done by patient monks sitting quietly in scriptoriums, copying sitting quietly in scriptoriums, copying these texts by hand onto cow skin, these texts by hand onto cow skin, relying on faith and goose feathers.relying on faith and goose feathers.

Explicit Presentatio!Explicit Presentatio!Works Consulted:

• Brown, Michelle P. Understanding Medieval Manuscripts: A Guide to Technical Terms. London: the British Library, 1994.

• Cuneiform text containing omens taken from the behavior of lizards, pieced together from several fragments, c. 650 BC (Photo courtesy of British Museum) 12 March 2003 as found at <http://www.princeton.edu/pr/pwb/99/1004/tablet.shtml>. The University of Pennsylvania hosted the site with the sample cuneiform words as found September 2 at <http://www.upenn.edu/museum/Games/cuneiform.html>.

• “Green Gregory.” Image of unknown scribe. 12 March 2003. <http://www.plymouth.edu/psc/medieval/MedievalHistory.html>.

• Images of scribe at desk. 12 March 2003. <http://www.georgetown.edu/labyrinth/subjects/mss/mss.html>.

• Squid. Photograph by John W. Forsythe. Cephbase. 13 March 2003. <http://www.cephbase.utmb.edu.>.

•2003 © Dr. L. K. Wheeler