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Manure Research Findings and Technologies: From Science to Social Issues 5

Executive Summary

This document summarizes the main report ofManure Research Findings and Technologies: FromScience to Social Issues.

Rationale and BackgroundManure management is an essential component of livestock production. Manure is a rich source of organic matter that can improve soil quality andtilth, and also provides valuable nutrients for cropproduction. However, it must be managed carefully to protect the natural environment and human health.

Nutrient losses to the environment can potentiallyharm the quality of water, air, soil and ecosystemhealth; reduce the quality of life for people; andreduce valuable nutrients that could have been used instead for crop production. The movement of manure pathogens which are zoonotic (i.e. micro-organisms from animals that can cause disease inhumans) into water, soil or the air may potentially be a risk to human health.

For sustainable agriculture, there is a need for continued progress in improving manuremanagement practices to minimize the movement of manure nutrients and pathogens into theenvironment. In support of this need, a remarkableamount of research has been done in recent years on manure management. This research is contributingto the development and implementation of beneficialmanagement practices (BMPs) for manuremanagement. BMPs are management tools that are practical, environmentally sound andeconomically viable.

Nevertheless some information gaps still need tobe addressed to ensure that agricultural producershave the information they need for sustainablemanure management. Therefore, the Alberta LivestockIndustry Development Fund (ALIDF) funded thisproject to identify what manure-related research hasalready been done, what information gaps remain,and which gaps most need to be addressed.

The objectives of this project were to:

• prepare a literature review on manure-relatedresearch, including feed management, landapplication of manure, nutrient and pathogenlosses, odour and gas emissions, and social issues;

• peer review the evolving technologies and BMPs,and provide a cost-benefit analysis of current andfuture BMPs whenever the information isavailable; and

• identify and prioritize research gaps related tomanure management based on the challengesfacing the livestock industry.

This executive summary does not strictly follow the order of the material in the main report. Inparticular, portions from the three sections on gaseousemissions have been inserted into the summaries ofthe other sections to reduce the overlap betweensections. Also, the information about manurecollection, storage and treatment has been separatedfrom the information on land application of manureto make the report’s major contents more obvious.These modifications are noted at the start of therelevant subsections in this summary.

MethodologyA team of researchers and professionals followed foursteps to address the project’s objectives. The first stepwas to report on the research conducted to date andsummarize the main findings. The second was toidentify research gaps. The third was to have a peerreview of the report. And the final step was toprioritize the gaps.

Each of the team members was responsible for aspecific topic as follows:

Dr. Mohamed Amrani – nutrient managementpolicies and programs

Dr. Erasmus Okine – feed management

Dr. Jeff Schoenau – land application

Dr. Merle Olson – pathogens

Dr. John Feddes – odour emissions

Dr. Atta Atia – ammonia and hydrogen sulfide emissions

Karen Haugen-Kozyra and Faye Banham – greenhousegas emissions

Serecon Consulting – social issues

The team members conducted literature searches of scientific journals, peer reviewed papers, books and reports, farm news media, web documentsand databases, and also obtained personalcommunications from other experts. Based

on an assessment of the existing research, each authorthen identified a number of research gaps.

The peer review process included professionals from avariety of agencies. Reviewers provided comments tothe authors to improve the final draft of this report.As part of the peer review process, a workshop washeld in March 2003 in Banff. Workshop participantsincluded representatives from the livestock industryand professionals from Canada and the United States.

In addition to discussing the draft literature review,the workshop participants also supplemented theresearch gaps identified by the authors. As well, theparticipants provided recommendations on the nextsteps needed to prioritize the gaps, disseminate theinformation from the report, and continue the process of synthesizing manure research.

The team then used the following process to prioritizethe gaps. First, each author was asked to select thefour most important gaps in his or her section fromthe list of gaps developed at the Banff workshop.Next, at a workshop in Edmonton, the authorsbrought together their lists of gaps and merged some overlapping gaps to create a set of 15 gaps.Then, from this set of 15 gaps, they identified theeight top priority gaps, using the following criteriawith a rating scale of 1 to 9:

• Is it a challenging issue for the industry? (9 = if not solved, growth of the industry will be questionable)

• What is the cost/benefit of the project?(9 = all costs of producing, delivering and adoptingthe technology are very low compared to theanticipated benefits to producers and consumers)

• How will the project contribute thecompetitiveness of the industry?( 9 = will contribute significantly)

• How will the project contribute the environmental sustainability of the industry?(9 = will contribute significantly)

• Can we write a research proposal around the idea?(9 = clear and very specific idea)

Results of the Literature Review

Nutrient Management Practices and PoliciesBackground

Minimizing nutrient losses and improving theefficiency of nutrient use in agriculture have beenmajor goals of the agricultural industry, governmentsand various environmental agencies for the last twodecades. Across North America, various strategies,including government regulations, economic incentives,industry guidelines, awareness and technology transfer,have been used to encourage the adoption of nutrientmanagement BMPs. Adoption of these BMPs byproducers is key to ensuring that their operations are sustainable (Safley, 2003).

Research in the U.S. indicates that improved nutrientmanagement can help to reduce nutrient losses withlittle negative impact or even a small positive impacton farm profits for some farm types (Camacho, 1991).The same author, Camacho (1991), evaluated themarginal cost per pound of reducing nutrients fromdifferent sources (Table 1). He suggested that investingin improved agricultural management practices wouldbe more beneficial for taxpayers than investing inurban infrastructures and practices. The cost/benefit

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Table 1. Marginal cost of reducing nutrient losses from different sources

Source Cost ($/lb of nutrient)

Urban best management practices 142

Public-owned treatment plants 128

Pasture controls 10

Farm plans 45

Source: Camacho (1991)


study showed that it costs three times more to reduce nutrients from urban sources than fromagricultural sources.

The Alberta Government currently uses acombination of regulations, industry-governmentguidelines, and extension to address manuremanagement at the farm and watershed levels.Examples include:

• manure management standards in Alberta’sAgricultural Operation Practices Act;

• funding through the Alberta EnvironmentallySustainable Agriculture program for localextension programs, with nutrient management as a major priority;

• the industry-led Environmental Farm Planprogram that provides a voluntary, farmer-directed process to assess risks and develop actionplans to address concerns, including nutrientmanagement; and

• the Beneficial Management Practices manualsdeveloped jointly by industry and government to provide guidelines for environmentally soundpractices, including nutrient management.

Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada (AAFC) provide a number of programs that include technicalassistance, research, and some economic incentives for implementing specific BMPs. In Alberta, the BMP programs are delivered by AAFC’s Prairie Farm Rehabilitation Administration (PFRA, 2003) and research is conducted by the Research Branch ofAAFC. Also, the federal and provincial governmentsare currently working to finalize the Agriculture Policy Framework. One component of this five-year,federal/provincial cost-shared program includesproducer financial incentives to encourageimprovements in management practices, includingmanure/nutrient management practices, to minimizeenvironmental impacts.

In addition, community-based watershed groups,producer organizations and other groups conductextension programs in Alberta. They are working onnutrient management issues, including, environmentalmonitoring, field demonstration projects andtechnology transfer. These groups are able to accesstechnical assistance and/or financial assistance for

their projects through a variety of government andnon-government stewardship programs.

In Alberta and Canada in general, little money isprovided directly to individual producers to help them address environmental issues. In contrast, manyU.S. national and state government programs provideeconomic incentives, such as grants, tax credits, andlimiting environmental liability, for producers whoimplement BMPs related to animal operations.

Solutions

Possible policy/program approaches to improvenutrient management in Alberta include: encouragingnutrient management planning at the farm andwatershed levels; providing economic incentives toproducers for improving nutrient management;targeting extension efforts to priority areas; andbuilding and strengthening interagency partnerships.

Nutrient management planning (NMP) helpsindividual producers and watershed groups to identify and implement cost-effective nutrientmanagement strategies suited to their own situation.The NMP approach is based on the cyclical flow ofnutrients (Figure 1), and offers a way to deal with the complexities involved in nutrient management.A NMP sets out goals and actions to achieve those goals. A comprehensive whole farm plan addresses site management, feed management, manure handlingand storage, land application of manure, land andcrop management, and record keeping. The potentialbenefits of NMP include: improvements in productionefficiency; protection of soil, water and air resources;reduction of odours, dust and flies; and improvementsin public confidence.

Economic viability is the cornerstone of any successful business operation. Economic incentiveshave a significant potential to accelerate adoption of nutrient management planning and practices by producers. Some federal and non-governmentagencies already provide some economic incentives for specific environmentally sound practices.Increasing the economic instruments available toproducers for nutrient management practices wouldhelp to improve the industry’s sustainability whilebenefiting the environment and society.

Carefully targeting costly effective nutrientmanagement practices could have a large impact on the environment.

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Partnerships between government, industry and other agencies are important in identifying andimplementing science-based solutions that considereconomic, environmental, and social interests and that are based on a thorough understanding of theimplications of the various alternatives.

Key Research Gaps

Research is needed on the following topics:

• Evaluate various methods to encourage producerdevelopment and implementation ofcomprehensive nutrient management plans. Thisshould include evaluation of the costs and benefitsthose options.

• Determine how to tailor management practices tosuit the specific situations on individual farms andindividual watersheds so practical tools can beprovided to producers.

Feeding StrategiesThe following summarizes information from the feedingstrategies section and portions of the sections on odourand air quality, ammonia and hydrogen sulfide, andmethane and nitrous oxide in the report.

Background

Feeding programs influence the amount of nutrientsexcreted in the manure and the emission of gases from the animal and the manure. The excretednutrients of most environmental concern for soil and water are nitrogen and phosphorus. The gases ofmost concern are ammonia and nitrous oxide (bothforms of nitrogen), methane and hydrogen sulfide.Ammonia and hydrogen sulfide are associated withodour concerns, and nitrous oxide and methane aregreenhouse gases.

The unused excess nutrients and indigestible nutrientsin an animal’s ration are excreted in the animal’smanure. Thus, formulating rations to accurately meet an animal’s specific nutrient requirements could potentially reduce nutrient excretion. However,matching animal needs to feed inputs is difficultbecause the nutrient content of a feedstuff can varyconsiderably and an animal’s nutrient requirementsvary depending on its growth phase, gender and genetic potential. Additional variation occurs at the ration mixing stage and through feed sorting byanimals. Therefore, nutritionists often add margins ofsafety to the minimum recommended requirements toprevent the possibility of reduced animal health andproductivity due to underfeeding of nutrients.

Figure 1. Farm nutrient cycling

Comprehensive Nutrient Management Cycle


Nitrogen: Most nitrogen in animal diets is in the form of protein, and proteins are made up of aminoacids. Animals require various types of amino acids in different amounts. The amino acid composition offeeds does not precisely match animal requirements.For example, when diets are based on recommendedNational Research Council’s (NRC) nutrientrequirements for livestock, pigs and poultry excrete 45 to 75% of the nitrogen fed, and cattle excrete 65 to 75% of the nitrogen fed. There may beroom to reduce these nitrogen losses through dietmanipulation.

An “ideal protein” would supply all amino acids inexactly the ratios needed by the animal’s body. If anideal protein is fed to an animal, all amino acids areused equally well, and protein and nitrogen excretionare minimized.

Current practice in pig nutrition is to supply dietaryprotein to cover the animal’s need for the amino acidlysine, which is usually the limiting factor for proteindeposition (Allee et al., 2001; CAST, 2002). Thisapproach means that other amino acids are suppliedin excess of the animal’s requirement and cannot befully used. The unused excess is excreted.

Similarly, most poultry diets are formulated to containan excess of protein to ensure the animal’s amino acidrequirements are met. The margin of safety used inruminant diets may increase the amount of nitrogenin the diet by 5 or 10% or more above the minimumrequirement.

Phosphorus: A large proportion of phosphorus inanimal diets is in a form called phytate. Rumenmicroorganisms can digest phytate, so it is available to cattle. However, phytate is indigestible to pigs and poultry.

The NRC (1998) recommends that pigs should be fed based on available phosphorus. Feeds vary inphosphorus availability (50% in wheat as compared to 10 to 20% in corn). The indigestible and excessphosphorus is excreted. Poultry diets also containindigestible and excess phosphorus that is excreted.

Although cattle are better able to digest thephosphorus in their diets, their phosphorusrequirements vary, depending on such things aswhether they are dairy or beef cattle, and their stage of gestation. Typical feedlot rations, even when theyare not supplemented with phosphorus, contain morephosphorus than the feedlot cattle require because thebase ration ingredients are high in phosphorus.

Methane: All animals produce methane duringdigestion, but cattle and other ruminants generaterelatively large amounts due to the slow fermentationof feed in the rumen. Thus, methane emissions are animportant greenhouse gas issue in ruminantproduction, but are less of a concern for swine orpoultry.

Hydrogen Sulfide: Sulfur in animal diets may come from various sources including the water supply, sulfur-containing amino acids, and smallamounts of sulfur in the cereals used in the feed.Sulfur compounds, like hydrogen sulfide, are alsogenerated through microbial breakdown of othercompounds in manure. Sulfur is an issue for airquality, namely as it relates to odour.

Solutions

Potential management practices to reduce nutrientlevels in manure and reduce emissions of odour,methane, hydrogen sulfide, ammonia and nitrousoxide, include:

• testing feed for nutrient levels;

• more closely matching the feed to the animal’snutritional requirements;

• grouping animals with similar nutrientrequirements (e.g. by gender in split-sex feeding or by age in phase feeding) to more easily providetheir specific requirements; and

• using feed additives to improve feed efficiency.

Although promising, not all of these strategies arecurrently cost-effective, and some would requiremodifications in building design and feeding systems.An assessment of the various feeding options showsthat the most effective way to reduce nutrientexcretion is to use a combination of strategies.

Ruminants: The best combination of available BMPsinclude:

• reducing the length of the backgrounding period(cost may be a factor),

• improving the growth rate substantially,

• increasing the use of ionophores (Table 2),

• improving genetics and reproductive technologies,

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• probable replacement of urea in ruminant diets with nitrates to increase microbial proteinproduction in the rumen and improve animalproductivity, and probable incorporation ofmalate in diets to reduce methane production.(Further research is needed to determine cost-effectiveness of replacing urea and incorporatingmalate.)

Other possible strategies include feeding to theanimal’s requirements (Table 3), precision feeding,feed assays, using high quality forages, and feedingfeedstuffs with high bio-available phosphorus andnitrogen. These strategies will be applied to a greateror lesser degree.

Nitrogen and phosphorus excretion are unlikely to be greatly reduced. A 3% decrease in nitrogen intakeand hence excretion is all that could be expectedbecause most ruminant diets contain a surplus ofnitrogen even though no protein supplements areadded. However, if forage quality increases thendietary nitrogen content and intake will also probablyincrease. As well, it is difficult to incorporate most of the proposed strategies into cow-calf systems.

Swine: The most promising strategy to reducenitrogen and phosphorus excretion by pigs involvesthree components:

• a reduction of dietary protein content with theaddition of free amino acids,

• an increase in dietary energy content, and

• a reduction in non-starch polysaccharide (NSP) content. (NSP can interfere with thedigestion of nutrients.)

The second most promising strategy is the addition of phytase to diets. Phytase reduces the need tosupplement diets with inorganic phosphorus and thusreduces phosphorus excretion. It also improves theavailability of other nutrients and animal performance.Evaluation of this option suggests that a 10% reductionin dietary protein concentration, combined with a 5% improvement of protein retention, feed efficiencyand reproductive efficiency, would reduce nitrogenexcretion to 93% of 1990 levels. The same strategieswould result in about a 25 to 30% decrease inphosphorus excretion.

Table 2. Effect of increased usage of ionophores on nitrogen and phosphorus excretion in ruminant manure

Increased costsper unit of feed 0.3 cents/kg feed 0.3 cents/kg feed 1.0 cents/kg feed

Feed efficiency +2 to 12% +2 to 12% +2 to 12%

Rate of gain (%) 0% 0% 0%

Milk production (%) 0% 0% 0%

Risks to target animal None None None

Reduction in phosphorusin manure (%) 2 2 2

Reduction in nitrogenin manure (%) 27 27 27

Method Current use Increased use Maximum use

Application of method Mix with feed Increased cost due to increasedusage and increased concentrationof ionophores used for feedefficiency instead of cocci control

Increased cost due to maximumuse and maximum concentration ofionophores for feed efficiencyinstead of cocci control

New capital investment None None Increased use of feed mixers or“bunks” or “containers” to feed onpastures


Poultry: Reduction of dietary protein content is themost effective strategy to reduce nitrogen excretion by poultry. It appears that it is possible to implement a 10 to 15% reduction in dietary protein contentsimmediately. Further reductions, however, requireresearch into amino acid requirements, possiblycombined with the concepts of digestible amino acids and ideal protein.

Other means of reducing nitrogen excretion bypoultry are less effective, so a combination ofstrategies will be needed. One possible option is a 10% reduction of dietary protein content, combinedwith a 5% improvement in feed efficiency and theaddition of phytase and NSP-digesting enzymes topoultry diets.

These changes are all within the scope afforded by poultry production and could be adoptedimmediately. Full adoption of these strategies would reduce the nitrogen excretion by poultry in2010 to 96% of the 1990 values. However, methaneemissions would increase to 106% of the 1990 values.

Key Research Gaps

The four key identified gaps are:

• Lack of basic understanding of the factorsaffecting dry matter intake and the relationship of feed intake and feed quality to manureproduction.

• Lack of detailed knowledge of amino acid andphosphorus requirements of ruminants.

• Lack of knowledge on the effects of genetics andimplants on nitrogen and phosphorus excretion.

• Lack of knowledge on the effects of ionophores onnitrogen and phosphorus excretions relative to theeffects of ionophores on maintenance energyrequirements.

Table 3. Effects of reduction in dietary nitrogen and phosphorus on nitrogen and phosphorus in ruminant manure

New capital investment None None None

Method Normal improvements Reduction in protein content ofdiet by 15%

Reduction in protein content indiet to 20% through use ofprotected amino acids

Factors which will change rate ofadoption

Some reduction in dietary nitrogencontent because of better nutrition

Increasing feed prices will make itless economical to over feedprotein and to use amino acids.

A change in the soil nitrogenregulations for manure applicationcould prompt reduction of nitrogenintake.

Change in costs None Reduced costs. Reduced protein by Net cost of 10% $16/tonne diet, but cost ofsupplemental protein protected amino acids isabout $8/tonne diet. about $20 per tonne diet

($20/kg of amino acid)

Feed efficiency (kg/day) No effect No effect No effect

Rate of gain (kg/day) No effect No effect No effect

Milk production (%) No effect No effect No effect

Risks to target animal None None None

Reduction manure Reduced Reduced Reducedphosphorus (%)

Reduction in nitrogen (%) 15 20 30

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Manure Collection,Storage and TreatmentThe following summarizes portions of the sections in themain report about land application and handling ofmanure, odour and air quality, ammonia and hydrogensulfide, and methane and nitrous oxide.

Background

Manure handling systems consist of five maincomponents: collection, transfer, storage, treatment,and use (Table 4). Manure composition is variable,depending on animal species, feeds, feed additives,and the manure handling system. Manures typicallyhave a low nutrient content per unit weight or volumecompared to commercial inorganic fertilizer. This lownutrient content restricts the distance manures can beeconomically transported for land application, basedon the value of the yield increase they produce relativeto transportation and application costs.

Many factors affect a producer’s decision on how to handle manure, including capital cost, labouravailability and environmental safety. For somelivestock types, producers may use solid manure

handling systems or liquid systems exclusively, orboth, depending on the type of operation and size. Itis a challenging task to select between the two systems.

Liquid manure systems are popular in various types of confined feeding operations, especially hogoperations, due to the ease of mechanization and lowlabour requirement. However, liquid manures tend tobe more susceptible to emission of odorous gases (e.g.ammonia, hydrogen sulfide) and greenhouse gases(e.g. methane and nitrous oxide), soil compactionduring land application, and nutrient leaching aftersoil incorporation.

Handling manure in solid form has advantages suchas lower volume, less runoff potential, and relativelyhigh nutrient retention. On the other hand, solidmanure handling systems have such disadvantages as a higher labour requirement, the need for runoffmanagement from storage areas, and the need forimpervious pads for storage.

Treatments such as composting can reduce manurevolume, increase product uniformity and applicationease, and eliminate undesirable constituents such aspathogens and weed seeds. Other technologies, such as bio-digesters (which produce energy and a uniformbio-fertilizer from manure) and various solid-liquid

Operation Solids Semi-Solid/Liquids

Table 4. Components of a manure handling system

Collection Gutter cleaners Slotted floors (complete with gutters)Front-end loaders Scrapers (cable, hydraulic, tractor)

Transfer Manure wagons Pumps (submerged with open impeller, piston, pneumatic)Open tank spreaders AugersDump trucks Vacuum tank wagonEarth-moving equipment Pipeline

GravityContinuous flow guttersLarge diameter pipes

Storage Stock pile Glass-lined steel Bunk silo Concrete

Earthen

Treatment Aerobic (compost, dry, incinerate) Aerobic (pre-storage, partial, total)Anaerobic Anaerobic

Solid/Liquid separation

Use Land application Land applicationEnergy production (i.e. bio-gas) IrrigationCompost for other uses (e.g. garden) Energy production

Source: MAF (2001)


separation systems, show promise in overcoming someof the challenges of dealing with fresh manure whileoffering value-added opportunities.

Solutions

Buildings: Conscientious design and management oflivestock facilities are critical to minimizing nutrientlosses and gaseous emissions. For example, manurecollection systems must be designed and maintainedto prevent overflow and leakage. Pen surfaces shouldbe kept as clean and dry as practical to reduce odourand dust. In hog barns, slatted pen flooring andadequate floor slope allow proper drainage to helpmaintain clean, dry conditions. All-in all-out systemsallow thorough cleaning and disinfection. Manurecollection systems that do not allow the manure to sit and become anaerobic (i.e. low oxygen conditions,which are more odorous) help reduce air emissions.

Ventilation and heating practices can affect airemissions. Improving the ventilation system byincreasing airflow rates and by modifying andcontrolling air distribution can help control airbornedust in a barn. Odorous compounds can attach todust particles, which may increase persistence of theodour as it disperses away from the source. Loweringthe indoor temperature can help reduce emissions ofammonia and hydrogen sulfide.

Biofilters or bioscrubbers can remove ammonia andhydrogen sulfide and reduce odour from air exhaustedfrom livestock facilities. Both technologies rely on theaction of microorganisms to breakdown the gases intoless odorous compounds. In biofiltration, barn air ispassed through a warm, moist, nutrient-rich, porousfilter medium before the air is emitted into the outsideair (Figure 2). Bioscrubbers use a similar process, butare housed in a closed tower containing water (Figure3). More research and development is needed to

Ground

Gravel

Foul Air

Humidifier

Bulk Media Filter Bed(Approx. 1 m deep)

Figure 2. Open soil biofilter Source: Burgess et al., 2001.

Treated Gas

Gas/LiquidExchangeColumn

Waste Gas Bioreactor

Figure 3. Bioscrubber Source: Burgess et al., 2001.

improve these two technologies and make them cost-effective for producers.

Storage: Storage facilities must be designed andmaintained to prevent nutrient losses due to overflowand leakage. Practices to reduce odour, ammonia,nitrous oxide, methane and/or hydrogen sulfideemissions from manure storage include the following:

• Covering a lagoon with straw or other biologicalmaterial reduces odour and emissions of thesegases.

• Covering a manure lagoon with a synthetic coverreduces odour, but the covers require an initialinvestment and continuous management.

• Aerating liquid manure can reduce emissions ofmethane and hydrogen sulfide, but may lead toincreased nitrous oxide emissions.

Treatment: Various manure additives are beingdeveloped and marketed as ways to reduce manureodour and other gaseous emissions. However, they areoften not researched and tested in the field. Claimsabout their effectiveness are sometimes exaggerated.As well, those additives that are effective may not beeconomically feasible for many producers.

Composting and solid-liquid separation can helpovercome some of the limitations associated withmanure variability and difficulties in achievinguniform application across the field area.

Composting of solids produces humus-like stabilizedmaterial that can be stored or spread more uniformlythan raw manure, has little odour, and improves soilfertility and tilth. Composting techniques can be assimple as stockpiling and turning, or more complex asin active aeration or in-vessel systems. Proper aerationis the key to achieving good compost, whether throughwindrow turning or supplying oxygen through a forcedair system. Active composting can involve largeoverhead costs and may be justified only for certainoperations. Producing good compost is a blend ofart and science, and bad composting can produce asmany potential problems with odour and greenhousegas emissions as fresh manure. Table 5 outlines theadvantages and disadvantages of composting.

Solid/liquid separation systems vary in theireffectiveness. For odour control and nutrient removal,separators that are capable of removing fine particles,perhaps coupled with chemical treatment, are needed.

Use of the manure solids for energy generation (in the form of bio-gas, composed mainly of methane) iscommon in Europe. This high temperature anaerobicdigestion process is in the development and testingstages in Western Canada. Bio-gas generationproduces a uniform fertilizer product, kills pathogens and minimizes odours.

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• Weed seeds and pathogens are destroyed.

• Bulk of raw inputs is reduced by 50 to 75%.

• Finished compost has a consistent soil-like quality that is easier tohandle and apply than fresh manure.

• Nutrients are stabilized as organic compounds, which release moreslowly and so provide plants with a more sustained source of nutrients.

• Finished compost is an odourless, potentially marketable product.

• Ammonia, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide and volatilecompounds are emitted, especially in the early stages of composting.

• Runoff from the compost piles must be controlled to preventmovement of nutrients to groundwater or surface water.

• Aeration and moisture must be managed throughout the composting process.

• Time, equipment, labour, and land are required.

• Some additional fertilizer may be needed to meet crop requirements.

Benefits of composting Drawbacks of composting

Table 5.Benefits and drawbacks of manure composting

Source: SAF (2002)

Key Research Gaps


• Develop widely accepted protocols to measureemission rates of manure gas, odour and viablepathogens from liquid and solid manure andconfined buildings and manure application.

• Establish a relevant standard for evaluatingmanure gas and odour control technology.

• Investigate and determine acceptable odourexposure for humans in terms of frequency,intensity and duration.

• Develop cost-effective, practical technologies to manage manure for energy and value-addedproducts.

• Investigate the basic processes involved in thecreation of methane and nitrous oxide frommanagement practices and the interactions amongsoils, crops/pastures and livestock (i.e. whole farmapproach).

Land ApplicationThe following summarizes portions from the sections inthe main report about land application and handling ofmanure, odour and air quality, ammonia and hydrogensulfide, and methane and nitrous oxide.

Background

Nutrient levels in manure do not precisely match cropnutrient needs. So applying manure to meet the crop’sneeds for one nutrient may lead to over- or under-application of other nutrients. Over-application mayresult in reduced crop yields and nutrient loading ofthe soil. The excess nutrients are susceptible to loss byrunoff, erosion, leaching and gaseous emission. Theselosses are a waste of the nutrients, and entry of lostnutrients into water bodies and the atmosphere posesan environmental threat. Figure 4 shows an exampleof the proportion of manure nitrogen that is availableto the crop.

Placement of manure, as with inorganic fertilizers,affects the accessibility and use of the nutrients byplants and the likelihood of loss before the plant canuse the nutrients. For example, under dry conditions,surface-applied manure nutrients may be isolatedfrom crop roots by remaining in the dry surface layer

or, in the case of low density solid manures, they maybe redistributed by wind. With heavy rain and highrunoff, surface-applied manures are subject to loss by runoff and erosion. Surface applications ofmanure with a high ammonia and ammoniumcontent are accompanied by inevitable losses ofammonia gas that reduces nitrogen availability to crops and pollutes the air.

Solutions

Options to improve land application of manureinclude:

• testing manure and soil for nutrient levels;

• applying manure and commercial fertilizers basedon crop needs;

• using manure management software (e.g. a systemdeveloped by Purdue University to determineapplication rates);

• injecting or incorporating manure into the soil;

• using composting or other treatment to create amore uniform fertilizer product; and

• applying manure close to the time the crop willneed the nutrients (e.g. spring).

Ensuring that the amounts of a nutrient applied to an area over time are in balance with the removal of the nutrient in crop harvest will help prevent over-application of nutrients and nutrient losses tothe air and water. When application rates are based onthe crop’s nitrogen or phosphorus requirement, theavailability of other nutrients should be consideredand the manure should be supplemented withcommercial fertilizer if necessary.

Researchers are constantly improving software todetermine application rates of manure and commercialfertilizer that meet crop nutrient needs withoutoverloading the soil with nutrients. These softwareprograms base rate recommendations on soil andmanure test results. They also allow users to keeprecords for each field on nutrient application rates,soil test values, crop yield and nutrient removal. Suchrecords are useful for longer-term nutrient budgeting.The use of global positioning systems (GPS) and site-specific soil and yield capability information within afield can further enhance the ability to match manurenutrient applications to crop needs. This can result inmore efficient use of applied nutrients.


Manure placement in the soil through injection orincorporation increases root access to the manurenutrients and reduces the risk of losses by runoff andvolatilization. Table 6 shows the ammonia emissionsfrom various application methods. Injecting liquidmanures has been widely adopted on the Canadianprairies. Injection in bands about 3 to 4 inches deephas been reported to improve crop yields and nutrientrecovery compared to broadcast and broadcast-incorporation applications for a variety of crops and conditions in Western Canada. Low disturbanceapplicators are now being used successfully forinjecting liquid manures into forage stands and no-till fields.

Key Research Gaps


• Investigate and document the effects of manureapplication BMPs on minimizing nutrient lossesfrom agricultural landscapes.

• Evaluate the effectiveness of set-backs and bufferzones on reducing nutrient/pathogen inputs towater bodies in watersheds.

• Develop techniques and strategies to assess thedynamics of manure nutrients, especially nutrientrelease, in different soil-cropping-climate systems.

• Evaluate options for “mining” nutrients frommanured fields using plant and other biologicalreclamation strategies.

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Manure N(200)

Mineralized N(20)

Residual N(80)

Volatile N(25)

Ammonium NRemaining

(75)

Organic N(100)

Ammonium N(100)

Available N(95)

Figure 4. Flow chart showing an approximate contribution of soil-applied manure nitrogen (N) to the nitrogenavailable to a crop in the year of application. Residual N is that portion of organic N that is not mineralized (decomposed) intoplant-available inorganic forms. The numbers in brackets indicate units of N. Source: After Beauchamp, 1983.

Zoonotic Pathogens Background

Manure from confined feeding operations and grazing operations is a potential source for pathogens,including bacterial, viral, parasitic or fungal organisms.Zoonotic pathogens are disease-causing micro-organisms that can be transmitted from animals to humans. They are more likely to be transmittedindirectly through manure-contaminated food,water or soil. Direct contact (e.g. through wounds or inhalation) is less common.

A limited number of livestock pathogens in manure,water and soil have the potential to infect humans andother domestic animals in Alberta and Canada (Table7). These bacterial and parasitic pathogens are ofconcern to the public because they have one or more of the following properties:

• produce severe or fatal disease in humans,

• have a very low infective dose,

• are shed in large numbers in the feces, and

• are relatively resistant to environmentaldestruction.

Pathogen Survival: Survival of parasitic and bacterial pathogens depends on the manure source,temperature, pH, dry matter content, age and chemicalcomposition of the manure as well as the microbialcharacteristics. Storing manure as a slurry, solid orcompost before it is applied to land, significantlyreduces pathogen concentrations. Ultraviolet light and desiccation readily destroy most pathogens. Most

pathogens are able to survive freezing or lowtemperatures for extended periods of time. Somepathogens, such as Cryptosporidium, can surviveunder a wide range of conditions.

When bacteria adhere to surfaces they become moreresistant to antibiotics and biocides. These adherentbacteria are called biofilms. Manure contains biofilmsattached to fibre and other inert matter. Biofilms are responsible for chronic infections in humans (e.g. wound infections, medical device associatedinfections) and animals (e.g. mastitis, implantassociated infections). The chemical and thermaltreatments used to eliminate manure pathogens havenot been evaluated for their effectiveness on biofilms.

Risk Assessment: The level of risk to humans from apathogen depends on such aspects as: the pathogenicityof the bacteria or parasite (including disease incidenceand severity in humans), the pathway of exposure to humans, the infection route, the infectious dose,the prevalence and/or incidence of the pathogen in food and/or water, predisposing health risks andpreventative measures. For most of the zoonoticpathogens in Table 7, waterborne and foodbornehuman infections can be controlled with good foodhygiene, proper cooking and water chlorination.Giardia and Cryptosporidium infections are moredifficult to prevent because the environmental forms of these organisms are resistant to traditionalwater treatment like chlorination but water filtrationmay work.


Table 6. Effect of different manure application methods on ammonia reduction Source: Hendriks and van de Weendhof, 1999.

Control measure Type of manure Land use Emissionsreduction (%)

Band-spreading Liquid Grassland 10

Band-spreading Liquid Arable 30

Trailing shoe Liquid Mainly grassland 40

Injection (open slot) Liquid Grassland 60

Injection (closed slot) Liquid Mainly grassland, 80arable land

Incorporation Solid manure and liquids Arable land 80

Antimicrobial-Resistant Bacteria: Although thetransmission of antibiotic-resistant pathogens fromanimal manure to humans is a public health concern,there is as yet little information to support or refutethis concern.

The gastrointestinal tract of animals is composed ofcomplex microbial communities that may or may notcontain zoonotic pathogens. Exposure of bacteria inthe gastrointestinal tract to antimicrobial drugs maylead to development of resistance to these drugs.

Antimicrobial resistance may also result through theinteraction of resistant bacteria with other types ofbacteria. Bacteria are continuously evolving in theenvironment, and many soil bacteria have multipleantibiotic resistance. Transmission of resistance fromenvironmental organisms to pathogens in manure ispotentially feasible. Bacteria have developed severalmechanisms of exchanging genetic material that codes for an antimicrobial resistance trait. Antibiotic-resistant bacteria have been identified in liquid and

solid manure from swine and cattle, suggesting that manure may be a reservoir for antibiotic-resistant genes.

The major public issue is the possibility thatantibiotic-resistant bacteria may be transferred from livestock to humans. This transfer may beaccomplished through exposure to contaminatedwater or food products fertilized with manure which are not further processed (e.g. sprouts).

Although studies are limited, with the exception of penicillin, there is little evidence to support that the addition of antibiotics to animal feeds affects thenumber of pathogens in pigs or poultry. Although theuse of antibiotics selects for resistant microorganisms,the microbial ecology is rapidly restored once theantibiotic use is ended. There is some evidence thatantibiotic use on the farm can lead to colonization of humans with antimicrobial-resistant pathogens.Antimicrobial-resistant Salmonella in humans hasbeen traced to farms, and contaminated manure is

18

Table 7. Manure pathogens of public health concern

Pathogen Animal Carrying Pathogen Zoonotic Potential Clinical Signs in Humans

Bacterial

Escherichia coli – Cattle, pigs, poultry Low Diarrhea

generic E. coli does

not cause disease in

humans; only certain

subtypes do

Escherichia coli O157:H7 Cattle, other* Moderate Diarrhea, fever, toxemia

Salmonella species Cattle (rarely), pigs, poultry Moderate Fever, diarrhea

Yersinia species Pigs Very low Diarrhea

Campylobacter species Cattle, pigs, poultry Moderate Diarrhea

Listeria monocytogenes Cattle, pigs, poultry Moderate Fever, abortion, stillbirth

Mycobacterium species Cattle, poultry Very low Variety

Parasitic

Cryptosporidium species Cattle, pigs, poultry Moderate Diarrhea, fever

Giardia duodenalis Cattle, pigs, poultry Moderate Diarrhea, cramps

Ascaris suum Pigs Very low Fever, muscle ache

* infrequently observed in wildlife and domestic livestock other than cattle

potentially the source of infection. Enterococci thatare resistant to the antibiotic vancomycin are emergingas a global threat to public health. Vancomycin-resistantenterococci (VREs) have been isolated from poultryand swine, but not cattle. Transmission of VREs fromanimals to humans has not been documented.

Solutions

Methods to prevent manure zoonotic pathogens fromentering water sources include the following:

• In grazing systems, avoid overstocking pastures,rotate areas used for feeding, grazing and shade,and prevent manure runoff from reaching waterbodies by using buffer strips along water bodies,off-stream watering systems, and/or fencing.

• In feedlot systems, properly collect, store andmanage manure runoff.

• In cropping systems, apply manure according tothe crop’s nutrient requirements and close to thetime the crop will use the nutrients, and reducethe risk of manure runoff entering water bodies by using such practices as buffer strips.

• On fruits and vegetables, use composted manurebecause proper composting kills pathogens.Pathogens are also killed during the anaerobicdigester process so the bio-fertilizer produced by this process may also be a good option.

It is also vital to make sure all drinking water isproperly treated, to use frequent hand washing, and to use proper food preparation techniques. Properfood handling measures include thorough cleaning of all produce, proper cooking methods, avoidingconsumption of raw or undercooked meat or eggs,avoiding consumption of unpasteurized milk, andpreventing cross-contamination of foods.

There are many unknowns with respect to the issuesaround antibiotic-resistant bacteria, so antibioticsshould be used prudently in livestock. The CanadianVeterinary Medical Association has developed prudentuse guidelines to assist practitioners and livestockproducers in reducing the risk of antibiotic resistance.

Key Research Gaps


• Develop methods for rapid testing of very lowlevels of Campylobacter, Salmonella, Toxoplasma,Vibrio, E. coli O157:H7, Cyclospora,Cryptosporidium parvum, and viruses in manure,soils, and composts.

• Determine the survival and persistence of manurepathogens in groundwater and surface water in thenatural environment.

• Determine the risk of the transmission ofresistance from antibiotic-resistant bacteria inmanure to other bacteria.

• Determine the level of occurrence of antibiotic-resistant bacteria in the environment, whethermanure applications on land are contributing tothe presence of these bacteria in the environmentand whether these bacteria pose a health risk forhumans and animals.

Social IssuesBackground

The social issues related to manure management arestrongly tied to the social issues for all aspects of thelivestock industry. Of all the challenges facing thelivestock industry, social issues such as rural conflictcould have the most profound effect on its futurecompetitiveness. Some of the factors driving the needfor a greater emphasis on community relations by thelivestock industry, include:

• increased attention on the industry by the newsmedia and by activist and consumer movements;

• shifting demographics including a growingproportion of the population with no ties toagriculture and an increasing rural residentialpopulation;

• livestock production systems becoming larger andmore systematic as a way to become economicallyviable, but which also leads to greater visibility ofthe industry; and

• increased competition for resources (land, waterand air) due to Alberta’s growing economy andpopulation.


The Edmonton-Lethbridge corridor has a highconcentration of livestock operations as well as arapidly growing population. Some of the most rapid population growth in Alberta is in communitiessuch as Cochrane, Strathmore and Sylvan Lake, wheremany of the new residents work in nearby majorurban centres.

Studies have identified various social issues associated with confined feeding operations andmanure management. These include concerns aboutpotential negative effects on human health, foodsafety, the environment, quality of life, the localeconomy, infrastructure and animal welfare. Alongwith such growing concerns, the public alsoincreasingly expects the industry to be open andaccountable for its practices.

Although neighbours may prefer that livestockoperations move to more remote areas, that option is often not practical and livestock producers may pre-exist new neighbours. Livestock operations need access to such things as electricity, good roadsprocessing facilities, water, and productive lands. Abalance is needed between satisfying the concerns of neighbours and making the most efficient use of resources and infrastructure.

Solutions

The best approach for preventing social issues andconflict is to ensure that sound manure managementpractices are implemented. This includes followingrecommended manure management BMPs andregulations. However, even when regulations areadhered to and additional BMPs are implemented,social issues and conflict can arise. Therefore it is alsonecessary to use BMPs for addressing social concerns.

Beneficial management practices for preventing,reducing or alleviating social issues and conflictgenerally fall into two categories: public consultationand involvement; and conflict management andresolution. The emphasis should be on preventingconflict through consultation and involvement ratherthan on managing and resolving conflict after it hasoccurred.

Alberta’s livestock industry and Alberta Agriculture,Food and Rural Development (AAFRD) are alreadytaking steps to help producers deal with social issuesmore effectively. For example, each manual in theBeneficial Management Practices series has a chapteron conflict management. AAFRD has several

publications on conflict management and negotiation,as well as some specialists who work directly withagricultural communities and groups to developconsensus decision-making.

Public involvement is more than informing people.It includes using open, two-way communication andinvolving them in decisions that may affect their lives.Effective public consultation and involvement buildscooperative working relationships with localcommunities, interest groups and governments.Public consultation efforts help to prevent conflictbefore it starts and meet many of the requirements ofregulatory bodies such as Alberta’s Natural ResourcesConservation Board.

Most public consultation and involvement programsconsist of a number of approaches and methods. Table8 lists some public consultation and involvementmethods along with a guide for when to use themethods based on the size of operation. Externalconsultation with municipalities, producerassociations, conservation groups and provincialagencies is recommended for some of these methods.Some methods are also best undertaken by apartnership of the appropriate existing industryassociations, government agencies, and non-profitorganizations.

Key Research Gaps


• Identify producer interests, needs and concernsregarding reluctance to modify their way of doingbusiness and their attitudes.

• Identify reasons and resolutions for farmer-to-farmer conflict.

• Determine existing policies that are barriers tochanging attitudes and ways of doing business.

Research Gaps and Next StepsPriority Gaps

The project team worked through a process to identifythe top eight ‘critical few’ gaps. The appendix providesdetails on the results of each step of this process.During the prioritizing process, the team determinedthat addressing these gaps was part of developing anoverall solution to the two major concerns in manuremanagement: protecting human health and protecting

20


Table 8. Guide for public consultation and involvement

Size ExternalMethod Small Medium Large Consultation Partnership

Advisory Committees ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔

Arranged Visits to Comparable

Operations ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔

Audio-Visual Presentations ✔ ✔ ✔

Audit and Certification Programs ✔ ✔ ✔

Communication Organizations ✔ ✔ ✔

Computer-Based Techniques ✔ ✔ ✔

Direct Mailing ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔

Discussions with Stakeholders ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔

Displays ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔

Hiring Locally ✔ ✔ ✔

Honoraria ✔ ✔ ✔

Information Bulletins, Brochures,

and Fact Sheets ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔

Information Centres ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔

Links with the Community ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔

Media Briefings, News Releases

and Press Conferences ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔

Newsletters ✔ ✔ ✔

Open Houses ✔ ✔ ✔

Public Hearings ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔

Public Opinion Polls ✔ ✔ ✔

Seminars and Workshops ✔ ✔ ✔

Site Visits and Tours ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔

Surveys ✔ ✔ ✔

Telephone Hotlines ✔ ✔

the environment. As a result, the team also developed an overall statement of intent as the foundation for addressing the two major concerns and theindividual gaps.

Overall Statement of Intent

Develop a comprehensive approach for predicting riskthrough geomatics and GIS to ensure sustainabilityand enable optimal site selection to reduceenvironmental and human health risk.

Top Eight Gaps

These gaps are not listed in any specific order.

• Develop widely accepted protocols to measureemission rates of manure gas, odour and viablepathogens from liquid and solid manure, confinedlivestock buildings and manure application.

• Determine the survival and persistence of manurepathogens in groundwater, surface water and air inthe natural environment.


• Develop a basic understanding of the factorsaffecting dry matter intake, amino acids andphosphorus requirements of ruminants, and therelationship of feed intake and quality to manureproduction, nutrient levels in manure andodour/gas production.

• Assess the health effects and impact of ammoniaand hydrogen sulfide on workers and residentsliving near confined feeding operations.

• Develop effective decontaminationprotocols/products for removal of manurepathogens from agricultural operations and food processing facilities.


• Investigate the effects of BMPs on minimizingnutrient and greenhouse gas releases and lossesfrom animals, livestock buildings, and manurestorage, handling and application.

Recommendations for Next Steps

Proposed Model for Managing Similar Projects

The team developed a project management process for use by teams working on similar broad andcomplex topics, including: having a dedicated projectmanager/facilitator to manage the project; having ateam development meeting; and ensuring that theteam and the funding agency mutually agree to adetailed outline of what will be addressed in theproject, at an early stage of the project.

Proposed Process to Identify and Address Priority Gaps

The team recommends the following process foridentifying and addressing research gaps in the future:

• Develop a collaborative strategy for a focused,comprehensive process to identify and prioritizeinformation gaps relevant to manure managementin Alberta. This strategy would include thefollowing components:

- Further investigate current manuremanagement research to determine what research exists or is currently beingconducted that is applicable to Albertaconditions and needs.

- Determine all stakeholders’ needs with respect to manure management.

- Develop a process to identify which of theidentified gaps have the highest priority.

• Develop a strategy to build and enhancerelationships with other provinces to jointlyaddress priority gaps.

• Develop a strategy for collaboration with otheragencies at national and international levels toaddress priority gaps.

Proposed Actions to Add Value to the Report

The team recommends the following steps to ensurethat the main report will be updated and upgraded, andthat the information in the report will be disseminatedto interested stakeholders.

• Share the research gaps and prioritizing processwith others including researchers, fundingagencies, the agricultural industry, and otherstakeholders, to ensure that the process andidentified gaps are credible from many viewpoints.

22

• Conduct a critical review process that includesmany reviewers to ensure the report is accurateand usable. Ensure that you give these reviewerstime to do the review. Negotiate up front with thereviewers about how their review is to be used andwith whom it will be shared. Provide reviewerswith the final copy of the report along withreasons why some of their input was used or not used.

• Identify missing areas of knowledge, anddetermine how to address them.

• Package the information in other ways (e.g. factsheets) to suit the industry’s needs.

• In cooperation with the funding agency, share the final product with other researchers and the industry to obtain feedback for furtherimprovement of future editions of the report.

• Determine who will be responsible for the ongoingprocess to improve and update the report. Establisha plan and timeline for this process.

• Set up a process to compare the list of gaps in thisreport with the research underway two years fromnow, and revise the list of gaps at that time.

• Set up a process to build networks and alliances totackle the research gaps.

• Consider making the report available as a PDFonline. Consider publishing it as a textbook, andlook into obtaining a sponsor for publication,production, marketing and distribution of thehard copy.


AppendixResearch Gaps andNext Steps in ManureManagement Research

Mohamed AmraniAlberta Agriculture,Food and Rural Development

Social IssuesScience to

Research Gaps and Next Steps in Manure Management Research 27

Introduction

The gaps and recommendations presented in thisappendix resulted from discussions, gap analysis and project evaluation by the authors and others.The methods used are described in Chapter 1 of the main report.

Industry ChallengesRelated to ManureManagement

At a workshop in Banff in March 2003, which brought together agricultural specialists, professionalsand industry representatives, participants discussedthe challenges and needs facing the agriculture industrywith respect to manure management. These discussionscontributed to the assessment of the gaps and thedevelopment of recommendations for next steps for this project.

The challenges and needs identified at the workshop were:

Farm management

• Producers are overwhelmed with requirementssuch as considerations related to the health and productivity of their livestock and crops,financial issues, environmental issues,regulatory requirements, marketing issues and community issues.

• Producers do not always have good access toresources that aid in gathering, analysing andusing information.

• Producers are facing a “paradigm shift”requiring a new understanding of their limitations and boundaries and an increased need to seek professional advice on managing their farm operations.

Extension

• Helping producers to make this paradigm shift may require development of training andcertification processes for consultants, techniciansand others required for a producer’s technicalsupport network.

• Extension agents need to continue to evaluateperceived barriers to adoption of beneficialmanagement practices (e.g. economics, ease of operation) and to find more effective waysreduce these barriers.

• Producers need information on manuremanagement that is packaged to meet their needs,emphasizing practical cost-effective methods.

Research

• Researchers need to come together to identifypriorities (collaboration on a national andinternational level).

• Researchers need to determine what, if any, typesof biosecurity hazards might be posed by manuremanagement, if producers are taking the necessaryprecautions to prevent such hazards, and to developplans to handle a biosecurity crisis if one shouldever occur and the long-term implications formanure management.

• A nationally based integrated GIS system is needed.

Industry image

• There is a perception among the public thatmanure is being dumped without regard for the environment.

• A proactive communication strategy is needed tohelp change the public’s image of the agriculturalindustry, including improving the public’sunderstanding of the value of manure.

• Improving agriculture’s image could require asubstantial investment.

Gaps Identification and Prioritization

3.1 Gaps Identifiedat the Banff WorkshopWhile preparing the first draft of the literature review, the authors developed preliminary lists of research gaps for their sections, based on theirassessment of the existing research. At the Banffworkshop, the participants supplemented thesepreliminary lists of gaps.

1

2

3

28

The gaps identified at the Banff workshop are listedbelow. They were not ranked in any order.

Feed Management

• Determine the minimum dietary levels of nitrogenand phosphorus to maintain animal growth andproduction with minimum nitrogen andphosphorus excretions.

• Evaluate the effects of dietary nitrogen and phosphorus manipulation on nutrientcomposition in manure losses from agricultural landscapes.

• Determine how changes in animal physiologyaffect nutrient excretions.

• Determine the effectiveness and economics ofdifferent enzymes and additives in reducingnutrient excretions by animals.

• Develop new feeding technologies that minimizefeed waste.

• Investigate the effectiveness of modifiers ofdigestion and/or fermentation to reduce methane emissions.

• Develop genetic and reproductive technologiesthat allow animals to use nutrients moreefficiently.

• Reduce salt content, especially sodium, tominimize adverse effects on soil quality whenmanure is applied to land.

• Investigate the consequences of feeding heavymetals, and develop guidelines for restrictingmanure applications based on the levels ofheavy metals in manure.

• Quantify how to deal with feed variability when developing nitrogen- and phosphorus-restricted rations.

Land Application and Handling of Manure

• Investigate the impact of different manureapplications on nitrate leaching in different soils.

• Evaluate the effectiveness of set-backs to reduce or prevent nutrient and pathogen losses to water bodies.

• Investigate the effects of beneficial managementpractices (BMPs) on minimizing nitrogen andphosphorus losses from agricultural landscapes.

• Study the effect of manure injection in reducingnutrient losses and odour.

• Develop management tools to minimizephosphorus losses in watersheds.

• Conduct cost-benefit analyses of manuremanagement BMPs.

• Evaluate the impact of fall-applied manure underAlberta conditions.


• Investigate methods to control soluble phosphorus losses where manure is surface-applied (forage, pasture).

• Evaluate alternative uses of manure.

• Develop techniques to assess the dynamics ofnutrient availability from different types ofmanure in specific soil-cropping-climate systems.

• Evaluate the cost-benefits of manure storagesystems that conserve nutrients.

• Continue to investigate, develop and communicatecost-effective options to minimize odour fromland applications of manure.

• Encourage producers to use a systems approachfor management of manure constituents.

• Investigate preferential flow and hydrologicalconsiderations in nutrient movement.

• Investigate emerging issues and opportunities such as metals in manure, pharmaceuticals, andendocrine disruption.

• Monitor environmental impacts of specific BMPs under specific conditions to more accurately predict their benefits when applied on individual farms.

• Investigate and develop options forenvironmentally safe winter applications of manure.


Zoonotic Pathogens

• Investigate pathogen persistence on the farm anddetermine if the farm is a gateway through whichthe microbes pass.

• Investigate how bacteria move from one anima1 to another.

• Develop methods for rapid testing of very lowlevels of Campylobacter, Salmonella, Toxoplasma,Vibrio, E. coli O157:H7, Cyclospora,Cryptosporidium parvum, and viruses in manures,soils and composts.

• Develop management practices and treatmenttechnologies to prevent pathogen contaminationwhile handling, storing and applying animalmanure and by-products.

• Determine how BMPs affect pathogen survival and transport.

• Investigate the generation and proliferation ofbio-aerosols.

• Determine the risk posed to human health frommanure pathogens.


• Develop options for producers to use a holisticapproach to managing pathogens in relation toother contaminants of concern.

• Determine the effects of existing manure handlingand management practices (e.g. short-termstockpiling) on pathogen transport and viability.

• Develop the information needed to conductreliable risk assessments of the hazards thatmanure pathogens pose for human and animalhealth, and conduct risk assessments.

• Determine whether or not manure pathogens can survive aerosol transmission (attached to dust particles) and, if so, whether they could be a health concern.

• Determine the risk of the transmission ofresistance from antibiotic-resistant bacteriain manure to other bacteria.

• Determine the level of occurrence of antibiotic-resistant bacteria in the environment, whethermanure applications on land are contributing tothe presence of these bacteria in the environment,and whether these bacteria pose a health risk forhumans and animals.

Odour


• Establish standards for measuring odour hedonic tone.

• Investigate electronic nose technology as analternative means of quantifying odour intensityand character.

• Establish a relevant standard for evaluating odour control technology in which perceivedintensity is considered.

• Establish a method of determining the distancefrom a confined feeding operation (CFO) at whichthe health risk becomes unreasonable.

• Focus research and extension activities on odour reduction at growing/finishing facilities,where the most feed is consumed and the mostmanure is generated.

• Generate odour data that are lacking for the following:

• liquid manure storage, relative to separated,non-separated, and agitated storage

• solid manure storage, relative to temperature,moisture content and differences among dairy,beef, poultry, and swine manure

• indoor storage, relative to odour contributionfrom slats, solid floor and storage

• ventilated vs. unventilated pit storage

• alternative protein- and sulfur-reduced diets

• straw and impermeable covers for manurelagoon storage

• Develop widely accepted protocols to measureodour emission rates from liquid surfaces andfrom irregularly shaped manure surfaces.

• Establish “typical” emission rates from varioustypes of CFOs.

• Determine the variance estimates for calculation ofthe minimum distance separation (MDS) based onimplementation of various BMPs.

• Assess the odour reduction ability and costs ofmanure pit additives under Alberta conditions.

• Develop variance estimates to MDS.

• Develop a nationally coordinated approach to research on odour.

• Developed standardized technology evaluation protocols.

• Develop alternative services for environmentalconsulting for farmers such as Enviro Clubs,consulting coalitions, and retainer-basedconsulting fees.

• Establish uniform provincial odour/sitingregulations to allow responsible, economic and accepted livestock industry expansion.

• Develop standardized odour evaluation techniquesto promote opportunities for data sharing andcollaborative research.

• Develop standardized odour dispersion modeling for agricultural odour and gas emissionsto promote uniform, comparable output fromodour research so that data and information could be shared.

• Develop a widely accepted separationdistance/siting method based on science tominimize and resolve conflicts over siting of livestock operations.

• Increase extension to producers on odourmanagement, measurement and separationdistance theory so they can communicate moreeffectively with neighbours about impacts ofdevelopments and expansions.

• Identify an odour “surrogate” or “tracercompound” to improve measurement andmodeling of odour.

• Further investigate the effectiveness of differentodour abatement and treatment methods to allowquantitative reduction of separation distancerequirements.

• Establish regulations to reflect the state of thescience in odour measurement, modeling andabatement technologies. These regulations need to be written in a format that is as flexible aspossible so change can be made as technology and extension efforts develop and affect theindustry and society.

Ammonia and Hydrogen Sulfide

• Develop and evaluate highly sensitive and moreaccurate standardized methodologies for emissionconcentration measurement to provide data forcomparison with modeled results.

• Improve and validate existing models for gasemissions, transport and deposition.

• Evaluate existing emissions control technologies:

• Improve and assess the multiple functions anduses of these technologies.

• Develop a ranking system for comparisonbetween different abatement technologies.

• Develop better knowledge of the interactionbetween different emission control methods for different gases.

• Develop an economic model to assess eachemission control technology for costs andbenefits. These models can be used to study the impacts of the technologies on productioncost and return.

• Develop potential relationships between emissionsconstituents, concentrations and potential healthindicators.

• Determine cumulative impacts of livestockoperations located in the same area.

• Evaluate BMPs to assess their effects on ammoniaand hydrogen sulfide emissions.

• Determine typical emissions from various types of CFOs.

Greenhouse Gases

• Investigate the basic processes involved in thecreation of methane and nitrous oxide and thecomplex relationships among soil, air, water,animals and plants.

• Determine the processes responsible for nitrousoxide emission to gain a better understanding ofthe dynamic processes involved in nitrification and denitrification.

30

• Evaluate emissions coefficients for emissions due to mitigation practices for animals, livestockbuildings and manure application on land.

• Develop a database on energy inputs for value-added products from manure.

• Collect data and establish a database withinformation on land availability for bio-energyand bio-materials.

• Develop models and gather spatial databases thatwould incorporate parameters such as climate,soils, land use and management (includingmanure applications).

• Improve methods to determine the relativecontributions of the stages of livestock productionand manure management.

• Collect data and standardize methodology formeasuring field emissions and point sourceemissions (buildings and lagoons).

• Develop a better understanding of carbon dioxide,carbon budgets, and interrelationships betweencarbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases.

• Take a coordinated, cooperative approach tomeasuring and modeling air emission (ammoniahydrogen sulfide, greenhouse gases, bio-aerosols,etc.) to save time and money.

• Use a systems approach in quantifying overall and peak emissions from manure holding systems,and then develop engineering and BMP options tominimize emissions.

• Work with industry to target funding available forenvironmentally sustainable agriculture activitiesthrough the federal-provincial Agriculture PolicyFramework.

Social Issues

• Identify the real reasons for conflicts related tomanure management and livestock operations in Alberta.

• Investigate the methods that value the image ofthe industry.

• Investigate how the industry can be proactive indealing with conflict.

• Identify potential areas of conflict and how theycan be approached.

• Identify BMPs and technologies that have a highimpact on the image of the industry.

• Continue to educate producers and the generalpublic on conflict management methods, to helpbuild communication and mutual understandingbetween producers and the public.

• Identify policy and regulatory options that couldreduce conflicts.

• Use a collaborative, multidisciplinary approachwith scientists, social scientists, government staff,and industry representatives to develop a strategyto address the gaps and issues.

• Identify producer interests, needs and concernswith respect to reluctance to shift attitudes aboutways of doing business.


• Investigate and find ways to resolve producer vs.producer conflicts.

• Describe a political process that is expected todevelop when technology and regulations areproposed for manure management.

• Encourage more producers to become involved in making change happen in the political sphere.

3.2 Gaps Prioritization: First PhaseEach author identified four priority gaps for his or hersection from the preliminary list of gaps and the gapsidentified at the Banff workshop. (The gaps fornutrient management policies and programs were notincluded in the prioritization process.)

Feed Management

• Lack of basic understanding of the factorsaffecting dry matter intake and the relationshipbetween feed intake and feed quality to manureproduction.

• Lack of detailed knowledge on amino acid andphosphorus requirements of ruminants.

• Lack of knowledge on the effects of genetics andimplants on nitrogen and phosphorus excretion.

• Lack of knowledge on the effects of ionophores onnitrogen and phosphorus excretions relative to theeffects of ionophores on maintenance energyrequirements.



• Investigate and document the effects of manureapplication BMPs on minimizing nutrient lossesfrom agricultural landscapes.

• Evaluate the effectiveness of set-backs and bufferzones on reducing nutrient and pathogen inputs towater bodies in watersheds.

• Develop techniques and strategies to assess thedynamics of manure nutrients, especially nutrientrelease, in different soil-cropping-climatic systems.


Zoonotic Pathogens



• Determine the risk of the transmission ofresistance from antibiotic-resistant bacteria inmanure to other bacteria.


Odour


• Investigate electronic nose technology as analternative means of quantifying odour intensityand character.

• Establish a relevant standard for evaluating odourcontrol technology in which perceived intensity isconsidered.

• Develop widely accepted protocols to measureodour emission rates from liquid surfaces andfrom irregularly shaped manure surfaces.

Ammonium and Hydrogen Sulfide Emissions

• Develop and validate models for calculation ofammonia and hydrogen sulfide emissions fromhousing, manure storage and treatment, and landapplication of manure for cattle operations inAlberta.

• Assess the health effects and impacts of ammoniaand hydrogen sulfide on workers and residentsliving near CFOs.

• Determine if oil sprinkling techniques canconsistently reduce ammonia and hydrogen sulfide emissions from swine facilities in Alberta.

• Develop effective technology transfer tools thathelp CFO producers to adopt appropriate andeconomically feasible ammonia and hydrogensulfide control technologies (diet manipulationand manure storage).

Greenhouse Gas Emissions

• Conduct research on the basic processes involvedin the creation of methane and nitrous oxide frommanagement practices and the interactions amongsoils, crops, pastures and livestock (i.e. whole farmapproach).

• Determine greenhouse gas emissions coefficientsfor currently promoted BMPs for animals,livestock buildings, and manure storage, handlingand application.

• Develop cost-effective, practical technologies tomanage manure for energy and value-addedproducts.

• Improve methods to determine the relativecontributions of greenhouse gas emissions by the stages of livestock production and manuremanagement.

Social Issues

• Identify producer interests, needs and concernsregarding reluctance to modify their way of doingbusiness and their attitudes.

• Identify reasons and resolutions for farmer-to-farmer conflict.


32

3.3 Gaps Prioritization:Second PhaseAt a workshop in Edmonton in August 2003,the authors reviewed the list of 24 gaps (not includingthe social issues gaps) generated by the first phase ofprioritization. They found that some of the gapsoverlapped. Therefore, they merged the overlappinggaps to create the following set of 15 gaps:


• Investigate the effects of management practices onminimizing nutrient and greenhouse gas losses tothe environment from animals, buildings, storage,handling and application.

• Determine the cost/benefit implications of produceradoption of nutrient management BMPs.

Feed Management

• Develop a basic understanding of the factors affecting dry matter intake, amino acid requirements and phosphorus requirementsof ruminants, and the relationship of feed intakeand quality to manure production, nutrient levelsin manure, and odour/gas production.

• Determine the effects of genetic implants andionophores on nitrogen and phosphorus excretion.

• Develop the reproductive physiology andtechnology needed to ensure an increase in thenumber of offspring born per heifer and cow.

Odour and Other Gaseous Emissions

• Develop widely accepted protocols to measuremanure gas, odour and viable pathogen emissionrates from liquid and solid manure and confinedbuildings and manure application.



• Develop cost-effective, practical technologies tomanage manure for energy and value-addedproducts.

• Investigate the basic processes involved in thecreation of methane and nitrous oxide frommanagement practices and the interactions among soils, crops, pastures, and livestock (i.e. whole farm approach).

Human Health


• Assess the health effects of ammonia and hydrogensulfide on workers and residents living near CFOs.

• Develop effective decontamination protocols andproducts for removal of manure pathogens fromagricultural operations and food processingfacilities.



3.4 Gaps Prioritization: Third PhaseThe next step in prioritizing the gaps at the Edmontonworkshop was to determine the “critical few” gaps.The participants used the following criteria to rate the15 gaps:

a. Is it a challenging issue for the industry?rating scale of 1 to 9; 9 = if not solved, industrygrowth will be questionable

b. What is the cost/benefit of the project?rating scale of 1 to 9; 9 = all costs of producing,delivering and adopting a technology are very lowcompared to the anticipated benefits to producersand consumers

c. How will the project contribute to thecompetitiveness of the industry?rating scale of 1 to 9; 9 = will contribute significantly


d. How will the project contribute to theenvironmental sustainability of the industry?rating scale of 1 to 9; 9 = will contribute significantly

e. Can we write a research proposal around the idea?rating scale of 1 to 9; 9 = clear and very specific idea

The process resulted in eight top priority gaps.

During the prioritizing process, the team determined that addressing these gaps was part of developing an overall solution to the two majorconcerns in manure management: protecting humanhealth and protecting the environment. From theteam’s perspective, addressing these two concernsrequires a comprehensive approach to risk. The team also developed an overall statement of intent to reflect this need.

Overall Statement of Intent:

Develop a comprehensive approach for predicting risk through geomatics and geographic informationsystems (GIS) to ensure sustainability and enableoptimal site selection to reduce environmental andhuman health risk.

Top Eight Gaps

The gaps are not listed in any specific order.

• Develop widely accepted protocols to measureemission rates of manure gas, odour and viablepathogens from liquid and solid manure, confinedlivestock buildings and manure application.

• Determine the survival and persistence of manurepathogens in groundwater, surface water and air inthe natural environment.


• Develop a basic understanding of the factorsaffecting dry matter intake, amino acidrequirements and phosphorus requirements ofruminants, and the relationship of feed intake andquality to manure production, nutrient levels inmanure and odour/gas production.

• Assess the health effects of ammonia and hydrogensulfide on workers and residents living nearconfined feeding operations.

• Develop effective decontamination protocols and products for removal of manure pathogensfrom agricultural operations and food processingfacilities.


• Investigate the effects of BMPs on minimizingnutrient and greenhouse gas releases and lossesfrom animals, livestock buildings, and manurestorage, handling and application.

Recommendations forthis Project and OtherSimilar Projects

4.1 Proposed ProjectManagement Model Based on input during the Edmonton meeting and individual interviews with team members andothers, the following project management model isrecommended for open-ended, complex projects thatinvolve authors from many agencies and disciplines.

Dedicated Project Manager/Facilitator

A dedicated project manager/facilitator who hasexperience and skills primarily in project managementwill be an asset for this kind of project. That individualcan be selected from within any of the participatingorganizations or contracted privately based onreputation and experience.

Team Development

Team Development Retreat: A team developmentsession should be considered for this project tocomplete the next steps (recommended below) and/orfor other similar projects when they are established.The retreat would be used to establish the followingitems:

• Why: Set the project purpose, vision and mission.

• What: Clarify expectations and desired outcomes,including products to be produced, goals andmeasures to be achieved, and applicable timelinesand deadlines.

• How: Establish processes, administration,budget, resources, problem solving, conflictmanagement, communication, meeting frequency, contingency planning.

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• Who: Define clients and stakeholders, selectreviewers, decide on contractors (if applicable)and set team members’ roles and responsibilities.

The results of this retreat should be put in a written document that could be used as theproject/team charter and the basis for the project management plan.

Ongoing Team Building: Frequent face-to-facemeetings in one- to two-day facilitated workshops will help keep the project on track and ensure that all team members understand, agree to and follow the necessary steps in the project.

Funder - Project Team CommunicationFor open-ended literature review projects, a detailedoutline of what will be addressed in the literaturesearch should be developed and agreed upon betweenproject team and funding agency at an early stage ofthe project.

4.2 Next Steps for this ProjectDocument Gaps

The literature review brings together a tremendousamount of quality information on practices andtechnologies for manure/livestock management. It is afirst step to putting much-needed information intoone single document.

Even with a 400-page document, the authors were unable to address all issues related to manuremanagement. One option under consideration isnational collaboration with other provinces toimprove and update the document.

The report and future editions will provide valuableinformation for funding agencies, commodity groups,professionals and individuals.

Some topics that could be expanded in the nextedition include:

• Manure storage and handling

• Feeding strategies for swine and poultry

• Odour emissions from cattle feedlot operations

Some topics that could be added in the next editioninclude:

• Cost/benefit of manure management practices and technologies.

• Health risks related to manure management.

• Social issues as they are affected by policies,market, and rural/urban changes.

Another important step in adding value to the reportwill be to repackage some parts of the report to createuser-friendly factsheets, brochures, or news articles forproducers and commodity groups.

Proposed Process to Identify and Address Priority Gaps

The participants at the Banff workshop made thefollowing recommendations for a process to identifyand address the research gaps in the future:

• Develop a collaborative strategy for a focused,comprehensive process to identify and prioritizeinformation gaps relevant to manure managementin Alberta. This strategy would include thefollowing components:

- Further investigate current manuremanagement research to determine what research exists or is currently beingconducted that is applicable to Albertaconditions and needs.

- Determine all stakeholders’ needs with respect to manure management.

- Develop a process to identify which of theidentified gaps have the highest priority.

• Develop a strategy to build and enhancerelationships with other provinces to jointlyaddress priority gaps.

• Develop a strategy for collaboration with otheragencies at national and international levels toaddress priority gaps.

Updating, Upgrading and Disseminating the Report

At the Edmonton workshop, the following steps wererecommended to ensure that the current edition ofthe report is accurate, usable and trustworthy, and toupgrade and update future editions of the report:

• Share the research gaps and the gaps prioritizationprocess with more reviewers (researchers, industry,and other involved stakeholders) to ensure that theprocess and the gaps are credible from manyviewpoints.


• Conduct a critical review process that includesmany reviewers to ensure the report is accurateand usable; the authors could take a lead role bysending the draft to their peers. Negotiate up frontwith the reviewers about how their review is to beused and with whom it will be shared. Providereviewers with the final copy of the report alongwith reasons why some of their input was used or not used.

• Set up a process to compare the list of gaps in thisreport with the research underway two years fromnow, and revise the list of gaps at that time.

• Identify topics that have not been dealt with in the current draft of the report. Identify andcontact researchers who have the expertise toconduct literature reviews of these topics.

• In cooperation with ALIDF, share the final productwith other researchers and the industry to obtainfeedback to improve future editions of the report.

• Determine who will be responsible for the ongoingprocess to improve and update the report. Establisha plan and timeline for this process.

• Set up a process to build networks and alliances to tackle the gaps.

• Package the information in this report in other ways (e.g. fact sheets, news articles) to suit the needs of individual producers and commodity groups.

• Consider making this report available online in a PDF format.

Conclusion

A great deal of research has been done in recent yearson the many aspects of manure management. Researchfunding agencies, researchers, extension agents and the agricultural industry need to know the practicalresults of this research and what information gapsremain in order to speed up progress in developingcost-effective manure management practices thatprotect the environment and human health.

Therefore, the authors of each chapter in the report’sliterature review have sifted through hundreds ofresearch publications in their subject area and thensummarized the major results and identified keyinformation gaps.

The gap analysis process has taken the results of the literature review an important step further.It has identified which particular gaps most need to be addressed to ensure that producers have theinformation they need for sustainable manuremanagement. This step is crucial to assist research funding agencies in setting priorities that will make the best use of the funds available for agricultural research.

The report’s recommendations for other similarprojects provide guidance for other multi-disciplinaryteams involved in open-ended, complex projects.The recommended process to identify and addressinformation gaps provides a more comprehensiveapproach than was possible in this project. And therecommended next steps for this project will addsignificant value to the large body of information in the report.

Manure is a valuable resource for the agriculturalindustry. The report provides diverse, detailedinformation and recommendations that cancontribute to making the most of manure and to maintaining an environmentally, socially andeconomically sustainable agricultural industry.

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