MANAGINGMANAGING 21 21ST ST C C AIR QUALITYAIR QUALITY

Mining Waste transfer

stations – especially PM10 in UK

DISPERSIVE DISPERSIVE PROCESSESPROCESSES

Demolition Vehicle Wear:

Cu, Zn, Cd, Sb, Ba, Pb

Brakes pads Cu, Ba, Sb

DISPERSIVE DISPERSIVE PROCESSESPROCESSES

AGRICULTUREAGRICULTURE

Dispersive sources

Ploughing

Pesticides

Pollen dispersal

DISPERSIVE PROCESSESDISPERSIVE PROCESSES

ORGANICS ORGANICACIDS

NEUTRALIZATIONHNO3

H2SO4

DUST EMISSION

Mining, agriculture, construction, roads

OXIDATION

A SENSE OF FAILUREA SENSE OF FAILURE

Re-authorization of CAA(1970) in 1990s Recognised a failure to meet O3 standards

Noted HC down 30% NOx down 50%

UK things were not getting better- titration Secondary pollution had detached

pollutants from there sources Seemingly illogical…

OK EXCEPT OK EXCEPT FOR 2FOR 2NDND POLLUTIONPOLLUTION

EPA ambient air quality

trends

RETHINK 96/62/ECRETHINK 96/62/EC

Human health Public information Alert Zones and agglomerations Technical and scientific support

Working groups and position papers Methods

Indicative CBA Daughter Directives and position

papers

SO2 NO2 PM Pb O3 benzene CO PAH Cd As Ni Hg

1,3butadiene HF not included!

CLEAN AIR for EUROPE (CAFE)CLEAN AIR for EUROPE (CAFE)beyond 96/62/ECbeyond 96/62/EC

Follows 96/62/EC but in CAFE - a preoccupation with O3/PM

Concern with environment and not just health

Synergisms - not pollutant by pollutant approach

Indoor issues – only where it relates to outdoor pollutants

Atkinson GrimshawGlasgow Docks

Yoshio Markino- The Painter of Fog

YELLOW FOGSYELLOW FOGS

Scattering Tar in droplets Gaslight

COLOUR OF SMOGCOLOUR OF SMOG

Scattering… NO2 brown London fog

SOMETIMES OUTCOMES NOT SOMETIMES OUTCOMES NOT OBVIOUSOBVIOUS

In some places the air has In some places the air has become worse in the become worse in the weekends weekends

NO + ONO + O3 3 NO NO22 + O + O22

POPs

WOOD SMOKE VOCs, O3

COAL SMOKE DIESEL SMOKE

LEAD H2SSMELLs

TIME

DOMINANCE of the DOMINANCE of the AUTOMOBILEAUTOMOBILE

2OPHOTOCHEMICALPOLLUTION

CARCINOGENS

NEUROTOXINENDOCRINE DISRUPTOR

TERATOGEN

MEXICO CITYMEXICO CITY

STUART FRANKLIN

SEPTEMBER 1986

FUEL CHANGE

ROLE OF “AUTOMOTIVE VAPOURS”ROLE OF “AUTOMOTIVE VAPOURS”

CH4 + OH CH3 + H2O

CH3 + O2 CH3O2

CH3O2 + NO CH3O + NO2

CH3O + O2 HCHO + HO2

HO2 + NO OH + NO2

CH4 + 2O2 + 2NO HCHO + 2NO2 + H2O

…initially scientists thought that the effectiveness of the organic compound would be related to its rate of reaction with OH

PHOTOCHEMICAL OZONE PHOTOCHEMICAL OZONE CREATION POTENTIAL (POCP)CREATION POTENTIAL (POCP)

However OH reactivity did not capture branching …..where a molecule spilt into two

Ethene (ethylene) typifies this process…

CH2=CH2 + O3 CH2O2* + HCHO Can at times be a hundred fold more

reactive than simple organic compounds

POCP POCP OFOF AROMATICS AROMATICS BENZENE AND TOLUENEBENZENE AND TOLUENE

Benzene and toluene have many double bonds

High POCP Antiknock additives Can lead to an effective

lachrymator, peroxybenzoylnitrate (PBzN) an aromatic PAN: C6H5C(O)OONO2

Mexico city and aromatics CH3

WINTER NOWINTER NOXX SMOGS SMOGS

Termolecular oxidation Titration NO+O3

WINTER POLLUTION PROBLEMSWINTER POLLUTION PROBLEMS

Low temperatures favour nitrogen dioxide formation

Cold start gives high carbon monoxide Stable air masses Tyre dust

EMISSION CONTROLEMISSION CONTROL

Emissions

Pollution

CONCERN

……less applicable in an age less applicable in an age of secondary pollutantsof secondary pollutants

PRIMARY CONTROL PRIMARY CONTROL SPORTING EVENTSSPORTING EVENTS

Beijing 2008 Olympic Games

Kaohsiung 2009 World Games

London 2012

AIR QUALITY AIR QUALITY MANAGEMENTMANAGEMENT

Emissioninventory

LowerPollution

POLICYCONCERN

Computermodel

Meteorologicalmeasurement

Monitoringnetwork

Air quality standards/goals

Devise tactics tomeet standards

Enforce emissions

Elsom (1992)

Disagreement

Political wrangle

Economic impact

Siting issues

Models!

Distrust

Perceptions

AQM OR EMISSION CONTROLAQM OR EMISSION CONTROL AQM complex Control principles Other methods –financial instruments

Emission trading, permits, fees, fuel tax CBA

ADVANTAGES ADVANTAGES

Can control secondary pollutants Is focused on the heath based issues Can be flexible in terms of socio-economic

strategies

EPAQS & COMEAPEPAQS & COMEAP

Links between DoH and Air Quality Division

AIR QUALITY AIR QUALITY MANAGEMENTMANAGEMENT

Emissioninventory

LowerPollution

Computermodel

Meteorologicalmeasurement

Monitoringnetwork

Air quality standards/goals

Devise tactics tomeet standards

Enforce emissions

COMPLIANCECOMPLIANCE – – Stationary SourcesStationary Sources ROLLBACK AND BEYOND ROLLBACK AND BEYOND

Clean Fuels Reduce fuels use – efficiency,

better plant Certification Zoning Architectural coatings

COMPLIANCECOMPLIANCE - - AutomobilesAutomobilesROLLBACK AND BEYOND ROLLBACK AND BEYOND

Reduce total emissions Speed, pooling, public transport,

urban planning Reduce vehicle emissions

Cleaner engines, fuels catalytic converters

Maintenance and inspection certification

EUROPEAN EUROPEAN CONTROLSCONTROLS

Ever tightening regulations as part of a recognition of the role of motor vehicles

DIESEL PRIMARY NODIESEL PRIMARY NO22

EURO III diesel cars have oxidation catalysis and particle traps

This now means the emission ratio for NO2/NOx is 50% rather than 5% in the past…

METHANOLMETHANOL

potential alternative to a hydrogen economy production via syngas from natural gas CH4 + H2O → CO + 3H2 nickel catalyst 850°C

CO + 2H2 → CH3OH copper, zinc oxide, and alumina @5–

10 MPa and 250 °C

good motor fuel

METHANOLMETHANOL MODELLING IMPACT IN A LARGE CITYMODELLING IMPACT IN A LARGE CITY

Peak 1h ozone likely to change little More general O3 improvements though… PAN reduced Increased peak HCHO, but average does

not change much Toxicological problems

LEZLEZ

EURO3 PM 2012

Minibus

BIOFUELSBIOFUELS The European Union biofuels directive:

2010 at least 5.75% biofuel usage for traffic fuel. 2020 10 % Backed down 2008 http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/7186380.stm

George W. Bush 2006 State of the Union speech: US to replace 75% of the oil it imports from the Middle East by biofuels by 2025

Bush and Lula (Brazil) on Biofuel 9 Mar 07

SECONDARY ORGANIC AEROSOLSECONDARY ORGANIC AEROSOL Recognising that the organic

material formed in the smog was important

Oxidized compounds, but necessarily non volatile – e.g. dicarboxylic acids

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

180

400 800 1200 1600 2000

hours

NO2

NO

O3

HC

RCHO

DIESEL PARTICLESDIESEL PARTICLES

Increasing concern about very fine particles black diesel vehicles

Nitration of organics Carcinogens

Los Angeles ULTRAFINES (50-100nm) Los Angeles ULTRAFINES (50-100nm)

Most abundant

catalytic metals:

Fe, Ti, Cr,

Zn, Ce

Organic

Metal oxide

Carbon

SO4

NO3

Other

Cass et al Phil. Trans. 2000

Some 10% of primary organic particles seem to be from cars...

PERSISTENT ORGANIC POLLUTANTS PERSISTENT ORGANIC POLLUTANTS (POPS)(POPS)

4) toxaphene 5) Aldrin6) Chlordane7) DDT8) Dieldrin9) endrin,10) heptachlor11) Hexachlorobenzene12) mirex

1) polychlorinated biphenyls

2) polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins

3) polychlorinated dibenzofurans

UNEP short list of 12

Compounds resistant to environmental degradation