management letters cuadernos de gestión - upv/ehumanagement letters cuadernos de gestión enpresa...

Management LettersCuadernos de Gestioacuten

Enpresa Institutua UPVEHUConocimiento en GestioacutenManagement Knowledge

Volume 20 Number 3 (2020) bull ISSN 1131-6837 e-ISSN 1988-2157httpwwwehueuscuadernosdegestionrevistaes

Management Letters Cuadernos de Gestioacuten

Journal information Informacioacuten de la revista

Aims and Scope Objetivos y alcance

Management Letters Cuadernos de Gestioacuten is an international six- monthly publication dedicated to academic papers on Business Economics It was founded in 1985 by Enpresa Institutua- Institute of Applied Business Economics at the University of The Basque Country (UPVEHU) It has consistently published articles combining scientific accuracy with useful proposals and prescriptions for improvements in business management The journal includes theoretical methodological or empirical works and its areas of interest are Business Administration Marketing Innovation Finance Human Resource Management and Entrepreneurship opened also to other fields as long as these contribute significantly to addressing problems in business management

Management Letters Cuadernos de Gestioacuten es una publicacioacuten semestral de caraacutecter internacional para trabajos acadeacutemicos de Eco-nomiacutea de la Empresa Fue fundada en 1985 por Enpresa Institutua- Instituto de Economiacutea Aplicada a la Empresa de la Universidad del Paiacutes Vasco (UPVEHU) Se ha caracterizado desde su fundacioacuten por su rigor cientiacutefico y su utilidad para la mejora de la gestioacuten en la empresa La revista incluye trabajos teoacutericos metodoloacutegicos o empiacutericos y sus aacutereas de intereacutes son Organizacioacuten y Gestioacuten de Empresas Marketing Finanzas Recursos Humanos y Emprendimiento estando abierta tambieacuten a otros campos siempre y cuando contribuyan significativamente a tratar problemas en la gestioacuten empresarial

Indexed in Indizada en

Emerging Sources Citation Index Scopus Academic Search Premier Fuente Academica Plus Periodicals Index Online ABIINFORM Business Source Premier Business Source Elite DOAJ DIALNET

Evaluated in Evaluada en

CARHUS Plus+ 2018Sello de calidad FECYTDirectory of Open Access JournalsERIHPlusLATINDEX Cataacutelogo v10 (2002 - 2017)LATINDEX Cataacutelogo v20 (2018 - ) ICI Journals Mater List

Metrics in Meacutetricas en

SJR SCImago Journal amp Country Rank Scopus Sources

Published by Editada por

Enpresa institutua Instituto de Economiacutea Aplicada a la Empresa(Universidad del Paiacutes VascoEuskal Herriko Unibertsitatea)Avda Lehendakari Aguirre 83 48015 Bilbao (Espantildea)httpswwwehueuseswebieae

Supporting entity Fundacioacuten Emilio Soldevilla para la Investigacioacuten y Desarrollo de la Economiacutea de la Empresa

ISSN 1131-6837 e-ISSN 1988-2157 Depoacutesito legal BI - 1172-01

Photo Credit Vitor PintoEmail revistacuadernosdegestionehueus

Management Letters Cuadernos de Gestioacuten 203 (2020)

Editor Directora

Pilar Fernaacutendez Ferriacuten University of the Basque Country UPVEHU Spain

Sandra Castro Gonzaacutelez University of Santiago de Compostela Spain

Elisabeth Kastenholz University of Aveiro Portugal

Mercedes Galaacuten Ladero University of Extremadura Spain

Helena Alves University of Beira Interior Portugal

Azucena Vicente Molina University of the Basque Country UPVEHU Spain

Maria Joao Carneiro University of Aveiro Portugal

Fernando Jaramillo University of Texas at Arlington USA

Leslier Valenzuela Fernaacutendez University of Chile Chile

Christopher J Cowton University of Huddersfield UK

Francisco Jaime Ibaacutentildeez Hernaacutendez University of the Basque Country UPVEHU Spain

Eric Lamarque Universiteacute Paris 1-Sorbonne France

Miguel Aacutengel Pentildea Cerezo University of the Basque Country UPVEHU Spain

Janette Rutterford Open University UK

Sara Urionabarrenetxea Zabalandikoetxea University of the Basque Country UPVEHU Spain

Bernardo Baacutetiz-Lazo Northumbria University UK

Jon Hoyos Iruarrizaga University of the Basque Country UPVEHU Spain

Nerea San Martiacuten Albizuri University of the Basque Country UPVEHU Spain

Takuma Kimura Hosei Universtity Japan

Imanol Basterretxea Markaida University of the Basque Country UPVEHU Spain

Ricardo Rodrigues University of Beira Interior Portugal

Jon Landeta Rodriacuteguez University of the Basque Country UPVEHU Spain

Jon Barrutia Guumlenaga University of the Basque Country UPVEHU Spain

Arminda Paccedilo University of Beira Interior Portugal

Eneka Albizu Gallastegi University of the Basque Country UPVEHU SpainLuis Ricardo Kabbach de Castro University of Florida USA

Beatriz Jimenez Parra University of Leoacuten Spain

Beleacuten Bande Vilela University of Santiago de Compostela Spain

Arturo Rodriacuteguez Castellanos University of the Basque Country UPVEHU Spain

Mariacutea Isabel Saacutenchez Hernaacutendez University of Extremadura Spain

Cristina Loacutepez Caro University of the Basque Country UPVEHU Spain

Jon Charterina Abando University of the Basque Country UPVEHU Espantildea

Editorial Board Consejo de Redaccioacuten

Associate Editors Editores Asociados



journal homepage httpwwwehueuscuadernosdegestionrevistaes

ContentsVolume 20 Number 3 (2020)

Editorial P Fernaacutendez M I Saacutenchez A Rodriacuteguez B Bande C Loacutepez and J Charterina 5

Articles Artiacuteculos

Ordinary Section Seccioacuten Ordinaria

Role of Psychological Contract Breach and Violation in Generating Emotional Exhaustion The Mediating Role of Job Procrastination A Abdulhassan and H Al Hasnawi 15

iquestContribuye la innovacioacuten a generar valor de marca y satisfaccioacuten en el cliente Evidencias en la gran distribucioacuten de alimentacioacuten A Marin I Gil-Saura y Mordf E Ruiz-Molina 29

The mediating role of personnel training between innovation and performance Evidence from the German pharmaceutical industry J Castillo-Apraiz and J Matey 41

The identification-loyalty relationship in a university context of crisis the moderating role of students and graduates G Cachoacuten-Rodriacuteguez and C Prado-Romaacuten 53

Temporal optimisation of signals emitted automatically by securities exchange indicators R Martiacuten-Garciacutea E Ventura and R Arguedas-Sanz 61

Special Section Advances in work-family interaction in the organizational field Seccioacuten Especial Avances sobre la interaccioacuten trabajo-familia en el aacutembito organizativo

La relacioacuten entre uso de beneficios y poliacuteticas trabajo-vida y satisfaccioacuten laboral el rol mediador del conflicto trabajo-a-familia L Mordf Gutieacuterrez-Vargas H A Arenas-Cardona y Mordf del S Loacutepez-Goacutemez 75

El rol del conflicto trabajo-familia en la relacioacuten del clima organizacional y las intenciones de salida L R Domiacutenguez-Aguirre I Lozano-Jimeacutenez y Aacute F Ramiacuterez-Campos 87

Why a strong work-life balance system is needed S Pasamar 99


This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Atribution 40 Internacional License

institutuaenpresaInstituto de Economiacutea Aplicada a la Empresa



ISSN 1131-6837 e-ISSN 1988-2157



Nordm 1 antildeo 2020 bull ISSN 1131-6837 e-ISSN 1988-2157

Editorial

Pilar Fernaacutendez-Ferriacutena Mariacutea Isabel Saacutenchez Hernaacutendezb Arturo Rodriacuteguez Castellanosc Beleacuten Bande Vilelad Cristina Loacutepez Caroe Jon Charterina Abandof

a University of the Basque Country UPVEHU Faculty of Economics and Business Comandante Izarduy 23 01006 Vitoria-Gasteiz Spain pilarfernandezfehueus httpsorcidorg0000-0002-7507-2047

b University of Extremadura School of Economics and Management Ave Elvas sn 06006 Badajoz Spain isanchezunexes httpsorcidorg0000-0002-6806-1606 c University of the Basque Country UPVEHU Faculty of Economics and Business Lehendakari Agirre Etorbidea 83 48015 Bilbao Spain arturorodriguezehueus

httpsorcidorg0000-0002-9436-423Xd University of Santiago de Compostela School of Business Administration Avda Alfonso X el Sabio sn 27002 Lugo Spain belenbandeusces httpsorcid

org0000-0003-3530-0401e University of the Basque Country UPVEHU Faculty of Economics and Business Comandante Izarduy 23 01006 Vitoria-Gasteiz Spain cristinamarialopezehu

eus httporcidorg0000-0002-4426-1937f University of the Basque Country UPVEHU Faculty of Economics and Business Lehendakari Agirre Etorbidea 83 48015 Bilbao Spain joncharterinaehueus

httpsorcidorg0000-0002-7028-7268

A R T I C L E I N F ODOI 105295cdg201384pf

1 INTRODUCTION

The global Covid-19 pandemic has given way to a new economic and social crisis where excellence in organizational management can and should contribute substantia-lly to recovery In this context of change the journal ndash loyal to its vocation to provide value through research aimed at finding business solutions ndash is entering a new era and has a strong commitment to internationalization while maintaining a close con-nection with Latin America Cuadernos de Gestioacuten has been updated to Management Letters Cuadernos de Gestioacuten and changes have been made to the website to make it more modern and dynamic Good communication with readers reviewers and authors is another priority for the new editorial team which is grateful for all the work done by the predecessors Likewise the new team eagerly assumes the responsibility of making the journal a permanent forum of dialogue which contributes positively to offering management solutions especially during the current crisis situation

The health crisis is changing habits and customs and is altering the status quo at an individual and collective level To begin with the welfare state has been put to the test with health at the forefront Accelerated digital adaptation has been imposed on educa-tional environments placing social inequalities and reconciliation of family and profes-sional life at the center of debate In addition companies have been forced to temporarily if not permanently restructure or to cease activity Accompanying these processes dis-tance working systems have been implemented and social protection systems have been introduced in an attempt to achieve flexibility for companies and security for workers This has been accompanied by a clear advancement in electronic commerce while the current production system has been questioned As a result the focus is now on busi-ness relocations and international trade due to both the unprecedented confrontation between the United States and China and the impact of Brexit on the European Union During these complex moments there is ever more talk about the necessary transition

Management Letters Cuadernos de Gestioacuten 203 (2020) 5-11

6 P Fernaacutendez M I Saacutenchez A Rodriacuteguez BBande C Loacutepez J Charterina

to a more humane more social green and circular economy Sustainability fills publications and the Sustainable Development Goals are seen as a hope on the horizon

At this juncture Management Letters Cuadernos de Gestioacuten remains faithful to its objectives and wishes to con-tribute to the generation of solutions Specifically in the field of Management the trends already identified by the journalrsquos past publications augur well for an unavoidable commitment to ethics socially responsible and sustainable management leadership marketing with a cause the role of universities entrepreneurship or innovation the topics that have been best received by our readers during the last few years which have been measured by their impact in their respective areas according to the Scopus and Web of Science metrics will also not be left aside

This editorial article recalls the journalrsquos trajectory from its beginnings and highlights the work of former colleagues who have raised it to its current position The journalrsquos new team will continue the work of its predecessors and will mark the be-ginning of a new stage This stage begins by first reviewing the journalrsquos most cited papers in recent years highlighting the lines of research that have contributed significantly to the dissemi-nation of business knowledge Additionally this issue presents eight new articles of an international and multidisciplinary na-ture which are divided into an ordinary section and a special section These works are intended to be a reference of the most current research lines and are also to develop different areas of knowledge giving continuity and timeliness to a forum of open dialogue in the scientific community

2 A BRIEF SUMMARY OF 35 YEARS OF EDITORIAL WORK

Management Letters Cuadernos de Gestioacuten is an academic journal with a long history It began its journey in 1985 within the Institute of Economics Applied to Business at the University of the Basque Country Euskal Herriko Unibertsitatea (UPVEHU) with Professor Emilio Soldevilla as its first director At that time it was conceived as a rigorous scientific publication to transmit academic knowledge to the business world and was oriented to-ward improving business management It was published at ir-regular intervals when enough contrasted scientific works were gathered together

The journal continued its trajectory with new directions be-ing taken by Professors Andreacutes Araujo Jon Landeta and Juan Carlos Ayala In 2001 the latter two made important changes to the journalrsquos format they introduced a new volume and issue numbering system ensured regular publication dates and cre-ated an electronic version On the other hand continuing the relationship with business management professionals they also sought to strengthen the existing links between researchers from different universities and teams with special emphasis on en-hancing the published worksrsquo quality after going through a rig-orous review process To this end collaboration with the Univer-sity of La Rioja and financial support from the Emilio Soldevilla Foundation were sought

In 2009 Professor Beleacuten Vallejo joined the management team With the collaboration of the editorial team made up of

Gerardo Arregui Imanol Basterretxea and Azucena Vicente she boosted the journalrsquos international visibility and achieved its in-clusion in such important databases as Scopus DOAJ Latindex IN-RECS (Impact Index of Spanish Social Science Journals) as well as Clarivate Analyticsrsquo Emerging Sources Citation Index (ESCI) another important milestone was obtaining the FECYT (Spanish Foundation for Science and Technology) Quality Seal as an excellent journal

Management Letters Cuadernos de Gestioacutenrsquos new editorial team has therefore reflected on the journalrsquos 35-year history and the previous teamrsquos achievements ndash it is aware of its responsibility in assuming the task of maintaining and if possible increasing the high level achieved These lines also serve as a reminder and a tribute to both the people who have assumed the direction of the journal up to the present date and also to the people who have contributed in other ways ndash either by being involved with coordination or in the scientific and editorial committees or by opting to publish their research results with the journal or by acting as reviewers ndash they have all helped Management Let-ters Cuadernos de GestioacutenManagement Letters Cuadernos de Gestioacuten to achieve its current level of quality

3 PRESENTATION OF THE NEW EDITORIAL TEAM

The new editorial committee has been formed by the edi-tor-in-chief Pilar Fernaacutendez Ferriacuten (University of the Basque Country UPVEHU) and five associate editors Beleacuten Bande Vile-la (University of Santiago de Compostela) Mariacutea Isabel Saacutenchez Hernaacutendez (University of Extremadura) Arturo Rodriacuteguez Cas-tellanos (UPVEHU) Cristina Loacutepez Caro (UPVEHU) and Jon Charterina Abando (UPVEHU) The new editorial board is structured in three main areas (1) Finance and Innovation (2) Business Organization Entrepreneurship Human Resources and Education and (3) Marketing It is composed of 26 profes-sors from 13 different universities (9 of which are outside Spain) Its mission is to support the editorial work and the peer review process ensuring that published research is rigorous and repre-sents an important contribution to the various areas of knowl-edge covered by the journal

4 ARTICLES WITH THE GREATEST IMPACT IN THE 2017ndash2020 PERIOD

It is worth highlighting that there is an article on the case method (Villareal 2017) among the papers with the greatest im-pact on citation according to the Scopus (Citations Percentile and Field-Weighted Citation Impact) and ESCI (Total Citations and Average Citations) metrics collected until September 2020 The article provides robust arguments for the use of this meth-odology in the field of scientific research and it responds to our readersrsquo three common concerns is it desirable necessary and possible to conduct rigorous research using the case methodol-ogy

In the field of Education and Entrepreneurship two other pillars of the journal Torres-Velasquez et al (2018) character-ized the entrepreneurial intention of university students in the


Editorial 7

Colombian city of Medellin they highlighted the importance of perceived viability and the benefits of creating a company Also in the university environment Lafuente et al (2018) proposed a marketing management framework in universities which sought on the one hand to respond to the needs of stakeholders and on the other to move toward the development of a more fa-vorable image

For their part Di Pietro et al (2018) identified the deter-mining variables of SMEsrsquo capital structure and highlighted the importance of the regional institutional environment which is added to a companyrsquos factors and activity sector which when combined help to explain SMEsrsquo capital structure in Spain

Additionally the construction sector and the importance of quality assurance through ISO 9001 certification were analyzed by Prado-Romaacuten et al (2018) who concluded that the imple-mentation of this standard means organizational and commer-cial improvements for companies regardless of their size Like-wise the age of the certification positively impacts the results

More recently in the field of Human Resources Albizu et al (2019) focused on management development tools and high-lighted the importance of the two main participantsrsquo charac-teristics (coach and coachee) in the effectiveness of executive coaching for the latterrsquos satisfaction their learning and behavior change

Finally in the area of Marketing and based on data from users in the audiovisual sector Rojas-Lamorena et al (2019) demonstrated that the inclusion of violent sexual and stereo-typed content influences brand value formation

5 ORDINARY SECTION

In the regular section of this special issue which is of a mul-tidisciplinary nature the article entitled ldquoRole of psychological contract breach and violation in generating emotional exhaus-tion The mediating role of job procrastinationrdquo studies the re-lationship between the breach and violation of the daily wage employeesrsquo psychological contract at the University of Karbala in Iraq and their perceived emotional exhaustion Abbas et al con-clude that this non-compliance affects their emotional burnout levels and does so not only directly but through a greater tenden-cy to leave some tasks pending for the next day The emergence of these behaviors is serious for organizations as it leads to a lack of commitment to organizational goals evasion of responsibility and increased isolation in the workplace

Next Mariacuten et al authors of the article entitled ldquoDoes inno-vation contribute to generate brand value and customer satisfac-tion Evidence in the large grocery distributionrdquo asked if inno-vation in large food distribution contributes to generating brand value and customer satisfaction After collecting data from more than 500 store customers they concluded that innovation in the retail sector is perceived as a multidimensional factor made up of product marketing and relationship innovation The use of ICT is the driving force behind innovation which in turn con-tributes positively to brand loyalty brand value and customer satisfaction

Innovation is also analyzed but in a very different context in the work entitled ldquoThe mediating role of personnel training

between innovation and performance Evidence from the Ger-man pharmaceutical industryrdquo The authors Castillo and Matey focused on the pharmaceutical industry which is a little studied sector By collecting data from 200 managers they concluded that employee training is a key element in ensuring that innova-tion with training as a mediating variable translates into good business results in turbulent environments

Cachoacuten and Prados article entitled ldquoThe identification-loy-alty relationship in a university context of crisis The moderating role of students and graduatesrdquo used the same PLS-SEM analysis methodology as the previous work It addressed the study of the relationship between the identification of public institution stu-dents and university graduates in an institutional crisis situation and their loyalty to it The results indicate that the relationship between identification and loyalty is significantly stronger for those who are studying than for those who are graduating

The last research to be mentioned in the ordinary section is ldquoTemporal optimisation of signals emitted automatically by securities exchange indicatorsrdquo The authors Martiacuten et al used a simulation to study the suitability of monitoring a battery of technical stock market indicators to obtain good results in a se-curities portfolio They proposed that the introduction of time delays between these indicatorsrsquo signals and the execution of the operations can contribute to improving portfolio results

6 SPECIAL SECTION ADVANCES IN WORKndashFAMILY INTERACTION IN THE ORGANIZATIONAL FIELD

This special section responds to the need to provide knowl-edge about the interaction between work and family in a con-text of adaptation to the current social and labor reality which is characterized by an increase in work and family demands and by individualsrsquo predisposition to suffer from workndashfamily conflict (Sinclair et al 2020) In this sense there is evidence that posi-tive progress in the reconciliation of family and professional life contributes to improving employment and reducing poverty and social exclusion constituting a priority for European countries and the rest of the world (Eurofound 2018)

The three papers included in this section delve into both the positive and negative consequences of combining family and professional roles they pay special attention to the mediation mechanisms through which this interaction takes place In the first of these developed by Gutieacuterrez-Vargas et al and entitled ldquoThe relationship between the use of benefits and work-life pol-icies and job satisfaction The mediating role of the work-family conflictrdquo a mediation model was proposed to analyze the rela-tionship between the use of benefits and workndashlife policies and a labor outcome of an emotional nature such as an employeersquos job satisfaction The data obtained from a sample of employees from various Colombian companies supports the proposed theoreti-cal model and identified work interference in the family as the mediating variable through which workndashlife policies positively impact employee satisfaction levels

The workndashfamily conflict also constitutes the mediating vari-able proposed by Domiacutenguez-Aguirre et al in the article entitled ldquoThe role of the work-family conflict in the relationship between the organizational climate and the intentions to leave the compa-



nyrdquo which explains the relationship between the organizational climate perceived by an employee and their intention to leave a company The information provided by employees in the tourism sector allows us to confirm the partial mediation of the conflict which reaffirms the positive effects of the work environment by minimizing one of the main problems associated with efficient people management such as voluntary rotation

The third paper included in this section entitled ldquoWhy a strong work-life balance system is neededrdquo addresses a topic of special interest to organizations such as the design and im-plementation process of an effective workndashlife balance system The author Pasamar developed the concept of a strong workndashlife balance system and proposed a theoretical framework from which a more flexible and efficient human resource management is derived

7 REFERENCES

Albizu E Rekalde I Landeta J amp Fernaacutendez Ferriacuten P 2019 Anal-ysis of executive coaching effectiveness a study from the coachee perspective Cuadernos de Gestioacuten 19(2) 33-52

Di Pietro F Palaciacuten-Saacutenchez M J amp Roldaacuten J L 2017 Regional development and capital structure of SMEs Cuadernos de Gestioacuten 18(1) 37-60

Eurofound 2018 Striking a balance Reconciling work and life in the EU Luxembourg Publications Office of the European Union

Lafuente Ruiz de Sabando A Forcada J amp Zorrilla P 2018 The mar-keting orientation as a university management philosophy a frame-work to guide its application Cuadernos de Gestioacuten 18(2) 37-58

Prado-Roman C Del Castillo-Peces C Mercado-Idoeta C amp Del Castillo-Peces J 2018 The effects of implementing ISO 9001 in the Spanish construction industry Cuadernos de Gestioacuten 18(1) 149-171

Rojas Lamorena A J Alcaacutentara Pilar J M amp Rodriacuteguez Loacutepez M E 2019 Sexo violencia y estereotipos en el brand equity de una serie El caso de Juego de Tronos Cuadernos de Gestioacuten 19(1) 15-40

Sinclair R R Allen T Barber L Bergman M Britt T Butler A Ford M Hammer L Kath L Probst T amp Yuan Z 2020 Occu-pational Health Science in the Time of COVID-19 Now more than Ever Occupational Health Science 4 1-22

Torres-Velaacutesquez J A Valencia-Arias A Bermuacutedez Hernaacutendez J Diacuteez-Echavarriacutea L F Urrego Mariacuten M L amp Maussa Peacuterez F O 2018 Characterization of entrepreneurial intention in university students as from Systemic Entrepreneurship Intention Model A case study Cuadernos de Gestioacuten 18(2) 95-114


Editorial 9

1 INTRODUCCIOacuteN

La pandemia mundial de la Covid-19 ha dado paso a una nueva crisis econoacutemica y social donde la excelencia en la gestioacuten de las organizaciones puede y debe contribuir de forma sustan-cial a la recuperacioacuten En este contexto de cambios la revista fiel a su vocacioacuten de aportar valor a traveacutes de la investigacioacuten orien-tada a la buacutesqueda de soluciones empresariales inicia una nueva eacutepoca y presenta una apuesta decidida por la internacionaliza-cioacuten manteniendo la estrecha conexioacuten con Latinoameacuterica Su nombre se actualiza a Management Letters Cuadernos de Ges-tioacuten y se introducen cambios en la paacutegina web para hacerla maacutes dinaacutemica y acorde a los nuevos tiempos La buena comunicacioacuten con los lectores revisores y autores es otra de las prioridades del nuevo equipo editorial que agradece todo el trabajo realizado hasta hoy a los antecesores en la funcioacuten Asiacute mismo el nuevo equipo asume con ilusioacuten la responsabilidad de hacer de la revis-ta un foro permanente de diaacutelogo que contribuya positivamente a ofrecer soluciones de gestioacuten en general y a la situacioacuten de cri-sis actual en particular

La crisis sanitaria estaacute cambiando haacutebitos y costumbres y estaacute alterando el status quo a nivel individual y colectivo Para comenzar se ha puesto a prueba el estado del bienestar con la salud en primer plano Se ha impuesto la adaptacioacuten digital acelerada en los entornos educativos instalando en el centro del debate las desigualdades sociales y la conciliacioacuten Ademaacutes las empresas se han visto obligadas a reestructurar-se de manera temporal cuando no permanente o a cesar la actividad Acompantildeando esos procesos se han implantado sistemas de trabajo a distancia y se han estrenado sistemas de proteccioacuten social en un intento de conseguir flexibilidad para las empresas y seguridad para los trabajadores Esto ha ido acompantildeado de un claro avance del comercio electroacutenico al tiempo que se ha cuestionado el sistema productivo vigente poniendo el foco en las deslocalizaciones y el comercio inter-nacional todo con un enfrentamiento Estados Unidos-China sin precedentes y en el medio Europa convulsa con el Brexit Justo en estos momentos complejos se habla maacutes que nunca de la necesaria transicioacuten a una economiacutea maacutes humana maacutes social verde y circular La sostenibilidad llena publicaciones y los Objetivos de Desarrollo Sostenible se ven como una espe-ranza en el horizonte

Ante esta coyuntura fiel a sus objetivos Management Le-tters Cuadernos de Gestioacuten desea contribuir a la generacioacuten de soluciones En concreto en el campo del Management las tendencias ya marcadas por la revista en las publicaciones de los uacuteltimos antildeos auguran una apuesta ineludible por la eacutetica el liderazgo para la gestioacuten socialmente responsable y soste-nible el marketing con causa el papel de las universidades el emprendimiento o la innovacioacuten sin dejar de lado los temas que han tenido una mejor acogida entre nuestros lectores en los uacuteltimos antildeos medida eacutesta por su mayor impacto en sus aacutereas respectivas de acuerdo a las meacutetricas de Scopus y Web of Science

Este artiacuteculo editorial rememora la trayectoria de la revista desde sus inicios destacando la labor de los anteriores compa-ntildeeros que han logrado auparla hasta su posicioacuten actual Se pre-senta un nuevo equipo quien daraacute continuidad a la labor de sus

antecesores y marcaraacute el comienzo de una nueva etapa Una eta-pa que inicia su andadura no sin antes hacer una resentildea de los trabajos de la revista maacutes citados en los uacuteltimos antildeos destacan-do las liacuteneas de investigacioacuten que han contribuido significativa-mente a la difusioacuten del conocimiento empresarial en la sociedad Adicionalmente a traveacutes de este nuacutemero dividido en seccioacuten or-dinaria y seccioacuten especial a la revista le complace presentar ocho nuevos artiacuteculos de caraacutecter internacional y multidisciplinar trabajos que pretenden ser referencia de las liacuteneas investigadoras maacutes actuales y avanzar en las distintas aacutereas de conocimiento dando continuidad y actualidad al foro de diaacutelogo abierto en la comunidad cientiacutefica

2 UN BREVE RESUMEN DE 35 ANtildeOS DE LABOR EDITORIAL

Management Letters Cuadernos de Gestioacuten es una revista acadeacutemica con una amplia trayectoria Inicioacute su andadura en 1985 en el seno del Instituto de Economiacutea Aplicada a la Empresa de la Universidad del Paiacutes Vasco Euskal Herriko Unibertsitatea (UPVEHU) siendo su primer director el profesor Emilio Sol-devilla En aquel momento fue concebida como una publicacioacuten con rigor cientiacutefico para la transmisioacuten de conocimientos desde el aacutembito acadeacutemico hacia el de la empresa orientada hacia la utilidad para la mejora de la gestioacuten empresarial Sin periodici-dad regular se publicaba cuando se reuniacutean suficientes trabajos cientiacuteficos contrastados

La revista siguioacute su trayectoria sucedieacutendose nuevas di-recciones a cargo de los profesores Andreacutes Araujo Jon Lande-ta y Juan Carlos Ayala De estos dos uacuteltimos partioacute el impulso para iniciar en 2001 una nueva eacutepoca con un importante cambio de formato nueva numeracioacuten en voluacutemenes y nuacute-meros una periodicidad regular y versioacuten electroacutenica Por otra parte continuando la relacioacuten con los profesionales de la gestioacuten empresarial se buscoacute tambieacuten potenciar las vin-culaciones ya existentes entre investigadores de diferentes universidades y equipos con especial empentildeo en potenciar la calidad de los trabajos publicados mediante el rigor en el pro-ceso de revisioacuten Para ello se contoacute con la colaboracioacuten de la Universidad de la Rioja y el apoyo econoacutemico de la Fundacioacuten Emilio Soldevilla

En 2009 se incorporoacute a la direccioacuten la profesora Beleacuten Valle-jo que con la colaboracioacuten del equipo editorial integrado por Gerardo Arregui Imanol Basterretxea y Azucena Vicente dio un gran impulso a la potenciacioacuten de la visibilidad internacional de la Revista consiguiendo que figure en bases de datos tan re-levantes como SCOPUS DOAJ Latindex IN~RECS asiacute como Emerging Sources Citation Index (ESCI) de Clarivate Analitics otro hito importante ha sido la obtencioacuten del Sello de Calidad FECYT como revista excelente

El nuevo equipo editorial de Management Letters Cuader-nos de Gestioacuten recoge por tanto su historia de 35 antildeos y los logros alcanzados por los equipos anteriores siendo conscien-te de su responsabilidad al asumir la tarea de mantener y si es posible incrementar el alto nivel alcanzado Sirvan tambieacuten estas liacuteneas de recuerdo y homenaje a las personas que hasta el presente han asumido la direccioacuten de la revista y tambieacuten a



todas aquellas que desde diversos puestos en la coordinacioacuten en los comiteacutes cientiacuteficos y editoriales actuando como revi-sores u optando por ella para publicar los resultados de sus investigaciones han contribuido a conseguir que Management Letters Cuadernos de Gestioacuten haya alcanzado su actual nivel de calidad

3 PRESENTACIOacuteN DEL NUEVO EQUIPO EDITORIAL

El nuevo Comiteacute Editorial estaacute formado por una Editora Principal Pilar Fernaacutendez Ferriacuten (Universidad del Paiacutes Vas-co UPVEHU) y cinco Editores Asociados Beleacuten Bande Vilela (Universidad de Santiago de Compostela) Mariacutea Isabel Saacutenchez Hernaacutendez (Universidad de Extremadura) Arturo Rodriacuteguez Castellanos (UPVEHU) Cristina Loacutepez Caro (UPVEHU) y Jon Charterina Abando (UPVEHU) El nuevo Consejo de Re-daccioacuten estaacute estructurado en tres aacutereas principales (1) Finanzas e Innovacioacuten (2) Organizacioacuten de Empresas Emprendimiento Recursos Humanos y Educacioacuten y (3) Marketing Lo componen 26 profesores de 13 universidades distintas (9 de ellas fuera de Espantildea) Su cometido es apoyar la labor editorial y el proceso de revisioacuten por pares garantizando la publicacioacuten de trabajos elaborados con rigor acadeacutemico y que supongan una contribu-cioacuten importante a las distintas aacutereas de conocimiento objeto de la revista

4 ARTIacuteCULOS CON MAYOR IMPACTO EN EL PERIODO 2017-2020

Conviene destacar dentro de los trabajos con un mayor im-pacto en citacioacuten seguacuten las meacutetricas de Scopus (Citations Per-centile y Field-Weighted Citation Impact) y ESCI (Total de citas y Promedio de citas) recogidas hasta septiembre de 2020 un artiacuteculo sobre el meacutetodo del caso (Villareal 2017) que aporta ar-gumentos robustos para la utilizacioacuten de esta metodologiacutea en el aacutembito de la investigacioacuten cientiacutefica dando respuesta a tres in-quietudes habituales de nuestros lectores iquestes deseable necesario y posible realizar investigacioacuten rigurosa mediante la metodolo-giacutea del caso

En el aacutembito de la Educacioacuten y el Emprendimiento otros dos pilares de la revista Torres-Velaacutesquez et al (2018) caracteriza-ban la intencioacuten emprendedora de los estudiantes universitarios de la ciudad colombiana de Medelliacuten destacando la importan-cia de la viabilidad percibida y de la conveniencia derivada de la creacioacuten de una empresa Tambieacuten en el aacutembito universitario pero en este caso poniendo el foco en la imagen Lafuente et al (2018) proponiacutean un marco de trabajo para la gestioacuten del Marke-ting en las universidades que buscaba por una parte responder a las necesidades de los stakeholders y por otra avanzar hacia el desarrollo de una imagen maacutes favorable

Por su parte Di Pietro et al (2018) identificaban las variables determinantes de la estructura de capital de las PYMES desta-cando la importancia del entorno institucional regional que se suma a los factores de empresa y el sector de actividad y que conjuntamente ayudan a explicar la estructura de capital de las PYMES en Espantildea

Adicionalmente el sector de la construccioacuten y la importancia del aseguramiento de la calidad a traveacutes de la certificacioacuten ISO 9001 eran analizados por Prado-Romaacuten et al (2018) quienes concluiacutean que la implantacioacuten de esta norma supone mejoras organizativas y comerciales para las empresas independiente-mente de su tamantildeo Asimismo la antiguumledad de la certificacioacuten tiene un impacto positivo en los resultados

Maacutes recientemente en el aacutembito de los Recursos Huma-nos centrando la atencioacuten en las herramientas de desarrollo directivo Albizu et al (2019) destacaban la importancia de las caracteriacutesticas de los dos intervinientes principales (coach y coachee) en la eficacia del coaching ejecutivo para la satisfac-cioacuten de estos uacuteltimos su aprendizaje y el cambio de compor-tamiento

Por uacuteltimo en el aacuterea del Marketing y basaacutendose en datos de usuarios en el sector audiovisual Rojas-Lamorena et al (2019) demostraban que la inclusioacuten de contenido violento sexual y es-tereotipado influye en la formacioacuten del valor de marca

5 SECCIOacuteN ORDINARIA

En la seccioacuten ordinaria de este nuacutemero especial de caraacutecter multidisciplinar el artiacuteculo titulado laquoRole of psychological con-tract breach and violation in generating emotional exhaustion The mediating role of job procrastinationraquo estudia la relacioacuten entre el incumplimiento y violacioacuten del contrato psicoloacutegico de los empleados con salario diario en la Universidad de Karbala en Iraq y el agotamiento emocional percibido Abbas et al con-cluyen que este incumplimiento afecta a su nivel de agotamiento emocional y lo hace no solo directamente sino a traveacutes de una mayor tendencia a dejar parte de las tareas pendientes para el diacutea siguiente La aparicioacuten de estos comportamientos es grave para las organizaciones ya que conlleva falta de compromiso con los objetivos organizativos evasioacuten de responsabilidades y aumento del aislamiento en el lugar de trabajo

A continuacioacuten Mariacuten et al autores del artiacuteculo titulado laquoContribuye la innovacioacuten a generar valor de marca y satisfac-cioacuten en el cliente Evidencias en la gran distribucioacuten de alimen-tacioacutenraquo se preguntan si la innovacioacuten en la gran distribucioacuten alimentaria contribuye a generar valor de marca y satisfaccioacuten en el cliente Tras recoger datos entre maacutes de 500 clientes de esta-blecimientos concluyen que la innovacioacuten en el sector minorista es percibida como un factor multidimensional formado por la innovacioacuten de producto de marketing y relacional El uso de las TIC es el elemento dinamizador de la innovacioacuten que a su vez contribuye positivamente a la lealtad y el valor de marca y a la satisfaccioacuten del cliente

La innovacioacuten pero en otro contexto bien distinto es tam-bieacuten analizada en el trabajo titulado laquoThe mediating role of per-sonnel training between innovation and performance Evidence from the German pharmaceutical industryraquo Castillo y Matey se centran en un sector poco estudiado el farmaceacuteutico A traveacutes de la recogida de datos entre 200 directivos concluyen que la formacioacuten de los empleados es un elemento clave para garantizar que la innovacioacuten con la formacioacuten como variable mediadora se traduzca en buenos resultados empresariales en entornos tur-bulentos


Editorial 11

Compartiendo la metodologiacutea de anaacutelisis PLS-SEM con el artiacuteculo anterior el trabajo de Cachoacuten y Prado titulado laquoLa re-lacioacuten identificacioacuten-lealtad en un contexto universitario de cri-sis el papel moderador de estudiantes y egresadosraquo aborda el estudio de la relacioacuten entre la identificacioacuten de los estudiantes y egresados universitarios de una institucioacuten puacuteblica en una situa-cioacuten de crisis institucional y su lealtad hacia esta Los resultados indican que la relacioacuten entre identificacioacuten y lealtad es significa-tivamente maacutes fuerte para los que estaacuten estudiando frente a los egresados

En la uacuteltima investigacioacuten que recoge la seccioacuten ordinaria laquoTemporal optimisation of signals emitted automatically by se-curities exchange indicatorsraquo Martiacuten et al emplean la simula-cioacuten para estudiar la idoneidad del seguimiento de una bateriacutea de indicadores teacutecnicos bursaacutetiles para la obtencioacuten de buenos resultados en una cartera de valores Plantean que la introduc-cioacuten de retardos temporales entre las sentildeales de estos indicado-res y la ejecucioacuten de las operaciones puede contribuir a mejorar los resultados de la cartera

6 SECCIOacuteN ESPECIAL AVANCES SOBRE LA INTERACCIOacuteN TRABAJO-FAMILIA EN EL AacuteMBITO ORGANIZATIVO

Esta seccioacuten especial responde a la necesidad de aportar co-nocimiento sobre la interaccioacuten trabajo-familia en un contexto de adaptacioacuten a la realidad social y laboral actual caracterizada por un incremento de las exigencias laborales y familiares y por la predisposicioacuten de los individuos a sufrir conflicto trabajo-fa-milia (Sinclair et al 2020) En este sentido existe evidencia de que el avance positivo en la conciliacioacuten de la vida familiar y profesional contribuye a mejorar el empleo y a reducir la pobreza y la exclusioacuten social constituyendo una prioridad para los paiacuteses europeos y del resto del mundo (Eurofound 2018)

Los tres trabajos que se incluyen en esta seccioacuten profundizan en las consecuencias tanto positivas como negativas de combinar el rol familiar y el rol profesional prestando especial atencioacuten a los mecanismos de mediacioacuten a traveacutes de los cuales se produce esta interaccioacuten En el primero de ellos desarrollado por Gutieacute-rrez-Vargas et al y titulado laquoLa relacioacuten entre uso de beneficios y poliacuteticas trabajo-vida y satisfaccioacuten laboral el rol mediador del conflicto trabajo-a-familiaraquo se propone un modelo de media-cioacuten para analizar la relacioacuten entre el uso de beneficios y poliacute-ticas trabajo-vida y un resultado laboral de naturaleza afectiva como es la satisfaccioacuten laboral del empleado Los datos obteni-dos a partir de una muestra de empleados de varias empresas colombianas apoyan el modelo teoacuterico propuesto identificando la interferencia del trabajo en la familia como la variable media-dora a traveacutes de la cual las poliacuteticas trabajo-vida impactan positi-vamente sobre el nivel de satisfaccioacuten de los empleados

El conflicto trabajo-familia tambieacuten constituye la variable mediadora propuesta por Domiacutenguez-Aguirre et al en el artiacutecu-lo titulado laquoEl rol del conflicto trabajo-familia en la relacioacuten del clima organizacional y las intenciones de salidaraquo para explicar la relacioacuten entre el clima organizativo percibido por el empleado y su intencioacuten de abandonar la empresa La informacioacuten propor-cionada por empleados del sector turiacutestico permite confirmar la

mediacioacuten parcial del conflicto reafirmando los efectos positi-vos del ambiente laboral a la hora de minimizar uno de los prin-cipales problemas asociados a la gestioacuten eficiente de personas como es la rotacioacuten voluntaria

El tercer trabajo incluido en esta seccioacuten que lleva por tiacutetulo laquoWhy a strong work-life balance system is neededraquo aborda un tema de especial intereacutes para las organizaciones como es el dise-ntildeo y proceso de implementacioacuten de un sistema de conciliacioacuten de la vida personal y profesional eficaz Pasamar desarrolla el concepto de fortaleza del sistema de conciliacioacuten proponiendo un marco teoacuterico de cuya aplicacioacuten se deriva una gestioacuten maacutes flexible y eficiente

7 REFERENCIAS









Villareal-Larrinaga O 2017 Is it desirable necessary and possible to perform research using case studies Cuadernos de Gestioacuten 17(1) 147-171









ISSN 1131-6837 e-ISSN 1988-2157




Role of Psychological Contract Breach and Violation in Generating Emotional Exhaustion The Mediating Role of Job ProcrastinationEl papel del incumplimiento y la violacioacuten del contrato psicoloacutegico en la generacioacuten del agotamiento emocional El papel mediador de la procastinacioacuten del trabajo

Ali Abdulhassan Abbas Hussein Hurajah Al Hasnawia

a University of Kerbala College of Administration and Economics Business Administration Department IraqKerbala ndash husseinalhasnawiuokerbalaeduiq ndash httpsorcidorg0000-0003-1773-8901

Corresponding author Ali Abdulhassan Abbas University of Kerbala College of Administration and Economics Department of Accounting IraqKerbala ndash fuhrer313gmailcom ndash aliabdalhassanuokerbalaeduiq ndash httpsorcidorg0000-0001-6860-2583

A R T I C L E I N F OReceived 28 September 2018 Accepted 23 July 2019

Available online 28 April 2020

DOI 105295cdg181021aa

JEL CODE M14 L2

A B S T R A C T

This search aims to study the extent to which Psychological Contract Breach affects and produc-es Emotional Exhaustion amongst employees through the emergence of a state of procrastination at the level of a sample of daily wage employees in the Colleges of Karbala University in Iraq The study adopted the measures devised by Suazo (2009) to measure the Psychological Contract Breach and Violation Strunk et al (2013) to measure Job Procrastination and Lewin and Sager (2009) to measure Emotional Exhaustion The studyrsquos sample consisted of 309 individuals Confirmatory Fac-tor Analysis Multiple Regression and path analysis were used to test the hypotheses and a number of conclusions were reached Most importantly the feeling among employees of Psychological Contract Breach in turn leading to an increase in their levels of emotional exhaustion has been explained in detail with the identification of the most important treatments to reduce Psychological Contract Breach in order to reduce the negative results arising from it

Keywords Psychological Contract Breach and Violation Job Procrastination Emotional Exhaustion

R E S U M E N

La investigacioacuten pretende estudiar la medida en la cual el incumplimiento del contrato psicoloacutegico afecta a los empleados y les genera agotamiento emocional por medio de la emergencia de un estado de procrastinacioacuten a nivel de una muestra de empleados con salario diario en facultades de la Uni-versidad de Kerbala en Irak El estudio adoptoacute la medida de Suazo (2008) para medir la violacioacuten y el incumplimiento del contrato psicoloacutegico Strunk y otros (2013) para medir la procrastinacioacuten laboral y Lewin y Sager (2009) para medir el agotamiento emocional La muestra del estudio constoacute de 309 individuos Se utilizaron el Anaacutelisis Factorial Confirmatorio la regresioacuten muacuteltiple y el anaacutelisis de ruta para contrastar las hipoacutetesis y se llegoacute a un nuacutemero de conclusiones Lo que es maacutes importante la sensacioacuten entre los empleados de incumplimiento de contrato psicoloacutegico que a su vez da lugar a un aumento en sus niveles de agotamiento emocional se ha explicado en detalle con la identificacioacuten de los tratamientos maacutes importantes para reducir el incumplimiento del contrato psicoloacutegico con el fin de disminuir los resultados negativos que surgen a partir de este

Palabras clave incumplimiento de contrato psicoloacutegico y violacioacuten dilacioacuten laboral agotamiento emocional


16 A Abdulhassan H Al Hasnawi

1 INTRODUCTION

In a complex business environment and with ongoing cri-ses organizations face many challenges and threats both ex-ternal and internal that stem from the constant interactions in behaviour between staff and management organizations Some of these arise because of the clash of these perceptions and behaviour with the vision and objectives of the organization whilst others are generated by the conflict of roles and a sense of injustice between the staff and the administrative system of the organization Our current research focusses on a recurring and frequent problem in many Iraqi governmental organiza-tions namely daily-wage workers on whom most organiza-tions rely because it is the least expensive form of employment and to allow for the possibility of their dismissal from work at any time without consequences Despite these disadvantag-es for the employees we found great demand for this type of employment especially amongst young people most of whom are university graduates because of their perception that in some unknown future they will be permanently assigned to the staff of the organization and therefore continue to work despite low wages or wages that might be paid only after a long period of time due to the lack of cash balance with which to pay them and which may effectively force them to work for free for several months This led us to study this situation as a result of organizationsrsquo poor commitment to their respon-sibilities towards daily wage employees which can generate a state of Psychological Contract Breach as a result of the organ-izationrsquos lack of commitment to its promises through denial and contradiction or due to the employeersquos lack of vigilance and perceptions of the organization which are only figments of their own imaginations This in turn has resulted in the emergence of behaviour that can be characterized as so-called Psychological Contract Breach by the employees and generat-ed negative behaviour on the part of the employee due to their associated sense of frustration which is reflected in a state of dissatisfaction and loss of organizational citizenship This leads to an increase in cases of procrastination delays in com-pleting assigned work making noise at work and intentional delay in finishing tasks

At the same time daily wage workers suffer from emotional exhaustion due to ambiguity of their role or lack of knowledge of the duties specifically required of them where they are as-signed to various and disparate jobs which is one reason for the emergence of emotional exhaustion All these variables in-teract with each other and lead the organization to enter a dark phase of negative behaviour which is reflected in its low organ-izational performance loss of organizational identity and the destruction of its future vision where it becomes just a classic organization purely doing daily business without achieving its intended goals

2 RESEARCH PROBLEM

The research problem can be identified by considering the increasing rates of emotional exhaustion amongst daily-wage employees in the Colleges of Karbala University where one of its

reasons for such is the emergence of rebellion and procrastina-tion at work weak adherence to the directives issued by senior management and delays in the implementation of the duties as-signed to them resulting in the appearance of procrastination This is mainly a result of their belief that the university depart-ments breach their psychological contract and do not fulfil their obligations towards their employees leading to the exchange of this negative behaviour with a similar one by the employees in response to managementrsquos own negative behaviour Therefore this study aims to address the negative effects resulting from these behaviours by illustrating the mediating role of career pro-crastination in the relationship between breach and violation of the psychological contract and the emergence of the phenome-non of emotional exhaustion

3 RESEARCH GOALS

mdash Description and diagnosis of research variablesrsquo level to dai-ly-wage employees in the Colleges of Karbala University

mdash Determine the level of the positive impact of psychological contract breach and violation on Job Procrastination

mdash Determine the level of the positive impact of dimensions of job procrastination on emotional exhaustion

mdash Determine the indirect effect of psychological contract breach on emotional exhaustion through job procrastination

mdash Determining the indirect effect of psychological contract vio-lation on emotional exhaustion through job procrastination

mdash Determining the indirect effect of psychological contract breach and violation on emotional exhaustion through job procrastination

4 RESEARCH IMPORTANCE

The research is important because of the increase in cases of psychological contract breach and violation in many Iraqi or-ganizations which may be due to reasons attributed to the same organization or indeed external circumstances which lead to an increase in cases of procrastination and have become an in-dicator of the decline in performance of organizations and the large number of complaints from dealers with governmental or-ganizations as well as the high rates of dissatisfaction and loss of loyalty to the organization and the impact of the increase on the phenomenon of emotional exhaustion which can lead to a decline in the Organizationrsquos activity and increase in negative behaviours Therefore the study of these variables and the rela-tionships between them is particularly important to diagnosing ways in which to ensure the treatment of the resulting negative situations

5 BUILDING OF RESEARCH HYPOTHESES

After reviewing various studies we found that most indicate the existence of a relationship between psychological contract violation and job delay There are also other studies that have


Role of Psychological Contract Breach and Violation in Generating Emotional Exhaustion The Mediating Role of Job Procrastination 17

confirmed the relationship between the impact of psychologi-cal breach and procrastination There was also one study that pointed to the relationship between violation and breach of the psychological contract and procrastination which strengthens the construction of the first hypothesis of our current study Schalk and Roe (2007) noted that if a staff member felt their psychological contract to have been violated their commit-ment towards and evaluation of the organization would be less-ened with their subsequent behaviour changing over time and resorting to procrastination Akerlof (1991) pointed out that when staff feel that the values promised by their organization have not been met they will resort to procrastination

Osborn (2008) and Kuhnel et al (2016) pointed to the rela-tionship between violation of the psychological contract and its devastating consequences on employees and the spread of nega-tive behaviour including procrastination Martinez-Leon (2012) and Greenbaum (2009) noted that if employees feel their organ-ization has violated the psychological contract creating a feeling of dissatisfaction with work and loss of organizational commit-ment this can turn them towards procrastination Mishra and Spreitzer (1998) Huang et al (2017) Brass et al (1998) Prie-semuth and Taylor (2016) also emphasized the effect of psycho-logical contract violation in the creation of procrastination-like behaviour

Cassar and Briner (2005) noted that employees engage in procrastination when a contract is violated by their organiza-tion Cassar and Buttigieg (2013) adding that breach of con-tract leads to career procrastination as a result of the organiza-tionrsquos failure to fulfil its promises to employees Kanwal (2016) stressed that negative leadership leads to a breach of psycho-logical contract which in turn leads to procrastination There are also many studies such as those by Schaufeli (2016) and Delprino (2014) Seward and Faby (2003) Kanten and Yesiltas (2015) that confirm the existence of the relationship between breach of psychological contract and generating procrastina-tion Klaus and Blanton (2010) noted that when employees feel violated or experience psychological contract breach they feel angry and lose confidence in the organization and resort to gradual withdrawal from work and adopt procrastination-re-lated behaviour

On this basis the hypotheses can be formulated as follows

mdash Hypothesis (1) There is a significant effect of violation and breach of the psychological contract in causing job procrasti-nation

mdash Hypothesis (2) There is a significant effect of job procrastina-tion in the emergence of emotional exhaustion

mdash Hypothesis (3) There is a significant effect of violation of the psychological contract in the emergence of emotional exhaus-tion by causing job procrastination

mdash Hypothesis (4) There is a significant effect of breach of the psychological contract in emergence of emotional exhaustion by causing job procrastination

mdash Hypothesis (5) There is a significant effect of violation and breach of the psychological contract together in the emer-gence of emotional exhaustion by causing job procrastination

The above is illustrated in Figure 1 which shows the concep-tual model for this research

EmotionalExhaustion

JobProcrastination

PsychologicalContract Breach

PsychologicalContract Violation

Figure 1 The conceptual model for this research

Source Own elaboration

6 THEORETICAL BACKGROUND

61 Psychological Contract Breach

The organizationrsquos violation of its promises and failure to ful-fil its obligations result in an increase of negative feelings bad moods anger instability and anxiety among employees (Con-way and Briner 2002) Therefore Psychological Contract Breach refers to the cognitive assessment that the organization did not meet its obligations (Xavier and Jepser 2014) Conway et al (2011) note that breach of contract has a negative effect on the attitudes and behaviour of the employee towards the organiza-tion and lead to loss of confidence and respect and that breach is the perception that leads to some emotional responses due to an act of violation under certain circumstances Robinson and Morrison (2000) refer to two root causes of breach of contract denial and contradiction Denial occurs when the organization realizes an obligation that must be met but fails to do so whilst contradiction occurs when the employee has a different under-standing of whether a particular obligation exists or about the nature of the obligation

Han et al (2011) added that Psychological Contract Breach refers to the organizationrsquos failure to fulfil its promised commit-ments and is often interpreted as imbalance and injustice To restore balance the employee reduces his commitment and con-tributions to the organization Kickul et al (2001) argue that the consequences of a breach of contract are reflected in the loss of organizational citizenship and the employeersquos destructive reac-tions to the organization such as reduced performance loyalty and satisfaction

In their study Cassar and Briner (2011) concluded that the violation and breach of the psychological contract leads to loss of emotional commitment and generates negative emotional reactions among staff because they feel that that the organiza-tion is being unfair which makes them think of leaving work or reducing performance and being careless in their work In their study Chiu and Peng (2008) concluded that there is a positive correlation between a breach of the psychological contract and employee deviation which includes personality deviation and organizational deviation and results in a hostile relationship between employee and organization In their study Bal et al (2008) found that older employees preferred to stay in work before reaching retirement age and that employees who are not satisfied with their jobs have the most significant reactions



toward psychological contract breach Epitropaki (2012) found that breach of the psychological contract is accompanied by various negative consequences such as reduced satisfaction in and commitment to work lack of job satisfaction and decline in performance

Kickul and Lester (2001) identified seven basic obligations that an employer should commit to in order to reduce psycho-logical contract breach namely promotion and advancement high salaries payment based on high levels of performance training long-term career security career development and providing sufficient strength to achieve empowerment John-son and Oleary-Kelly (2003) noted that promises are not ex-pressly stated but can be inferred from the employerrsquos actions If the employee realizes that a promise has not been fulfilled by their employer this constitutes a breach of contract Suazo (2009) noted in his study that the violation of the psychological contract which is defined as a negative emotional state can arise from a breach of the psychological contract and leads to negative attitudes from the employee such as dissatisfaction lack of organizational commitment low performance and or-ganizational citizenship

62 Psychological Contract Violation

Directors attribute violation of psychological contract to the intentional breaking of promises by organizations as a result of lack of conscience which is reflected in the quality of staffsrsquo re-lationships with supervisors and their reduced participation in work (Turnley and Feldman 1998)

Singh (1998) noted that psychological contracts are beliefs about reciprocal obligations between employers and workers and that there may be incentives to breach or violate the psy-chological contract Lucero and Allen (1994) stressed that social and political pressures restrict the use of part-time staff This approach helps to reduce the gap between staff expectations and the benefits offered by the organization thereby reducing psychological contract violations Sayers et al (2011) state that psychological contract violation is a negative emotional reaction on the part of the employee and they both generate a sense of betrayal and undermine trust generating a reduction in citizen-ship and low job satisfaction

Turnley and Feldman (2000) noted that increased competi-tiveness in global markets has slowed the growth of local econ-omies prompting organizations to restructure their traditional labour relations leaving many employees disappointed and lacking job security Hill et al (2009) note that the violation of a psychological contract is rooted in two contributing factors namely denial and contradiction Denial includes the apparent and deliberate failure to meet existing obligations and occurs when a party deliberately decides to default in some given duty Hong et al (2009) noted that violation of the psychological contract leads to feelings of betrayal and a strong emotional reaction to poor behaviour in the organization and job dissat-isfaction

Turnley and Feldman (1999) concluded that the breach of the psychological contract leads to employees giving up loyalty increases neglectful behaviour reduces loyalty and increases dissatisfaction with the organization including amongst high-

ly skilled staff Hsieh (2012) added that it generates negative feelings which causes job dissatisfaction among employees and also a loss to the organization in the future Erkuttu and Chafra (2013) noted that violation of the psychological contract leads to organizational deviation creating an anti-organizational culture lack of trust between leaders and followers and low performance and participation by employees

Mason (2002) believes that violation of psychological con-tracts is a set of obligations undertaken by the employer that ac-tually comprise a further subset high salary promotions and development that are paid based on the performance provided by the employee job security career development training Stoner and Gallagher (2010) found that violation leads to re-duced participation in work increased turnover stress physical health complaints within the workplace and increased depres-sion Shahnawaz and Goswami (2011) believe that it leads to a lack of commitment and confidence and a determination to leave the organization which is ultimately reflected in the low value of the organizationrsquos brand Sutton and Griffin (2004) stat-ed that there should be opportunities to establish and renego-tiate the psychological contract and that there must be formal and informal interaction between the owner and the employee to avoid violations and further that employers should of course fulfil their promises

Morrison and Robinson (1997) argue that violation goes be-yond mere recognition of not keeping promises as employees perceive that their organization has not fulfilled its obligations and has not responded to their strong passion this is associat-ed with the violation of the psychological contract which is a mixture of emotions namely frustration distress bitterness dis-content and a sense of betrayal Pavlou and Gefen (2005) added that the employees allow contract violations are the least likely to engage in favourable organizational behaviour their intentions to quit increase and are least likely to deal appropriately with society

63 Job Procrastination

Job procrastination is the inability to adapt and the delay in making decisions when an employee encounters conflicts and choices as well as hesitation on their part and low levels of trust Ferrari and Dovidio (2000) and Dryden and Sabelus (2012) also defined it as the postponing of assigned work by employees Lay et al (1992) argue that employees resort to procrastination when they are exposed to disrespect and threat so they resort to this behaviour to protect themselves Procrastination involves low effort and poor work performance

Ferrari (1992a) added that employees resort to procrastina-tion to protect their self-esteem and that procrastinators spend less time preparing tasks for projects that can succeed and more time on projects that can fail Lay (1994) noted that de-pression and negative emotional experiences and uncertainty on the part of the employee all contribute to increased procras-tination the low efficiency of the employee and their feelings of anger and disappointment with themselves Ferrari (1992b) noted that procrastinators influence the productivity of the or-ganization and that they are generally not satisfied with their usual tendencies



Hooft et al (2005) argue that procrastination is related to intentions that do not lead to action and the procrastinator re-sorts to creating conflict which is an introverted form of be-haviour whose intention is to delay the execution of tasks in order to avoid further tasks and failure to perform them In another study Ferrari (1994) concluded that procrastination may be directed toward self-defeating delaying poor func-tion hesitation and avoidance Strunk et al (2013) noted that procrastination has two forms positive procrastination which is a deliberate total delay in order to complete tasks to gain a strategic advantage to improve performance and passive pro-crastination which includes the deliberate delay of tasks to avoid undesirable tasks Sirois (2004) pointed to procrastina-tors lsquoweakness in engaging in healthy behaviours and that the procrastinators are characterized by anxiety hesitance and low self-efficacy in accomplishing tasksrsquo

Krause and Freund (2014) argued that procrastination is as-sociated with high emotional distress It is an affective trait that is associated with the self It lacks rationality and is associated with negative emotions Procrastination increases whenever emotional well-being declines Passman (1977) noted that the reasons for procrastination are non-compliance and commit-ment to the contract which leads to the weakening of positive reinforcement and must be addressed through three stages self-monitoring self-evaluation and self-promotion

Klassen et al (2010) added that there are some organiza-tional cultures that are influenced by the cultures of individu-als working in the organization which encourage the increased pace of procrastination Chu and Choi (2005) concluded that procrastination is not just wasting time poor performance and increased tension it is a complex process involving emo-tional cognitive and behavioural components and that social and personal factors have an effect on procrastination such as shyness guilt fear of negative evaluation and conscience (Bui 2007)

Yamada et al (2015) considered procrastination to be in-appropriate behaviour for learning Beheshtifar and Nasab (2012) and Beheshtifar and Azadi (2013) concluded that de-laying has a negative impact on staff efficiency and morale where they have low self-esteem and experience high levels of depression and anxiety Sadeghi et al (2014) noted that procrastination has a negative impact on many aspects of individualrsquos lives Causes of procrastination include anxiety instability loss of job security and anxiety disorders caused by beliefs and insinuations In addition procrastination is a serious problem in the present era leaving the employee to the duties assigned to him and procrastination relating to the decision-making process and one of its causes is conflict in the workplace (Babadogan 2010)

64 Emotional Exhaustion

Emotional exhaustion is known as emotional feeling of a person being drained at work and is manifest as both physi-cal exhaustion and a depleted emotional feeling (Sun and Pan 2008) Baba et al (2009) defined exhaustion as a chronic state of emotional depletion or psychological stress resulting from repeated exposure to stress at work and could be associated

with many concurrent symptoms or resulting from anxiety such as fatigue mental complaints and work-related depres-sion

Janssen et al (2010) is defined as the extent to which the staff feel tired and emotional because of the threats they face at work Donders et al (2007) suggest that increased exhaustion and stress at work has detrimental effects on staff health leading to stroke heart disease and serious psychiatric illnesses Shy-man (2010) noted that there are a number of constants associ-ated with emotional exhaustion job demand conflict role low self-efficacy and supervisorsrsquo lack of support Thompson et al (2005) believe that emotional exhaustion consists of fatigue am-biguity low support from supervisors fatigue and frustration and can lead to loss of family cohesion at home because of the employeersquos poor mood

In his study Michielsen et al (2007) concluded that a nega-tive working environment and employeersquos weak personality have an important effect in increasing emotional exhaustion Wu (2009) added that there are five symptoms by which emotional exhaustion can be estimated at work which are dullness bore-dom low feeling laxity and exhaustion Wintmer and Martin (2010) Edmonds et al (2012) and Lewin and Sager (2009) noted that the causes of emotional exhaustion are high work require-ments and low levels of control They also suggested three di-mensions to emotional exhaustion namely exhaustion sarcasm (personal dissipation) and low professionalism (diminished personal achievement)

Daalen et al (2009) noted that emotional exhaustion arises from long-term labour pressures and low availability of resourc-es where the result of emotional exhaustion is the inability to work both emotionally and psychologically and it often occurs in the services sector In his study he tested three factors of emo-tional exhaustion (workload autonomy poor social support) Wittmer and Martin (2010) found that emotional exhaustion is the central element in the construction of psychological burnout and that it is more prevalent in professions where the employ-ee is responsible for the protection or care of other people and consists of three elements business requirements job resources conflict of working families

Howard and Cordes (2010) noted that the absence of jus-tice and the spread of injustice leads to negative emotional re-actions and leads to increased anger depression and negative sentiments due to the spread of nepotism or favouritism rather than relying on talent and experience In their study West et al (2009) concluded that high emotional exhaustion leads to the dissipation of an individualrsquos personality Stordeur et al (2001) found that increased emotional exhaustion leads to a decline in personal achievement and is a reflection of the main dimension of psychological burnout adding that work pressures and lead-ership are causes of emotional exhaustion Deery et al (2002) see that the working environment demographic and personnel changes the existence of social support systems the heavy and repeated pressure at work and the role conflict are among the causes of emotional exhaustion Kowalski et al (2010) added that emotional exhaustion is a state of feeling associated with excessive stress and affects motivation attitudes and behav-iour and that demographic changes such as age sex or the time a person commits to working all affect emotional exhaus-



tion Bogaert (2011) concluded that the role of social capital in reducing emotional exhaustion is represented by a lack of participation and performance because of the high demands of work in terms of quantity and quality

Sheward et al (2005) added that emotional exhaustion leads to job dissatisfaction Klusmann et al (2008) show that the rate of participation decreases with increasing emotional exhaustion among older workers Manzano and Ayala (2012) and Garcia and Calvo (2011) concluded that emotional distress and neg-ative attitudes contribute to the development and increase of emotional exhaustion Cole et al (2010) argued that there is a positive relationship between the perceptions of breach of psy-chological contract and emotional exhaustion which leads to organizational withdrawal by the staff as manifested in a lack of commitment an increase in the intentions of career rotation and lack of contribution at work

Frenkel et al (2012) concluded that the absence of a pro-cedural distributive and interactive justice leads to increased emotional exhaustion among all skilled and unskilled work-ers Helkavaara et al (2011) added that physical factors in the work environment affect emotional exhaustion such as volatility in organizational justice and bullying Lewig and Dllard (2003) noted that emotional exhaustion leads to in-creased emotional disarray among workers and reduces job satisfaction

Maslach and Jackson (1981) noted that exhaustion results in a deterioration of service low morale and increased use of alcohol drugs insomnia and can lead to marital and family problems Naring et al (2012) added that without controlling the negative emotions that are considered a personal resource for emotional action strategy a large proportion of emotional exhaustion can be legitimately attributed to the emotional de-mands of work

7 METHODOLOGY

71 Research measures and Instruments

The research includes four basic variables which were meas-ured according to the measures shown in Table 1

Table 1 Research measures

Variables Measure Number of Items

Psychological Contract Breach Suazo 2008 5

Psychological Contract Violation Suazo 2008 4

Job procrastination Strunk et al 2013 11

Emotional Exhaustion Lewin and Sager 2009 7


As for research instruments the questionnaire sections were explained and their practical concepts were clarified and ques-tions answered in response to the various paragraphs A total

of 350 questionnaires were distributed to the participants with those valid for statistical analysis totalling 309 or a retrieval rate of 88 The questionnaires which were not valid and either had incomplete answers or had not been filled in correctly were ignored where a five-point Likert scale was used to determine sample responses to the questionnaire items

72 Research Sample

A number of the Colleges of the University of Karbala were chosen as the place to apply the research The data were collected by selecting a random sample consisting of a group of daily-wage employees who were hired by the colleges for temporary work and who were distributed across various sci-entific departments divisions and administrative units The selection of the sample was determined by employees who had a preparatory certificate and above The questionnaire was distributed through personal interviews between researchers with the sample members at their workplaces

The research sample included 46 males and 54 fe-males This was appropriate to the field nature of adminis-trative and service work in the colleges 72 of respondents were less than 30 years of age 25 were aged between 30-40 and 3 were over 40 As for the scientific qualification of each participant the proportion of individuals who were holders of the preparatory certificate was 5 diploma holders was 7 while the percentage of holders of a bachelorrsquos degree was 88

The working experience of the sample was a daily wage and temporary work (51) for those with a service from 1-3 years and 41 with service between 3-5 years and 8 with a functional service of more than 5 years With regard to job status the percentage of managers was 68 while the pro-portion of technicians was 32 Table 2 shows the distribu-tion of sample members across selected colleges

Table 2 Distribution of sample numbers by selected colleges

Colleges sample numbers

College of Medicine 33

Engineering 41

Science 21

Education for Pure Sciences 37

Islamic Sciences 24

Education for Human Sciences 39

Administration and Economics 49

College of Law 28

Physical education and sports sciences 20

College of Agriculture 17

Total 309




8 RESULTS

81 CFA of the measure of psychological contract breach

Figure 2 shows that the variable of psychological contract breach can be measured by five items with indicators of the model fit as follows GFI = 0961 CFI = 0976 NFI = 0972 IFI = 0976 and RMSEA = 0129

Indexes values of the model match with the datacmin = 30654df = 5IFI = 976NFI = 972GFI = 961CFI = 976RMSEA = 129

e170

PCB1

e271

PCB2

e383

PCB3

e455

PCB4

e564

PCB5

80

74

91

84

84


Figure 2 CFA of the variables of psychological contract breach


82 CFA of the measure of psychological contract violation

Figure 3 shows that the variable of psychological contract vi-olation can be measured by four items with indicators of model fit as follows GFI = 0985 CFI = 0983 NFI = 0979 IFI = 0983 and RMSEA = 0109

Indexes values of the model match with the datacmin = 9356df = 2IFI = 983NFI = 979GFI = 985CFI = 983RMSEA = 109 e1

51PCV1

e246

PCV267

71

92

57 e386

PCV3

e432

PCV4


Figure 3 CFA of the variable of psychological contract violation


83 CFA of the measure of job procrastination

Figure 4 shows that the variable of job procrastination can be measured by 11 items with indicators of model fit as follows GFI = 0910 CFI = 0946 NFI = 0928 IFI = 0946 and RMSEA = 0095

Indexes values of the model match with the datacmin = 155913df = 41IFI = 946NFI = 928GFI = 910CFI = 946RMSEA = 0 095

e144

PAP1

e251

PAP2

e355

PAP3

e444

PAP4

e560

PAP5

e643

PAP6

e752

PAP7

e846

PAV1

e972

PAV2

72

85

68

98

71

82

66

77

83

74

71

66

e1050

PAV3

e1167

PAV4

ProcrastinationAppraoch

ProcrastinationAvoidance

33

24

Figure 4 CFA of the variable of job procrastination


84 CFA of the measure of emotional exhaustion

Figure 5 shows that the variable of emotional exhaustion can be measured by seven items with indicators of model fit as fol-lows GFI = 0918 CFI = 0952 NFI = 0944 IFI = 0952 and RMSEA=0131


e148

EEX1

e252

EEX2

e365

EEX3

e477

EEX4

e573

EEX5

e663

EEX6

e773

EEX7

85

79

86

88

81

72

69

EmotionalExhaustion

Figure 5 CFA of the variable of emotional exhaustion


9 STABILITY COEFFICIENT DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS AND CORRELATION COEFFICIENTS

This section reports the values of stability coefficients de-scriptive statistics and correlation coefficients as follows



Table 3 Values of Cronbachrsquos Alpha descriptive

statistics and correlation coefficients

654321SDMαVar

16253128091 PsyConVio

11714803049142 PsyConBre

14552297163438953 Pro Approach

18483861377493378394 Pro Avoidance

19659584361887313399785Procrastination

15294785413464368872999236 Emo ExhaustionP lt 001 P lt 005 N = 309Source Own elaboration

10 TESTING OF RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS

101 Testing the First Hypothesis

Table 4 Parameters of the Multiple Regression Model of the First

Hypothesis Test

Mediating VariableIndependent

Variable

Job ProcrastinationR2 F Sig

Con β T Sig

Psychological Contract Breach

1090117 2261 024

0203 39051 000Psychological Contract Violation 416 8032 000


As shown in Table 4 the values of marginal propensity of angle regression (beta regression coefficient) for the breach and violation of psychological contract were 0117 and 0416 re-spectively These are significant values because the calculated (t) values of 2261 and 8032 respectively have significant val-ues while the value of the coefficient of determination (R2) was 0203 which means that the breach and violation of the psycho-logical contract explains 203 of changes as being due to pro-crastination The remaining 797 is due to the effects of other variables not included in the research model

102 Testing the Second Hypothesis

Table 5 Parameters of the Multiple Regression Model of the Second

Hypothesis Test

Dependent VariableMediating Variable

Emotional ExhaustionR2 F Sig

Con β t Sig

Procrastination as an Approach

1739483 5327 000

0294 63773 000Procrastination as an Avoidance 116 2211 028


It is clear from Table 5 that the values of the beta regression coefficient for job procrastination as an approach and avoidance were 0483 and 0116 respectively which are significant values because the calculated values of (T) were 5327 and 2211 which are both significant The value of the coefficient of determina-tion (R2) was 0294 which means that job procrastination as an input and avoidance explained 294 of changes as being due to the emotional exhaustion The remaining 706 is due to the effects of other variables not included in the research model

103 Testing the Third Hypothesis

JobProcrastination

19 46

40

04

35

Indexes values of the model match with the datacmin = 000df = 0IFI = 1000NFI = 1000GFI = 1000RMR = 000

e1


EmotionalExhaustion

e2

Figure 6

Direct and indirect effects of the third hypothesis testSource Own elaboration

It is clear that there is a direct impact of the psychological contract breach in emotional exhaustion whose value is 0349 it was also found that there is an indirect effect of psychological contract breach on emotional exhaustion through job procrasti-nation the value of which was 0087

Table 6 Paths and parameters of the third hypothesis test

Relation Between Variables StaWei Estimate SE CR P

Procrastination larr PsyCon Breach 188 300 089 3362

Emo Exhaustion larr PsyCon Breach 349 571 074 7751

Emo Exhaustion larr Procrastination 463 475 046 10282


Table 7 Direct and indirect impact values and the overall effect of the third

hypothesis test

Relation Between Variables Direct Effect

Indirect Effect

Total Effect R2

Emo Exhaustion larr PsyConBreach 349 mdash0436 040EmoExhaustion larrProcrastination larr

PsyConBreach mdash 0087




104 Testing the Fourth Hypothesis

It is clear in Figure 7 that there is a direct effect of psycho-logical contract violation on emotional exhaustion which has a value of 0142 it was also found that there is an indirect effect of psychological contract violation on emotional exhaustion through Job procrastination which has a value of 0203

JobProcrastination

44 47

30

19

14


e1


EmotionalExhaustion

e2

Figure 7 Direct and indirect effects of the fourth hypothesis test


Table 8 Paths and parameters of the fourth hypothesis test


Procrastination larr PsyCon Violation 436 534 063 8501

Emo Exhaustion larr PsyCon Violation 142 178 067 2673 008



Table 9 Direct and indirect impact values and the overall effect of the

fourth hypothesis test


Indirect Effect

Total Effect R2

Emo Exhaustion larr PsyCon Violation 142 mdash0345 030Emo Exhaustion larrProcrastination larr

PsyCon Violation mdash 0203


105 Testing the Fifth Hypothesis

EmotionalExhaustion

JobProcrastination

12

42

42

41


20

34

10



e1 e2

17

Figure 8 Direct and indirect effects of the fifth hypothesis test


Through the structural model illustrated in Figure 8 it is clear that there is a direct effect of psychological contract breach and violation on emotional exhaustion which have values of 0339 and 0105 respectively It was found that there is an in-direct effect of psychological contract breach and violation on emotional exhaustion through job procrastination which have values of 0049 and 0174 as reported in Table 11

Table 10 Paths and parameters of the fifth hypothesis test


Procrastination larr PsyConBreach 117 187 082 2268 023

Procrastination larr PsyConViolation 416 509 063 8058

EmoExhaustion larr Procrastination 419 430 050 8522

EmoExhaustion larr PsyConBreach 339 555 073 7554

EmoExhaustion larr PsyConViolation 105 132 062 2136 033


Table 11 Values of direct and indirect impact and the total effect of the fifth

hypothesis test


Indirect Effect

Total Effect R2

EmoExhaustion larr PsyConBreach 339 mdash

0667 041

EmoExhaustion larr PsyConViolation 105 mdash

EmoExhaustion larr Procrastination larr PsyConBreach mdash 049

EmoExhaustion larr Procrastination larr PsyConViolation

mdash 174




11 CONCLUSIONS

It is clear from the results obtained from the hypothesis tests that there is a considerable role played by the violation and breach of psychological contract in increasing the rates of procrastina-tion and through the continuous meetings with a number of dai-ly-wage employees it was obvious that there had been a breach of covenants by some collegesrsquo departments towards their employees and a further complete failure to meet several of such despite staff commitment to these covenants towards the colleges

One factor that helped to speed up the breach and violation of the psychological contract was the sense of frustration felt by the employees because of poor treatment by the departments and their sense of lack of care as a result of not achieving their demands Therefore the employees resorted to reacting to this behaviour by procrastinating in the duties assigned to them which is reflected in delaying the completion of tasks or pro-longing the time of their completion and the completion of their work accompanied by deliberate errors because of indifference and persistent complaints of working under the pretext of dif-ficulty and the extent of the work entrusted to them that went beyond the expectations of the salary they received These issues resulted in them resorting to procrastination

It was noted that the type of job procrastination found in the research sample was of a destructive type which comprised de-laying the completion of the tasks to check them to avoid errors to ensure high-quality output We did not find such a type be-cause it is not compatible with the current search variables

The study also concluded that there is a direct impact of both the breach and violation of the psychological contract on emotional exhaustion and indirectly through procrastination which was manifest in the staff feeling emotionally drained dur-ing work tired and exhausted in the performance of their du-ties and the sense of being constantly frustrated and unable to achieve their goals which increased their sense of the difficulty of the work entrusted to them

In view of the above it is clear that breach and violation of the psychological contract has many negative effects on the fu-ture of organizations because it may lead to the emergence of certain deviant and negative behaviour on the part of employees especially if they feel that these behaviours threaten their pres-ence in the organization and threaten their future and therefore they may show their discontent and lack of commitment to the orders issued by senior management This could lead them to not being able to meet their social needs and this is reflected within organizational life through the low participation the ab-sence of an organizational identity and the adoption of the min-imum skill and knowledge which in turn may lead to increased differences at work lack of commitment to organizational goals avoidance of responsibility fear of work and increased isolation in the workplace

Thus it is clear that there is an effect of breach and violation of the psychological contract on the emergence of procrastina-tion at work which occurs when employees sense an increasing number of cases of breach of psychological contract by adminis-tration which would lead them to an actual violation of the terms of their work contracts It turns out that procrastination at work leads to increased tensions and the accumulation of pressure of

work and emotions which magnifies the employeesrsquo feelings of fatigue and exhaustion

Therefore higher management should consider the research variables and seek to address their negative effects in order to en-sure that the adverse outcomes that result from them are mini-mized This requires management to pay particular attention to daily-wage employees by taking into account their psychological and moral aspects and by attempting to meet their social personal and material requirements by providing a supportive work envi-ronment as well as emotional support motivating them to carry out the duties assigned to them and by paying attention to the nature of the relationship between leaders and staff ensuring this is strong and based on respect and a mutual exchange of views

Furthermore they should listen to staff proposals to increase the staff rsquos sense they are part of the organization and a key ele-ment that contributes to the development support and achieve-ment of its future goals which will lead to an increase in their loyalty belonging and commitment to the organization and that will promote good citizenship practices on their part

This research also helps the administrators of the colleges to deal with and reduce the impact of breach and violation of the psychological contract through the development and activation of ethical procedures and practices based on honesty integrity and sincerity at work

That would be achieved through the embodiment of the be-haviour of assistance cooperation and continuous communication between leaders and employees as well as by intensifying the role of regulatory bodies and by seeking to control all behaviour that vi-olates the contract such as cases of deliberate misconduct procrasti-nation avoidance and delay in the performance of duties

Moreover this research confirms the urge the followers feel to enter into dialogue and communication with administration and to submit proposals and views that would develop work and accel-erate the achievement of goals They also should activate self-cen-sorship as it is a good guide to individual behaviour within the internal environment especially as they contribute significantly to the promotion of positive behaviour support self-evaluation of performance and strengthen the factors of trust and morale in ad-dition to supporting values of commitment amongst staff

This in turn leads to a positive working environment that re-duces many cases of breaches and violations of the psychological contract prevents the emergence of procrastination and enhanc-es employeesrsquo positive feelings and satisfaction at work and ulti-mately reduces cases of emotional exhaustion

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Deery S IversonR and Walsh J 2002 Work Relationships in Tele-phone Call Centres Understanding Emotional Exhaustion and Em-ployee Withdrawal Journal of Management Studies 39(4) 471-496

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Dryden W and Sabelus S 2012 The Perceived Credibility of Two Ra-tional Emotive Behavior Therapy Rationales for the Treatment of Academic Procrastination Journal of Rational-Emotive and Cogni-tive-Behavior Therapy 30(1) pp 1-24

Edmonds C Lockwood G Bezjak A and Young J 2012 Allevi-ating Emotional Exhaustion in Oncology Nurses an Evaluation of

Wellspringrsquos Care for the Professional Caregiver Program Journal of Cancer Education 27 27-36

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Frenkel S Li M and Restubog S 2012 Management Organizational Justice and Emotional Exhaustion among Chinese Migrant Work-ers Evidence from two Manufacturing Firm Journal of Industrial Relations 50(1) 121-147

Garciacutea G and Calvo J 2011 Emotional exhaustion of nursing staff influence of emotional annoyance and resilience International Nursing Review 59(1) 101-107

Greenbaum R 2009 An examination of an antecedent and consequenc-es of supervisor morally questionable expediency Doctor of Philoso-phy University of Central Florida 1-80

Han Y Song H and Chen X 2011 From psychological contract breach to violation the moderated mediating effect of employeesrsquo attribution Intelligence Management Science and Electronic Com-merce 2nd International Conference 7084-7087

Helkavaara M Saastamoinen P and Lahelma E 2011 Psychosocial work environment and emotional exhaustion among middle-aged employees BJIR 50(1) 121-147

Hill J Eckerd S Wilson D and Greer B 2009 The effect of unethi-cal behavior on trust in a buyer-supplier relationship The mediat-ing role of psychological contract violation Journal of Operations Management 27(4) 281-293

Hong C Jing L Ting W and yin L 2009 Regulation strategy design of coalmine management staff rsquos psychological contract violation Procedia Earth and Planetary Science 1(1) 1730-1736

Hooft E Born M Taris T Flier H and Blonk R 2005 Bridging the gap between intentions and behavior Implementation intentions action control and procrastination Journal of Vocational Behavior 66(2) 238-256

Howard L and Cordes C 2010 Flight from Unfairness Effects of Perceived Injustice on Emotional Exhaustion and Employee With-drawal Journal of Business and Psychology 25(3) 409-428

Hsieh P 2012 Why e-Return Services Fail A Psychological Contract Violation Approach Cyberpsychol Behavior Social Network 15(15) 655-662

Huang G H Wellman N Ashford S J Lee C and Wang L 2017 Deviance and exit The organizational costs of job insecurity and moral disengagement Journal of Applied Psychology 102(1) 26-42

Huang Y Du P Chen C Yang C and Huang I 2010 Mediating Effects of Emotional Exhaustion on the Relationship Between Job Demand-Control Model and Mental Health Stress and Health 27(2) e94-e109



Janssen O Lam C and Huang X 2010 Emotional exhaustion and job performance The moderating roles of distributive justice and positive affect Journal of Organizational Behavior 31 787-809

Johnson J and OrsquoLeary-Kelly A 2003 The effects of psychological contract breach and organizational cynicism not all social exchange violations are created equal Journal of Organizational Behavior 24(5) 627-647

Kanten P and Yesıltas M 2015 The effects of positive and negative per-fectionism on work engagement psychological well-being and emo-tional exhaustion Procedia Economics and Finance 23 1367-1375

Kanwal A 2016 Impact of Passive Leadership on Followers Workplace Incivility through Psychological Contract Breach Moderating Role of Procedural Justice Climate and Perceived Organizational Support Master Thesis Department of management sciences capital univer-sity of science and technology Islamabad 1-86

Kickul J and Lester S 2001 Broken Promises Equity Sensitivity as a Moderator between Psychological Contract Breach and Employee Atti-tudes and Behavior Journal of Business and Psychology 16(2) 191-217

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APPENDIX

Questionnaire Items

Psychological Contract Breach completely agree agree neutral disagree completely

disagree

1 All the promises made to me by my employer remained unchanged during the employment period

2 I feel that my employer has come to me by fulfilling the promises he made to me when I was hired

3 So far the employer has fulfilled their promises to me

4 I have not received any promises in exchange for my contribution

5 My employer hasnrsquot fulfilled many of the promises made to me although I was committed to the agreement

Psychological Contract Violation completely agree agree neutral disagree completely

disagree

1 1 I feel a lot of frustration because of how the organization has treated me

2 I feel that my organization violated the contract between us

3 I feel betrayed by my organization

4 I feel a great deal of anger towards my organization

Job Procrastination completely agree agree neutral disagree completely

disagree

a Procrastination as Approach

1 I benefit more effectively from my time by procrastinating

2 I deliberately delay the completion of tasks to increase the quality of my work

3 I deliberately delay the performance of tasks to increase my goals

4 I feel strong and enthusiastic in my tasks as I approach my deadline

5 I deliberately wait until the deadline to start work in order to enhance my performance

6 I deliberately delay tasks because best performance is when there is time pressure

7 I rarely find it difficult to complete the quality of work when the task is nearing its deadline

b Procrastination as an avoidance completely agree agree neutral disagree completely

disagree

8 I postpone tasks because I find it difficult to accomplish them

9 I avoid starting and finishing tasks

10 I am often late in starting tasks because of fear of failure

11 Irsquom late in starting tasks because they are too big

Emotional Exhaustion completely agree agree neutral disagree completely

disagree

1 I feel emotional depletion in my work

2 I feel exhausted at the end of my work

3 I feel very tired and exhausted when I wake up in the morning to go to work where work with people has become stressful for me

4 I feel totally devastated by my work

5 I feel frustrated because of my work

6 I have difficulty in my work and dealing directly with people adds a lot of pressure

7 I feel as if I have reached the end






ISSN 1131-6837 e-ISSN 1988-2157




iquestContribuye la innovacioacuten a generar valor de marca y satisfaccioacuten en el cliente Evidencias en la gran distribucioacuten de alimentacioacutenDoes innovation contribute to generate brand equity and customer satisfaction Evidence in the large grocery distributionAntonio Mariacuten Garciacutea Irene Gil-Sauraa Maria Eugenia Ruiz-Molinab

a Departamento de Comercializacioacuten e Investigacioacuten de Mercados Universidad de Valencia Facultad de Economiacutea Av Tarongers sn Edif Dep Oriental 46022 Valencia Espantildea ndash irenegiluves ndash httporcidorg0000-0002-5758-0806b Departamento de Comercializacioacuten e Investigacioacuten de Mercados Universidad de Valencia Facultad de Economiacutea Av Tarongers sn Edif Dep Oriental 46022 Valencia Espantildea ndash meugeniaruizuves ndash httpsorcidorg0000-0002-5307-7111

Corresponding author Departamento de Comercializacioacuten e Investigacioacuten de Mercados Universidad de Valencia Facultad de Economiacutea Av Tarongers sn Edif Dep Oriental 46022 Valencia Espantildea ndash antoniomarinuves ndash httpsorcidorg0000-0002-4109-6008

A R T I C L E I N F OReceived 17 May 2019 Accepted 31 May 2020

Available online 31 July 2020

DOI 105295cdg191130am

JEL CODE M31

R E S U M E N

El desarrollo de este trabajo pretende una aproximacioacuten al concepto de innovacioacuten minorista desde un triple en-foque innovacioacuten de producto innovacioacuten en marketing e innovacioacuten relacional Ademaacutes se examinan sus nexos con otros constructos que tradicionalmente han suscitado especial intereacutes en la investigacioacuten en marketing como la lealtad a la marca el valor de marca y la satisfaccioacuten Para ello se delimita un modelo teoacuterico que se contrasta mediante un anaacutelisis empiacuterico fundamentado en una encuesta a una muestra de 510 clientes de tres formatos comerciales de alimentacioacuten mdashhipermercado supermercado y tienda de descuentomdash en la provincia de Valencia Con el objetivo de testar las relaciones propuestas en forma de hipoacutetesis los datos recogidos fueron analizados mediante el uso de la teacutecnica de regresioacuten por miacutenimos cuadrados parciales (PLS) Los resultados confirman el papel de la innovacioacuten como elemento dinamizador de la lealtad a la marca potenciado por las TIC Ademaacutes se observan efectos encadenados de la lealtad a la marca sobre el valor de marca y de esta uacuteltima variable sobre la satisfaccioacuten Finalmente las conclusiones derivadas orientan un conjunto de recomendaciones para la gestioacuten fundamentadas en los beneficios observados al desarrollar procesos de innovacioacuten en la gran distribucioacuten de alimentacioacuten

Palabras clave Innovacioacuten de producto innovacioacuten en marketing innovacioacuten relacional lealtad valor de marca satisfaccioacuten

A B S T R A C T

The development of this work aims at an approach to the concept of retail innovation from a threefold approach product innovation marketing innovation and relational innovation In addition their links to other constructs that have traditionally sparked special interest in marketing research such as brand loyalty brand equity and satisfaction are examined To do this a theoretical model is delimited which is contrasted through an empirical analysis based on a survey of a sample of 510 customers from three commercial grocery formats mdashhypermarket supermarket and discount storemdash in the province of Valencia In order to test the proposed relationships in the form of hypotheses the data collected was analyzed using the partial least squares regression (PLS) technique The results confirm the role of innovation as a driving force for brand loyalty enhanced by ICT In addition there are chained effects of brand loyalty on brand equity and of this last variable on satisfaction Finally the derived conclusions guide a set of recommendations for management based on the benefits observed when developing innovation processes in the largest grocery retailers

Keywords Product innovation marketing innovation relational innovation loyalty brand equity satisfaction


30 A Mariacuten I Gil-Saura Mordf E Ruiz-Molina

1 INTRODUCCIOacuteN

La innovacioacuten es uno de los conceptos que mayor intereacutes suscita especialmente en el aacutembito de la distribucioacuten comercial minorista (Grewal et al 2017 Kumar et al 2017 Pantano y Tim-mermans 2014) En este sentido algunos estudios alineados con la visioacuten fundamentada en la teoriacutea de los recursos y capacida-des de la empresa (Hunt 2010) sentildealan que la innovacioacuten estaacute fuertemente vinculada a la capacidad que tienen las empresas para generar ventajas competitivas que ayuden a su crecimiento y desarrollo (Gonzaacutelez-Lafaysse et al 2016 Marcon et al 2017 Pantano et al 2018)

Los cambios en el entorno el acceso a nuevos segmentos del mercado ser maacutes competitivos contribuir a la creacioacuten de rique-za y garantizar la supervivencia de las empresas a largo plazo son algunos de los elementos que obligan a las organizaciones a tomar decisiones innovadoras en sus negocios (Ruiz-Molina et al 2017 Siguaw et al 2006) Como consecuencia la necesidad de arrojar luz acerca de cuaacuteles son los elementos que acompantildean al desarrollo de la innovacioacuten en el comercio minorista nunca ha estado tan presente (Grewal et al 2017 Kumar et al 2017 Pan-tano y Timmermans 2014) tanto en la direccioacuten de reconocer los factores que impulsan dicha innovacioacuten como en la de iden-tificar los efectos que se desencadenan con su desarrollo Asiacute la literatura observa que las tecnologiacuteas de la informacioacuten y la co-municacioacuten (TIC) promovidas principalmente por el desarrollo de Internet son una pieza capital que ayuda a las organizaciones a implantar procedimientos cada vez maacutes innovadores en todas las actividades que afectan directamente al desarrollo empresa-rial (Beata 2016 Mariacuten y Gil-Saura 2017 Moorhouse et al 2018 Musso 2010) Del mismo modo empiezan a existir evidencias que sentildealan el papel relevante de la innovacioacuten al explicar otras variables de larga tradicioacuten en la investigacioacuten en marketing En esta direccioacuten trabajos como los de Musso (2010) Lin (2015) y Mariacuten-Garciacutea et al (2019) examinan el concepto innovacioacuten desde la perspectiva del consumidor fundamentaacutendose en las creencias y actitudes expresadas por el cliente y destacando su efec-to en variables tales como por ejemplo la satisfaccioacuten (YuSheng e Ibrahim 2019) Sin embargo y a pesar de estos esfuerzos plau-sibles algunos autores sostienen la necesidad de aportar maacutes resultados en estos campos de estudio y llamadas a la investiga-cioacuten como las de Kumar (2014) Gonzaacutelez-Lafaysse et al (2016) o Marcon et al (2017) subrayan la urgencia de progresar en el dominio y conocimiento relativo a la innovacioacuten

Teniendo en cuenta lo anterior este trabajo persigue dos ob-jetivos primero llevar a cabo una aproximacioacuten al concepto de innovacioacuten en el sector de la distribucioacuten comercial identifican-do su naturaleza y alcance y segundo observar el efecto que la innovacioacuten desencadena en variables de tradicioacuten en la investi-gacioacuten en marketing como la lealtad el valor de marca o la satis-faccioacuten De este modo se trata de examinar coacutemo la innovacioacuten dinamizada por las TIC afecta a la lealtad del consumidor hacia el minorista Ademaacutes se pretende observar la influencia que la lealtad ejerce sobre el valor de marca global de la tienda y de esta uacuteltima sobre la satisfaccioacuten del consumidor hacia el estable-cimiento comercial

Con todo este trabajo se estructura como sigue A continua-cioacuten delimitamos el marco teoacuterico sobre el que se sustenta esta

investigacioacuten poniendo el foco en la relacioacuten existente entre las variables objeto de estudio proponiendo un modelo conceptual a partir de la formulacioacuten de un conjunto de hipoacutetesis Segui-damente se presentaraacute la metodologiacutea empleada para la ela-boracioacuten del trabajo empiacuterico y finalmente expondremos un conjunto de implicaciones que permitiraacuten a los responsables de empresas minoristas tener un mejor conocimiento de las per-cepciones de sus clientes acerca de las praacutecticas innovadoras de-sarrolladas por estas empresas

2 REVISIOacuteN DE LA LITERATURA Y MODELO PROPUESTO

21 Innovacioacuten en el comercio minorista antecedentes y efectos

El anaacutelisis del concepto innovacioacuten desde la oacuteptica del sector minorista se desarrolla principalmente a partir de la deacutecada de los noventa Sin embargo como consecuencia del efecto que la innovacioacuten tiene sobre otras variables de investigacioacuten en mar-keting ha sido en los uacuteltimos antildeos cuando se le ha comenzado a prestar atencioacuten especial

La revisioacuten de la literatura en torno a la innovacioacuten pone de manifiesto que este factor es capital en la reestructuracioacuten del sector minorista por su capacidad de hacer frente a los cam-bios que acompantildean a las empresas que operan en este sector Actualmente el comercio minorista se enfrenta a importantes retos que derivan de los cambios producidos en el entorno en el que operan Algunas de estas oportunidades y amenazas son consecuencia directa de la inclusioacuten de las tecnologiacuteas de la informacioacuten y la comunicacioacuten (TIC) que se postulan como un elemento propulsor de la innovacioacuten (Gil-Saura et al 2014 Ruiz-Molina et al 2009) sobre la base de la versatilidad pro-porcionada por Internet En este nuevo contexto la innovacioacuten se muestra como elemento clave para la resistencia yo el cre-cimiento econoacutemico y competitivo de las empresas (Berthon et al 2004 Clark 2010 Gonzalez-Lafaysse y Lapassouse-Ma-drid 2016 Grewal et al 2017 Marcon et al 2017 Ruiz-Molina et al 2017) Asiacute las empresas se ven en la obligacioacuten de intro-ducir medidas innovadoras en sus negocios al ser estas par-te importante en la generacioacuten de riqueza y el progreso de las economiacuteas facilitar el acceso a nuevos segmentos del mercado permitir ser maacutes competitivas y garantizar su crecimiento y supervivencia a largo plazo

La liacutenea de trabajo relativa a la innovacioacuten pone en evi-dencia la falta de consenso a la hora de explicar el concepto de innovacioacuten desde el punto de vista empresarial (Lin 2015 Marcon 2017 Mariacuten-Garciacutea et al 2019) Algunos autores han subrayado que la innovacioacuten en el comercio minorista es una forma de modificar de forma exitosa las complicadas condicio-nes del mercado en oportunidades para estas empresas (Rei-nartz et al 2011) posibilitando su eacutexito en los mercados en los que operan (Stagnaro 2017) En esta direccioacuten es posible ob-servar principalmente dos modelos de innovacioacuten atendiendo a la forma en que las innovaciones son aceptadas evaluadas y adaptadas por las organizaciones modelos estaacuteticos y modelos dinaacutemicos Mientras que los primeros se refieren al grado o nivel de innovacioacuten llevada a cabo los segundos se construyen


iquestContribuye la innovacioacuten a generar valor de marca y satisfaccioacuten en el cliente Evidencias en la gran distribucioacuten de alimentacioacuten 31

en base a los conocimientos necesarios para poder implemen-tar una innovacioacuten los agentes que intervienen en ese proce-so y la forma en que el conocimiento se intensifica a medida que la innovacioacuten es adoptada de forma interna y externa Por otra parte desde la oacuteptica del marketing y como consecuencia de los distintos modelos que explican el proceso innovador en las empresas es posible identificar tres perspectivas diferentes perspectiva tecnoloacutegica perspectiva relacional y perspectiva estructural (Musso 2010) La perspectiva tecnoloacutegica incluye el conjunto de innovaciones generadas como consecuencia del desarrollo de las TIC afectando entre otras variables al con-cepto de la tienda los canales de distribucioacuten o las formas de pago La perspectiva relacional entiende que las innovaciones se vinculan con las soluciones innovadoras que se implantan en la gestioacuten con los clientes y el consumidor final Por uacuteltimo la perspectiva estructural incluye las nuevas formas de organiza-cioacuten de los canales de distribucioacuten

De igual forma que se ha observado la dificultad a la hora de identificar una uacutenica aproximacioacuten conceptual entorno a la innovacioacuten la literatura pone de manifiesto la complejidad al identificar y definir los tipos de innovacioacuten existentes en el sector de la distribucioacuten comercial Asiacute las distintas tipologiacuteas relativas a la innovacioacuten en el sector abarcan iniciativas relacio-nadas con cambios en las marcas en el concepto de la tienda yo en las herramientas que configuran el marketing-mix de las empresas como por ejemplo los productos y los servicios el precio o las acciones de comunicacioacuten (Abodohoui et al 2013 Cliquet 2011 Gonzalez-Lafaysse y Lapassouse-Madrid 2016 Grewal et al 2011 Marcon et al 2017 Musso 2010 Reinartz et al 2011 Stagnaro 2017 Wu y Lin 2011) Las principales propuestas de clasificacioacuten de los tipos de innovacioacuten se han basado en la naturaleza de las innovaciones Bajo esta forma de clasificacioacuten se distingue entre innovaciones tecnoloacutegicas e innovaciones no tecnoloacutegicas (Stagnaro 2017) Las innovacio-nes tecnoloacutegicas a su vez incluyen innovaciones de producto e innovaciones de proceso mientras que las innovaciones no tecnoloacutegicas agrupan las innovaciones organizacionales las innovaciones en marketing y las innovaciones relacionales Se entiende por innovaciones de producto aquellas mejoras o variaciones en los productos existentes o la introduccioacuten de productos nuevos que hasta la fecha no se comercializaban Las innovaciones de proceso consisten en la implantacioacuten o adop-cioacuten de un meacutetodo de produccioacuten que puede incluir cambios en el equipamiento en los recursos humanos o en los meacutetodos de trabajo Atendiendo a las innovaciones no tecnoloacutegicas las organizacionales implican la formulacioacuten de nuevas estrategias y formas organizativas que afectan de forma directa o indirecta a las actividades baacutesicas del negocio de una empresa Por otra parte las innovaciones en marketing son definidas como las al-teraciones que se producen en el disentildeo o envasado posiciona-miento promocioacuten o en los criterios de fijacioacuten de los precios en la comercializacioacuten de un producto o servicio Por uacuteltimo la innovacioacuten relacional estaacute vinculada a la mejora de la con-fianza la lealtad y la calidad de las relaciones entre las partes implicadas Desde el punto de vista del consumidor algunos estudios abordan la innovacioacuten atendiendo principalmente a este uacuteltimo enfoque reteniendo las innovaciones de produc-to en tanto que innovacioacuten tecnoloacutegica y las innovaciones en

marketing y las innovaciones en las relaciones en tanto que no tecnoloacutegicas (Lin 2015 Mariacuten-Garciacutea et al 2019 Wu y Lin 2011) En este sentido y teniendo en cuenta que este trabajo se aborda desde la perspectiva del consumidor avanzaremos en el desarrollo de esta propuesta a fin de observar su naturaleza multidimensional

Progresando en el estudio de la innovacioacuten se ha sentildealado que las TIC son una de las principales razones del crecimiento econoacutemico en el comercio minorista (Moorhouse et al 2018) En este sentido los desarrollos tecnoloacutegicos se postulan como un elemento facilitador de recursos y capacidades que per-miten el desarrollo del conocimiento y la innovacioacuten (Beata 2016) Estas herramientas se presentan como elementos cla-ve que favorecen la implantacioacuten de soluciones innovadoras basadas en las empresas (Arvanitis et al 2013 Reinartz et al 2011) En el comercio minorista se ha observado coacutemo el de-sarrollo y la implementacioacuten de las TIC ayuda a la reduccioacuten del riesgo en la toma de decisiones relacionadas con la innova-cioacuten (Mariacuten y Gil-Saura 2017 Neirotti y Pesce 2019) Cuando una empresa introduce nuevos productos en el mercado ade-maacutes de la rapidez con la que esta se realice tambieacuten es primor-dial incrementar la precisioacuten y reducir los errores que acom-pantildean a este proceso y que pueden suponer grandes costes para las organizaciones Como consecuencia del crecimiento de marcas globales y de la transferencia de informacioacuten cada vez maacutes masiva y dinaacutemica es capital desarrollar e implantar herramientas TIC como apoyo a la introduccioacuten de productos y servicios innovadores (Arvanitis et al 2013 Beata 2016 Ma-riacuten y Gil-Saura 2017)

Del mismo modo la participacioacuten activa de los clientes en la creacioacuten de los productos genera innovaciones en el comer-cio minorista que se construyen sobre los recursos que propor-cionan las TIC Asiacute algunos estudios sentildealan que el desarrollo de los procesos innovadores en las organizaciones y la mejora de las adaptaciones de los productos a las exigencias actuales de los mercados son consecuencia del incremento en el uso de las TIC en los negocios (Arvanitis et al 2013) En este sentido Internet se posiciona como una de las principales TIC que per-miten lograr que los negocios actuales sean maacutes innovadores y por tanto puedan competir en el entorno tan dinaacutemico en los que operan las empresas (Marcon et al 2017)

Asiacute formulamos la primera de nuestras hipoacutetesis que se sos-tiene en estos razonamientos

H1 La percepcioacuten que tienen los clientes del uso de las TIC ejerce un efecto positivo y significativo sobre la percepcioacuten que estos mismos tienen acerca de la innovacioacuten del minorista

Por otra parte algunos investigadores han puesto de mani-fiesto la existencia de relaciones significativas y positivas entre la innovacioacuten y la lealtad hacia las marcas (Pappu y Quester 2016 Shiau 2014) En el sector minorista se sostiene que la innovacioacuten es un elemento capital que influye de forma directa en el desarro-llo de la lealtad hacia la marca y hacia el establecimiento (Forou-di et al 2016 Mariacuten-Garciacutea et al 2019 Moliner-Velaacutezquez et al 2019) De esta forma se sentildeala que los clientes de negocios mi-noristas innovadores presentan niveles de lealtad mayores hacia los establecimientos y las marcas concluyendo que la inversioacuten de los minoristas en praacutecticas innovadoras contribuye a incre-mentar la lealtad de los consumidores (Ruiz-Molina et al 2017)



Por otra parte Krom (2015) observa coacutemo la estrategia online de las empresas incluye la innovacioacuten como pieza fun-damental en el desarrollo del posicionamiento de las mar-cas Seguacuten el autor el avance en estas taacutecticas incrementa la confianza hacia la marca la satisfaccioacuten del cliente y la lealtad de marca por parte de los usuarios Los acadeacutemicos en marketing que estudian el efecto de la innovacioacuten sobre la lealtad han obtenido diferentes resultados en sus investi-gaciones derivando en la propuesta de distintos enfoques teoacutericos la teoriacutea del cambio (Eisingerich y Rubera 2010) la teoriacutea de la utilizacioacuten de la sentildeal (Kunz et al 2011) y la teo-riacutea de la sentildealizacioacuten (Henard y Dacin 2010) Estos enfoques concluyen que las percepciones de los consumidores sobre la innovacioacuten de la marca afectan positivamente a la lealtad de la misma Sin embargo la evidencia de la naturaleza exacta de la relacioacuten entre innovacioacuten y lealtad no es clara Mien-tras algunos investigadores lograron encontrar una relacioacuten directa entre ambos conceptos (Eisingerich y Rubera 2010) otros sentildealan una relacioacuten indirecta mediada por factores como la calidad percibida los beneficios relacionales o la sa-tisfaccioacuten (Henard y Dacin 2010 Kunz et al 2011 Ruiz-Mo-lina et al 2017)

A pesar de ello teniendo en cuenta las aportaciones rea-lizadas por investigadores como Krom (2015) Eisingerich y Rubera (2010) o Pappu y Quester (2016) nos atrevemos a postular el efecto de la innovacioacuten sobre la lealtad al estable-cimiento comercial minorista formulando la segunda hipoacutete-sis de este estudio

H2 La percepcioacuten que tienen los clientes sobre la innova-cioacuten de los comercios minoristas ejerce un efecto positivo y sig-nificativo en la lealtad hacia la tienda

Continuando con nuestra atencioacuten centrada en el comercio minorista y tomando en consideracioacuten la tienda como marca una de las liacuteneas de trabajo que han despertado especial inte-reacutes es la iniciada por Arnett et al (2003) Este trabajo exami-na el teacutermino laquovalor de marca minoristaraquo considerando que la informacioacuten proporcionada por el nombre del minorista hacia los consumidores puede ser fuente de ventajas competi-tivas Los autores afirman que el laquovalor de marca minoristaraquo es el resultado entre otras variables de la lealtad En el mismo contexto Mariacuten-Garciacutea et al (2019) se plantean un estudio con el propoacutesito de examinar la naturaleza del valor de mar-ca a traveacutes de un modelo integrador que analiza las variables antecedentes y los efectos del valor de marca de la tienda Sus resultados confirman la relacioacuten positiva y significativa entre la lealtad hacia la tienda y el valor de marca global De forma adicional la liacutenea de trabajo relativa a la lealtad sostiene que esta es una pieza clave para la creacioacuten del valor de marca (Atilgan et al 2005 Mohd et al 2007 Yoo et al 2000) y un elemento fundamental que gestionado convenientemente puede proporcionar ventajas competitivas para las empresas (Buil et al 2010) y mejores resultados comerciales como por ejemplo la disminucioacuten de los costes de venta la oportunidad de fijar un precio superior al de la competencia el aumen-to del poder negociador y niveles superiores de la cuota de mercado (Aaker 1996 Atilgan et al 2005 Bravo et al 2007 Delgado y Munuera 2002 Kim et al 2008 Mohd et al 2007) De forma adicional la introduccioacuten en nuevos mercados la

disminucioacuten de los costes de comunicacioacuten la captacioacuten de nuevos compradores y la reduccioacuten en el tiempo de respues-ta a las amenazas competitivas (Šerić y Gil-Saura 2011) son otras ventajas posibles a lograr La lealtad de los consumido-res hacia la marca conlleva que estos adquieran los productos de dicha marca de forma habitual frente a otras ensentildeas (Yoo et al 2000) haciendo maacutes fuerte el nexo marca-consumidor mostrando niveles de respuestas maacutes positivos hacia la misma (Villarejo-Ramos 2002) Es decir a medida que los consumi-dores muestren lealtad hacia una marca el valor de la ensentildea aumentaraacute (Yoo et al 2000)

Dentro del sector de la distribucioacuten comercial la lealtad de los consumidores hacia el establecimiento supone un ele-mento clave por su capacidad de reducir las acciones persua-sorias de marketing realizadas por las empresas competido-ras (Aaker 1991) consideraacutendose una variable capital en el efecto mayor o menor sobre el valor de marca (Arnett et al 2003) en funcioacuten de si la lealtad del consumidor hacia la tien-da es mayor o menor (Yoo et al 2000)

Por todo ello postulamos la siguiente hipoacutetesis de este tra-bajo que descansa en las reflexiones anteriores

H3 La lealtad hacia el establecimiento minorista ejerce un efecto positivo y significativo sobre el valor de marca de la tien-da

Finalmente y avanzando en el estudio del valor de mar-ca de la tienda la literatura muestra un nuacutemero limitado de trabajos con evidencias empiacutericas que observen los viacutenculos entre el valor de marca global y la satisfaccioacuten

Huang et al (2016) contrasta empiacutericamente coacutemo el au-mento del valor de marca global contribuye a incrementar la satisfaccioacuten del consumidor en un estudio desarrollado en el sector cultural y creativo en Taiwaacuten La satisfaccioacuten es una de las tres dimensiones que junto con el valor de marca y el recuerdo de marca tiene efectos positivos y significativos sobre el proceso de recompra de los consumidores Conti-nuando con el estudio realizado por Lassar et al (1995) los autores sugieren que el valor de marca provoca que los clien-tes aumenten su satisfaccioacuten En el proceso de generar esas percepciones positivas los sentimientos provocados por la experiencia y las opiniones que les generan estas marcas son fundamentales y estaacuten fuertemente vinculados con la satisfac-cioacuten del consumidor En el mismo sentido Yoo y Park (2016) sentildealan que la evaluacioacuten que los consumidores realizan de los establecimientos a traveacutes de los cuales adquieren los pro-ductos que consumen se basa en sus experiencias con estos productos Cuando el valor aportado por el producto que han adquirido es mayor para los clientes tambieacuten seraacute mayor el nivel de satisfaccioacuten de estos con los comercios minoristas

En el aacutembito del sector minorista Gil-Saura et al (2013) obtienen resultados positivos en el nexo valor de marca glo-bal ndash satisfaccioacuten del consumidor

Atendiendo a lo descrito en relacioacuten al valor de marca glo-bal y la satisfaccioacuten y centrando la informacioacuten en los obje-tivos de esta investigacioacuten planteamos la siguiente hipoacutetesis

H4 El valor de marca de la tienda ejerce un efecto positivo y significativo sobre la satisfaccioacuten del cliente

Con todo lo hasta aquiacute expuesto en la Figura 1 se muestra el modelo objeto de estudio



3 METODOLOGIacuteA

Para lograr el objetivo propuesto se planteoacute una investiga-cioacuten de naturaleza cuantitativa utilizando un cuestionario estruc-turado expresamente desarrollado para testar las hipoacutetesis que forman el modelo conceptual de este trabajo A traveacutes de este cuestionario los consumidores teniacutean que sentildealar su nivel de conformidad o disconformidad a un conjunto de enunciados en

forma de cuestiones cerradas Concretamente se recogieron da-tos acerca de la percepcioacuten de la innovacioacuten en los establecimien-tos y del grado de avance tecnoloacutegico en los establecimientos asiacute como acerca de la lealtad hacia los comercios Ademaacutes se recogioacute informacioacuten sobre el valor de marca global y la satisfaccioacuten de los consumidores con la tienda En la Tabla 1 se describe la muestra objeto de estudio a traveacutes de variables sociodemograacuteficas como el geacutenero la edad el nivel de estudios y la situacioacuten laboral

Figura 1 Modelo de investigacioacuten propuesto

Fuente Elaboracioacuten propia

Tabla 1 Distribucioacuten de la muestra variables sociodemograacuteficas

TOTAL HIPERMERCADO SUPERMERCADO TIENDA DESCUENTON N N N

GEacuteNEROHombre 206 404 68 400 67 394 71 418Mujer 304 596 102 600 103 606 99 582EDADEntre 18 y 25 antildeos 36 71 16 94 9 53 11 65Entre 26 y 35 antildeos 88 173 34 200 20 118 34 200Entre 36 y 45 antildeos 133 261 35 206 63 371 35 206Entre 46 y 55 antildeos 113 222 18 106 50 294 45 265Entre 56 y 65 antildeos 108 212 50 294 24 141 34 200Maacutes de 65 antildeos 32 63 17 100 4 24 11 65NIVEL DE ESTUDIOSSin estudios 40 78 20 118 9 53 11 65Estudios primarios 84 165 41 241 22 129 21 124Estudios secundarios 148 290 41 241 46 271 61 359Estudios universitarios 238 467 68 400 93 547 77 453SITUACIOacuteN LABORALTrabajador por cuenta ajena 282 553 90 529 102 600 90 529Trabajador por cuenta propia 63 124 16 94 24 141 23 135JubiladoPensionista 58 114 39 229 6 35 13 76Desempleado 40 78 6 35 16 94 18 106Tareas del hogar 37 73 16 94 12 71 9 53Estudiante 30 58 3 18 10 59 17 100TOTAL 510 170 170 170




Para la medicioacuten de las variables que forman parte del mo-delo conceptual de esta investigacioacuten se hizo uso de escalas previamente extraiacutedas y adaptadas de estudios anteriores y que ademaacutes fueron validadas en contextos similares (A1) En concreto para la medicioacuten de la innovacioacuten en los estable-cimientos los iacutetems extraiacutedos han sido de la escala de Lin (2015) para la evaluacioacuten de la percepcioacuten por parte del con-sumidor del grado de avance tecnoloacutegico del minorista se hizo uso de los iacutetems primeramente ajustados a partir de la propuesta de Wu et al (2006) la medicioacuten de la lealtad hacia el establecimiento se llevoacute a cabo adaptando la escala de Yoo et al (2000) Por otra parte el valor de marca global se eva-luoacute mediante la escala propuesta por Yoo y Donthu (2001) y finalmente la evaluacioacuten de la satisfaccioacuten del consumidor se realizoacute a traveacutes de la escala desarrollada por Bloemer y Oder-kerken-Schroumlder (2002) y que tambieacuten ha sido utilizada en el contexto del sector comercial minorista Todos los iacutetems se midieron a traveacutes de una escala Likert de 7 puntos

Con el propoacutesito de conseguir los datos necesarios para testar las hipoacutetesis enunciadas se elaboroacute una encuesta perso-nal estructurada Concretamente la recogida de datos se llevoacute a cabo en los meses de abril y mayo de 2017 en la provincia de Valencia a traveacutes de la teacutecnica de intercepcioacuten La eleccioacuten de los comercios se realizoacute atendiendo a su posicionamiento en el mercado espantildeol en base a la oferta de alimentacioacuten y considerando ensentildeas con penetracioacuten en todo el territo-rio nacional Los individuos que forman parte de la muestra se seleccionaron de forma aleatoria a la salida del estableci-miento siendo el uacutenico requisito ser clientes de los estableci-mientos seleccionados En este sentido el tipo de muestreo llevado a cabo es no probabiliacutestico de conveniencia sin esta-blecer ninguacuten filtro de cuota relativo a aspectos vinculados a la edad el geacutenero el nivel de renta etc Con el propoacutesito de tener una muestra homogeacutenea por formatos comerciales se decidioacute recoger el mismo nuacutemero de cuestionarios de cada formato comercial realizaacutendose 170 encuestas a clientes de hipermercados 170 a clientes de supermercados y finalmen-te 170 a clientes de supermercados de descuento lo que suma 510 cuestionarios vaacutelidos

A partir de la muestra obtenida se ha procedido a com-probar la existencia del sesgo de no-respuesta seguacuten la meto-dologiacutea propuesta por Armstrong y Overton (1977) En este caso para la prueba t de igualdad de medias no se observan diferencias significativas entre las 20 primeras respuestas y las 20 uacuteltimas para ninguna de las variables consideradas por lo que no se obtiene evidencia de sesgo Adicionalmente las muestras obtenidas son representativas de la poblacioacuten espa-ntildeola de clientes de establecimientos de alimentacioacuten por lo que respecta a geacutenero y edad seguacuten lo sentildealado en el estudio de Observatorio Cetelem (2016)

El estudio de los datos conseguidos se desarrolloacute en dos fases Primeramente se examinoacute la validez del instrumento de medida y posteriormente se evaluoacute el modelo estructu-ral En ambos casos se hizo uso de la teacutecnica de regresioacuten por miacutenimos cuadrados parciales (PLS) y el SmartPLS (versioacuten 30) fue el software empleado Esta teacutecnica ha sido extensamente utilizada en los uacuteltimos antildeos por investigadores en el contex-to del marketing (Haumlnseler et al 2017) Cassel et al (1999)

sentildealan que PLS-SEM es una teacutecnica caracterizada por su robustez principalmente en tres situaciones distribuciones sesgadas en las variables manifiestas en vez de simeacutetricas multi-colinealidad tanto entre los constructos latentes como entre los indicadores e inexacta especificacioacuten del modelo estructural Ademaacutes Fornell y Bookstein (1982) explican que el PLS evita dos problemas importantes por una parte soluciones inadmisibles o impropias como las estimaciones negativas de la varianza de los indicadores y cargas estanda-rizadas mayores que 1 y por otra parte la indeterminacioacuten de factores gracias a que la teacutecnica PLS define expliacutecitamente las variables latentes haciendo maacutes faacutecil disponer de las pun-tuaciones de los factores o variables latentes Por otra par-te se ha utilizado satisfactoriamente en estudios realizados en contextos similares al que se presenta (Mariacuten y Gil 2017 Ruiz-Molina et al 2017) El anaacutelisis PLS-SEM es un proce-dimiento estadiacutestico no parameacutetrico para el que no es nece-sario que los datos presenten una distribucioacuten normal (Hair et al 2016) A pesar de que no es posible aplicar paraacutemetros de significatividad como en el caso de las regresiones para comprobar si las cargas son significativas a traveacutes del anaacute-lisis PLS-SEM podemos contrastar la significatividad de las cargas y paths utilizando el procedimiento no parameacutetrico bootstrap (Efron y Tibshirani 1986) En la Tabla 2 se describe la ficha teacutecnica de la investigacioacuten

Tabla 2 Ficha teacutecnica de la investigacioacuten

UniversoClientes mayores de 18 antildeos de establecimientos de alimentacioacuten en formato supermercado hipermercado y tienda de descuento

Aacutembito geograacutefico Provincia de Valencia

Metodologiacutea Encuesta personal mediante cuestionario estructurado

Tamantildeo muestral

510 encuestas

Hipermercado Supermercado Tienda de descuento

170 170 170

Periodo de recogida de informacioacuten

Abril-Mayo 2017

Software Estadiacutestico SPSS v18 SmartPLS 30


4 ANAacuteLISIS DE LOS RESULTADOS

Para el estudio de los resultados logrados se decidioacute proceder en dos etapas En la primera de ellas se validoacute el instrumento me-diante un Anaacutelisis Factorial Confirmatorio y posteriormente se testoacute el modelo de la investigacioacuten Para ambos anaacutelisis se recurrioacute a la modelizacioacuten estructural mediante Partial Least Squares-PLS-PM utilizando el programa informaacutetico Smart PLS 3



41 Proceso de validacioacuten del instrumento de medida

Atendiendo a los resultados de la Tabla 3 es posible corrobo-rar la fiabilidad de todas las escalas ya que la fiabilidad compues-ta y el coeficiente α de Cronbach presentan niveles superiores a los valores recomendados de 07 (Nunnally y Bernstein 1994) o 08 (Carmines y Zeller 1979) respectivamente Para valorar la validez convergente primero se analizaron las cargas de los indicadores y se constatoacute que todas eran estadiacutesticamente sig-nificativas y con valores superiores a 06 A continuacioacuten se realizoacute el anaacutelisis de la fiabilidad de las escalas mediante el iacuten-dice de fiabilidad compuesta (IFC) y el anaacutelisis de la varianza extraiacuteda (AVE) constataacutendose que sus valores eran superiores a los valores establecidos por la literatura previa como criacuteticos (07 y 05 respectivamente) (Fornell y Larcker 1981) Todos estos resultados nos posibilitan ratificar la validez convergente del modelo

Antes de examinar la validez y fiabilidad del instrumento de medida realizamos un Anaacutelisis Factorial Exploratorio De esta forma mediante un Anaacutelisis de Componentes Principa-les con rotacioacuten VARIMAX pudimos observar la agrupacioacuten de los iacutetems utilizados para medir las diferentes variables en factores A partir de los resultados de esta investigacioacuten se percibe que la innovacioacuten es un constructo formado por tres factores mdashinnovacioacuten de producto innovacioacuten en marketing e innovacioacuten relacionalmdash que conjuntamente explican el 6893 de la varianza total y que en la literatura habiacutean sido identificados tambieacuten por Lin (2015)

A continuacioacuten utilizamos la teacutecnica PLS-SEM calculan-do un algoritmo PLS con un paraacutemetro de 300 interacciones maacuteximas y un esquema de ponderaciones paths Mediante este procedimiento obtuvimos la informacioacuten acerca de las car-gas de los factores alfa de Cronbach el iacutendice de fiabilidad compuesta (IFC) y la varianza extraiacuteda promedio (AVE) para cada uno de los factores que componen el modelo causal de esta investigacioacuten y que se presentan en la Tabla 3 Dado que todas las cargas de los iacutetems presentan valores superiores a 07 optamos por mantener la totalidad de los mismos tal y como sugieren Bagozzi y Yi (1988)

Tabla 3 Instrumento de medida del modelo causal

Constructo ItemCarga fact(desvtiacutep)

t Cronbach α IFC AVE

TIC

TIC1TIC2TIC3TIC4

0881 (0012)0920 (0045)0939 (0011)0648 (0019)

83571096714922 1729

0873 0914 0731

Innovacioacuten ndash Producto

IN1IN2IN3IN4IN5

0818 (0026)0753 (0032)0850 (0020)0773 (0031)0791 (0029)

1571 2361 4299 2459 2754

0860 0897 0636



Innovacioacuten ndash Marketing

IN6IN7IN8IN9IN10IN11

0723 (0030)0759 (0024)0845 (0016)0820 (0020)0855 (0012)0811 (0019)

2433 3151 5438 4076 7026 4237

0890 0918 0646

Innovacioacuten ndash Relacional

IN12IN13IN14

0805 (0027)0926 (0009)0928 (0008)

30231071711615

0866 0919 0789

Lealtad

LE1LE2LE3LE4

0924 (0008)0903 (0011)0915 (0008)0888 (0011)

11423 823711442 7949

0929 0949 0824

Valor de marca global

VM1VM2VM3VM4

0896 (0012)0754 (0045)0905 (0011)0870 (0019)

7321 1679 8424 4543

0880 0918 0737

Satisfaccioacuten

SF1SF2SF3SF4SF5

0885 (0012)0949 (0005)0925 (0007)0912 (0013)0853 (0019)

73141983113523 6963 4586

0946 0958 0820

CA=Alfa de Cronbach IFC=Fiabilidad Compuesta AVE=varianza extraiacuteda promedioplt01 plt005 plt001 ns = no significativaFuente Elaboracioacuten propia

Los resultados obtenidos del α de Cronbach son satis-factorios superando ampliamente 07 el miacutenimo exigido (Churchill 1979 Nunnally y Bernstein 1994) y oscilan-do entre 08 y 09 valores recomendables para etapas maacutes avanzadas de la investigacioacuten (Nunnally y Bernstein 1994) El anaacutelisis de la fiabilidad compuesta arroja resultados muy satisfactorios que superan ampliamente el miacutenimo exigido 07 (Chin 1998) Ademaacutes todos los constructos del modelo estructural obtienen valores para la varianza extraiacuteda pro-medio superiores al 05 lo que implica que cada construc-to explica al menos el 50 de la varianza de los indicadores asignados (Fornell y Larcker 1981) En conclusioacuten los re-sultados obtenidos nos permiten confirmar la fiabilidad y la validez convergente del instrumento de medida del modelo estructural

Ademaacutes como se observa en la Tabla 4 la validez discrimi-nante se confirma ya que para todos los casos la raiacutez cuadra-da de la varianza extraiacuteda promedio (AVE) era maacutes alta que la correlacioacuten estimada entre los factores que aparece debajo de la diagonal atendiendo al criterio de Fornell-Larcker (1981)



Ademaacutes los pesos desde las tres dimensiones que compo-nen el constructo formativo de segundo orden innovacioacuten son todos significativos a p lt001 lo que indica una alta validez de contenido del constructo formativo de segundo orden (Chin 1998) Por otra parte los factores de inflacioacuten de varianza (FIV) que indican en queacute medida la varianza de un indicador se explica por otros indicadores del mismo constructo (Thien et al 2014) muestran valores por debajo del umbral criacutetico de 5 (Tabla 5)

Tabla 5 Estimaciones de los paraacutemetros del modelo formativo

de segundo orden

Factor de segundo orden Factores de primer orden Pesos FIV

Innovacioacuten Innovacioacuten ndash ProductoInnovacioacuten ndash MarketingInnovacioacuten ndash Relacional

041405080245

266215901565

FIV Factor de inflacioacuten de varianza p lt 005 Fuente Elaboracioacuten propia

42 Estimacioacuten del modelo estructural global

Para examinar el modelo estructural propuesto se ha re-currido de nuevo al software SmartPLS con un bootstrapping completo con 5000 submuestras (Ringle 2015) para evaluar las relaciones causales que componen las hipoacutetesis del modelo y su significatividad ademaacutes de obtener los resultados de los valo-res de la varianza explicada R2 A traveacutes de la teacutecnica blindfol-ding obtenemos los resultados proporcionados por el criterio de relevancia predictiva de la prueba Qsup2 La Tabla 6 presenta los resultados de la estimacioacuten del modelo estructural de esta investigacioacuten

Tabla 6 Contrastacioacuten de las hipoacutetesis del modelo causal de la investigacioacuten

Hipoacutetesis Decisioacuten Coef estandarizado t

H1 TIC rarr Innovacioacuten Aceptada 0012 1694

H2 Innovacioacuten rarr Lealtad Aceptada 0327 7535

H3 Lealtad rarr Valor de marca global Aceptada 0751 32425

H4 Valor de marca global rarr Satisfaccioacuten Aceptada 0266 6329

Innovacioacuten Qsup2=0414 Lealtad Rsup2=0107 Qsup2=0082 Valor de marca global Rsup2=0564 Qsup2=0388 Satisfaccioacuten Rsup2=0071 Qsup2=0050plt01 plt005 plt001 ns = no significativaFuente Elaboracioacuten propia

A partir de los datos arrojados por la Tabla 6 podemos ob-servar que todos los constructos independientes del modelo es-tructural excepto la variable de la satisfaccioacuten arrojan valores para Rsup2 por encima de 01 umbral miacutenimo establecido por Falk y Miller (1992) Ademaacutes todos los valores obtenidos del estadiacutes-tico Qsup2 son superiores a cero lo que nos permite afirmar que el modelo tiene validez predictiva A partir del estudio de estos dos indicadores varianza explicada y relevancia predictiva se puede concluir que el modelo tiene una validez predictiva oacuteptima lo que nos permite continuar analizando la significatividad de los viacutenculos estructurales definidos

En la Tabla 6 se muestran los resultados obtenidos del anaacutelisis PLS-SEM que nos permiten apoyar la totalidad de las relaciones propuestas del modelo causal Las hipoacutetesis planteadas pueden ser divididas en dos grupos en el primer grupo las hipoacutetesis que relacionan variables antecedentes de la innovacioacuten y que lo for-ma la H1 y el segundo grupo que estariacutea configurado por el res-to de hipoacutetesis de la investigacioacuten y que son consecuentes de la innovacioacuten En cuanto a los antecedentes de la innovacioacuten (H1) que vincula positivamente a la variable independiente (TIC) con la percepcioacuten que los consumidores tienen hacia las praacutecticas in-

Tabla 4 Instrumento de medida del modelo causal Validez discriminante

(criterio de Fornell-Larcker)

TIC Inn ndash Producto Inn ndash Marketing Inn ndash Relacional Lealtad Valor de marca global Satisfaccioacuten

TIC 0855

Inn ndash Producto 0347 0798

Inn ndash Marketing 0626 0613 0804

Inn ndash Relacional 0401 0419 0576 0888

Lealtad 0346 0280 0255 0349 0908

Valor de marca global 0559 0197 0135 0193 0751 0859

Satisfaccioacuten 0240 0368 0522 0414 0495 0266 0905Diagonal raiacutez cuadrada de la varianza extraiacuteda promedio (AVE)Debajo de la diagonal correlacioacuten estimada entre los factoresFuente Elaboracioacuten propia



novadoras en los establecimientos podemos afirmar la relacioacuten significativa y positiva entre dichas variables (β1= 0012 plt005 H1) Por lo que respecta a la hipoacutetesis entre la innovacioacuten y la lealtad podemos corroborar su relacioacuten significativa y positiva (β2=0327 plt001 H2)

Por otra parte aceptamos la hipoacutetesis que vincula la lealtad hacia el establecimiento con el valor de marca global al obtener-se un resultado significativo y positivo (β3=0741 plt001 H3) Por uacuteltimo en relacioacuten a la cadena de efectos entre los construc-tos valor de marca global y satisfaccioacuten encontramos relaciones positivas y significativas (β4=0266 plt001 H4) Los datos obte-nidos nos permiten afirmar la totalidad de las hipoacutetesis plantea-das en este estudio corroborando asiacute los anaacutelisis realizados por estudios previos que formulaban relaciones similares (Gil-Sau-ra et al 2013 Kim et al 2008 Moorhouse et al 2018 Pappu y Quester 2016)

5 CONCLUSIONES Y LIMITACIONES DE LA INVESTIGACIOacuteN

La investigacioacuten realizada ha permitido profundizar en la esencia y el alcance del concepto de innovacioacuten desde la oacuteptica del consumidor en el comercio minorista de alimentacioacuten La revisioacuten teoacuterica realizada ha permitido proponer un modelo in-tegrador para el estudio de las variables y constructos anteceden-tes y consecuentes de la innovacioacuten obteniendo resultados que pueden contribuir a mejorar el conocimiento de las relaciones entre las variables examinadas con implicaciones que pueden ser consideradas desde una perspectiva teoacuterica como desde el punto de vista de los gestores de establecimientos en el sector minorista

En primer lugar los resultados obtenidos permiten concluir que la innovacioacuten desde la perspectiva del consumidor se con-figura como un constructo multidimensional que engloba tres tipos de innovacioacuten innovacioacuten de producto innovacioacuten en marketing e innovacioacuten relacional Asiacute se corrobora la natura-leza multidimensional de la innovacioacuten desde la perspectiva del consumidor apuntada por estudios previos como los de Musso (2010) y Lin (2015) En este sentido el actual modelo de negocio en la distribucioacuten comercial minorista debe construirse desde una perspectiva innovadora si se pretende asegurar el eacutexito en el mercado

En segundo lugar los anaacutelisis realizados nos permiten afir-mar que en el comercio detallista las TIC se postulan como un elemento propulsor de la innovacioacuten En este sentido se confir-ma el viacutenculo que el consumidor percibe entre innovacioacuten y gra-do de avance tecnoloacutegico del minorista en la liacutenea de estudios previos como los de Beata (2016) Mariacuten y Gil-Saura (2017) y Moorhouse et al (2018) entre otros Por tanto podemos afirmar que la innovacioacuten y las TIC caminan en la misma direccioacuten esto es las TIC constituyen la evidencia material de la innovacioacuten es decir son las herramientas que permiten hacer maacutes tangible la innovacioacuten a los ojos del cliente

En tercer lugar los resultados de esta investigacioacuten arrojan un viacutenculo positivo entre la innovacioacuten en el comercio minorista y la lealtad del cliente hacia la tienda De esta forma se observa que las praacutecticas innovadoras desarrolladas por las empresas mi-

noristas presentan viacutenculos satisfactorios ante la posibilidad de que los clientes repitan sus compras en esos establecimientos De forma adicional a traveacutes de los datos obtenidos en esta investiga-cioacuten se confirma el nexo entre la lealtad hacia el establecimiento y el valor de marca global En definitiva para explicar la creacioacuten de valor de marca en el sector minorista es necesario retener como elemento clave la lealtad hacia el establecimiento

Finalmente a traveacutes del desarrollo de este trabajo se confir-ma la relacioacuten existente entre el valor de marca global y la satis-faccioacuten del consumidor hacia la tienda Por tanto este estudio permite afirmar que el valor de marca global actuacutea como variable mediadora entre la lealtad hacia el establecimiento y la satisfac-cioacuten del consumidor

Por tanto de nuestro estudio pueden derivarse diferentes ac-tuaciones para la administracioacuten de los establecimientos comer-ciales En primer lugar los responsables de los negocios mino-ristas deberiacutean prestar mayor atencioacuten a las herramientas que se derivan de las TIC especialmente las que poseen una naturaleza digital para facilitar esos procesos innovadores

En segundo lugar se propone que los comercios minoristas realicen cambios yo mejoras en la decoracioacuten de los estableci-mientos que permitan crear un ambiente de la tienda maacutes agra-dable Asimismo los comercios minoristas podriacutean centrarse en ofrecer productos creativos de disentildeo propio o desarrollar campantildeas promocionales que los diferencien de la competencia Con ello los establecimientos minoristas podriacutean influir en el desarrollo de lealtad el valor de marca y en la satisfaccioacuten del consumidor

Por otra parte ante el incremento en los niveles de compe-tencia entre las empresas que forman parte del sector minorista los establecimientos tendriacutean que comenzar a desarrollar actua-ciones con el objetivo de diferenciarse y de esta forma no perder su posicioacuten dominante en el mercado Un anaacutelisis maacutes porme-norizado de los elementos que contribuyen a la formacioacuten de la innovacioacuten en el comercio minorista junto con el desarrollo de estrategias directamente vinculadas con estos factores seraacute clave para el progreso de los establecimientos minoristas Es decir la inversioacuten en innovacioacuten llevaraacute consigo niveles maacutes altos hacia el valor de marca de la tienda percibido por los consumidores y con todo ello las tiendas minoristas podraacuten mejorar su posi-cionamiento en el mercado En este sentido seraacute necesario con-siderar todos los matices desde el punto de vista praacutectico como desde la perspectiva emocional ligados al establecimiento con el objetivo de lograr lealtad ya que asiacute seraacute posible actuar en las percepciones de los clientes (Yoo et al 2000) incrementando la percepcioacuten del consumidor hacia la marca de los establecimien-tos y con ello logrando una mayor satisfaccioacuten del consumidor De esta forma los establecimientos minoristas podriacutean conside-rar la posibilidad de ofrecer mejoras en las poliacuteticas de fideliza-cioacuten desarrollando praacutecticas tales como una escala progresiva de descuento para futuras compras en funcioacuten del importe men-sual gastado en la ensentildea reuniones con clientes programas de participacioacutenco-creacioacuten las asambleas de socios-clientes Por tanto el desarrollo de iniciativas en torno a las TIC y la innova-cioacuten es un camino cuyo recorrido no tiene fin y en el que los comercios deben esforzarse contando con la participacioacuten del cliente para trabajar por una mejora continua hacia el desarrollo de nuevos conceptos en liacutenea con un comercio co-innovador



Para concluir es posible sentildealar algunas limitaciones las cua-les podraacuten ser consideradas como ejes de investigacioacuten futura En primer lugar la direccioacuten de futuros trabajos podriacutea ir enca-minados en el anaacutelisis de los resultados obtenidos en otras zonas geograacuteficas haciendo frente asiacute al limitado aacutembito geograacutefico de este estudio De esta forma se podriacutea observar si existen diferen-cias en las percepciones que los consumidores de otras regiones tienen hacia las praacutecticas innovadoras de los comercios minoristas y si estas diferencias pueden deberse a aspectos como la cultura estilos de vida o estructura comercial Por otra parte el anaacutelisis de las posibles diferencias en las percepciones de los consumido-res de los formatos comerciales de este estudio seriacutea otra futura ruta posible que ayudara a explicar la naturaleza de la innovacioacuten en el comercio minorista Adicionalmente este anaacutelisis tambieacuten podriacutea extenderse a examinar las diferencias entre las ensentildeas de esta investigacioacuten o el estudio de otros sectores diferentes al de la alimentacioacuten Por otra parte seriacutea interesante examinar la na-turaleza de la relacioacuten entre innovacioacuten y lealtad y el estudio de la influencia de posibles variables mediadoras en tal relacioacuten (eg la calidad percibida o los beneficios relacionales) Por uacuteltimo ca-briacutea considerar otros antecedentes de la satisfaccioacuten del cliente al margen del valor de marca con el fin de mejorar la capacidad ex-plicativa del modelo Asiacute variables como la experiencia de compra y el compromiso o el anaacutelisis de variables moderadoras como las caracteriacutesticas personales del consumidor sobre los constructos abordados en el modelo planteado podriacutean contribuir de forma importante a completar la comprensioacuten del comportamiento del cliente de los establecimientos comerciales minoristas

6 AGRADECIMIENTOS

Este estudio ha sido realizado en el marco del proyecto ECO2016-76553-R Ministerio de Economiacutea Industria y Com-petitividad Agencia Estatal de Investigacioacuten

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Clark D N 2010 Innovation management in SMEs Active innova-tors in New Zealand Journal of Small Business amp Entrepreneurship 23(4) 601-619

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Delgado E y Munuera J L 2002 Medicioacuten del capital de marca con indicadores formativos Investigacioacuten y Marketing 759 16-20

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Grewal D Roggeveen A L y Nordfaumllt J 2017 The future of retailing Journal of Retailing 93(1) 1-6

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Yoo B Donthu N y Lee S 2000 An examination of selected mar-keting mix elements and brand equity Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science 28(2) 195-211

Yoo B y Donthu N 2001 Developing and validating a multidimen-sional consumer-based brand equity scale Journal of Business Re-search 52(1) 1-14

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Wu S y Lin C 2011 The influence of innovation strategy and organi-zational innovation on innovation quality and performance Inter-national Journal of Organizational Innovation 3(4) 45-81

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A1 Escalas de medicioacuten de las variables

Variable Iacutetem

TIC

TIC1 La TIENDA X invierte en tecnologiacutea

TIC2 Las TIC de la TIENDA X son siempre lo uacuteltimo en tecnologiacutea

TIC3 En relacioacuten a sus competidores la tecnologiacutea de la TIENDA X es maacutes avanzada

TIC4 Esta TIENDA X tiene en cuenta mi opinioacuten como cliente para coordinar y desarrollar las TIC con el fin de mejorar el servicio y satisfacer mejor mis necesidades como cliente

Innovacioacuten

IN1 La TIENDA X ofrece muchos productos nuevos

IN2 La TIENDA X ofrece productos creativos de disentildeo propio

IN3 La TIENDA X ofrece productos innovadores de marca de distribuidor

IN4 La TIENDA X ofrece maacutes productos innovadores que otras tiendas

IN5 La TIENDA X ofrece nuevos productos para elegir

IN6 La TIENDA X ofrece servicios innovadores

IN7 La TIENDA X ofrece maacutes servicios y maacutes innovadores en comparacioacuten con otras tiendas

IN8 La TIENDA X crea un ambiente agradable a traveacutes de la decoracioacuten de la tienda

IN9 La TIENDA X tiene la capacidad de crear una atmoacutesfera diferente en la tienda

IN10 La TIENDA X tiene un entorno comercial innovador

IN11 El disentildeo de la TIENDA X es innovador

IN12 La TIENDA X emplea distintas teacutecnicas de promocioacuten (descuentos ofertashellip)

IN13 La TIENDA X ofrece promociones innovadoras

IN14 La TIENDA X ofrece promociones maacutes creativas y originales que sus competidores

Lealtad

LE1 Me considero un consumidor leal a la TIENDA X

LE2 La TIENDA X seriacutea mi primera opcioacuten de compra para productos X

LE3 No comprariacutea otras marcas de productos Y si Y estuviera disponible en el establecimiento

LE4 Incluso cuando los productos que quiero estaacuten disponibles en otras tiendas yo compro en la TIENDA X


VM1 Tiene sentido comprar en la TIENDA X en lugar de otras tiendas aunque ofrezcan productos iguales

VM2 Aun habiendo otros establecimientos con las mismas caracteriacutesticas yo prefeririacutea comprar en esta TIENDA X

VM3 Aunque hubiera otras marcas en otras tiendas tan buenas como en la TIENDA X yo prefeririacutea comprar en la TIENDA X

VM4 Si otra tienda no es diferente a la TIENDA X parece maacutes inteligente comprar en la TIENDA X

Satisfaccioacuten

SN1 La TIENDA X confirma mis expectativas

SN2 Estoy satisfecho con la relacioacuten calidadprecio de la TIENDA X

SN3 Estoy realmente satisfecho con la TIENDA X

SN4 En general estoy satisfecho con la TIENDA X

SN5 En general estoy satisfecho con el servicio que me ofrece la TIENDA X






ISSN 1131-6837 e-ISSN 1988-2157




The mediating role of personnel training between innovation and performance Evidence from the German pharmaceutical industryEl rol mediador de la formacioacuten de la mano de obra entre la innovacioacuten y el rendimiento empresarial evidencia en el sector farmaceacuteutico alemaacuten

Julen Castillo-Apraiz Jesuacutes Matey De Antonioa

a Economiacutea Financiera II (Economiacutea de la Empresa y Comercializacioacuten) Facultad de Ciencias Econoacutemicas y Empresariales Universidad del Paiacutes VascoEuskal Herriko Unibertsitatea UPVEHU Bilbao (Spain) ndash jesusmateyehueus

Corresponding author Economiacutea Financiera II (Economiacutea de la Empresa y Comercializacioacuten) Facultad de Ciencias Econoacutemicas y Empresariales Universidad del Paiacutes VascoEuskal Herriko Unibertsitatea UPVEHU Avda Lehendakari Agirre 83 48015 Bilbao (Bizkaia) Spain ndash julencastilloehueus ndash httporcidorg0000 0002 8362 4163

A R T I C L E I N F OReceived 11 July 2018 Accepted 17 February 2020


DOI 105295cdg180990jc

JEL CODE O31 M539

A B S T R A C T

Purpose ndash The need for companies to become more innovative has never been greater because innovation helps them deal with a turbulent environment by providing them a sustainable competitive advantage In this sense it has been generally accepted that a successful innovative environment requires a well-trained work force Nevertheless the literature showing how personnel training drives the innovation-performance relationship in industries where innovation is a key factor is scarce especially in high-tech industries such as the pharmaceutical industry Thus we build upon existing studies to contribute to the innovation and training-related literature by considering the latter as a mediating variable between innovation and business performance Hence we aim to assess the impact of innovation on performance and bring new insights into the innovation-performance link by including training as a variable that drives the aforementioned relationshipDesignmethodology ndash We apply the partial least squares structural equation modeling technique to a sample of German pharmaceutical firms The data were collected in mid-2014 by means of a computer-assisted telephone interviewing (CATI) procedure As a result 200 valid responses were obtained from CEOsFindings ndash First this study demonstrates that both innovation and personnel training have a significant positive impact on performance Second the results suggest that training personnel does indeed positively mediate the innovation-performance link Hence our study helps explain how innovation effectively translates into greater levels of performanceOriginality value ndash We answer calls to clarify about the innovation-personnel training relationship to generate greater levels of performance in turbulent environments Furthermore we assess this fact in the pharmaceutical industry where paradoxically there is a lack of studies within the aforementioned framework

Keywords innovation pharmaceutical industry personnel training performance mediation IPMA


42 J Castillo-Apraiz J Matey

R E S U M E N

Objetivo ndash La necesidad de innovacioacuten que tienen hoy en diacutea las empresas nunca fue mayor dado que la innovacioacuten les ayuda a enfrentarse a entornos turbulentos proporcionaacutendoles una ventaja competitiva sostenible En este sentido la comunidad cientiacutefica defiende que un entorno innovador exitoso necesita de una mano de obra bien formada No obstante existe un gap en la literatura a la hora de analizar coacutemo la formacioacuten de la mano de obra impulsa el efecto positivo de la innovacioacuten sobre el rendimiento empresarial en entornos donde la innovacioacuten es clave sobre todo en sectores altamente tecnoloacutegicos como es el caso del sector farmaceacuteutico Basaacutendonos en estudios previos nos apoyamos en la literatura que estudia la innovacioacuten y la formacioacuten de la mano de obra y consideramos eacutesta uacuteltima como una variable que media la relacioacuten innovacioacuten- rendimiento empresarial Asiacute valoramos el impacto de la innovacioacuten sobre el rendimiento empresarial y adquirimos nuevas percepciones sobre la relacioacuten innovacioacuten-rendimiento empresarial incluyendo la formacioacuten como una variable que impulsa dicha relacioacutenDisentildeo metodologiacutea ndash Aplicamos una teacutecnica de modelizacioacuten de ecuaciones estructurales partial least squares (PLS-SEM) sobre una muestra de empresas farmaceacuteuticas alemanas Los datos fueron obtenidos a mediados del antildeo 2014 por medio del procedimiento computer-assisted telephone interviewing (CATI) Se obtuvieron 200 respuestas vaacutelidas de CEOs Resultados ndash En primer lugar el estudio demuestra que tanto la innovacioacuten como la formacioacuten de la mano de obra tienen un efecto positivo y significativo sobre el rendimiento empresarial En segundo lugar se demuestra que efectivamente la formacioacuten de la mano de obra tiene un efecto mediador sobre la relacioacuten innovacioacuten- resultados empresariales Asiacute nuestro trabajo ayuda a explicar el mecanismo mediante el cual la innovacioacuten se transforma eficazmente en un mayor rendimiento empresarialOriginalidad valor ndash Arrojamos luz sobre la relacioacuten innovacioacuten-formacioacuten de la mano de obra a la hora de generar altos niveles de resultados empresariales en entornos turbulentos Ademaacutes analizamos esta circunstancia en el sector farmaceacuteutico un sector en el que paradoacutejicamente existe una escasez de literatura cientiacutefica en la materia

Palabras clave innovacioacuten industria farmaceacuteutica formacioacuten de la mano de obra rendimiento empresarial mediacioacuten IPMA


The mediating role of personnel training between innovation and performance Evidence from the German pharmaceutical industry 43

1 INTRODUCTION

As the world becomes increasingly competitive companies are under significant pressure to enhance business performance In this sense innovation is undoubtedly one of the key performance drivers that can provide a sustainable competitive advantage for businesses and hence improve their performance (eg Subramaniam and Youndt 2005 Beugelsdijk 2008 Kraśnicka et al 2018 Kuncoro and Suriani 2018) Accordingly innovation has become a way of life for many businesses and is indispensable in contemporary organizations (Yeh-Yun Lin and Yi-Ching Chen 2007 Huang et al 2016 Ortiz-Villajos and Sotoca 2018) In fact in the new hypercompetitive environment that companies are facing achieving higher levels of innovation might prove to be the only path to survival especially in high-tech industries such as the pharmaceutical industry (Xu 2015 Castillo-Apraiz et al 2020b)

The concept of innovation is a broad topic (Dadfar et al 2013 Calabrograve et al 2019) Innovation gives companies greater flexibility and enables them to protect themselves against unstable scenarios helping them to seek out new opportunities (March 1991 Posen and Levinthal 2012 Zhang et al 2014 Arzubiaga et al 2019) and better exploit those that already exist (Huang et al 2016 Arzubiaga et al 2019) However few studies analyze the influence of personnel training as a mediating variable between innovation and company performance (see Barba-Aragoacuten 2014) It is important to examine this relationship because personnel training is another key element supporting productivity and profitability (Blandy et al 2000 Lyons 2019) and successful overall performance in several settings (eg find a meta-analysis in Tharenou et al 2007 Dimovski et al 2008 Ryu and Lee 2016)

We suggest that innovation has a positive influence on both performance and personnel training at a global level Furthermore we suggest that the knowledge and skills of an organizationrsquos workforce mediates the impact of innovation on performance Analyzing the mediation effect of personnel training between innovation and performance proves to be especially important in industries such as the pharmaceutical industry where there is a shortage of qualified staff in specific RampD areas (Frietsch and Neuhaumlusler 2015) and where innovation is considered to be the very essence of the industry (Bower and Whittaker 1993) We test the hypotheses using PLS-SEM on data from a sample of pharmaceutical firms

Therewith we contribute to extant literature in two ways First we reinforce the idea that innovation is one of the key performance drivers Second and more important we demonstrate that personnel training has a positive impact on performance and is a relevant factor that enables innovation to translate into a better performance In doing so we answer calls to clarify about the innovation-personnel training relationship to generate greater levels of innovation (De Saaacute-Peacuterez et al 2012 Barba-Aragoacuten 2014)

2 LITERATURE REVIEW AND CONCEPTUAL MODEL

21 The impact of innovation on performance

Innovation is a multi-faceted effort (Maravelakis et al 2006) that can be defined as the generation and development of new

products services or processes (Damanpour 1991) Different theories and academic fields mdasheg marketing theories strategic theory the theory of resources and capabilitiesmdash have revealed that innovation is essential for better performance and survival of firms Hence in recent times researchers have studied the innovation construct intensively in different settings and contexts (eg Arzubiaga 2019 Dziallas and Blind 2019) such as the pharmaceutical industry (Garciacutea-Morales et al 2008) In this regard there is plenty of literature positing that innovation plays a key role in enhancing an organizationrsquos performance (eg Crone and Roper 2001 Li and Atuahene-Gima 2001 Jimeacutenez Jimeacutenez and Sanz Valle 2006 Chen and Huang 2009 Dadfar et al 2013 Huang et al 2016 Vladimirov 2016) effectiveness and efficiency (Davis and Pett 2002) For example Garciacutea-Morales et al (2008) found that innovation has a positive impact on performance especially on return on assets and market share Nevertheless innovation often encompasses a high level of risk and its implementation never assures successful results (Leal-Rodriacuteguez et al 2015 Leal-Rodriacuteguez and Albort-Morant 2016)

Besides productivity-related effects (see for example Guisado Gonzaacutelez et al 2016) the positive impact of innovation on performance can be primarily explained by the fact that innovation helps companies to differentiate themselves from others (Jansen et al 2006 Arzubiaga et al 2019) which is key for gaining a sustainable competitive advantage (Walker 2004) Innovation is a multifaceted construct (Azar and Ciabuschi 2017) that can take many forms (Gunday et al 2011) Leaving aside the organizational innovation mdashtoo broad in scope (Damanpour 1991) and sometimes embracing the other forms (Liao et al 2017)mdash product innovation is one of the most prolific topics The notion of being first with proactive new products ie new product development is critical to obtaining first mover advantages (Langerak and Hultink 2005) and therefore market superiority especially in technology-intensive industries such as the pharmaceutical industry (Xu 2015) A large body of empirical research has investigated new product development and related factors such as product innovation capability (Sharma and Martin 2018 Iddris 2019) Consequently there is strong support for the positive relationship between new product development and performance (Damanpour 1991 Fagerberg et al 2005 Lau et al 2010 Rosenbusch et al 2011 Sok and OrsquoCass 2015) The implementation of a new or significantly improved production or delivery method mdashprocess innovationmdash can have a more hazy effect than product innovation (Gunday et al 2011) but it positively and significantly influences performance too (eg Ali et al 2016 Tsinopoulos et al 2018) Marketing innovation has not yet motivated a great deal of research (Medrano and Olarte-Pascual 2016 see the overview in Grimpe et al 2017) but it is widely accepted that developing new marketing techniques enhances firms competitiveness (Ren et al 2009 Gupta et al 2016) and has a positive influence on performance (Chen 2006 Hsu 2011) Hence it is hypothesized that

Hypothesis 1 Innovation has a positive impact on performance

22 The impact of personnel training on performance

Training is defined as a systematic development of the competences needed by employees to perform their work



(Dermol and Čater 2013) or as acknowledged by Manoharan et al (2012) ldquo(hellip) [it] is all about looking ahead and developing practical programmes that result in improved performancerdquo (p 451) Personnel training is essential for the continuous improvement of the quality of human capital (Zheng et al 2007 Lertxundi and Landeta 2011 Garavan et al 2019) Furthermore personnel training is said to be one of the most important elements of human resource development (Taylor and Davies 2004 Manoharan et al 2012 Garavan et al 2019) Therefore as acknowledged by Minbaeva et al (2014) limited investments in training may result in lower levels of knowledge and skills while training can help developing valuable human capacities which would enhance performance (Tharenou et al 2007)

As Dermol and Čater (2013) suggested the success of training depends on two factors its quality and its volume Regarding the quality of training researchers support the idea that with properly trained employees the company can grow and as employees develop so will the company (Williams 1997) Accordingly the right trainees should be recruited if the desired quality of training is to be achieved In this sense trainees must be reliable and effective (Nikandrou et al 2009) Attention should also be paid to proper organizational incentives (Dermol and Čater 2013) Training can be formal or informal and receiving one type is strongly correlated with the likelihood of also receiving the other (Ng 2005) even though the majority of training an employee receives is normally informal (Blandy et al 2000) which is unplanned undocumented and largely unstructured (Smith and Hayton 1999) In any case training should be well-designed set up in a way that works for the specific company it was designed for (Pluta and Fugate 2009) and relevant to the job (Nikandrou et al 2009) Regarding the volume of training in developed countries companies invest a lot in training (Dermol and Čater 2013) primarily in the case of larger companies (Smith and Hayton 1999 Van Smoorenburg and Van der Velden 2000) Some decades ago training targeted only the upper levels in businesses but nowadays the majority of employees are trained (Blandy et al 2000 Jarvis et al 2003) The issue of quality personnel seems not to be a matter of education but rather of competence Nevertheless it is true that the ratio between the costs and benefits of training is more favorable for employees with higher levels of education (Blunch and Castro 2005) Thus employees with low levels of education sometimes get caught in ldquothe low-skill bad-job traprdquo (Booth and Snower 1996) Related to this Van Smoorenburg and Van der Velden (2000) raise the question about the complementarity or substitutability between education and training Some works (eg Blunch and Castro 2005 Van Smoorenburg and Van der Velden 2000) demonstrate that a higher level of education does increase the probability of receiving training

As stated by Kirkpatrick (2006) training and performance appraisals are close relatives (see also the results of meta-analysis in Tharenou et al 2007) even when some recent studies highlight the need for rigor (Garavan et al 2019 Kwon 2019) Moreover firms recoup their investments in training many times over (Blandy et al 2000)

Nevertheless some authors raise doubt on a positive effect of personnel training on performance For example some argue that only low percentage of training really ends up being applied in the workplace (Axtell et al 1997 Brown 2005 Velada and Caetano 2007) Similarly others argue that the success of training is questionable since training is sometimes informal and unplanned (Kotey and Folker 2007)

In any case personnel training is a key element supporting successful performance (eg Blandy et al 2000 Tharenou et al 2007 Dimovski et al 2008 Ryu and Lee 2016) and its benefits have been widely acknowledged in the literature (Platero-Jaime et al 2017 Zheng et al 2007) As the result of training individual productivity improves employee commitment to the enterprise increases the adaptability and flexibility of the workforce is enhanced changes in business strategy can be made (Smith and Hayton 1999) and employee loyalty to the organization may increase (Taylor and Davies 2004) These features prove to be especially important in industries such as the pharmaceutical industry where to some extent there is a shortage of qualified staff in specific RampD areas (Frietsch and Neuhaumlusler 2015) We hypothesize on a positive relationship between personnel training and performance

Hypothesis 2 Personnel training has a positive impact on performance

23 The mediating effect of personnel training between innovation and performance

A successful innovative environment requires a committed and well-trained work force that is involved in innovation (Matthews 2002 Chen and Huang 2009 DrsquoEste et al 2014) Thus a highly qualified workforce increases the probability of innovation (Love and Mansury 2007 Tan and Nasurdin 2011) Precisely as acknowledged by Shefer and Frenkel (2005) in order to innovate companies must engage highly skilled labor that is able to cope with complex technological problems being technology-related skills especially relevant for product andor process innovations (Gunday et al 2011) In this sense Li et al (2006) defend there is a positive relationship between personnel training and technological innovation Specifically the adoption of new technology is an important driver for employee training because it is vital for maintaining the absorptive capacity of innovative companies (Zheng et al 2007) that is their ability to value assimilate and apply new external knowledge (Cohen and Levinthal 1990 Lane and Lubatkin 1998) Absorptive capacity in turn has a positive impact on both product innovation and process innovation (Murovec and Prodan 2009 Ali et al 2016 Soliacutes-Molina et al 2018) In fact through labour flexibility absorptive capacity has a positive impact on organizational innovation which in turn positively impacts organizational performance (Garciacutea et al 2018 Zou et al 2018) Similarly training supports absorptive capacity since it is an effective way of absorbing and managing knowledge (Gray 2006 Najafi-Tavani 2018 Xie et al 2018) and therefore is of great importance to firms competing in RampD-intensive industries such as the biotechnology industry (Stezano and Espinoza 2019)



Turning to our central argument a highly qualified workforce is very important for the development of new products (Mumford 2000 Lau and Ngo 2004 Langerak and Hultink 2005 Horbach 2010) In fact an increase in company-level knowledge is directly associated with innovation (Jimeacutenez Jimeacutenez and Sanz Valle 2006) as knowledge can facilitate the successful deployment of an innovation (Garciacutea-Morales et al 2008) Concretely both knowledge stock and knowledge flows enhance innovation (Thornhill 2006)

All in all training investments and innovation jointly interact to positively enhance company performance Based on the review of the existing literature we have formulated the following hypothesis

Hypothesis 3 Personnel training mediates the impact of innovation on performance

3 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

31 Sample and data collection

Our population consists of all the German pharmaceutical companies operating under the 2834 SIC code (928 companies) and we obtained their data from the Dun amp Bradstreet Database We chose the pharmaceutical industry because innovation is considered the driving force of the industry and training of personnel is also a key element supporting the successful performance of pharmaceutical companies (Mehralian et al 2016) We focus on firms from this one industry only to avoid differences in industry characteristics affecting the conditional performance impacts of innovation and personnel training Concretely we selected German pharmaceutical companies as the sample for this study because of the strength of the industry (both in terms of number of competitors and their performance) offering us a potential to come up with a satisfactory sample size and a good worldwide benchmark

The data were collected in mid-2014 by means of a computer-assisted telephone interviewing (CATI) procedure and stratified proportional sampling of the original population As a result 200 valid responses were obtained from CEOs The sample size available is appropriate in light of the low complexity of the model used (Chin 2010 Hair et al 2016) Power analyses needed to determine the minimum sample size support this notion (Cohen 1992 Faul et al 2007)

32 Measures

The latent variables in our study require specific items in each measurement model Consistent with previous research and with a focus on product process and marketing innovation (Gunday et al 2011) we adapted the existing measurement scales for innovation (Dess and Davis 1984 Covin and Slevin 1989 Davis and Pett 2002 Lin et al 2007 Gunday et al 2011) so that the items reflect this construct best Precisely we assessed the efforts of firms not only to invest in new production processes but also to explore new products and continually improve existing ones as well as an item related to the innovation in marketing techniques Personnel training

was considered a single-item construct that aims to capture personnel training at a global level Precisely firms were asked to what extent they insure trained personnel We shortened the existing measurement scales proposed in prior research for the sake of the questionnaire length which is of special importance with regard to the target of CEOs who emphasize the privacy of information (Homburg et al 2004) The measurement scale for performance was adapted from previous studies (eg Akan et al 2006 Allen and Helms 2006) Precisely we selected five (reflective) items related to assets income revenue market share and overall performance All measurement items stem from a questionnaire that uses 5-point Likert scales ranking from 1 (ldquofar below averagerdquo) to 5 (ldquofar above averagerdquo)

4 RESULTS OF THE DATA ANALYSIS

The data analysis was performed using the partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM) technique (find in Di Pietro et al 2018 some PLS-SEM related advantages over other techniques) which is a useful multivariate method used in strategic management and marketing specially due to the early phase of theorizing on the impact of both innovation and personnel training on performance (Richter et al 2016) This modeling was conducted using the SmartPLS 3 (Ringle et al 2015) software Both innovation and performance were defined reflectively as the causality emanates from the variable to the items (Podsakoff et al 2006)

Figure 1 presents the structural model produced by the PLS analysis which indicates the variance of the endogenous variables (R2) and the path coefficients Table 1 and Table 2 show the assessment of the measurement model and Table 3 represents the structural model assessment

Personneltraining

R2 = 0163

PerfomanceR2 = 0189Innovation

0403 0187

0324

Figure 1 Structural model Path coefficients and R2

Note Lohmoumlller settings were used p lt 01 p lt 05 p lt 1

First we assessed the measurement model (Chin 2010 Hair et al 2016) (see Table 1 and Table 2) The assessment of the reliability of internal consistency (CR) indicated that all values were greater than 07 Cronbachrsquos α values were greater than or very close to 07 Convergent validity was assessed by means of average variance extracted (AVE) values All the values were greater than 05 We used the HTMT criterion to reliably detect the lack of discriminant validity In all cases the values fell below the threshold of 85 (Kline 2011) Following the practice established by Henseler et al (2014) we calculated the standardized root mean square residual (SRMR) which



is 0079 This implies that the composite factor model fits the data fairly well according to Browne and Cudeck (1993) To account for common method bias survey items related to the dependent and the independent variables were separated within the survey and randomized within blocks to reduce a potential bias from their sequencing

The next step was to evaluate the structural model (Table 3) The essential criterion for this assessment was the coefficient of determination (R2) We concluded that the exogenous latent variables had moderate effects on performance taking into account the research discipline and the simplicity of the model A bootstrapping procedure was used to analyze the statistical significance of the paths The effect size (f2) allows the contribution of the construct to an endogenous latent variable to be assessed To ascertain the existence of collinearity the tolerance of each predictor construct (VIF) value was calculated and determined to be greater than 02 but less than 5 (Hair et al 2011)

Table 1 Evaluation results Measurement model

Constructsindicators Loading Composite reliability

Cronbachrsquos α AVE

Innovation 0804 0668 0511

ndash Develop and refine established products

0784

ndash Innovation in manufacturing process

0638

ndash Innovation in marketing techniques

0580

ndash New product development

0828

Performance 0953 0938 0801

ndash Total asset growth 0925

ndash Net income growth 0872

ndash Overall performancesuccess

0906

ndash Total revenue growth 0876

ndash Market share growth 0897

Note AVE = Average variance extracted

Table 2 Discriminant validity assessment

Heterotrait-monotrait ratio of correlations

Performance Innovation Personnel training

Performance 1

Innovation 0502 1

Personnel training 0326 0494 1

Table 3 Assessment of the structural model

Endogenous construct R2 Q2

Performance 0189 0148

Personnel training 0163 0159

Path Pathcoefficient

Collinearity (VIF) f2 t-value

Bias corrected

95 confidence

interval

Innovationagrave Performance 0324 1194 0109 6531 [0230

0423]

Personnel training agrave Performance

0187 1194 0036 3272 [0071 0296]

InnovationagravePersonnel training

0403 1000 0194 8627 [0314 0496]

Note The cross-validated redundancy measure (Q2) is derived from the blindfolding procedure with an omission distance of 7 The t-values are derived from the bootstrapping procedure with the pairwise deletion algorithm VIF = variance inflation factor p lt 01 p lt 05 p lt 1

Our findings revealed that innovation has a positive influence on both performance (Table 3 path coefficient of 0324 p lt 01) and personnel training (Table 3 path coefficient of 0403 p lt 01) Therefore Hypothesis 1 is supported Similarly personnel training also has a positive effect on performance (Table 3 path coefficient of 0187 p lt 01) Therefore Hypothesis 2 is supported

Finally the mediation effect of personnel training between innovation and performance was analyzed Since focusing on the significance of the direct relation before and after examining a mediator may be unnecessarily restrictive we utilized the typology proposed by Zhao et al (2010 Table 4) We concluded that there is a complementary mediation This result (Table 4) demonstrates a significant indirect effect of personnel training on the innovation-performance path

Table 4 Mediation

Indirect effect t-value Type of Mediation

Personnel training betweenInnovation agrave Performance

3007 Complementary mediation

Note The t-values are derived from the bootstrapping procedure with the pairwise deletion algorithm p lt 01 p lt 05 p lt 1

By focusing on performance we also conducted an importance-performance matrix analysis (IPMA) to extend the



PLS-SEM results (Houmlck et al 2010 Ringle and Sarstedt 2016 Hair et al 2019) (Table 5) This analysis shows that innovation has the highest importance but a relatively low performance Hence innovation is a key factor that should be considered if performance is to be improved

Table 5 Importance-performance matrix analysis (IPMA)

Importance Performance

Innovation 0443 53925


5 DISCUSSION

51 Implications for theory

The need for companies to become more innovative has never been greater The literature traditionally highlights the importance of innovation towards gaining a competitive advantage that would enhance business performance (Vladimirov 2016) For example the notion of being first with proactive new products ie new product development is critical to obtaining first mover advantages (Langerak and Hultink 2005) and therefore market superiority Accordingly there is strong support for the positive relationship between new product development and performance (Damanpour 1991 Fagerberg et al 2005 Lau et al 2010 Rosenbusch et al 2011 Sok and OrsquoCass 2015) In addition personnel training is another key element supporting successful performance (Blandy et al 2000 Tharenou et al 2007 Dimovski et al 2008 Ryu and Lee 2016) since it enhances organizational learning Surprisingly there is a lack of studies that attempt to bring these two drivers of business performance together by considering personnel training as a mediator between innovation and performance Hence this study contributes to enhancing the innovation-related literature by including personnel training as a significant mediator in the innovation-performance relationship Precisely we examined our proposed relationships in the German pharmaceutical industry

This first contribution made by this study lies in stressing the importance of innovation in the performance Developing new products and developing and refining established products is crucial because it has been identified as the key to the companyrsquos success profit and survival (Sok and OrsquoCass 2015) Similarly developing marketing techniques (Chen 2006 Ren et al 2009 Hsu 2011 Gupta et al 2016) and processes (Ali et al 2016 Tsinopoulos et al 2018) positively influences performance too

The second contribution lies in suggesting that ensuring a company has trained personnel also has a positive impact on the performance This finding corroborates previous studies (Aw et al 2007 Frietsch and Neuhaumlusler 2015 McGuirk et al 2015) suggesting that having trained personnel is especially crucial in RampD-intensive sectors mdashsuch as the pharmaceutical industrymdash The knowledge and skills of an organizationrsquos workforce are important resources on which successful organizations invest

Accordingly training is a key element in disciplines such as Human Resource Development and Learning and Development (Garavan et al 2019)

Thirdly the results demonstrate personnel training positively mediates the innovation-performance link Hence personnel training is a relevant factor that enables innovation to translate into a better performance since knowledge can facilitate the successful deployment of an innovation (Garciacutea-Morales et al 2008) All in all in line with what was hypothesized training investments and innovation jointly interact to positively enhance company performance

Finally the results of the IPMA (Houmlck et al 2010 Ringle and Sarstedt 2016 Hair et al 2019) suggest that the construct of innovation has the highest importance but a relatively low performance as compared to personnel training Hence by focusing on innovation there is certainly room for improvement regarding firmsrsquo performance in high-tech industries

52 Implications for management

From a managerial point of view this study also provides clear indications As shown in the PLS-SEM results and the IPMA analysis in turbulent and dynamic environments practitioners should bet strongly on innovation and should rely on personnel training to enable greater performance within a successful innovative environment We further develop our arguments

In the pharmaceutical industry innovation plays even a more important role than in other industries Generally speaking innovation is considered the driving force of the pharmaceutical industry (Malerba and Orsenigo 2015) and is the best approach for pharmaceutical companies to gain a competitive position in the global market (Lin et al 2007) For example despite the fact that product innovation is highly uncertain (Cooper and Kleinschmidt 1993 Damanpour et al 2009 Leal-Rodriacuteguez and Albort-Morant 2016) developing new products and developing and refining established products is crucial for managers because it has been identified as the key to the companyrsquos success profit and survival (Sok and OrsquoCass 2015) This holds true even when firms have abandoned such innovation activities (Tsinopoulos et al 2019) Besides the importance of process innovation (see for example Bauer and Leker 2013 Malerba and Orsenigo 2015) product innovation and marketing innovation are key influencing factors in the biotechnology and pharmaceutical industries (Lin et al 2007) which reinforces the idea that practitioners should bet strongly on innovation as also shown in our IPMA analysis

Second managers should rely on personnel training to enable greater performance within a successful innovative environment The likelihood of training tends to be different not only between industries in developed and developing countries (Booth 1991 Ng 2005) but also among industries themselves In this sense the technological intensity of each sector plays a key role Subramanian and Zimmermann (2013) concluded that technology-intensive companies are expected to invest in training programs that provide opportunities for professional and personal development Specifically the adoption of new technology is an important driver for employee training because it is vital for maintaining the absorptive capacity of innovative companies (Zheng et al 2007) Thus in the pharmaceutical



industry training plays a major role because innovation is the very essence of the industry and as a result the absorptive capacity of the organization needs to be developed (Cockburn and Henderson 1998 Lane et al 2001 Nooteboom et al 2007 Fabrizio 2009)

6 LIMITATIONS AND DIRECTIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH

This paper is not free from limitations First we considered personnel training as the only variable that mediates the innovation-performance relation Furthermore this variable is measured by a single item Second only specific aspects of performance were analyzed Third respondents were not asked to provide objective measures As a result our study inevitably suffers from the normal bias associated with subjective measures Finally since we studied German pharmaceutical companies it must be admitted that the path coefficients could differ significantly across different countries and sectors Hence since the same cause can produce different effects in specific circumstances (Ordanini et al 2014 Wu et al 2014) results should be extrapolated to other sectors with caution

This study establishes new paths for further research First future research could include other variables that mediate the innovation-performance relationship to better explain performance Similarly by including moderating variables researchers could gain new insights Second even if the German pharmaceutical industry offers us a good worldwide benchmark researchers could conduct similar studies in different industries and countries with the aim of analyzing the different results In this regard future research might investigate how institutional characteristics affect the relations to give us a better understanding of the reasons why results differ among industries Accordingly associating the results with the new institutional economy (Williamson 1975 Johannessen 2008) is one way to expand the research reported here Third further studies should distinguish between different types of innovation and assess their impact on performance (Naranjo-Valencia et al 2018 Castillo-Apraiz et al 2020a) Similarly instead of capturing personnel training at a global level further studies could for example assess how personnel training within specific areas mdashsuch as RampDmdash impacts performance Fourth analyzing the relations from within a longitudinal framework would allow a better interpretation of the results Evaluating possible variations over time would be particularly interesting for assessing the change in the mediating effect of training on the innovation-performance relationship Finally further works could focus more on predictive aspects (see for example Shmueli et al 2019 Hwang et al 2020 Liengaard et al 2020) or use new analytic tools such as Necessary Condition Analysis (NCA) (see for example Richter et al 2020) to gain new insights

7 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are grateful to some colleagues and the anonymous reviewers for their helpful comments and insights We highly

appreciate the financial support received from the Fundacioacuten Emilio Soldevilla para la Investigacioacuten y el Desarrollo en Economiacutea de la Empresa (FESIDE) foundation and the Unidad de Formacioacuten e Investigacioacuten en Direccioacuten Empresarial y Gobernanza Territorial y Social (UFI 1151) research and training unit

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Booth A L and Snower D J 1996 Acquiring Skills Market Failures their Symptoms and Policy Responses Cambridge University Press



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Castillo-Apraiz J Palma-Ruiz J M and Arzubiaga U 2020b Is the impact of sustainability exploration on firm economic return so obvious the case of internationalized spanish firm operating in high-tech and low-tech industries In Sustainable Innovation Advocating and Organizing Enterprises Consciously Routledge

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Dziallas M and Blind K 2019 Innovation indicators throughout the innovation process An extensive literature analysis Technovation 80 3-29

Fabrizio K R 2009 Absorptive capacity and the search for innovation Research policy 38 (2) 255-267

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ISSN 1131-6837 e-ISSN 1988-2157




The identification-loyalty relationship in a university context of crisis the moderating role of students and graduatesLa relacioacuten identificacioacuten-lealtad en un contexto universitario de crisis el papel moderador de estudiantes y egresadosGabriel Cachoacuten-Rodriacuteguez Camilo Prado-Romaacutena

a Universidad Rey Juan Carlos Departamento de Economiacutea de la Empresa Universidad Rey Juan Carlos Paseo de los Artilleros 28032 Madrid (Espantildea) ndash camilopradoromanurjces ndash httpsorcidorg0000-0002-1540-0643

Corresponding author Universidad Rey Juan Carlos Departamento de Economiacutea de la Empresa Universidad Rey Juan Carlos Paseo de los Artilleros sn 28032 Madrid Espantildea ndash gabrielcachonurjces ndash httpsorcidorg0000-0002-4228-2881

A R T I C L E I N F OReceived 15 April 2019 Accepted 18 November 2019


DOI 105295cdg191109gc

JEL CODE I23 M31

A B S T R A C T

The aim of this study is to analyse the relationship between identification and loyalty in a public higher education institution in an institutional crisis context In addition the differences regarding the possible moderating effect that two of its main stakeholder categories can have on this relationship are studied which are students and graduates The information needed to conduct the empirical analysis was obtained from an online survey Data processing was carried out using the PLS-SEM technique The results show that in a context of institutional cri-sis identification influences university loyalty positively and significantly However the existence of certain di-fferences between the two stakeholder categories considered is detected with the moderating effect being more intense in the group of students than in the group of graduates It is a useful contribution as it is one of the first studies in which the proposed relationships are analysed in a context of organizational crisis and in addition it is concerned with investigating the possible existence of differences in the moderating role played by two fun-damental stakeholder categories This contribution becomes more significant when comparing the moderating effects by using two non-parametric methods (PLS-MGA and permutations) which compared to other tech-niques have significant advantages to examine the proposed relationship Important practical implications arise from the results of this work which can be particularly useful for managers of the type of organisations analysed

Keywords Higher education identification loyalty institutional crisis measurement invariance multigroup analysis

R E S U M E N

El objetivo de este trabajo es analizar la relacioacuten entre identificacioacuten y lealtad en una institucioacuten puacuteblica de edu-cacioacuten superior en un contexto de crisis institucional Asimismo se examinan las diferencias respecto al posible efecto moderador que sobre dicha relacioacuten pueden desempentildear dos de sus principales categoriacuteas de stakehol-ders como son los estudiantes y los egresados La informacioacuten necesaria para realizar el anaacutelisis empiacuterico se ha obtenido mediante una encuesta on-line El tratamiento de los datos se ha llevado a cabo mediante la teacutecnica PLS-SEM Los resultados obtenidos muestran que en un contexto de crisis institucional la identificacioacuten influye de forma positiva y significativa en la lealtad universitaria No obstante se detecta la existencia de ciertas diferen-cias entre las dos categoriacuteas de stakeholders consideradas siendo el efecto moderador maacutes intenso en el grupo de los estudiantes que en el de los egresados Supone una contribucioacuten de utilidad al ser uno de los primeros trabajos en los que las relaciones propuestas se analizan en un contexto de crisis organizacional y que ademaacutes se preocupa por indagar en la posible existencia de diferencias en el papel moderador ejercido por dos categoriacuteas fundamentales de stakeholders Esta contribucioacuten se hace maacutes significativa al comparar los efectos moderadores a traveacutes de dos meacutetodos no parameacutetricos (PLS-MGA y permutaciones) que frente a otras teacutecnicas presentan ventajas notables para examinar la relacioacuten propuesta De los resultados del trabajo se derivan importantes im-plicaciones praacutecticas que pueden ser de especial utilidad para los gestores del tipo de organizaciones analizadas

Palabras clave Educacioacuten superior identificacioacuten lealtad crisis institucional invarianza de medida anaacutelisis multigrupo


54 G Cachoacuten-Rodriacuteguez C Prado-Romaacuten

1 INTRODUCTION

In recent years factors such as globalization advances in new information and communication technologies as well as the im-pact of the last major economic-financial crisis have created a more competitive environment which higher education insti-tutions (HEIs) have to face In particular the entry into oper-ation of the European Higher Education Area promoted by the so-called lsquoBologna processrsquo has the following three fundamental pillars facilitating financing and access to higher education pro-moting and attracting student mobility and teachers from other countries and improving employability All these factors have contributed to the fact that HEIs can offer similar education ser-vices in different countries so they can be forced to differentiate themselves in order to attract students (Pucciarelli and Kaplan 2016)

In this adaptation process the Spanish public university sys-tem is becoming less competitive compared to the private sys-tem as some statistics ensure The number of private universities has increased fivefold in the last 20 years representing 40 of the range of university studies (Peacuterez et al 2017) The number of students that decide to study at a private university has also mul-tiplied by five from 52000 to about 245000 students enrolled in the 2016-17 academic year which represents 164 of university students studying in Spain compared to only 4 that studied 20 years ago (Peacuterez et al 2017)

Identification and loyalty are considered key intangible as-sets for the survival of organizations in highly competitive en-vironments and institutional crises since they can make a dif-ference (Sallam and Wahid 2015) Thus organizations that have a good level of identification and loyalty achieve a stronger commitment and relationship with their stakeholders over time Therefore they can provide a competitive advantage (Kang et al 2015) which will allow them to deal with an institutional crisis situation (Gistri et al 2018)

In recent research identification with the brand is shown as a variable whose direct impact on the attitude towards the organization and on the purchase intention is moderated by an organizational crisis situation (Johar et al 2010 Gistri et al 2018) On the other hand loyalty is analysed from two approaches a) as a variable that decreases in a crisis situation that is as an antecedent and b) as a result variable where a crisis situation can affect the loyalty level more due to the fact that the most loy-al stakeholders have higher expectations (Ruan 2016)

The aim of this study is to respond to the following ques-tions First is there a direct relationship between identification and loyalty during a crisis that affects the organization In oth-er terms does identification help to create strong loyalty when faced by an adverse organizational situation Second can there be significant differences between the group of students and the group of graduates in this relationship In other terms can the relationship be moderated by these stakeholders

To respond to these questions this research has focused on an organizational crisis situation in a Spanish public university In March 2018 the media brought to light a particular crisis case in the Spanish public system of higher education the so-called ldquoMasteracutes Caserdquo related to the Institute of Public Law ndash an inde-pendent organization attached to the University Rey Juan Carlos

This Case had a great impact at national level due to the alleged irregularities observed when awarding some Masterrsquos degrees given by the Institute to several influential personalities mainly in the area of politics A priori one might think that this crisis situation must have had consequences in terms of identification and loyalty for the affected university community especially for two of its main stakeholder groups students and graduates

The original contribution of this study is reflected as follows Although in some studies the relationship between both variables has been analysed as far as we know they have not been applied to an organizational crisis case and in addition they have been limited to analysing a single stakeholder group either students (Balaji et al 2016) teachers (Takaki et al 2015) or consumers in the business field (Coelho et al 2018) These studies do not take into account if the intensity of the relationship of both vari-ables in an organizational crisis situation could vary depending on the type of stakeholder considered students and graduates In this context at a methodological level the moderating effects are compared by using two non-parametric methods (PLS-MGA and permutations) which compared to other methods have sig-nificant advantages to examine the proposed relationship

The analysis of the groups of students and graduates in a uni-versity crisis is fundamental for different reasons On the one hand an increase in private institutions leads public institutions to adopt relational marketing strategies with students and gradu-ates to ensure a closer relationship over time On the other hand as they are members with previous experiences regarding the in-stitution graduatesacute evaluations and opinions about the institu-tion in a crisis situation can be key in recommending it to other types of stakeholders (Schlesinger et al 2014)

The rest of the study is structured as follows In the next sec-tion the theoretical framework and hypotheses are proposed Next the methodology used and the results obtained are presen-ted successively The study ends with the conclusions practical implications limitations and future lines of research

2 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK AND HYPOTHESES

21 Conceptual delimitation of identification and loyalty

The social identity theory (Tajfel and Turner 1986) maintains that on the one hand an individual has features derived from social order by belonging to groups and on the other hand idio-syncratic attributes that are characteristic of that individual Or-ganizational identification is a form of social identification that occurs when a memberrsquos beliefs about the organization become a self-definition of himself It involves a voluntary active and se-lective relationship between the stakeholder and the organiza-tion aimed at satisfying one or more of his personal definition needs (Bhattacharya and Sen 2003) Important bonds and links of the stakeholder with the organization are generated through this relationship which help the stakeholder to achieve his ob-jectives (Sen et al 2015) In this regard the university which is considered an organization is composed of a form of social identification that will contribute to meeting the needs of its dif-ferent types of stakeholders including differentiation socializa-tion or self-identity needs (Takaki et al 2015)


The identification-loyalty relationship in a university context of crisis the moderating role of students and graduates 55

Identification has been analysed in previous research as an attitudinal element comprised of cognitive and affective ele-ments (Ashforth et al 2008) From a cognitive point of view it is presented as a process of self-categorization or belonging of a stakeholder to an organization (Mael and Ashforth 1992) At emotional level it refers to the commitment or emotional bond of the stakeholder with the organization (Ellemers et al 1999) Most studies consider that identification is formed by cognitive and affective elements that complement each other In this way identification is not only a cognitive process of overlap or be-longing between the stakeholder and the organization but also a subjective (affective) feeling of social comparison between both identities (Bergami and Bagozzi 2000) This cognitive state will influence the affective states of stakeholders towards the organ-ization and their subsequent behaviour towards it (Mariacuten and Ruiz 2007)

The concept of loyalty has been examined from different ap-proaches On the one hand the affective perspective (Bloemer and De Ruyter 1999) where a stakeholder can show preference towards a certain organization although that feeling of affinity does not involve bonding behaviour On the other hand the aim of the behavioural perspective (Oliver 1999) is to analyse the in-fluence that loyalty has on the real and repetitive behaviour of stakeholders towards a preferred organization Other research combines both perspectives (behavioural and affective) in or-der to provide a more complete analysis of the feeling of loyalty of a certain type of stakeholder towards a specific organization (Coelho et al 2018) At university level loyalty also contains an attitudinal and behavioural component and is positively related to the ability of a university to attract new students (Iskhakova et al 2017) or graduates (Helgesen and Nesset 2007) making lsquomouth to mouthrsquo recommendations for future enrolments (Ca-sanoves et al 2017) or even making donations (Stephenson and Yerger 2014) by their different types of stakeholders

22 Relationship between identification and loyalty in a crisis situation

A crisis is an event which is perceived by stakeholders as rele-vant unexpected and harmful which can threaten the objectives of an organization and have profound implications for its rela-tionships with its stakeholders (Bundy et al 2017) Other studies define it as a perception of an unpredictable event that threatens stakeholdersacute important expectations which can negatively af-fect the organizationacutes performance or results (Coombs 2014)

The relationship between the identification of a type of stake-holder and a HEI represents an ideal state of relationships which is more intense than simple loyalty or fidelity This relationship causes different types of stakeholders to feel connected to the institution speak well of it attract new types of stakeholders or perform extra-role activities to achieve its objectives (Balaji et al 2016) Identification differs from loyalty in that while identifi-cation is necessarily linked to the causes objectives or values that the organization has and that the stakeholder shares with it loyalty is the sum of perceptions that the stakeholder has of his own experiences (Cachoacuten et al 2019) For this reason the different types of stakeholders identified with the organization will be more loyal to it during a crisis situation while those types

of stakeholders loyal to an organization do not have to feel iden-tified with it in this kind of adverse situation (Mariacuten and Ruiz 2007 Xiao and Lee 2014) Thus a type of stakeholder can feel connected (identified) with an organization which is immersed in an institutional crisis even without having interacted with it while loyalty requires previous contacts or experiences (Bhat-tacharya and Sen 2003 Balaji et al 2016 Heffernan et al 2018)

Different investigations have observed that a high level of identification can become an important asset for the organiza-tion as a whole as it can contribute to increasing its market value through greater loyalty (Bhattacharya and Sen 2003 Tuškej et al 2013) In a similar vein other studies indicate that loyalty will be enhanced when different types of stakeholders become psycho-logically attached to the institution and are concerned about it (Balaji et al 2016 Palmer et al 2016) that is they are previous-ly identified with it Identification causes behaviours which are characterized by courtesy altruism and benevolence and implies that they may overlook certain negative or unexpected (crisis) information about an institution or brand (Gistri et al 2018) and consequently they can maintain or increase their level of loyalty to it (Bhattacharya and Sen 2003)

Therefore from the above we can expect that those universi-ty students and graduates who are more identified with it should show a more favourable attitude towards it in a crisis situation which is revealed by a greater desire to stay in the university over time to take different postgraduate courses to recommend it to other people or even make donations (that is to show true loyal-ty to it) Thus the following hypotheses can be established

Hypothesis 1 Identification of students and graduates positi-vely influences loyalty to the university in a crisis situation

According to the stakeholder theory (Freeman and Reed 1983) for organizations to achieve their different goals they must achieve a balance between the objectives of different stakeholders and thus achieve their survival In this regard detecting if there are significant differences between the cat-egory of students and graduates in the relationship between identification and loyalty will play a key role for HEIs to obtain competitive advantages in their strategic management of an in-stitutional crisis

The existence of differences between student and graduate categories regarding this relationship may arise due to several reasons Graduates unlike students are users who have already had contact with HEIs so their identification and loyalty are the result of their previous experiences This circumstance can cau-se the relationship between identification and loyalty in a crisis situation to be evaluated differently both in the generation of a lower sense of connection with it as in the social relevance of higher education The fact that students are members who con-tinue to be connected to HEIs may imply that their identification and loyalty are less stable or more vulnerable to certain beha-viours or communications that the institution wants to convey in a crisis situation The sources used to collect information about an event of this nature which may affect a HEI could cause di-fferences between graduates and students As graduates are ex-ternal agents their information may come from more objective communication means which causes a decrease in the relations-hip between identification and loyalty As studentsacute information comes from internal sources it can be more subjective causing



greater intensity in the relationship between identification and loyalty Therefore we can establish

Hypothesis 2 The relationship between identification and lo-yalty in a university in a crisis situation is moderated by the type of stakeholder students and graduates In addition the effect of the relationship will be more intense in students than in graduates

3 METHODOLOGY

31 Research context

The stated hypotheses in this research were tested in a context of organizational crisis that affected the University Rey Juan Car-los (URJC) as a consequence of the so-called ldquoMasteracutes Caserdquo

The URJC is the second public university of the Madrid Au-tonomous Community by number of students with a total of 38958 students (Universidad Rey Juan Carlos 2018) It is among the 250 best universities in Europe according to the Europe Teaching Ranking of 2019 made by the prestigious organiza-tion Times Higher Education (2019) This classification recog-nizes and values the quality of education and teaching offered in European universities based on the opinion of more than 125000 students from 18 countries It has managed to position itself among the best universities worldwide in different areas in the Global Ranking of Academic Subjects (such as for example Ecology Communication Biological Sciences Chemical Engi-neering Computer Science and Engineering) of 2019 which is made by the Jiao Tong University of Shanghai and is known as the lsquoShanghai Rankingrsquo In addition according to the QS Grad-uate Employability Ranking (2019) (QS Quacquarelli Symonds Limited 2019) it is among the top 11 universities in Spain and among the 300 in the world regarding the labour insertion rate of its graduates Moreover according to the VII Study on Uni-versity Volunteering prepared by the Mutua Madrilentildea Foun-dation it ranks second among Spanish universities in terms of number of volunteer initiatives launched during the 20182019 academic year with a total of 192 volunteer initiatives promoted (Fundacioacuten Mutua Madrilentildea 2020) The latest study on Pub-lic Transparency of Spanish Universities positions it as the most transparent university in the Community of Madrid and in the fifth place in terms of transparency of a total of 79 Spanish uni-versities both public and private (Dyntra 2020)

On 21st March 2018 a crisis situation affected this institu-tion The newspaper eldiarioes published a journalistic investi-gation on the establishment of a privileged mechanism for poli-ticians and influential people to obtain postgraduate degrees in a public centre (Ejerique 2018) The investigation revealed that the president of the Community of Madrid could have obtained her Masteracutes Degree in Autonomic Law given by the Public Law Institution (IDP) mdashan independent organization of the Univer-sity Rey Juan Carlosmdash in an alleged irregular situation since falsifications were detected in some of her academic record grades of the 2011-2012 academic year The journalistic inves-tigation made students and graduates suffer a loss of identifica-tion and they demonstrated in front of the campuses University associations reported the case to the Prosecutorrsquos Office and the president of the Community of Madrid filed complaints for an

offence against her honour Finally she was forced to resign from her post at the head of the Presidency of the Community

The fact that students were one of the main affected groups was considered an injustice by them This situation was reflected with a high impact on the national media and fuelling a great public debate leading to a potential identification and institu-tional loyalty crisis In addition this case put a spotlight on the entire Spanish higher education sector

Following the discovery of the poor functioning of the IDP the URJC at the request of its Rector initiated an internal inves-tigation and audit that has been extended for several months also agreeing to create a new inspection regulation The Gov-erning Council of the university itself unanimously agreed to the dissolution and definite closure of this institute The URJC also appeared as a private prosecutor in the subsequent trial

32 Data collection

An online survey to collect the data was created by Survey-Monkey which took place in May and June 2018 in the 5 weeks after the crisis This process was carried out in two stages In the first stage a lsquofocus grouprsquo was established in which a profes-sor a vice-dean a government position three lecturers and two students related with the Department of Business Economics were involved to prepare a pre-test that was sent online to 300 students in order to check that the questions were clear that the application was setup correctly and that the total response time was adjusted to the estimated time With the results obtained several questions were improved and a final questionnaire was designed which provided a more appropriate structure and duration In addition in order to obtain greater participation a link containing the same message on social networks was in-cluded

Analysing the data by using PLS requires determining a min-imum sample size in order to make the method robust and the results valid (Hair et al 2017) Different authors such as Chin and Newsted (1999) recommend using the power test rather than the traditional method of 10 cases (Barclay et al 1995) due to its low precision (Hair et al 2017) To determine the minimum sample size GPower 3192 software was used (Faul et al 2007) which is recommended by authors such as Hair et al (2018) who suggest a minimum sample size of 56 cases for a power test of the minimum required 080 (Cohen 1988) In our research these requirements are met for both categories of stakeholders considered as 549 valid cases were obtained (80 students 20 graduates) of which about 69 correspond to women and 31 to men

33 Measurement of variables and data processing

Table 1 shows that 3 reflective items adapted to the scale of Mael and Ashforth (1992) and Balaji et al (2016) were used for the identification measurement For the loyalty measurement 3 reflective items adapted to the scale used by Cervera et al (2012) and Hennig-Thurau et al (2001) were used All the items were contextualized in the field of higher education All constructs were measured using an ascending 11-point Likert scale 0 (to-tally disagree) and 10 (totally agree)



Table 1 Measurement scale

Factor Indicator Item description

Identification

Identification 1 I feel that I am part of my university

Identification 2 I consider the success of my university as my own success

Identification 3 I feel proud of the positive opinions about my university

Loyalty

Loyalty 1 I would recommend my university to relatives and friends

Loyalty 2If I had to continue with my training my university would be my first choice

Loyalty 3 If someone asked me for advice I would recommend my university

Source Own elaboration based on Balaji et al (2016) Cervera et al (2012) and Kim et al (2001)

The PLS-SEM method and the SmartPLS3 software V327 were used to process the data and test the hypotheses PLS-SEM is a multivariable analysis method whose main purpose is the prediction of dependent variables by estimating path models (Hair et al 2018) and it also allows for the justification of moder-ating effects through multigroup analysis (Rasoolimanesh et al 2017a Hair et al 2018) Multigroup analysis is performed by comparing the MGA (Henseler 2012) and permutations meth-od since they constitute non-parametric methods that have the advantage of not imposing data distribution The permutations method has the advantage of not imposing hypotheses with di-rection in addition to being considered the most reliable and recommended (Hair et al 2018) These arguments justify that they are valid techniques for processing our research data

4 RESULTS

Table 2 shows the average value of each variable The average level of identification in students is between 7 and 75 while in graduates it is between 48 and 54 In relation to the level of loyalty it reaches values between 68 and 75 in the stu-dent category and in the graduate category it is between 36 and 37 Therefore the level of identification and loyalty is higher in students than in graduates

Table 2 Indicator measurement

Indicator Students Graduates

Identification 1 7523 5422Identification 2 7021 4868Identification 3 7231 4806Loyalty 1 6888 3650Loyalty 2 7424 3890Loyalty 3 7533 3700

Data processing using PLS-SEM involves analysing first the reliability and validity of the measurement instrument (Chin 1998) This involves assessing the individual reliability of the in-dicators on the latent variables through their loadings and the reliability of the scale or internal consistency can be measured through Cronbachrsquos Alpha (CA) composite reliability (CR) and the Dijkstra-Henseler statistic (rho_A) For the validity analysis it is necessary to assess convergent validity by means of the aver-age variance extracted (AVE) and discriminant validity using the heterotrait-monotrait ratio (Hair et al 2017)

In general the individual loadings of the indicators must be greater than 07 to be considered acceptable (Hair et al 2017) Different coefficients are used to test internal consistency CA which requires values greater than 07 (Nunnally and Bern-stein 1994 Hair et al 2017) CR whose appropriate values are greater than 06 (Bagozzi and Yi 1988) or 07 (Chin 2010) Re-cent studies indicate that the rho_A coefficient requires values greater than 06 (Dijkstra and Henseler 2015) To establish con-vergent validity the AVE must be greater than 05 (Chin 2010 Hair et al 2017) To analyse discriminant validity the hetero-trait-monotrait ratio (HTMT) has been established as a better criterion than the Fornell-Larcker criterion and cross loadings since these only work well with high sample sizes and with very heterogeneous loading patterns (Henseler et al 2016a) Some au-thors suggest values below 085 (Kline 2015) As shown in Table 3 the data are reliable and valid because its values conform to what was indicated above

Table 3 Reliability and validity of the measurement instrument

Factor Indicator Loading t value CA CR rho_A AVE HTMT

Iden

tific

atio

n Identification1 0919 92667

0919 0949 0920 0861 NAIdentification2 0935 114601

Identification3 0929 106567

Loya

lty

Loyalty1 0942 118692

0964 0976 0966 0932 0825Loyalty2 0977 298033

Loyalty3 0978 348898

NA=not applicable

Once the measurement instrument has been analysed the second step in order to test the hypotheses is to evaluate the structural model For this the collinearity analysis of the struc-tural model must be carried out using the invariance inflation factor (VIF) statistical significance of the path coefficients the R coefficient the f2 statistic and finally the value of Q2 to determine predictive relevance (Hair et al 2017)

Values with a VIF greater than 5 indicate the existence of possible multicollinearity problems Table 4 shows a VIF of 2434 so the existence of such problems is at least lsquoa priorirsquo excluded The results obtained also show that identification influences loyalty positively and significantly in a context of institutional crisis (H1 β=0379 plt0001) The R2 coefficient is 0735 Values between 050 and 075 are considered moderate



in marketing academic research (Hair et al 2017) Therefore this allows us to indeed confirm Hypothesis 1 The value of f2 is 0196 and according to Cohen (1988) values between 015 y 035 indicate an average effect The rule to analyse predictive relevance is through the Q2 value whose values must be greater than zero (Hair et al 2017) Table 4 shows predictive relevance as it shows a value of 0641

Table 4 Hypothesis 1 test

Hypothesis structural VIF

standardized beta

T value (bootstrap) R2 f2 Q2

H1 Identification -gt Loyalty 2434 0379 8149 0735 00196 0641

n=5000 sub-samples plt005 plt001 plt0001

To carry out comparisons between groups using the permu-tations and MGA method it is necessary to assess the invari-ance of the measurement instrument (MICOM) which consists of three steps Step 1 to analyse the invariance of the configu-ration Step 2 to examine the composite invariance Step 3 to analyse the equality of measures (3rd) of variances (3b) (Hair et al 2018) According to the results of the MICOM procedure shown in Table 5 we can establish partial invariance due to ob-serving composite invariance Partial invariance is a sufficient requirement to be able to compare the differences between groups using the permutations and MGA procedure (Roldaacuten et al 2016 Hair et al 2018)

Table 5 Invariance of measurement instrument

Step 2Partial Invar

3rd Step 3b StepTotal InvarC=1 5 Cu Differences

Confidence level 95

DifferencesConfidence interval 95

Iden

tific

atio

n

1 0998 Yes 1118 [ndash02050226] ndash1582 [-04270529] No

Loya

lty 1 0999 Yes 155 [ndash02250224] ndash1966 [-04100505] No

The results shown in Table 6 highlight the existence of significant differences between the categories of students and graduates in the relationship between identification and loy-alty both with the permutations method and with the Hense-ler PLS-MGA method (plt001) The relationship between identification and loyalty is more intense in the student cate-gory β=0461 than in the graduate category β=0067 The co-efficient of determination R2 indicates a moderate effect as it is between 050 and 075 Therefore in view of these results it

can be concluded that statistical support is also obtained for Hypothesis 2

Table 6 Multigroup hypothesis testing Hypothesis 2

p-valuepermutation

p-value PLS-MGA

R2Acceptance

students graduates

H2 0008 0001 0490 0675 YesYes


5 CONCLUSIONS

The results of this study represent a useful contribution to the relationship of identification on loyalty of a higher educa-tion public institution in a crisis situation They enable to vali-date empirically those relationships raised from the theory to confirm and reinforce the results shown in other studies or to generalize results shown in business environments This study has made an original contribution beyond what has been out-lined so far by exploring the existence of significant differen-ces between the categories of students and graduates and the results are also compared using two non-parametric methods (permutations and PLS-MGA)

The results show that there is a positive and significant re-lationship between identification and loyalty in an institution-al crisis situation (Hypothesis 1) confirming what was found in previous studies (Kim et al 2001 Cervera et al 2012 Balaji et al 2016 Gistri et al 2018) On the other hand the result of the multigroup analysis makes our contribution more relevant by revealing the existence of significant differences between the student and graduate category in relation to the direct ef-fect of identification on loyalty and by comparing the results using two methods the permutations method and the PLS-MGA method This multi-method that provides greater rigour and robustness to the results obtained has been developed to date in few studies and in other sectors (Henseler et al 2016b Rasoolimanesh et al 2017a Rasoolimanesh et al 2017b) The effect of identification on loyalty is moderated by the stake-holder category being much greater in students than in grad-uates in an institutional crisis situation (Hypothesis 2) There-fore the study highlights the importance of identification on loyalty in the student group in a crisis situation as opposed to the graduate group

In addition the identification and loyalty indicator average in a crisis situation is higher in students (725 and 728 respec-tively) than in graduates (503 and 374 respectively) This may be a result of the fact that the University Rey Juan Carlos is a young university (founded in 1996) and that identification and loyalty bonds with its different types of stakeholders in a situa-tion of institutional crisis could be more cognitive than affecti-ve In other terms it is a university that has not yet reached su-fficient maturity to generate long-term emotional bonds with its graduates which enable it to improve these values in the face of an adverse situation



51 Practical implications

Some important implications for the governors of universities can be derived from the results of this research The results re-cognize the importance of identification to generate loyalty in an institutional crisis situation Therefore proper identification ma-nagement with the university will cause attitudes and behaviours that are essential for the survival of HEIs in a crisis situation such as attraction retention temporary bonding or donations by their different types of stakeholders In addition the results show that the effects of the identification-loyalty relationship in a crisis situa-tion are not similar between students and graduates as there are significant differences between both stakeholder categories and the connection is more intense in students than in graduates This may be derived from the fact that graduates have only conside-red their time at the university as a mere mechanism to acquire a degree It can also imply that student loyalty can be fake loyalty originated only by behavioural and non-affective elements where the greatest existing change barriers of degree studies in the public education sector are represented by aspects of mobility or place of residence which determine the choice of their study centre in a situation of institutional crisis

A lower loyalty of graduates in a situation of institutional crisis can represent true loyalty as there are greater change op-tions for postgraduate studies such as for example the choice of a centre to take a Masteracutes Degree The fact that the relationship between identification and loyalty in a crisis situation is more in-tense in the student group than in the graduate group shows that university governors must be aware of the need to strengthen that relationship with students during their university period and establish different mechanisms to maintain them when they do not belong directly to it An example of this could be to stren-gthen internal communication means and proceed to manage external communication in a comprehensive way

52 Limitations and future lines of research

This study must be understood within the context in which it has been carried out and is therefore subject to the limitations of the sample Due to the fact that the model has been contras-ted based on the opinions of students and graduates in a specific crisis period and in a particular public university it can repre-sent generalization problems to the university sector as a whole Therefore to overcome these limitations we suggest expanding the sample to different countries university contexts and other categories of stakeholders (such as teachers administration and services staff academic managers and society in general) as futu-re lines of research in order to achieve a greater consistency and generalization of the results

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Freeman RE and Reed DL 1983 Stockholders and stakeholders A new perspective on corporate governance California Management Review 25 (3) 88-106



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Gistri G Corciolani M and Pace S 2018 The interaction effect be-tween brand identification and personal crisis relevance on consu-mersrsquo emotional reactions to a fashion brand crisis Journal of Global Fashion Marketing 9 (3) 252-269

Hair JF Hult GTM Ringle C and Sarstedt M 2017 A primer on partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM) 2nd ed Thousand Oaks Sage

Hair JF Sarstedt M Ringle CM and Gudergan SP 2018 Advan-ced issues in partial least squares structural equation modeling Thou-sand Oaks Sage

Heffernan T Wilkins S and Butt MM 2018 Transnational higher education The importance of institutional reputation trust and student-university identification in international partnerships In-ternational Journal of Educational Management 32 (2) 227-240

Helgesen Oslash and Nesset E 2007 What accounts for studentsrsquo loyalty Some field study evidence International Journal of Educational Ma-nagement 21 (2) 126-143

Hennig-Thurau T Langer MF and Hansen U 2001 Modeling and managing student loyalty An approach based on the concept of re-lationship quality Journal of Service Research 3 (4) 331-344

Henseler J 2012 PLS-MGA A non-parametric approach to partial least squares-based multi-group analysis In Challenges at the inter-face of data analysis computer science and optimization Springer 495-501

Henseler J Hubona G and Ray PA 2016a Using PLS path modeling in new technology research updated guidelines Industrial Manage-ment and Data Systems 116 (1) 2-20

Henseler J Ringle CM and Sarstedt M 2016b Testing measurement invariance of composites using partial least squares International Marketing Review 33 (3) 405-431

Iskhakova L Hoffmann S and Hilbert A 2017 Alumni loyalty Sys-tematic literature review Journal of Nonprofit amp Public Sector Mar-keting 29 (3) 274-316

Johar G V Birk MM and Einwiller SA 2010 How to save your brand in the face of crisis MIT Sloan Management Review 51 (4) 57

Kang J Alejandro TB and Groza MD 2015 Customer-company identification and the effectiveness of loyalty programs Journal of Business Research 68 (2) 464-471

Kim CK Han D and Park S-B 2001 The effect of brand personali-ty and brand identification on brand loyalty Applying the theory of social identification Japanese Psychological Research 43 (4) 195-206

Kline RB 2015 Principles and practice of structural equation modeling 4th ed New York Guilford

Lafuente A Forcada FJ and Zorrilla PZ 2018 El enfoque de mar-keting como filosofiacutea de gestioacuten de las universidades un marco de trabajo para orientar su aplicacioacuten Cuadernos de Gestioacuten 18 (2) 37-58

Mael FA and Ashforth BE 1992 Alumni and their alma mater A partial test of the reformulated model of organizational identifica-tion Journal of Organizational Behavior 13 (2) 103-123

Mariacuten L and Ruiz S 2007 La identificacioacuten del consumidor con la empresa maacutes allaacute del marketing de relaciones Universia Business Review (13) 62-75

Nunnally JC and Bernstein IH 1994 Psychometric Theory 3rd ed New York McGraw-Hill

Oliver RL 1999 Whence consumer loyalty The Journal of Marketing 63 (special issue) 33-44

Palmer A Koenig-Lewis N and Asaad Y 2016 Brand identification in higher education A conditional process analysis Journal of Busi-ness Research 69 (8) 3033-3040

Peacuterez F Aldaacutes J Aragoacuten R and Zaera I 2017 U-Ranking 2017 In-dicadores sinteacuteticos de las universidades espantildeolas Fundacioacuten BB-VA-Instituto Valenciano de Investigaciones Econoacutemicas

Pucciarelli F and Kaplan A 2016 Competition and strategy in higher education Managing complexity and uncertainty Business Hori-zons 59 (3) 311-320

QS Quacquarelli Symonds Limited 2019 QS Graduate Employabil-ity Rankings [online] TopUniversities Available at httpswwwtopuniversitiescomuniversity-rankingsemployability-rank-ings2020 [Access March 11st 2019]

Rasoolimanesh SM Ringle CM Jaafar M and Ramayah T 2017a Urban vs rural destinations Residentsrsquo perceptions community participation and support for tourism development Tourism Man-agement 60 147-158

Rasoolimanesh SM Roldaacuten JL Jaafar M and Ramayah T 2017b Factors influencing residentsrsquo perceptions toward tourism develop-ment Differences across rural and urban world heritage sites Jour-nal of Travel Research 56 (6) 760-775

Roldaacuten JL Cepeda G Henseler J and Ringle CM 2016 Predic-tion-oriented modeling in business research by means of PLS path modeling Introduction to a JBR special section Journal of Business Research 69 (10) 4545-4551

Ruan NH 2016 Brand loyalty in crisis how does strong brand loyalty affect a company during crisis under different circumstances Cap-stone for MS in Public Relations and Corporate Communication New York University

Sallam MA and Wahid NA 2015 The effects of satisfaction and brand identification on brand love and brand equity outcome the role of brand loyalty European Journal of Business and Social Scienc-es 4 (9) 42-55

Schlesinger W Cervera A and Calderoacuten H 2014 El papel de la confianza la imagen y los valores compartidos en la creacioacuten de valor y lealtad aplicacioacuten a la relacioacuten egresado-universidad Revista Espantildeola de Investigacioacuten en Marketing ESIC 18 (2) 126-139

Sen S Johnson AR Bhattacharya CB and Wang J 2015 Identi-fication and attachment in consumer-brand relationships Brand Meaning Management 12 151-174

Stephenson AL and Yerger DB 2014 Does brand identification transform alumni into university advocates International Review on Public and Nonprofit Marketing 11 (3) 243-262

Tajfel H and Turner JC 1986 The social identity theory of inter group behavior in S Worchel amp WG Austin (Eds) Psychology of intergroup relations 2nd ed Chicago Nelson

Takaki M Bravo R and Martinez E 2015 La gestioacuten de la identidad corporativa en la Universidad anaacutelisis y consecuencias desde la per-spectiva del profesorado Revista Europea de Direccioacuten y Economiacutea de la Empresa 24 (1) 25-34

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Management Letters Cuadernos de Gestioacutenjournal homepage httpwwwehueuscuadernosdegestionrevistaes

ISSN 1131-6837 e-ISSN 1988-2157




Temporal optimisation of signals emitted automatically by securities exchange indicatorsOptimizacioacuten temporal de las sentildeales automaacuteticas proporcionadas por indicadores teacutecnicos bursaacutetilesRodrigo Martiacuten-Garciacutea Enrique Ventura Peacutereza Raquel Arguedas-Sanzba Area Manager GFI Spain ndash eventuraperezoutlookcomb Universidad Nacional de Educacioacuten a Distancia (UNED) Facultad de Ciencias Econoacutemicas y Empresariales Departamento de Economiacutea de la Empresa y Contabili-dad Senda del Rey 11 28040 Madrid (Espantildea) ndash rarguedasceeunedes ndash httporcidorg0000-0001-7368-6347

Corresponding author Rodrigo Martiacuten-Garciacutea Universidad Nacional de Educacioacuten a Distancia (UNED) Facultad de Ciencias Econoacutemicas y Empresariales De-partamento de Economiacutea de la Empresa y Contabilidad Senda del Rey 11 28040 Madrid (Espantildea) ndash rmartingceeunedes ndash httpsorcidorg0000-0002-9065-7481

A R T I C L E I N F OReceived 9 November 2017 Accepted 3 March 2020


DOI 105295cdg170851rm

JEL CODE G17

A B S T R A C T

Stock exchange indicators deliver buysell signals that enable analysts to improve the results of a strategy based strictly on fundamental analysis Nonetheless since the automatic implementation of signals as they appear may not yield optimal returns the present paper analysed the suitability of using a series of technical indicators as guidance for portfolio results A second aim pursued was to study how delaying the implementation of indicator signals may enhance profitabilityA simulation was performed for the years 2005-2016 using the most representative index for the Spanish stock ex-change the IBEX35 and all its constituent securities along with seven indicators (RoC RSI SMA EMA MACD Bollinger bands and Stochastic Oscillator) and a total of 81 combinations of buysell lag times The definition of three non-overlapping sub-periods to guarantee the reliability of the findings yielded a total of 61 236 simulated portfolios The conclusion drawn from the results was that for certain combinations of indicators delaying the implementa-tion of buysell signals improves returns More specifically optimal lag times identified for RSI and EMA signals were shown to deliver statistically significant improvements in portfolio returns irrespective of the period studiedThose findings were consistent the results of an alternative simulation in which the five securities that were both the most liquid and had the greatest impact on the index were not considered to rule out the possible effect of the relative weight of securities on either portfolio returns or their normalisationKeywords Technical analysis trading strategy stock market optimal lags RSI EMA

R E S U M E N

Los indicadores teacutecnicos bursaacutetiles transmiten al analista sentildeales de compraventa que en el caso de ser ejecutadas en el momento de producirse podriacutean no ser oacuteptimas desde el punto de vista del resultado de la operacioacuten El objetivo del presente trabajo es doble En primer lugar analizar la idoneidad del seguimiento de una bateriacutea de indicadores para la obtencioacuten de resultados en una cartera En segundo lugar estudiar coacutemo la introduccioacuten de retardos temporales entre las sentildeales de los indicadores y la ejecucioacuten de las operaciones puede mejorar el resul-tado de la mismaSe ha realizado una simulacioacuten para el intervalo 2005-2016 con 35 tiacutetulos y un iacutendice sobre 7 indicadores teacutec-nicos bursaacutetiles (ROC RSI Cruce SMA Cruce EMA MACD Bandas de Bollinger y oscilador estocaacutestico) y un total de 81 combinaciones de retardos de compraventa La definicioacuten del modelo y la divisioacuten en tres periodos no solapados genera un total de 61236 carterasLos resultados permiten concluir que existen combinaciones de indicador y retardos de compraventa que propor-cionan mejores resultados que la ejecucioacuten inmediata de la sentildeal Concretamente se identifican retardos oacuteptimos para RSI y cruce EMA que producen mejoras estadiacutesticamente significativas en el resultado de una cartera de valores independientemente del periodo estudiadoEstos resultados son consistentes con una simulacioacuten alternativa en la que se excluyoacute a los cinco activos maacutes liacute-quidos y de mayor capitalizacioacuten para descartar el posible efecto generado por el peso relativo de los valores en la rentabilidad de la cartera o en su normalizacioacutenPalabras clave Anaacutelisis teacutecnico estrategia de trading bolsa de valores retardos oacuteptimos RSI cruce EMA


62 R Martiacuten-Garciacutea E Ventura R Arguedas-Sanz

1 INTRODUCTION

Technical stock market analysis which generates buy or sell signals for equities based on their historic performance has an objective and a subjective component The former is the equi-tyrsquos historical performance whereas the latter fruit of the ana-lystrsquos interpretation consists in identifying and inferring future performance from price and indicator patterns Choosing the tools to use and the indicator to follow where contradictions arise identifying patterns interpreting data selectively parsing all the information analysed or establishing when an event is relevant (Lim 2015) are subjective decisions This study aimed to identify the indicators with best past performance to divest this type of analysis of as much of the subjective component as possible The focus is on retail investors whose nil individual market power raises higher entry and operating barriers

The paper is particularly timely for a substantial proportion of stock market transactions are now estimated to be conduct-ed by algorithms with no human intervention Gerig (2015) found that such so-called high-frequency trading (HFT) ac-counts for approximately 55 of the volume in US equity mar-kets and 40 in European equity markets while it is growing rapidly in Asian fixed income commodity foreign exchange and nearly every other market According to Lewis amp Baker (2014) approximately half of the US daily volume consists in HFT whilst in Australia around 27 of total equity market turnover involves such trading (Australian Securities and In-vestments Commission 2015) The European values appear to be more difficult to estimate ESMA the European Securities and Markets Authority an independent body tasked with safe-guarding the stability of the European Unionrsquos financial system premised that in 2014 HFT ranged from 36 to 60 of the total (ESMA 2015) Against that backdrop this article proposes a tool to support human decision-making able to accommo-date a limited number of signals generated by the most widely used indicators

The primary objective of this study is to provide investors retail investors in particular with a simple tool to support in-vestment decisions and improve their portfolio returns in the absence of advantages available to other market agents such as vast computer power complex models and learning algo-rithms More specifically two partial objectives are pursued 1) to verify whether an indicator can be found that furnishes buy-sell signals able to improve equity portfolio profitability using a broader series of parameters than normally found in the literature and 2) when a specific indicator emits a buy or sell signal to determine the optimal lag time for implementing the operation ie the lag that yields the best possible result To put it another way the possibility analysed is whether after a signal from a given indicator is received a higher profit can be obtained by delaying the order for a certain amount of time

These two objectives are aligned with the general thrust of a series of papers on combining the variable time with indi-cators for decision-making as observed in the review of the literature in section 2 below The data and methodology used are described in section 3 which is followed by a discussion of the results in section 4 The conclusions drawn are set out in section 5

2 REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

Technical analysis is an historical performance-based as-set management tool that aims to anticipate future outcomes Whilst no proof of the benefits of analysing the profitability of simple strategies was in place authors such as Fama amp Blume (1966) and Jensen amp Bennington (1970) published the earliest papers many subsequent studies have addressed the utility of applying the approach to securities indices futures and curren-cies The perception of technical analysis has since undergone a radical about-face One of the milestones in the discipline was Brown amp Jenningsrsquo (1989) use of past prices in a context in which prices do not furnish all the information and agents rationally analyse the relationship between prices and signals Later Brock Lakonishok amp LeBaron (1992) applied 90 years of daily DJIA equity prices to 26 indicators concluding that an investor fol-lowing any single one would have out-performed the market In the same timeframe Taylor amp Allen (1992) observed that over 90 of decision-makers used these lsquonon-fundamentalrsquo signals to manage their portfolios More recent papers have focused on neural networks and vector support machines (VSM) Leigh Modani Purvis amp Roberts (2002) for the NYSE Kim amp Shin (2007) in combination with genetic algorithms Kara Boyacio-glu amp Baykan (2011) for the Istanbul Securities Exchange and Rosillo Giner amp De la Fuente (2014) for the Spanish bourse

Among the key factors are data pre-processing the selection of indicators and the establishment of decision-making criteria the area addressed hereunder A study by Cavalcante Brasileiro Souza Nobrega amp Oliveira (2016) provides an overview of the most sig-nificant papers from 2009 to 2015 on pre-processing and grouping historical data for technical analysis Two basic approaches can be distinguished in these papers statistical modelling and machine learning Wang Wang Zhang amp Guorsquos (2011) extensive review of the wide variety of learning algorithms is highly recommended Park amp Irwin (2007) in turn classified studies into six groups de-pending on the methodology used standard bootstrapping genet-ic programming reality verification graphic pattern recognition and non-linear For a review of the studies on the returns delivered by these algorithms see Serbera amp Paumard (2016)

The variability in the indicators used can also be gleaned from the literature Chaboud Chiquoine Hjalmarsson amp Vega (2014) and Wang An amp Liu (2015) used list prices and trans-actions Yang Zhou amp Wang (2009) list prices and macroeco-nomic data (stage of the business cycle inflation monetary pol-icy) Agudelo amp Uribe (2009) supports and resistances Wang amp Chan (2007) Fernandes Hamberger amp do Valle (2015) and Cervelloacute-Royo Guijarro amp Michniuk (2015) pattern recogni-tion Rodriguez-Gonzalez Garcia-Crespo amp Colomo-Palacios (2011) the relative strength index (RSI) Chong amp Ng (2008) RSI and moving average convergence divergence (MACD) and Rosillo De la Fuente amp Brugos (2013) RSI MACD momen-tum and stochastics The fairly small number of indicators used as a rule is a shortcoming that this study attempts to remedy

Hudson Dempsey amp Keasey (1996) Mills (1997) Olson (2004) Bessembinder amp Chan (1998) Ito (1999) and Day amp Wang (2002) observed benefits of technical analysis to decline over time That may be the result among others of sampling bias data espionage (Ready 2002) or the effect of the quickly growing use


Temporal optimisation of signals emitted automatically by securities exchange indicators 63

of technical analysis (Chang Wang amp Yang 2004) Steep declines are now being recorded in high-frequency data trading returns (Serbera et al 2016) relative to low-frequency non-machine trad-ing strategies In highly volatility environments algorithms ena-bled or disabled by human initiative fail (Chaboud et al 2014) That coupled with the close inter-correlations among learning algorithms (Serbera et al 2016) translates into very positive hu-man-mediated returns (contrary in sign to the results of machine trading models) during significant swings in trends

Research in this area is widely diverse with 1) algorithm advocates such as Wang et al (2011) mentioned earlier 2) champions of human initiative such as Serbera et al (2016) and Chaboud et al (2014) and 3) a group of authors who find no evidence that these techniques can enhance profits in prac-tice (Teixeira amp De Oliveira 2010 Taylor 2014) particularly for retail investors with smaller data processing capacities or who mistrust their long-term validity (Chang et al 2004)

To the authorrsquos knowledge the studies conducted to date have not dealt with delaying the implementation of stock mar-ket indicator signals

This study constitutes a contribution to the second of the afore-mentioned three approaches insofar as it furnishes a tool to sup-port human decision-making based on the information provided by market operators to yield better results than machine tools which are highly inefficient in detecting trend change (among others) In all 81 lag time combinations are used to analyse the validity of the procedure proposed as a decision-making tool

3 METHODOLOGY AND FIELD DATA

31 Methodology

The procedure deployed is illustrated in Figure 1

bull Definition of initial conditions portfolio restrictions and analysis timing

A-Establishment of initial conditions

bull Selection and formulation of buysell indicators

B-Choice of indicators

bull Calculation of returns for each period equity and indicator and establishment of the limits for each buysell lag pair

bull Calculation of the return for each equity analysedbull Calculation of the mean return for each period indicator and buysell

time lag

C-Calculating and grouping returns

bull Normalisation of the returns obtained in each period and indicator for comparison

D-Return normalisation

bull Selection of indicators with high performance in the three period analysedbull Analysis of the meaning of the time lags associated with each indicator

E-Optimal indicator-lag management

Figure 1 Procedure used step-by-step

A Establishment of initial conditions

The results for the period 01012005-2322016 were ana-lysed This 11-plus-year period was divided into three sub-pe-riods (see Table 1) to identify the indicators and lag times ex-hibiting the highest performance in all three The first two sub-periods had a duration of 5 years each while the third cov-ered just 13 months in pursuit of an arrangement independent of market events (an alternative to the method proposed by Rosillo et al 2013) to eliminate possible bias stemming from non-arbitrary choices of the start and end dates In keeping with standard practice closing prices were used in the simulations1 2

Table 1 Sub-periods in period 01012005-2322016

Start date End date

Sub-period 1 01012005 31122009Sub-period 2 01012010 31122014Sub-period 3 01012015 23022016

The initial conditions and suite of operating restrictions for the buy and sell orders established for the model are given in Table 2

Table 2 Initial model conditions and operating restrictions

PARAMETER Euros MEANING

(a) Initial cash assets 200 000 Cash initially available for operations

(b) Initial portfolio 40 000 Value of equities (shares or index) in initial portfolio

(c) Maximum value of sale 60 000

Maximum value of shares to be sold in the event of a sell signal

(d) Maximum value of purchase 60 000

Maximum value of shares to be bought in the event of a buy signal

(a) sum arbitrarily chosen to be able to base decisions on a given amount of capital(b) initial portfolio defined to be able to associate the first operation implemented with a sell signal from the respective indicator set here at 20 of the initial cash assets to ensure a sufficient margin from the outset for normal buy and sell orders in a medium-large equity portfolio(c) (d) sum equal to 30 of the total initial cash assets to ensure a sufficient margin to absorb losses from ordinary (buysell) operations across the simulation period

1 Closing prices used since 2000 (the former system was based on the aver-age price) are computed on the grounds of a closing auction period consisting in a combination of five minutes plus a random closing (30 seconds during which mdashat any time and without prior noticemdash the market may close permanently)

2 Prices are adjusted to accommodate corporate operations The most com-mon such operations and financial transactions affecting prices and volumes and requiring adjustments are rights issues involving preferential subscription rights extraordinary dividends share amortisation- and share cancellation-mediated cap-ital reductions and mergers and acquisitions Bolsas y Mercados Espantildeoles (BME) the private company entrusted with the organisational administration of Spanish stock exchanges and financial markets is responsible for making real-time adjust-ments as required to factor in financial operations that affect a traded security



B Choice of indicators

Lim (2015) and Achelis (2001) among others have reviewed the wide spectrum of indicators currently in place The seven chosen for this study are among the most widely used alone or in combination in most trading support tools (see Table 3) The details of these indicators are not described here for they are regarded to be generally well known and available in the afore-mentioned references Table 3 below does however describe the parameters used in their construction and the criteria that trig-ger buy and sell signals

Table 3 Technical analysis indicators

construction parameters and signal emission criteria

INDICATOR ABBREVIATION CONSTRUCTION PARAMETER

SELL SIGNAL

CRITERION

BUY SIGNAL

CRITERION

Rate of change (RoC) Number of

periods 12

The indicator crosses 0 on a downward slope

The indicator crosses 0 on an upward slope

Relative strength index

(RSI) Number of periods 14



Simple moving average

(SMA)

Comparison of means for periods of 25 and 50 sessions

The short period mean crosses the long period mean on a downward slope

The short period mean crosses the long period mean on an upward slope

Exponential moving average

(EMA)




Moving average convergence divergence

(MACD)

Number of periods 12 and 26EMA period for calculating signal 9

The MACD histogram turns negative

The MACD histogram turns positive

Bollinger bands mdash

SMA for 21 sessions No of standard deviations for two

The price crosses the upper Bollinger band on an upward slope

The price crosses the lower Bollinger band on a downward slope

Stochastic oscillator mdash Window 14

days

Stochastic oscillator crosses 80 on an upward slope

Stochastic oscillator crosses 20 on a downward slope

C Calculating and grouping returns

Return was calculated for a portfolio with 36 components (the 35 equities in the IBEX 35 index at the time of the study plus the index itself) running simulations for each of the fol-lowing

mdash the seven indicators described in Table 3mdash the 81 lag combinations listed below with lag time defined

as the number of days lapsing between the date of the (buy or sell) signal generated by the indicator and the date of the transaction adopting the closing price for both signal and transaction

bull nine buy lag times (0 1 2 3 5 8 10 13 and 15 days) andbull nine sell lag times (0 1 2 3 5 8 10 13 and 15 days)

mdash the three sub-periods listed in Table 1

Lag pairs are represented as (ab) where

mdash a is the lag time between the indicator buy signal and the transaction

mdash b is the lag time between the indicator sell signal and the transaction

The pair (05) for instance would mean the buy order was implemented immediately and the sell order 5 days after receipt of the respective signal

The above combinations yielded a total of 61 236 portfolios ie the product of 36 equities times seven indicators times 81 possible buysell lag pairs times three sub-periods

The simple unweighted mean of the returns for each period and buysell lag pair could be used to group the portfolios thanks to the homogeneity of the initial conditions the portfolio oper-ating restrictions and the sub-periods for which each return was calculated

Each indicator-lag pair requires its own data pool leading to a different number of results In some cases the outcome is that the first set of input data calls for vast amounts of raw data (from the market) EMA (or SMA) for instance the two indi-cators necessitating most data need input on 65 daily prices for the model to deliver the initial data with a 15 day lag That situ-ation appears only at the outset however for thereafter just one new raw data item is needed to replace each output item (as it is a moving indicator) Given that 1) the Spanish stock market calendar comprises around 254 trading sessions per year 2) the results are shown as means and 3) the database used contained information for over eleven full years of stock trading as noted earlier the sub-periods defined were of unequal duration in an attempt to separate results from the stock market cycle with the only possible implications stemming exclusively from the length of the series

D Return normalisation

The return values generated by the simulations were normal-ised for classification and comparison by sub-period and indi-cator attributing a value of 0 to the minimum and 100 to the maximum return recorded for an indicator in the sub-period analysed



E Optimal indicator-lag management

All the [indicator-lag] combinations with good performance in all the periods studied were selected Good performance was defined as a higher than average normalised score in all sub-pe-riods in other words a given [indicator-lag (ab)] combination was regarded as optimal if it exhibited a normalised value greater than 50 in all three sub-periods (as shown in Table 4)

Two methods were deployed to guarantee that a lag detect-ed as optimal actually was On the one hand the methodology described by Brock et al (1992) was applied which involved 1) finding the results for all the indicators 2) using long data series and 3) focusing on the robustness of results between non-over-lapping sub-periods On the other the statistical significance of the results was calculated to determine the likelihood that a lag detected as having higher than average performance actually did

The significance of a lag associated with an indicator for a given sub-period and confidence level (nsub-period) was calculated from the following expression

Signindicator-sub-period = (1 ndash nsub-period) (1)

Since the aim was to determine whether a given lag-indicator combination performed better than average in the three sub-pe-riods studied to a pre-established likelihood nsub-period the statisti-cal significance of the combination (Signindicator) would be

Signindicator = 1 ndash (1 ndash nsub-period)3 (2)

Table 4 Significance-confidence level table

Conf level () 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95

Significance () 875 908 936 957 973 9844 992 9966 999 9999

32 Market list price and trading volume data

The data used were drawn from IBEX 35 the benchmark in-dex for the Spanish securities exchange comprising the 35 most liquid companies (weighted by market capitalisation) listed on the electronic system that interconnects its Madrid Barcelona Bilbao and Valencia exchanges and their equities The following magni-tudes were compiled for the index and each of its components daily opening maximum minimum and closing prices closing volume and closing price adjusted for dividends and splits for the period 01012005-2322016 A total of 143 532 valid records were generated 2903 records for each of the 36 items (index plus 35 components on the date the data were retrieved)

The composition of the index used (see Table 5) was as it ap-peared on the last date considered which was also the day before retrieval The IBEX 35 composition is revised quarterly (to com-pose and weight the constituent equities) and when its compo-nents are affected by financial operations These include rights issues extraordinary dividends share consolidations capital re-ductions share buybacks mergers takeovers and spin-offs

Table 5 Market capitalisation-weighted IBEX 35

composition used in this study (2322016)

RANK Ticker Company Weight ()

1 ITX Inditex 1799

2 SAN Banco Santander 1192

3 TEF Telefoacutenica 902

4 IBE Iberdrola 79

5 BBVA Banco Bilbao Vizcaya Argentaria 7

6 ELE Endesa 362

7 IAG International Airlines Group 348

8 GAS Gas Natural SDG 344

9 AMS Amadeus 313

10 CABK CaixaBank 3

11 AENA AENA 294

12 FER Ferrovial 282

13 REP Repsol 265

14 ABE Abertis Infraestructuras 246

15 GRF Grifols 224

16 BKIA Bankia 204

17 REE Red Eleacutectrica Corporacioacuten 195

18 SAB Banco de Sabadell 171

19 GAM Gamesa Corporacioacuten Tecnoloacutegica 143

20 ACS Actividades de Construccioacuten y Servicios 14

21 POP Banco Popular Espantildeol 125

22 ENG Enagaacutes 122

23 MAP MAPFRE 118

24 BKT Bankinter 108

25 MTS Arcelor Mittal 099

26 DIA Distribuidora Internacional de Alimentacioacuten 079

27 ANA Acciona 077

28 MRL MERLIN Properties 066

29 TL5 Mediaset Espantildea Comunicacioacuten 062

30 ACX Acerinox 041

31 FCC Fomento de Construcciones y Contratas 033

32 TRE Teacutecnicas Reunidas 032

33 IDR Indra Sistemas 028

34 OHL Obrascoacuten Huarte Lain 028

35 SCYR Sacyr 015

Source Sociedad de Bolsas SA (wwwbmerves)



Further to Sociedad de Bolsas SA the formula for cal-culating the market capitalisation-weighted IBEX 35 compo-sition is

IBEX (35) = IBEX 35 (t ndash 1) ∙ Capi(t)i=1

35

Capi(t 1)plusmn Ji=1

35 (3)

where

t = date of calculation

i = company i

Si = number of company i shares applicable for computing the index value

Pi = listed price of company i shares at time t

Capi = company i market capitalisation (Si middot Pi)

sum Capi = summation of market capitalisation for all companies in the index

J = amount used to adjust the value of the index for rights issues and similar

Factor J is the adjusted market capitalisation to ensure in-dex continuity introduced on the occasion of financial op-erations defined in the Normas Teacutecnicas de Composicioacuten y Caacutelculo del Iacutendice [technical rules for index composition and weighting] and in routine and ad hoc index redefinitions Component J ensures that the index value is not altered by any of the aforementioned financial operations Its value re-flects the difference in market capitalisation before and after the adjustment

4 RESULTS

The results of the simulations discussed below are illus-trated with tables and graphs containing numerical informa-tion on the lag times for each indicator that yielded higher than average performance in all three sub-periods3

Therefore as this proposal is expressed in terms of mean values the different duration of the sub-periods (the first sub-period is shorter than the second for construction of the initial input data calls for several market prices whilst the third sub-period is shorter than the other two) does not con-dition the validity of the results

3 An indicator-lag pair was deemed to exhibit good performance in a given sub-period when its normalised score was higher than the mean in that sub-period Good performance across the full period was defined as a normalised score higher than the mean in all sub-periods

Consequently the only indicator-lag pairs relevant to the analysis were the ones exhibiting a normalised value of gt50 in all three sub-periods Two graphs were plotted for each indicator one comparing sub-period 2005-2009 to sub-period 2010-2014 and the other sub-period 2005-2009 to sub-peri-od 2015-2016 The good performers are listed in the tables included in each figure

The same simulations were conducted for all 35 equities in the index 20 412 simulations in all the results of which were analysed and normalised for the three sub-periods studied Table 6 ranks the best indicator-lag pair groups ie the ones exhibiting a general confidence interval of over 65 and sig-nificance of over 957 (Table 4) by significance The other indicator-lag pair groups described hereunder (with a general confidence interval of 50 to 65 and significance ranging from 875 to 957 ) are listed in Appendix

Table 6 Indicator-lag pairs (optimal normalised results)

Indicator Lag pair 2005-2009 2010-2014 2015-2016 Significance

SMA 00-01 9911 7390 7185 9777

SMA 05-01 7101 7736 8907 9756

RSI 02-15 7040 7859 8329 9741

SMA 00-00 10000 8492 6994 9728

EMA 08-03 6987 9053 8374 9726

EMA 05-03 6900 9182 8475 9702

SMA 00-03 8723 6842 7243 9685

SMA 02-01 8446 7363 6712 9645

RSI 02-13 7493 8274 6696 9639

EMA 08-02 7673 7904 6696 9639

SMA 01-01 9813 7778 6656 9626

SMA 05-02 7072 6538 7682 9585

41 Rate of Change (RoC)

Only one lag pair with higher than average normalised performance (gt50 of the scores) in the three sub-periods was found for this indicator for a statistical significance of 8763 (see Table 7) Performance was similar in two of the three sub-periods In this sole pair orders lagged substantial-ly behind the buysell signals All the foregoing infers that as a guide for investment decisions RoC exhibited low statis-tical significance for the lag times proposed In Table 7 and Figure 2 the values for high performing pairs in the first peri-od (2005-2009) are plotted against those in the second (2010-2014) and the third (2015-2016) That only one pair could be detected on each graph and that it was positioned near the minimum 50 level (on the y-axis) are indications of the low statistical significance of RoC

Table 7 RoC - optimal lag times

Lag pairNormalised value

Significance2005-2009 2010-2014 2015-2016

15-13 7715 5018 5047 8763



50 60 70

15-13

RoC - (2005-2009) - (2010-2014)

80 90 100

100

90

80

70

60

50

50 60 70

15-13

RoC - (2005-2009) - (2015-2016)

80 90 100

100

90

80

70

60

50

Figure 2 RoC - optimal lag times

42 Relative strength index (RSI)

RSI was highly statistically significant for up to 10 lag pairs Good results were obtained for the portfolio with buy lag times of 0-3 days and sell lag times of 10-15 days (see Table 8 and Figure 2) The optimal result was obtained with the lag pair (01-15) where significance was over 95 and the mean confidence level for the three sub-periods therefore greater than 65 The pairs (02-13) and (02-10) came close to that level These findings infer that the RSI would be a good strategic guide if buy signals were imple-mented with a 1-2 day and sell signals a 13-15 day lag Groups of lag combinations also constituted a good guide for investors who could obtain statistically significant results for their operations in windows wide enough for the confidence level associated with the results to afford a dual guarantee for their strategy

Table 8 RSI - optimal lag pairs


Significance2005-2009 2010-2014 2015-2016

00-08 5192 8730 7294 888900-10 5334 7598 6600 898401-13 5476 6803 5938 907401-15 6738 7799 6519 957802-08 5269 8998 7045 894102-10 5856 10000 5966 928902-13 6706 8866 6223 946102-15 5331 6513 7339 898203-13 6153 6655 5638 917003-15 7341 5296 6649 8959

50 60 70

03-15

03-1301-13

00-10

00-0802-08

02-13

02-10

02-15

01-15

RSI - (2005-2009) - (2010-2014)

80 90 100

100

95

90

85

80

75

70

65

60

55

50

50 60 70

03-1301-13

01-1500-1002-08

00-0802hellip

03hellip

02-1302-10

RSI - (2005-2009) - (2015-2016)

80 90 100

100

95

90

85

80

75

70

65

60

55

50

Figure 3 RSI - optimal lag pairs

43 Simple moving average (SMA) comparison

Comparing simple moving averages yielded good results for only two lag pairs The buy lags generating the highest level of investor confidence when this criterion was applied to port-folio management merit analysis The pair (03-10) exhibited 9341 significance for a mean confidence level for the three sub-periods of over 60 (see Table 9 and Figure 4)

Table 9 SMA - optimal lag pairs


Significance2005-2009 2010-2014 2015-2016

02-05 7207 5825 5074 8805

03-10 6871 6208 5961 9341



50 60 70

03-10

SMA - (2005-2009) - (2010-2014)

80 90 100

100

95

90

85

80

75

70

65

60

55

50

02-05

50 60 70

03-10

02-05

SMA - (2005-2009) - (2015-2016)

80 90 100

100

95

90

85

80

75

70

65

60

55

50

Figure 4 SMA - optimal lag pairs

44 Exponential moving average (EMA) comparisons

This indicator delivered the best results As shown in Table 10 and Figure 5 five lag pairs showed significance of around 95 for mean confidence levels gt70 for the three sub-pe-riods as well as very homogeneous performance a 5-8 day buy lag time and a shorter 0-3 day sell lag time

Very similar results were observed in other simulations performed but not reported here for all but the moving av-erage indicators For these when the five largest companies in the index were included the number of highly significant lag times was much lower than when the portfolio used com-prised the IBEX 35 and its 30 lightest weighted equities The effect of size was particularly significant for the simple mov-ing average very likely as a result of the decline in profita-bility deriving from the widespread use of this very popular indicator among market agents for operations with these blue chip securities

Table 10 EMA - optimal lag pairs


Significance2005-2009 2010-2014 2015-2016

08-03 7003 7504 10000 9731

05-03 6910 7980 9541 9705

08-02 8055 7146 8355 9768

05-02 6316 7171 7837 9500

05-00 6577 7783 6194 9449

05-01 8039 8623 5722 9217

05-05 6708 5286 6093 8952

10-03 5745 5027 9605 8770

13-02 5555 5128 5074 8804

50 60 70

03-10

05-02

05-00

08-03

05-03

05-01

08-02

EMA - (2005-2009) - (2010-2014)

80 90 100

100

95

90

85

80

75

70

65

60

55

5013-02

10-03 05-05

50 60 70

13-02

05-0105-05

05-00

05-02

08-02

10-0305-03

08-03EMA - (2005-2009) - (2015-2016)

80 90 100

100

95

90

85

80

75

70

65

60

55

50

Figure 5 EMA - optimal lag pairs



45 Moving average convergence divergence (MACD)

This was the sole indicator studied for which no lag time was found to be optimal in all three periods due to the con-current results for different lag pairs As that finding was con-sistent with the results of alternative simulations not discussed hereunder both as regards the portfolio and the parameters used in its construction and in keeping with standard practice only the latter are shown (short EMA 12 sessions long EMA 26 sessions signal 9)

Although consistent with observations reported by Wang et al (2015) who using particle swarm optimisation (PSO) found that combinations of two moving average indicators were not needed for investment decisions in over 70 of the sessions these findings did not concur with Chong et alrsquos (2008) and Rosillo et alrsquos (2013) results

46 Bollinger bands

This indicator exhibited poor performance with only one significant lag pair (see Table 11 and Figure 6) Despite the good results for the period 2015-2016 profitability was clearly below average for some of the other periods studied These findings were consistent with the results of other simulations conducted on the occasion of this study

Table 11 Bollinger bands - optimal lags


Significance2005-2009 2010-2014 2015-2016

00-13 6450 6079 7947 9397

50 60 70

00-13

BOLLINGER - (2005-2009) - (2010-2014)

80 90 100

100

90

80

70

60

50

50 60 70

00-13

BOLLINGER - (2005-2009) - (2015-2016)

80 90 100

100

90

80

70

60

50

Figure 6 Bollinger bands - optimal lags

47 Stochastic oscillator

Three possibly optimal lags were found for this indicator although their statistical significance was low The confidence level was high for short (0-1 day) buy and longer (10-13 day) sell lag times (see Table 12 and Figure 7) The findings were consistent with simulations conducted with portfolios other than described here to verify indicator performance

Table 12 Stochastic oscillator - optimal lags


Significance2005-2009 2010-2014 2015-2016

00-10 6912 7784 5730 9221

01-13 7117 5232 5202 8896

01-10 6492 9865 5170 8873

50 60 70

01-13

00-10

STOCHASTIC - (2005-2009) - (2010-2014)

80 90 100

100

95

90

85

80

75

70

65

60

55

50

01-10

50 60 70

01-10 01-13

00-10

STOCHASTIC - (2005-2009) - (2015-2016)

80 90 100

100

95

90

85

80

75

70

65

60

55

50

Figure 7 Stochastic oscillator - optimal lags



5 CONCLUSIONS

This study analysed the validity of buysell signals gener-ated automatically by the most widely used indicators (RoC RSI SMA EMA MACD Bollinger bands and Stochastic Os-cillator) for the Spanish securities exchange and the effect of introducing lag times (a total of 81 combinations of buy and sell lags) in implementing the transactions recommended by each indicator The aim was to maximise the return of a portfo-lio consisting in the marketrsquos benchmark index (IBEX 35) and its 35 constituent equities The simulation sought to identify the indicator and buysell lag combinations which irrespective of the period studied consistently improved on the portfolio return The model developed for that purpose was based on the consistency of results for non-overlapping randomly selected sub-periods

Indicator and buysell lag combinations were found for the market and period analysed that afforded statistically sig-nificant improvements over the immediate implementation of indicator signals The highest performing indicators were EMA and RSI The parallelism is unsurprising for relative strength is based on the exponential moving average High confidence levels were also observed for both indicators for medium (5-8 day) buy lags and short (0-3 day) sell lags in the former and in the latter for a short (0-2 day) buy lag and a long sell lag (the best result was recorded for a 15 day lag time)

The inter-sub-period analysis revealed no significant re-sults for any of the other indicators Notably the moving av-erages (EMA and SMA comparisons) performed better than their synthetic grouping (MACD) a finding which while consistent with results reported by Wang et al (2015) was not regarded as conclusive for the market analysed with the methodology described here Rather the present result would appear to be attributable to the construction of the synthet-ic indicator and therefore not applicable to those calculated with moving averages

Some of the non-optimal indicators exhibited better re-sults in certain periods than the ones identified as optimal That does not question the validity of the former in pre-dicting the performance of the equities to which they are applied Rather they were lsquodisregardedrsquo due to the hetero-geneity of the results for the parameters designed for the present simulation

Several lines of follow-up research to this study can be identified Firstly the utility of the indicators and delays should be verified in connection with dividends amount and both announcement and ex-dividend dates Secondly the consistency of these findings for both the indicators studied and others might be verified when period trends volatility or even the daily volume of transactions recorded are factored into technical analysis Thirdly the validity of analysis and decision-making should be explored at times of trend change or high volatility and the results compared for simple versus more complex methodologies and algorithms to determine their respective utility in such periods which impact long-term portfolio profitability so heavily

6 REFERENCES

Achelis S B 2001 Technical Analysis from A to Z New York McGraw Hill

Agudelo DA and Uribe JH 2009 iquestRealidad o sofisma Poniendo a prueba el anaacutelisis teacutecnico en las acciones colombianas Cuadernos de Administracioacuten 22 (38) 189-217

Australian Securities and Investments Commission 2015 Review of high-frequency trading and dark liquidity ASIC 452

Bessembinder H and Chan K 1998 Market efficiency and the returns to technical analysis Financial management 27 5-17

Brock W Lakonishok J and LeBaron B 1992 Simple technical tra-ding rules and the stochastic properties of stock returns The Journal of Finance 47(5) 1731-1764

Brown DP and Jennings RH 1989 On technical analysis Review of Financial Studies 2 (4) 527-551

Cavalcante RC Brasileiro RC Souza VL Nobrega JP and Olivei-ra AL 2016 Computational Intelligence and Financial Markets A Survey and Future Directions Expert Systems with Applications 55 194-211

Cervelloacute-Royo R Guijarro F and Michniuk K 2015 Stock market trading rule based on pattern recognition and technical analysis Forecasting the DJIA index with intraday data Expert systems with Applications 42 (14) 5963-5975

Chaboud AP Chiquoine B Hjalmarsson E and Vega C 2014 Rise of the machines Algorithmic trading in the foreign exchange mar-ket The Journal of Finance 69 (5) 2045-2084

Chang PC Wang YW and Yang WN 2004 An investigation of the hybrid forecasting models for stock price variation in Tai-wan Journal of the Chinese Institute of Industrial Engineers 21 (4) 358-368

Chong TTL and Ng WK 2008 Technical analysis and the Lon-don stock exchange testing the MACD and RSI rules using the FT30 Applied Economics Letters 15 (14) 1111-1114

Day TE and Wang P 2002 Dividends nonsynchronous prices and the returns from trading the Dow Jones Industrial Average Journal of Empirical Finance 9 (4) 431-454

European Securities and Markets Authority 2015 Automated Trading Guidelines ESMA peer review among National Competent Authori-ties Paris ESMA2015592

Fama EF and Blume ME 1966 Filter rules and stock-market tra-ding The Journal of Business 39 (1) 226-241

Fernandes M Hamberger P and do Valle A 2015 Technical analy-sis and financial market efficiency an evaluation of the prediction powers of candlestick patterns Revista evidenciatildeccedilao contaacutebil and financcedilas 3 (3) 35-54

Gerig A 2015 High-frequency trading synchronizes prices in finan-cial markets Available at SSRN 2173247

Hudson R Dempsey M and Keasey K 1996 A note on the weak form efficiency of capital markets The application of simple tech-nical trading rules to UK stock prices-1935 to 1994 Journal of Ban-king amp Finance 20 (6) 1121-1132

Ito A 1999 Profits on technical trading rules and time-varying expec-ted returns evidence from Pacific-Basin equity markets Pacific-Ba-sin Finance Journal 7 (3) 283-330

Jensen M and Bennington G 1970 Random walks and technical theories Some additional evidences Journal of Finance 25 (2) 469-482

Kara Y Boyacioglu MA and Baykan OumlK 2011 Predicting direction of stock price index movement using artificial neural networks and support vector machines The sample of the Istanbul Stock Exchan-ge Expert systems with Applications 38 (5) 5311-5319



Kim HJ and Shin KS 2007 A hybrid approach based on neural networks and genetic algorithms for detecting temporal patterns in stock markets Applied Soft Computing 7 (2) 569-576

Leigh W Modani N Purvis R and Roberts T 2002 Stock market trading rule discovery using technical charting heuristics Expert Systems with Applications 23 (2) 155-159

Lewis M and Baker D 2014 Flash boys A Wall Street Revolt New York WW Norton

Lim MA 2015 The Handbook of Technical Analysis+ Test Bank The Practitionerrsquos Comprehensive Guide to Technical Analysis John Wiley amp Sons

Mills TC 1997 Technical analysis and the London Stock Exchange testing trading rules using the FT30 International Journal of Fi-nance and Economics 2 (4) 319-331

Olson D 2004 Have trading rule profits in the currency markets declined over time Journal of Banking and Finance 28 (1) 85-105

Park CH and Irwin SH 2007 What do we know about the profit-ability of technical analysis Journal of Economic Surveys 21 (4) 786-826

Ready MJ 2002 Profits from technical trading rules Financial Management 43-61

Rodriguez-Gonzalez A Garcia-Crespo A and Colomo-Palacios R 2011 Using neural networks to improve trading systems based on technical analysis by means of the RSI financial indica-tor Expert Systems with Applications 38 (9) 11489-11500

Rosillo R De la Fuente D and Brugos JAL 2013 Technical anal-ysis and the Spanish stock exchange testing the RSI MACD momentum and stochastic rules using Spanish market compa-nies Applied Economics 45 (12) 1541-1550

Rosillo R Giner J and De la Fuente D 2014 Stock Market simu-lation using support vector machines Journal of Forecasting 33 (6) 488-500

Serbera JP and Paumard P 2016 The fall of high-frequency trad-ing A survey of competition and profits Research in Internation-al Business and Finance 36 271-287

Taylor MP and Allen H 1992 The use of technical analysis in the foreign exchange market Journal of international Money and Finance 11 (3) 304-314

Taylor N 2014 The rise and fall of technical trading rule suc-cess Journal of Banking amp Finance 40 286-302

Teixeira LA and De Oliveira ALI 2010 A method for automatic stock trading combining technical analysis and nearest neighbor classification Expert systems with applications 37 (10) 6885-6890

Wang JL and Chan SH 2007 Stock market trading rule discovery using pattern recognition and technical analysis Expert Systems with Applications 33 (2) 304-315

Wang JZ Wang JJ Zhang ZG and Guo SP 2011 Forecast-ing stock indices with back propagation neural network Expert Systems with Applications 38 (11) 14346-14355 doi101016jeswa201104222

Wang L An H and Liu X 2015 A PSO Approach to Search for Adaptive Trading Rules in the EUA Futures Market Energy Pro-cedia 75 2504-2509

Yang J Zhou Y and Wang Z 2009 The stockndashbond correlation and macroeconomic conditions One and a half centuries of evi-dence Journal of Banking amp Finance 33 (4) 670-680

APPENDIX

Table 6 (continued) Indicator-lag pair groups (optimal normalised results)


SMA 01-00 9080 8004 6494 9569 RSI 01-15 6444 10000 7525 9550 SMA 03-00 8289 7450 6416 9540 SMA 05-00 6299 7796 8701 9493 SMA 02-00 7857 6296 6543 9492 EMA 05-02 6267 8415 6757 9480 SMA 00-02 7547 7845 6114 9413 RSI 00-13 6105 7735 7846 9409 RSI 08-15 7275 6042 6328 9380 SMA 01-03 6768 6017 6524 9368 SMA 08-01 6012 6392 9120 9366 STOCHASTIC 00-10 6567 6808 5984 9352 RSI 02-10 6418 8838 5976 9349 RSI 03-15 7273 5966 7805 9344 RSI 03-13 6303 5885 6313 9303 EMA 02-05 7645 5858 6785 9289 SMA 03-01 7912 5793 6641 9255 RSI 00-10 5722 5797 7676 9217 EMA 02-03 7761 5658 9124 9181 SMA 00-05 7912 9100 5653 9179 BOLLINGER 00-08 5651 6119 7327 9178 EMA 03-02 7834 5647 9541 9175 SMA 02-02 8103 6368 5623 9162 BOLLINGER 00-13 7585 5613 8668 9156 RSI 01-13 5586 7470 6950 9140 SMA 01-02 8686 5955 5571 9131 SMA 03-02 7495 5986 5569 9130 RSI 02-08 5517 7579 5755 9099 EMA 03-05 5843 5510 5506 9092 EMA 05-05 6877 5412 5736 9034 EMA 03-03 7836 5410 10000 9033 EMA 03-01 7017 8344 5317 8973 STOCHASTIC 01-13 5800 5275 5580 8945 RSI 01-10 5209 8590 7328 8900 ROC 15-13 5792 7129 5195 8890 SMA 08-00 5191 5382 8912 8888 RSI 00-08 5180 7185 6424 8880 RSI 05-13 6627 6961 5167 8871 EMA 05-10 5154 6172 5346 8862 EMA 03-08 6079 5136 6541 8850 SMA 08-02 5070 5852 8326 8802 STOCHASTIC 01-10 5363 9149 5049 8786 EMA 05-08 6398 5020 5767 8765 ROC 08-15 5019 6851 6253 8764


Special Section Advances in work-family interaction

in the organizational field

Seccioacuten Especial Avances sobre la interaccioacuten

trabajo-familia en el aacutembito organizativo






ISSN 1131-6837 e-ISSN 1988-2157




La relacioacuten entre uso de beneficios y poliacuteticas trabajo-vida y satisfaccioacuten laboral el rol mediador del conflicto trabajo-a-familiaThe relationship between the use of work-life benefits and policies (WLBPs) and job satisfaction the mediating role of the work-to-family conflict Liliana Mariacutea Gutieacuterrez-Vargas Henry Antonio Arenas-Cardonaa Mariacutea del Socorro Loacutepez-Goacutemezb

a Universidad de Antioquia Facultad de Ciencias EconoacutemicasDepartamento de Ciencias Administrativas Oficina 13-103 Calle 67 No 53 ndash 108 CP050010 Medelliacuten (Colombia) ndash henryarenasudeaeduco ndash httpsorcidorg0000-0003-2316-2996b Universidad de Antioquia Facultad de Ciencias Econoacutemicas Departamento de Ciencias Administrativas Oficina 13-411 Calle 67 No 53 ndash 108 CP050010 Medelliacuten (Colombia) ndash delsocorrolopezudeaeduco ndash httpsorcidorg0000-0002-9947-7719

Corresponding author Universidad de Antioquia Facultad de Ciencias Econoacutemicas Departamento de Ciencias Administrativas Oficina 13-103 Calle 67 No 53 ndash 108 CP050010 Medelliacuten (Colombia) ndash lmariagutierrezudeaeduco ndash httpsorcidorg0000-0003-4907-3940

A R T I C L E I N F OReceived 22 March 2019 Accepted 9 June 2020


DOI 105295cdg191098lg

JEL CODES M120 M140

R E S U M E N

La relacioacuten entre el uso de beneficios y poliacuteticas trabajo-vida el conflicto trabajo-familia y la satisfaccioacuten laboral ha sido uno de los debates clave en la disciplina de la Gestioacuten de Recursos Humanos en las organizaciones Este estudio propone un modelo de mediacioacuten para analizar la relacioacuten entre el uso de beneficios y poliacuteticas traba-jo-vida (WLBPs) y la satisfaccioacuten laboral La contribucioacuten del estudio a la literatura es examinar empiacutericamente antecedentes de esta variable endoacutegena con mayor profundidad Por lo tanto la investigacioacuten llena un vaciacuteo en la literatura a traveacutes de un anaacutelisis de la funcioacuten mediadora del conflicto trabajo-familia en la direccioacuten en la que el trabajo interfiere en la familia Este trabajo utiliza el modelado de caminos de miacutenimos cuadrados parciales (PLS-SEM) una teacutecnica de modelado de ecuaciones estructurales basadas en la varianza para probar y validar el modelo de investigacioacuten y las hipoacutetesis postuladas sobre una muestra de 559 empleados de diversas empresas colombianas del sector privado Los resultados muestran que la percepcioacuten de conflicto trabajo-a-familia es un mediador significativo en la relacioacuten entre el uso de beneficios y la satisfaccioacuten laboral El tipo de mediacioacuten se configura como parcial complementaria es decir el conflicto trabajo-familia incrementa el efecto del uso de los beneficios y poliacuteticas trabajo-vida sobre la satisfaccioacuten laboral

Palabras clave beneficios y poliacuteticas trabajo-vida satisfaccioacuten laboral conflicto trabajo-a-familia equilibrio tra-bajo-vida responsabilidad social corporativa

A B S T R A C T

The relationship between the use of work-life benefits and policies work-family conflict and job satisfaction has been one of the key debates in the discipline of Human Resources Management This study proposes a mediation model to analyze the relationship between the use of work-life benefits and policies (WLBPs) and job satisfaction The study contributes to the literature by empirically examining the antecedents of this endogenous variable in greater depth Therefore this research fills a gap in the literature through the analysis of the mediating function of the work-family conflict in the direction in which work interferes with family This work uses partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM) a variance-based structural equations modeling technique to test and validate the research model and the hypotheses posited on a sample of 559 employees from different Colombian private-sector firms The results show that perception of the work-to-family conflict is a significant mediator in the relationship between the use of benefits and job satisfaction The type of mediation observed is partial com-plementary that is the work-to-family conflict increases the effect of the use of work-life benefits and policies on job satisfaction

Keywords work‐life benefits and policies work satisfaction work-to-family conflict work-life balance corporate social responsibility


76 L Mordf Gutieacuterrez-Vargas H A Arenas-Cardona Mordf del S Loacutepez-Goacutemez

1 INTRODUCCIOacuteN

La Responsabilidad Familiar Corporativa (RFC) ha cobra-do intereacutes en la comunidad cientiacutefica la empresa y el gobierno (Del Baldo 2013 Tomaselli 2019) Esto se evidencia a partir de los planteamientos aportados por Chinchilla y Jimenez (2013) quienes la definen como laquoel compromiso de una organizacioacuten para impulsar el liderazgo la cultura y las poliacuteticas de flexibili-dad que faciliten en sus organizaciones la integracioacuten de la vida laboral familiar y personal de sus empleadosraquo (p 50) En con-secuencia cada vez maacutes crece el intereacutes de la comunidad inter-nacional porque las organizaciones proporcionen a sus colabo-radores poliacuteticas y arreglos de trabajo flexibles que les ayuden a manejar las demandas del trabajo y de la vida familiar La flexi-bilidad en el lugar de trabajo ha sido un tema de considerable intereacutes para los investigadores profesionales y defensores de las poliacuteticas puacuteblicas como una herramienta para ayudar a las per-sonas a administrar los roles laborales y familiares (Allen et al 2013) El equilibrio trabajo-vida (Work-Life Balance WLB por sus siglas en ingleacutes) es actualmente una preocupacioacuten poliacutetica en varios paiacuteses y un foco activo en la investigacioacuten internacional (Pasamar 2015 Alegre y Pasamar 2018) Este intereacutes se ha inten-sificado despueacutes de los cambios demograacuteficos que han mejorado la atencioacuten de la sociedad a este fenoacutemeno (Cegarra‐Leiva et al 2012 Alegre y Pasamar 2018) justificando la necesidad de una investigacioacuten continua y la creacioacuten de agendas internacionales que promueven el disentildeo y adopcioacuten de programas favorables a la familia Tal es el caso de la Organizacioacuten Internacional del Trabajo (OIT) que desde 1919 mediante el desarrollo de varios convenios viene promoviendo la conciliacioacuten entre el trabajo la familia y la vida personal desde la perspectiva de la correspon-sabilidad social (OIT y ONU 2009a) Es decir que las tareas de cuidado sean compartidas entre hombres y mujeres pero tam-bieacuten entre el Estado el mercado y las familias asiacute como por la sociedad en general (OIT y ONU 2009b)

En Colombia particularmente a nivel de poliacutetica puacuteblica res-pecto al bienestar de los colombianos se observan avances en cuanto a la conciliacioacuten de la vida laboral familiar y personal asiacute como respecto a la evaluacioacuten de los niveles de calidad de vida El primero se desarrolla en el marco de los lineamientos de la Poliacutetica Puacuteblica Nacional de Equidad de Geacutenero para las Mujeres del Gobierno Nacional en el artiacuteculo 177 de la Ley 1450 de junio de 2011 (Congreso de la Repuacuteblica 2011) y del Plan Integral para garantizar una Vida libre de Violencias (Departamento Nacio-nal de Planeacioacuten 2011) El segundo a traveacutes de la Encuesta Na-cional de Calidad de Vida (ECV) que ejecuta tambieacuten el DNP Asiacute mismo el Ministerio del Trabajo con el apoyo teacutecnico del Programa de las Naciones Unidas para el Desarrollo (PNUD) y la asistencia de la Consejeriacutea Presidencial para la Equidad de la Mujer desde el antildeo 2013 viene implementando el Programa de Certificacioacuten del Sistema de Gestioacuten de Igualdad de Geacutenero ndash Equipares (SGIG ndash EQUIPARES) Este programa consiste en un laquoconjunto de procedimientos y praacutecticas de gestioacuten organizacio-nal cuyo fin es transformar el manejo de los recursos humanos y los procesos organizacionales con enfoque de geacuteneroraquo (Con-sejeriacutea Presidencial para la Equidad de la Mujer 2017 p 145) el cual estaacute conformado por ocho dimensiones que estaacuten dirigidas a las praacutecticas de recursos humanos en las organizaciones y en

particular una hacia la conciliacioacuten de la vida laboral personal y familiar con corresponsabilidad en el marco de lo establecido por la OIT

Los programas favorables a la familia que en la investiga-cioacuten internacional suelen denominarse poliacuteticas favorables a la familia (Family‐Friendly Policies FFPs por sus siglas en ingleacutes) (Osterman 1995 Scheibl y Dex 1998 Bae y Yang 2017 Feeney y Stritch 2019) beneficios trabajo-vida (Work‐Life Benefits WLBs por sus siglas en ingleacutes) (Abbott y Cieri 2008 Pasamar 2015 Pasamar y Alegre 2015 Firfiray y Mayo 2017) o benefi-cios y poliacuteticas trabajo-vida (Work‐Life Benefits and Policies WLBPs por sus siglas en ingleacutes) (Baral y Bhargava 2010) tienen impactos importantes sobre las personas las organizaciones y el estado La flexibilidad ofrecida por una organizacioacuten con este tipo de beneficios permite a los empleados que alivien la dificul-tad inherente a la coordinacioacuten y la administracioacuten de muacuteltiples roles en la vida (Allen 2001) y a las organizaciones ofrecerles una ventaja competitiva en el mercado que les ayude a atraer y retener empleados de alta calidad (Allen 2001 Poelmans et al 2003)

Para comprender coacutemo estos beneficios contribuyen a los re-sultados organizacionales como la satisfaccioacuten laboral autores como Baltes et al (1999) han sugerido la necesidad de considerar elementos como la interfaz trabajo-familia en este proceso Uno de esos mecanismos es el conflicto trabajo-familia Se considera que los WLBPs ayudan a los trabajadores a cumplir con sus res-ponsabilidades laborales y familiares (Voydanoff 2004) Crean la oportunidad de minimizar el conflicto entre el trabajo y la fami-lia y mejorar el funcionamiento y el desempentildeo en el trabajo y en el hogar (Carlson et al 2010) En este sentido en el presente estudio queremos analizar el efecto conjunto de cuarenta y seis WLBPs que estaacuten al alcance de los trabajadores en las organiza-ciones estudiadas

Partiendo de los modelos emergentes de la interfaz traba-jo-familia (Greenhaus y Beutell 1985 Voydanoff 2004) argu-mentamos que las circunstancias y experiencias laborales crean oportunidades de trabajo para interferir con la vida familiar de un individuo De manera complementaria consideramos la teoriacutea de ampliacioacuten y construccioacuten de las emociones positivas (Fredrickson 1998 2001) y en concordancia con lo expuesto por Carlson et al (2010) planteamos que laquola secuela emocional del conflicto promueve una orientacioacuten hacia el interior que resul-ta en un comportamiento y un afecto comprometidosraquo (p 331) En consecuencia el objetivo de este estudio es desarrollar una mejor comprensioacuten de los mecanismos que vinculan los WLBPs (desde su uso por parte de los trabajadores) con el conflicto tra-bajo-a-familia y un resultado del trabajo como es la satisfaccioacuten laboral

2 MARCO TEOacuteRICO GENERAL

21 Fundamentacioacuten teoacuterica

El presente estudio se fundamenta en los modelos propues-tos por Voydanoff (2004 2005) y Greenhaus y Beutell (1985) integrando la teoriacutea de ampliacioacuten y construccioacuten de las emo-ciones positivas propuesta por Fredrickson (1998 2001) en con-


La relacioacuten entre uso de beneficios y poliacuteticas trabajo-vida y satisfaccioacuten laboral el rol mediador del conflicto trabajo-a-familia 77

cordancia con lo planteado por Carlson et al (2010) desde una perspectiva de atribucioacuten de origen o efectos dentro del dominio propuesta por Shockley y Singla (2011) Voydanoff (2002) pro-puso el conflicto trabajo-familia como uno de los mecanismos de vinculacioacuten en los procesos a traveacutes de los cuales las caracte-riacutesticas del trabajo y de la familia estaacuten relacionadas entre siacute Este plantea que los resultados relacionados con el trabajo y la familia son principalmente una funcioacuten de las demandas relacionadas con el trabajo y la familia y los recursos disponibles para que las personas resuelvan esas demandas introduciendo el concepto de recursos que abarcan liacutemites lo cuales

Se centran en aspectos del trabajo y los roles familiares que tra-tan directamente coacutemo el trabajo y la familia se conectan entre siacute como la flexibilidad del liacutemite temporal entre el trabajo y la familia y el nivel de apoyo organizativo a los esfuerzos de los empleados para coordinar las obligaciones y actividades laborales y familiares (Voydanoff 2002 p 401)

Es decir los definioacute como atributos fiacutesicos o sociales de un dominio (ya sea trabajo o familia) que podriacutean ser explotados por el individuo para resolver las demandas que surgen en otro dominio de la vida

Los recursos que abarcan los liacutemites pueden reducir el conflicto entre el trabajo y la familia y aumentar la facilitacioacuten entre el trabajo y la familia a traveacutes de procesos interrelacionados que mejoran la percepcioacuten del control de los trabajadores sobre la gestioacuten del liacutemite entre el trabajo y la familia y legitiman el uso de las poliacuteticas del trabajo y la familia (Voydanoff 2004 p 401)

Para complementar los modelos propuestos por Voydanoff (2004 2005) y Greenhaus y Beutell (1985) y especiacuteficamente analizar coacutemo el conflicto trabajo-a-familia (Work-to-Family Conflict WFC por sus siglas en ingleacutes) puede modelar las rela-ciones entre un antecedente (beneficios y poliacuteticas trabajo-vida WLBPs) y un resultado subsiguiente especifico del dominio del trabajo (satisfaccioacuten laboral) adoptaremos la teoriacutea de amplia-cioacuten y construccioacuten de las emociones positivas (Fredrickson 1998 2001) Esta teoriacutea plantea que

Ciertas emociones positivas discretas como la alegriacutea el intereacutes la satisfaccioacuten el orgullo y el amor aunque fenomenoloacutegicamente dis-tintas todas comparten la capacidad de ampliar los repertorios mo-mentaacuteneos de pensamiento y accioacuten de las personas y construir sus recursos personales perdurables desde recursos fiacutesicos e intelectuales hasta recursos sociales y psicoloacutegicos (Fredrickson 2001 p 219)

De otra parte dado que trabajos teoacutericos y empiacutericos pro-ponen que las direcciones del conflicto trabajo-familia (traba-jo-a-familia y familia-a-trabajo) deben examinarse por separa-do (Carlson et al 2000 Matthews et al 2010) se adoptaraacute una perspectiva de atribucioacuten de origen nombrada tambieacuten como efectos dentro del dominio Autores indican que los efectos dentro del dominio se refieren a las relaciones entre el conflicto trabajo-familia y los resultados que estaacuten en el mismo dominio donde se origina el conflicto (Allen et al 2000 Amstad et al 2011 Shockley y Singla 2011) Es decir los efectos del conflicto trabajo-a-familia (WFC) en las consecuencias del dominio del trabajo y los efectos del conflicto familia-a-trabajo (FWC) en las consecuencias del dominio de la familia se considerariacutean efectos dentro del dominio (Amstad et al 2011) En otras palabras se

refiere a las relaciones en las que las construcciones de predictor y criterio estaacuten en el mismo dominio (Pattusamy y Jacob 2017) Asiacute en este estudio nos centraremos en un antecedente y en una consecuencia asociados al conflicto trabajo-a-familia (WFC) que corresponden al dominio del trabajo como son los bene-ficios y poliacuteticas trabajo-vida (WLBPs) (Eby et al 2005 Michel et al 2011) y la satisfaccioacuten laboral (Kossek y Ozeki 1998 Allen et al 2000 Amstad et al 2011) respectivamente

22 Modelo conceptual

Sobre la base teoacuterica proporcionada anteriormente la Figu-ra 1 propone un modelo integrado que vincula el conflicto traba-jo-a-familia (WFC) con un recurso que abarca liacutemites (WLBPs) y un resultado como es la satisfaccioacuten laboral (Job Satisfaction JS por sus siglas en ingleacutes) Se plantea que el uso de WLBPs con-tribuye a mejorar los resultados relacionados con el rol laboral a traveacutes de las experiencias de los empleados en el conflicto tra-bajo-a-familia (WFC) En el presente estudio nos centraremos en los resultados afectivos en el aacutembito laboral especiacuteficamente la satisfaccioacuten laboral (JS) Se evaluacutea todo el modelo (recurso y resultado) a traveacutes de la variable mediadora (WFC) Estas rela-ciones seraacuten sustentadas en el siguiente apartado

GeacuteneroCONFLICTO

Trabajo-a-Familia(WFC)

M

Satisfaccioacuten Laboral

(JS)

Uso de WLBPs(USOB)

a1 b1

H1 = crsquo

H2 = USOB WFC JS = (a1 x b1 )

Figura 1 Modelo conceptual (Modelo de mediacioacuten)


23 Revisioacuten de la literatura y desarrollo de hipoacutetesis

Para ayudarles a manejar las demandas del trabajo la familia y la vida las organizaciones ofrecen a sus empleados condiciones de fle-xibilidad laboral mediante una serie de beneficios poliacuteticas y arre-glos de trabajo flexibles La flexibilidad se ve generalmente en teacuter-minos de poliacuteticas de flexibilidad formal establecidas por recursos humanos o acuerdos informales con respecto a la flexibilidad en el entorno organizacional (Carlson et al 2010) Estos WLBPs incluyen acuerdos de trabajo flexibles tales como los propuestos por Allen (2001) horario flexible trabajo a tiempo parcial semana de trabajo comprimida licencia de maternidad remunerada licencia pagada de paternidad teletrabajo entre otros o agrupaciones maacutes amplias como las propuestas por Chinchilla y Leoacuten (2007) del modelo EFR (Empresa Familiarmente Responsable) como son poliacuteticas de flexi-bilidad servicios de apoyo al empleado y beneficios sociales

Seguacuten Voydanoff (2004 2005) estas poliacuteticas que son con-sideradas un recurso que abarca liacutemites incluyen poliacuteticas de apoyo laboral y poliacuteticas de apoyo familiar Las primeras ayudan a los empleados a acomodar sus responsabilidades familiares sin



reducir las horas de trabajo o la cantidad de trabajo que se rea-liza (p ej beneficios de cuidado de dependientes y horarios de trabajo flexibles) las segundas aumentan la flexibilidad de los liacutemites al permitir que los trabajadores se tomen el tiempo del trabajo para cumplir con las responsabilidades familiares o para trabajar a tiempo parcial

Estudios realizados respaldan la nocioacuten de que la disponibi-lidad y el uso de poliacuteticas favorables a la familia estaacuten asociados con diversos resultados positivos individuales y organizacionales En cuanto a los resultados individuales se encuentran menores niveles de conflicto trabajo-familia (Kossek y Ozeki 1998 Hor-nung et al 2008 Michel et al 2011) mayores niveles de enrique-cimiento trabajo-familia (Lapierre et al 2018) y satisfaccioacuten con el equilibrio trabajo-familia (Ezra y Deckman 1996) entre otros En cuanto a los resultados organizacionales o resultados positivos del trabajo la investigacioacuten ha sugerido relaciones entre la dispo-nibilidad de beneficios y poliacuteticas trabajo-vida (WLBPs) y una mayor satisfaccioacuten laboral (Thomas y Ganster 1995 Baltes et al 1999 Bae y Yang 2017) un mayor compromiso afectivo (Grover y Crooker 1995) un menor ausentismo (Dalton y Mesch 1990) ma-yor participacioacuten laboral (Pierce y Newstrom 1982) y una menor intencioacuten de abandono (Christensen y Staines 1990) entre otros

Diversas investigaciones plantean que la disponibilidad de WLBPs mejora el control percibido por los empleados y sim-boliza la preocupacioacuten corporativa independientemente de si un empleado los usa (Clark 2002) Es decir teoacutericamente los WLBPs crean una sensacioacuten de seguridad para los emplea-dos de que su organizacioacutenempleador apoya el bienestar de los empleados y las necesidades no relacionadas con el trabajo (Baral y Bhargava 2010) En consecuencia se considera que las organizaciones apoyan maacutes a las familias cuando ofrecen bene-ficios favorables a la familia y es maacutes probable que los emplea-dos perciban un lugar de trabajo favorable a la familia si usan esas poliacuteticas (Allen 2001) Con lo que laquola motivacioacuten actitu-des y comportamientos de los empleados hacia la conciliacioacuten dependen en gran medida de coacutemo interpretan las sentildeales que reciben de la empresa seguacuten se haya implementado el sistema de conciliacioacutenraquo (Pasamar 2020 p 1) Asiacute el uso de los bene-ficios por parte de los empleados crea percepciones de apoyo y control de los asuntos trabajo-familia y genera actitudes y sensaciones laborales maacutes positivas (Thomas y Ganster 1995 Thompson et al 1999 Allen 2001 Baral y Bhargava 2010)

Unido a lo anterior y partiendo de nuestra integracioacuten de los modelos de la interfaz trabajo-familia (Greenhaus y Beutell 1985 Voydanoff 2004 2005) con la teoriacutea de ampliacioacuten y cons-truccioacuten de las emociones positivas (Fredrickson 1998 2001) planteamos nuestro modelo Considerando que la satisfaccioacuten laboral que se define como laquoun estado emocional placentero o positivo que resulta de la apreciacioacuten de nuestro trabajo o de nuestras experiencias de trabajoraquo (Locke 1969 p 316) conside-rada como un indicador de bienestar del individuo por Parasu-raman et al (1992) constituyeacutendose asiacute en una respuesta afectiva significativa de las personas que puede reflejar el bienestar global (Carlson et al 2010) se postula que el uso de beneficios y poliacute-ticas trabajo-vida (WLBPs) proporciona un recurso que abarca liacutemites para las personas en una organizacioacuten de manera que los resultados afectivos son mejorados en este caso las satisfaccioacuten laboral Por tanto esperamos encontrar que

Hipoacutetesis 1 El uso de beneficios y poliacuteticas trabajo-vida (WLBPs) se relacionaraacute positivamente con la satisfaccioacuten laboral (JS)

De otra parte la literatura plantea que uno de los mecanis-mos que vinculan dos de los dominios de la vida de una persona como son el trabajo y la familia es el conflicto trabajo-familia el cual se define como laquouna forma de conflicto entre roles en el que las presiones de rol de los dominios del trabajo y la familia son mutuamente incompatibles en algunos aspectosraquo (Greenhaus y Beutell 1985 p 77) Se considera que este es bidireccional es decir el trabajo puede interferir en la familia (WFC) y la familia puede interferir en el trabajo (FWC) (Grzywacz y Marks 2000) En este estudio nos enfocaremos en la direccioacuten del conflicto en el que el trabajo interfiere con la familia (WFC)

El conflicto trabajo-familia tiene asociados unos antece-des y resultados particulares Uno de esos antecedentes son los WLBPs Estudios realizados han encontrado que dichas disposi-ciones estaacuten asociadas negativamente con el conflicto trabajo-fa-milia (Kossek y Ozeki 1998 Michel et al 2011) De otra parte resultados de varios estudios respaldan la idea de que el conflicto trabajo-familia (WFC o FWC) guarda una relacioacuten negativa con la satisfaccioacuten laboral (Kossek y Ozeki 1999 Allen et al 2000 Amstad et al 2011 Rhee et al 2020) En resumen cuanto maacutes experimente una persona conflictos entre los dominios del tra-bajo y la familia mayor seraacute su sensacioacuten de angustia (Green-haus y Parasuraman 1986) lo que puede resultar en una menor satisfaccioacuten laboral (Carlson et al 2010) Con lo cual partiendo de nuestra integracioacuten de los modelos de la interfaz trabajo-fa-milia (Greenhaus y Beutell 1985 Voydanoff 2004 2005) con la teoriacutea de ampliacioacuten y construccioacuten de las emociones positivas (Fredrickson 1998 2001) se postula que el uso de WLBPs pro-porciona un recurso que abarca liacutemites para las personas en una organizacioacuten y una forma en que utilizan este recurso es me-diante la reduccioacuten del conflicto trabajo-a-familia de manera que se mejoren los resultados afectivos en este caso la satisfac-cioacuten laboral Por tanto esperamos encontrar que

Hipoacutetesis 2 El conflicto trabajo-a-familia (WFC) mediaraacute po-sitivamente la relacioacuten entre el uso de beneficios y poliacuteticas traba-jo-vida (WLBPs) y la satisfaccioacuten laboral (JS)

3 METODOLOGIacuteA

31 Muestra y procedimiento

Los datos se recopilaron a traveacutes de una encuesta auto ges-tionada por los empleados de organizaciones colombianas La muestra incluyoacute 559 personas empleadas en organizaciones de diversos sectores y tamantildeos cuyo origen del capital era privado El 633 de las empresas en las que estaacuten ubicados los encuesta-dos tienen maacutes de 200 empleados La muestra fue 458 ciento masculina y 542 femenina donde el 854 tiene edades entre los 25 y 50 antildeos El 646 informaron estar al momento casados o viviendo en pareja el 367 tener nintildeos a cargo y el 431 tener adultos a cargo El 695 ocupa cargos intermedios o directivos el 712 tiene contratos a teacutermino indefinido y el 462 tiene una antiguumledad en la empresa de 1 a 5 antildeos El trabajo de campo se realizoacute durante el mes de julio de 2017 mediante el enviacuteo de



un correo electroacutenico de reclutamiento a una base de datos de 2900 personas que incluiacutea un enlace a nuestra encuesta en liacutenea desarrollada en la plataforma de pago Survey Monkey Los en-cuestados se seleccionaron mediante un meacutetodo de muestreo in-tencional de diferentes grupos ocupacionales conformados por directivos y empleados de empresas privadas con las cuales la Fa-cultad de Ciencias Econoacutemicas de la Universidad de Antioquia tiene relaciones acadeacutemicas de consultoriacutea y praacutecticas laborales permanentes Finalmente se obtuvieron 559 encuestas vaacutelidas lo que representa una tasa de respuesta del 19 Este tamantildeo de muestra garantiza una potencia estadiacutestica satisfactoria superior al 80 (Cohen 1992) para un ά = 005

32 Medidas e instrumentos

Todas las escalas utilizadas en el presente trabajo correspon-den a medidas validadas y frecuentemente utilizadas para me-dir los diferentes conceptos propuestos Las medidas originales estaban en ingleacutes Para traducirlas al espantildeol contratamos a un traductor profesional el cual utilizoacute una estrategia de traduccioacuten inversa (Brislin 1980)

Beneficios y poliacuteticas trabajo-vida (WLBPs) Se utilizaron treinta y cinco WLBPs1 que surgen de la revisioacuten de diversos tra-bajos Partimos de la clasificacioacuten de beneficios y poliacuteticas pro-puesto por Chinchilla y Leoacuten (2007) y agregamos otras a partir de la revisioacuten de otras agrupaciones (Hendriks et al 2006 Idrovo Carlier 2006 Gutieacuterrez et al 2017) lo que permite reconocer beneficios y poliacuteticas adoptados al contexto latinoamericano y en particular al colombiano Se organizaron en cinco categoriacuteas flexibilidad laboral (flexibilidad horaria modalidad de permiso flexibilidad horaria) apoyo formacioacuten y desarrollo servicios fa-miliares (para el cuidado de la familia otros servicios) y benefi-cios extrasalariales Para cada beneficio se les pidioacute a los encues-tados que seleccionaran una de cuatro respuestas 1) Si existe y la he usado 2) Si existe y no la he usado y 3) No existe Para obtener el puntaje de uso de beneficios se sumaron todas las apariciones de la opcioacuten 1 (Si existe y la he usado) a traveacutes de los 35 benefi-cios creaacutendose la variable (USOB) Este procedimiento fue uti-lizado por OrsquoDriscoll et al (2003) y se realizoacute en acuerdo con lo propuesto por Peacuterez (2013 p 64) para laquoel conteo de apariciones del mismo valor o valores en los casos de una lista de variablesraquo

Conflicto trabajo-a-familia (WFC) Utilizamos nueve ele-mentos de la escala de conflicto trabajo-familia desarrollada por Carlson et al (2000) en la direccioacuten en que el trabajo interfiere con la familia Un ejemplo de iacutetem es laquoEl tiempo que debo dedi-car a mi trabajo me impide participar por igual en las responsa-bilidades y actividades del hogarraquo Se utilizoacute una escala de Likert de 7 puntos siendo 1 = muy en desacuerdo hasta 7 = muy de acuerdo El alfa de Cronbach para esta escala fue de 0901

Satisfaccioacuten laboral (JS) Utilizamos la escala de satisfaccioacuten laboral de seis elementos propuesta por Agho Price and Mue-ller (1992) que corresponde a una escala reducida propuesta por Brayfield and Rothe (1951) Un ejemplo de iacutetem es laquo Disfruto realmente mi trabajoraquo Se utilizoacute una escala de Likert de 7 pun-

1 Por efectos de espacio no se reportan todas las WLBPs pueden requerirlas a los autores en sus respectivos correos electroacutenicos

tos siendo 1 = muy en desacuerdo hasta 7 = muy de acuerdo El alfa de Cronbach para esta escala fue de 0925

Variable de control Se incluyoacute una variable dummy comuacuten-mente utilizada en la literatura de WFC como geacutenero (0 mascu-lino 1 femenino)

33 Anaacutelisis de datos

El estudio utiliza el modelado de trayectoria de miacutenimos cuadrados parciales (Partial Least Squares PLS por sus siglas en ingleacutes) una teacutecnica de modelado de ecuaciones estructurales (SEM) basada en la varianza para probar el modelo (Roldaacuten y Saacutenchez-Franco 2012 Hair et al 2019) PLS permite simultaacutenea-mente la evaluacioacuten de la confiabilidad y validez de las medi-das de constructos teoacutericos (modelo de medida) y la estimacioacuten de las relaciones entre estos constructos (modelo estructural) (Barroso et al 2010) El estudio emplea el software SmartPLS 3 (Ringle et al 2015) versioacuten 328 del 22-11-2018

4 RESULTADOS

41 Tratamiento de la varianza de meacutetodo comuacuten (CMV)

Para evitar el problema de la varianza del meacutetodo comuacuten CMV tomamos precauciones basadas en las recomendaciones de Podsakoff et al (2003) para reducir el sesgo de una sola fuen-te para lo cual adoptamos estrategias a priori y a posteriori De una parte intercalamos los iacutetems de las distintas escalas del cues-tionario (Podsakoff et al 2012) y realizamos una prueba previa y una revisioacuten cuidadosa de los elementos que creamos para este estudio (Podsakoff et al 2003) De otra realizamos el test de fac-tor simple de Harman (Podsakoff y Organ 1986 Podsakoff et al 2003) que permitioacute establecer que la varianza explicada por el primer factor es de 4099 Por lo tanto estos resultados indican que es poco probable que los datos presenten el problema de la varianza del meacutetodo comuacuten

42 Resultados del modelo de medida

En el presente estudio utilizamos modelos de medicioacuten re-flexiva donde todas las variables se midieron como factores de primer orden Se utilizan tres criterios para evaluar un modelo de medicioacuten reflexiva en PLS fiabilidad (individual y de cons-tructo) validez convergente y validez discriminante En conse-cuencia el modelo de medida es completamente satisfactorio ver Tablas 1 y 2

Fiabilidad individual Esta para la mayoriacutea de los iacutetems es adecuada De acuerdo con Hair et al (2017) las cargas externas del indicador deben ser iguales o superiores a 0707 Se considera que para etapas iniciales de desarrollo de escalas (Chin 1998a) y cuando las escalas se aplican a contextos diferentes (Barclay et al 1995) los indicadores deacutebiles en ocasiones son retenidos sobre la base de su contribucioacuten a la validez de contenido (Hair et al 2011)

Dadas las condiciones anteriores y que en general laquolos in-dicadores con cargas entre 040 y 070 solo deben considerarse para su eliminacioacuten de la escala si al eliminar este indicador se



produce un aumento en la confiabilidad compuesta por encima del valor umbral sugeridoraquo (Hair et al 2011 p 145) Situacioacuten eacutesta que no se evidencia al realizar los anaacutelisis de este estudio con lo cual aquellos iacutetem inferiores a 0707 y superiores a 04 fueron conservados Ver Tabla 1

Tabla 1 Modelo de medida cargas fiabilidad de constructo

y validez convergente

Constructo Iacutetem Carga t-Value α ρA ρc AVE

Conflicto Trabajo-a-Familia (WFC)

CTWF1 0697 11355 0901 0919 0902 0544 CTWF2 0652 9797 CTWF3 0735 12646CSWF7 0849 16721CSWF8 0860 17173CSWF9 0925 16365CBWF14 0492 5801CBWF15 0588 7779

Satisfaccioacuten Laboral (JS)

JS1 0860 18996 0925 0936 0928 0684 JS2 0765 13935JS3 0787 16252JS4 0659 9906JS5 0914 26061JS6 0944 28292

Notas Valor t para 5000 submuestras α Alfa de Cronbach (pA Rho) Indicador Dijkstra-Henselerrsquos (pc) Fiabilidad compuesta (iacutendice de Dillon-Goldsteinrsquos) AVE Varianza extraiacuteda promedio p lt 005 p lt 001 p lt 0001Fuente Elaboracioacuten propia

Fiabilidad del constructo o consistencia interna Tambieacuten es adecuada Verificamos que todos los constructos reflexivos pre-sentaran un Alfa de Cronbach (α) y una fiabilidad compuesta (ρc iacutendice de Dillon-Goldstein`s) mayor que 07 (Nunnally y Bernstein 1994) Adicionalmente calculamos el nuevo indicador de fiabilidad de constructo (ρA iacutendice Dijkstra-Henseler) y con-firmamos que fuera superior a 07 (Dijkstra y Henseler 2015) Ver Tabla 1

Validez convergente Este criterio garantiza que un conjunto de indicadores represente uno y el mismo constructo subyacente (Fornell y Larcker 1981) Un valor de AVE de al menos 05 sig-nifica que una construccioacuten puede explicar maacutes de la mitad de la varianza de sus indicadores en promedio Las variables latentes alcanzan una validez convergente porque sus medidas de varian-za promedio extraiacuteda (AVE) superan los 05 (Fornell y Larcker 1981) Ver Tabla 1

Validez discriminante Este iacutendice indica la medida en que un constructo es diferente de otros constructos Todas las variables presentan una validez discriminante seguacuten los criterios de Forne-ll-Larcker y Heterotrait-Monotrait (HTMT) ver Tabla 2 Por un lado Fornell-Larcker implica comparar la raiacutez cuadrada de AVE con las correlaciones Para una validez discriminante satisfacto-ria los elementos diagonales (en negrita) deben ser significati-vamente maacutes altos que los elementos fuera de la diagonal en las filas y columnas correspondientes (Fornell y Larcker 1981) cri-

terio que se cumple Confirmamos que todos los valores HTMT estuvieran por debajo de los umbrales de 085 y 090 (Henseler et al 2015)

Tabla 2 Modelo de medida validez discriminante

Criterio de Fornell-Larcker HTMT

WFC JS WFC

WFC 0738

JS ndash0399 0827 0396Notas WFC Conflicto Trabajo-a-Familia JS Satisfaccioacuten Laboral Criterio de Fornell-Larcker los elementos diagonales (en negrita) son la raiacutez cuadrada de la varianza compartida entre las construcciones y sus medidas (AVE) Los elementos fuera de la diagonal son las correlaciones entre constructos Para una validez discriminante los elementos diagonales deben ser maacutes grandes que los elementos fuera de la diagonal HTMT Ratio Heterotrait-MonotraitFuente Elaboracioacuten propia

43 Resultados del modelo estructural

Para el anaacutelisis del modelo estructural como indica Hense-ler et al (2009) se debe hacer uso de bootstrapping (5000 sub-muestras) el cual genera errores estaacutendar y estadiacutesticas t para evaluar la importancia estadiacutestica de los coeficientes de ruta Simultaacuteneamente el caacutelculo de los intervalos de confianza (al 95) de Bootstrapping de los coeficientes de regresioacuten estan-darizados forma parte tambieacuten de este anaacutelisis En la evalua-cioacuten del modelo estructural los criterios que deben considerar-se incluyen la valoracioacuten de posibles problemas de colinealidad mediante el test de factor de inflacioacuten de la varianza VIF (Hair et al 2019) el coeficiente de determinacioacuten (R2) la medida de redundancia validada de forma cruzada basada en Blindfolding (Q2) asiacute como la importancia estadiacutestica y la relevancia de los coeficientes de trayectoria (Chin 1998a Hair et al 2019) Parti-cularmente los valores de los coeficientes de trayectoria deben ser mayores o iguales a 02 e idealmente superiores a 03 para reflejar causalidad (Chin 1998b) Ver Tablas 3 y 4

Inicialmente verificamos la no existencia de multicoli-nealidad entre las variables antecedentes de cada uno de los constructos endoacutegenos para lo cual los valores VIF deberiacutean estar cerca de 3 y maacutes bajos (Hair et al 2019) Encontramos que los VIF estaacuten por debajo de 3 lo que indica que no hay problemas de multicolinealidad ver Tabla 3 Los valores y los niveles de significacioacuten de los coeficientes de trayectoria junto con los coeficientes de R2 para cada una de las construcciones endoacutegenas se muestran en la Figura 2 Se observa que todos los efectos directos son significativos La Tabla 3 muestra que la trayectoria USOB rarr JS (β = 0265 valor t = 7070) es signi-ficativa y de signo positivo y las trayectorias USOB rarr WFC (β = ndash0281 valor t = 7305) y WFC rarr JS (β = -0324 valor t = 7213) son significativas y de signo negativo asiacute como sus respectivos intervalos de confianza no contienen el (0) Con lo cual estos resultados apoyan la hipoacutetesis H1 y dan indicios para no rechazar la hipoacutetesis H2 De otra parte la variable de control no es significativa



El valor R2 de la variable latente dependiente se utilizoacute para determinar la cantidad de varianza explicada por el modelo El R2 mide la varianza que se explica en cada una de las construc-ciones endoacutegenas y por lo tanto es una medida del poder expli-cativo del modelo (Shmueli y Koppius 2011 Hair et al 2019) Seguacuten (Falk y Miller 1992) este iacutendice debe ser superior a 01 lo que garantiza que al menos el 10 de la variabilidad del cons-tructo se derive del modelo En la Tabla 4 el iacutendice R2

JS de la va-riable de satisfaccioacuten laboral indica que el modelo teoacuterico explica el 226 de la varianza del constructo que puede considerarse deacutebil cercana a moderada de acuerdo con los criterios estable-cidos por Chin (1998a) para los valores de R2 (019 deacutebil 033 moderado 067 sustancial) Por lo tanto podemos concluir que nuestro modelo tiene cierto poder explicativo para la variable Satisfaccioacuten Laboral

La Tabla 3 tambieacuten muestra el tamantildeo de los efectos (f 2) de los constructos predictores Este valora el grado con el que un constructo exoacutegeno contribuye a explicar un determinado cons-tructo endoacutegeno en teacuterminos de R2 donde los valores de 002 015 y 035 representan tamantildeos de efecto pequentildeo mediano y grande respectivamente (Cohen 1988) En nuestro caso se ob-serva un tamantildeo de efecto del conflicto trabajo-a-familia sobre la satisfaccioacuten laboral pequentildeo cercano a mediano (f 2

WFC rarr JS = 0124) y pequentildeos (f 2

USOB rarr JS = 0083 f 2 USOB rarr WFC = 0086) para

los demaacutes predictoresOtro criterio de evaluacioacuten del modelo estructural involucra

la capacidad del modelo para predecir La medida predominan-te de la relevancia predictiva es el estadiacutestico Stone-Geisser Q2 (Stone 1974 Geisser 1975 Hair et al 2017) que puede medirse utilizando procedimientos Blindfolding Si este valor para una

GeacuteneroCONFLICTOTrabajo-a-Familia

(WFC)

R2 WFC = 0080

M


(JS)

R2JS = 0226

Uso de WLBPs(USOB)

a1 -0281

b1-0324

H1 = crsquo0265


Nota p lt 005 p lt 001 p lt 0001

0010

-0027

Figura 2 Modelo estructural (Modelo de mediacioacuten)


Tabla 3 Modelo estructural resultados

R2 JS = 0226

R2 WFC = 0080

Percentil Bootstrap

Relaciones β Valor t95CI Varianza

explicada

SoportadaInferior Superior f2 VIF

Hipoacutetesis Efectos directos

H1 + USOB rarr JS 0265 7070 0202 0327 0083 950 1091 Si

USOB rarr WFC ndash0281 7305 ndash0346 ndash0220 0086 794 1005

WFC rarr JS ndash0324 7213 ndash0398 ndash0250 0124 1291 1087

Variables de control

Geacutenero rarr JS ndash0027 0708 ndash0091 0037 0001 015

Geacutenero rarr WFC 0010 0228 ndash0063 0079 00001 003 Notas USOB Uso de beneficios y poliacuteticas trabajo-vida (WLBPs) WFC Conflicto Trabajo-a-Familia JS Satisfaccioacuten Laboral β Coeficiente CI Intervalo de confianza Valor t para 5000 submuestras bootstrapping (basado en una distribucioacuten t (4999) de Student de una cola) t (005 4999) = 1645 t (001 4999) = 2327 t (0001 4999) = 3092 p lt 005 p lt 001 p lt 0001Fuente Elaboracioacuten propia



determinada variable latente endoacutegena es mayor que cero sus variables explicativas proporcionan relevancia predictiva (Hen-seler et al 2009) Como regla general los valores de Qsup2 supe-riores a 0 025 y 05 representan la relevancia predictiva peque-ntildea mediana y grande del modelo PLS-path (Hair et al 2019) Como puede verse en la Tabla 4 los valores para el estadiacutestico Stone-Geisser Q2 presentados para las dos construcciones en-doacutegenas son superiores a cero (0) Especiacuteficamente satisfaccioacuten laboral tiene el valor maacutes alto Q2

JS = 0141 seguido del conflicto trabajo-a-familia (Q2

WFC = 0041) ambos con un nivel de rele-vancia predictiva pequentildea Podemos concluir que nuestro mo-delo tiene cierto nivel de relevancia predictiva para la variable de satisfaccioacuten laboral

Tabla 4 Modelo estructural indicadores de evaluacioacuten

(Poder de prediccioacuten)

Factor R2 R2 Ajustada Q2

WFC 0080 0076 0041

JS 0226 0221 0141

Notas WFC Conflicto Trabajo a Familia WFE Enriquecimiento Trabajo a Familia JS Satisfaccioacuten LaboralFuente Elaboracioacuten propia

44 Anaacutelisis de efecto mediador del WFC

En el estudio se adoptoacute el procedimiento desarrollado por (Nitzl et al 2016) para probar el efecto de la mediacioacuten en PLS-SEM y definir a su vez el tipo de mediacioacuten encontrada Este procedimiento considera dos pasos para probar los efectos de mediacioacuten en PLS 1) Determinar la importancia de los efectos indirectos y 2) Determinar el tipo de efecto y o de mediacioacuten

Paso 1 importancia de los efectos indirectos La Tabla 5 expre-sa el efecto total (c) del uso de WLBPs sobre la Satisfaccioacuten La-boral como la suma de los efectos directo (cʹ) e indirecto (a1 times b1) La estimacioacuten de este uacuteltimo utiliza el producto de los coeficien-tes de trayectoria para la trayectoria en la cadena de mediacioacuten La aplicacioacuten de bootstrapping permite probar las hipoacutetesis de mediacioacuten (Nitzl et al 2016) Las 5000 muestras de este estu-dio generan intervalos de confianza del 95 (percentil) para los mediadores Seguacuten Nitzl et al (2016) el efecto indirecto (a times b) debe ser significativo para establecer un efecto de mediacioacuten En nuestro caso el efecto indirecto (a1 times b1) es significativo La ruta de la variable mediadora M USOB rarr WFC rarr JS (a1 times b1 = 0091 valor t = 5003) no incluye el cero (0) en su respectivo intervalo de confianza del 95 lo que indica que existe un efecto indirecto significativo Por lo tanto H2 es soportada Se confirma asiacute la existencia de mediacioacuten a traveacutes de la variable mediadora WFC

Tabla 5 Resumen del test de efecto mediador

Efecto total de USOB en JS (c)

Efecto directo de USOB en JS (c`)

Efectos indirectos USOB en JS Percentil Bootstrap

VAFβ Valor t β Valor t Punto

estimado Valor t95CI

Inferior Superior

0356 9910 H1 cʹ 0265 7070 H2 = a1 times b1 0091 5003 0064 0123 2557

Notas β Coeficiente VAF Test de varianza explicada Valor t para 5000 submuestras bootstrapping (basado en una distribucioacuten t(4999) de Student de una cola) t(005 4999) = 1645 t(001 4999) = 2327 t(0001 4999) = 3092 p lt 005 p lt 001 p lt 0001Fuente Elaboracioacuten propia

Paso 2 tipo de efecto y o mediacioacuten En este paso se debe verificar la significatividad del efecto directo (cʹ) En caso de que no sea significativo se estaacute en presencia de una mediacioacuten total lo contrario indicariacutea una mediacioacuten parcial (Nitzl et al 2016) En consecuencia bajo la condicioacuten de que tanto el efecto directo (cʹ) como el efecto indirecto (a times b) sean significativos represen-tan mediacioacuten parcial La Tabla 5 muestra la estimacioacuten puntual del efecto directo (cʹ) Dado que el efecto directo es significativo (H1 cʹ = 0265 t = 7070) lo que permite soportar H2 y el efecto indirecto (a1 times b1) es significativo se puede defender una media-cioacuten parcial Sumado a lo anterior se realizoacute el test de varianza explicada (VAF por sus siglas en ingleacutes) que permite evaluar la magnitud de la mediacioacuten que para el caso es de 2557 Debi-do a que el VAF estaacute por debajo del 80 esto implica un argu-mento adicional para una mediacioacuten parcial (Nitzl et al 2016 Hair et al 2017) De otra parte se puede observar que estamos ante una mediacioacuten parcial complementaria puesto que tanto el

efecto directo (crsquo) como el efecto indirecto (a1 times b1) apuntan en la misma direccioacuten (Baron y Kenny 1986 Nitzl et al 2016) en este caso positiva

5 DISCUSIOacuteN Y CONCLUSIONES

El objetivo de este estudio fue desarrollar una mejor com-prensioacuten de los mecanismos que vinculan el uso de beneficios y poliacuteticas trabajo-vida con la interfaz trabajo-familia (conflicto) y los resultados del trabajo (satisfaccioacuten laboral) asociados des-de la perspectiva del dominio del trabajo Argumentamos que el uso de beneficios y poliacuteticas trabajo-vida contribuye a mejorar la satisfaccioacuten laboral al minimizar el conflicto trabajo-a-familia

Las predicciones de nuestro modelo conceptual han sido apoyadas en todos los casos Como se predijo el conflicto tra-bajo-a-familia media positivamente la relacioacuten entre el uso de



beneficios y poliacuteticas trabajo-vida y la satisfaccioacuten laboral Dicha mediacioacuten se presenta como parcial complementaria a traveacutes de la variable mediadora WFC Esto permite inferir que el conflicto trabajo-a-familia incrementa la magnitud de la relacioacuten existente entre el uso de WLBPs y la satisfaccioacuten laboral Es decir el uso de WLBPs proporciona un recurso que abarca liacutemites para las personas en una organizacioacuten y una forma en que utilizan este recurso es mediante la reduccioacuten del conflicto trabajo-a-familia de manera que se mejoran los resultados afectivos como es la sa-tisfaccioacuten laboral El papel mediador del conflicto trabajo-a-fa-milia es consistente con investigaciones previas (Anderson 2002 Carlson et al 2010)

El patroacuten completo de resultados de este estudio es consis-tente con investigaciones anteriores Del lado de las relaciones entre los antecedentes del WFC en nuestro caso los beneficios y poliacuteticas trabajo-vida (WLBPs) encontramos una relacioacuten sig-nificativa con el conflicto trabajo-a-familia aunque su efecto es pequentildeo Esto es coherente con estudios anteriores que sugie-ren una asociacioacuten negativa significativa del WFC con el uso de WLBPs (OrsquoDriscoll et al 2003) Del lado de las relaciones con los resultados de la interfaz trabajo-familia como es la satisfac-cioacuten laboral encontramos una relacioacuten significativa tanto con el conflicto trabajo-a-familia (resultados son consistentes con los resultados previos en la literatura (Carlson et al 2010)) como con el uso de beneficios y poliacuteticas trabajo-vida Baral y Bharga-va (2010) no encontraron relaciones significativas entre el uso de WLBPs y los resultados en el trabajo como la satisfaccioacuten laboral lo cual contrasta con nuestros hallazgos al observarse una rela-cioacuten significativa aunque con efectos pequentildeos en esta relacioacuten

Contribuciones a la literatura En primer lugar existe poca investigacioacuten en contextos latinoamericanos que examinen con-juntamente tanto la relacioacuten directa entre el uso de WLBPs y la satisfaccioacuten laboral como el proceso de mediacioacuten a traveacutes del conflicto trabajo-a-familia en una muestra en la que participan empleados de diversas empresas Segundo la presente investiga-cioacuten contribuye a ampliar la compresioacuten de la relacioacuten directa entre las medidas de conciliacioacuten con la interfaz trabajo-familia y la comprensioacuten de los procesos de mediacioacuten que vinculan el uso beneficios y poliacuteticas trabajo-vida (WLBPs) en los resultados afectivos como es la satisfaccioacuten laboral a traveacutes del conflicto trabajo-a-familia Tercero estos hallazgos brindan a los direc-tivos de las organizaciones una razoacuten maacutes para argumentar las inversiones que en materia de adopcioacuten y promocioacuten del uso de beneficios y poliacuteticas trabajo-vida realizan en sus organizaciones y para los organismos gubernamentales en la definicioacuten de poliacute-ticas puacuteblicas concernientes a la conciliacioacuten de la vida laboral familiar y personal

Fortalezas Nuestro estudio presenta fortalezas en cuanto que al elegir una poblacioacuten amplia nos ha permitido obtener una muestra de personas que trabajaban en empresas de diferentes sectores y tamantildeos cuyo origen del capital es el privado y que por ende cuentan con programas de WLBPs diversos lo que nos da la oportunidad de ampliar el espectro de generalizacioacuten y aporte de los resultados Tambieacuten al utilizar el modelado de trayectoria de miacutenimos cuadrados parciales (PLS-SEM) una teacutecnica de mode-lado de ecuaciones estructurales (SEM) basada en la varianza idoacuteneo para los estudios en el aacuterea de las ciencias sociales par-ticularmente los recursos humanos (Ringle et al 2018) no ha

permitido realizar un anaacutelisis de mediacioacuten de una manera maacutes comprensible proporcionando resultados que bajo otras teacutecnicas no era posible apreciar

Limitaciones De una parte el enfoque de esta investigacioacuten se centroacute en el conflicto trabajo-familia (especiacuteficamente en la direccioacuten en la que el trabajo interfiere en la familia) el lado ne-gativo de la interfaz trabajo-familia Sin embargo autores plan-tean que existe tambieacuten una relacioacuten positiva en esta interfaz tal es el caso del enriquecimiento trabajo-familia (Greenhaus y Powell 2006) donde tal vez el efecto del uso de los WLBPs ten-ga un valor maacutes significativo De otra el posible sesgo derivado de utilizar datos exclusivamente de aquellos trabajadores que hacen uso de los beneficios y poliacuteticas trabajo-vida (WLBPs) quedado por fuera aquellos que a pesar de tener la posibilidad de usarlos no lo han hecho y que previsiblemente presentaraacuten otro patroacuten diferente en las relaciones analizadas en el presente trabajo

Futuras investigaciones Seriacutea interesante expandir esta in-vestigacioacuten hacia diversas liacuteneas Primero hacia una perspecti-va maacutes positiva de la interfaz trabajo-familia es decir hacia el enriquecimiento trabajo-familia donde no solo se contemple la direccioacuten trabajo-a-familia sino tambieacuten la direccioacuten fami-lia-a-trabajo Segundo contemplarse una mirada conjunta entre el conflicto y el enriquecimiento trabajo-familia que permita ob-servar el efecto mediador de una manera comparativa Tercero observar la disponibilidad de WLBPs en esta relacioacuten ya que podriacutea tener efectos diferentes sobre la interfaz trabajo-familia (conflicto yo enriquecimiento) y sobre la satisfaccioacuten laboral Por uacuteltimo considerar otros resultados asociados a la interfaz trabajo-familia (conflicto yo enriquecimiento) como son el de-sempentildeo la intencioacuten de abandono o la satisfaccioacuten con la vida entre otros

6 AGRADECIMIENTOS

Este artiacuteculo de investigacioacuten es producto del proyecto Rela-cioacuten vida familiar y vida laboral de los colaboradores de un gru-po de empresas antioquentildeas una mirada desde la percepcioacuten del conflicto y la conciliacioacuten Financiado por el Centro de Investi-gaciones y Consultoriacuteas de la Facultad de Ciencias Econoacutemicas de la Universidad de Antioquia (Colombia) mediante convoca-toria de proyectos de investigacioacuten autoacutenoma

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Gutieacuterrez L Muntildeoz M y Vargas P 2017 Responsabilidad fami-liar corporativa la percepcioacuten del conflicto y la conciliacioacuten entre la vida familiar y laboral caso Universidad de Antioquia Revista Ciencias Estrateacutegicas 25 (38) 299-317

Hair JF Hult GTM Ringle CM y Sarstedt M 2017 A primer on partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM) 2nd Ed Thousand Oaks SAGE

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ISSN 1131-6837 e-ISSN 1988-2157




El rol del conflicto trabajo-familia en la relacioacuten del clima organizacional y las intenciones de salidaWork-family conflict role in the relationship between organizational climate and intentions to leave

Luis Roberto Domiacutenguez-Aguirre Israel Lozano-Jimeacuteneza Aacutelvaro Fabricio Ramiacuterez-Camposb

a Instituto Tecnoloacutegico Mario Molina Campus Puerto Vallarta Calle Corea del Sur 600 colonia el Mangal Puerto Vallarta Jalisco Meacutexico ndash israellozanovallartatecmmedumx ndash httporcidorg0000-0002-4380-4514b Instituto Tecnoloacutegico Mario Molina Campus Puerto Vallarta Calle Corea del Sur 600 colonia el Mangal Puerto Vallarta Jalisco Meacutexico ndash alvaroramirezvallartatecmmedumx ndash httporcidorg0000-0003-3544-7526

Corresponding author Instituto Tecnoloacutegico Mario Molina Campus Puerto Vallarta Calle Corea del Sur 600 colonia el Mangal Puerto Vallarta Jalisco Meacutexico ndashluisdominguezvallartatecmmedumx ndash httporcidorg0000-0002-5212-983X

A R T I C L E I N F OReceived 3 August 2018 Accepted 29 July 2020

Available online 27 November 2020

DOI 105295cdg181004ld

JEL CODES J28 M54

R E S U M E N

En la actualidad los estudios han documentado sustancialmente las relaciones entre los componentes del clima organizacional y las intenciones de abandonar una organizacioacuten Sin embargo son escasas las evidencias de estas relaciones cuando existen conflictos entre el trabajo y la familia En este trabajo se tiene el objetivo de exhibir las relaciones del clima organizacional con la intencioacuten de salida cuando el conflicto trabajo-familia (WFC) se involu-cra en la ecuacioacuten de prediccioacuten en su rol mediador El meacutetodo incluyoacute la entrevista de 292 empleados de hoteles de cinco estrellas y gran turismo para dimensionar las actitudes relacionadas entre las tres variables utilizando el anaacutelisis de regresioacuten lineal para probar las hipoacutetesis mostrando el modelo con la mayor varianza en la intencioacuten de salida Los resultados describen los modelos exigidos por la prueba de mediacioacuten con las limitaciones que su-ponen el observar un solo tipo de organizacioacuten inhibiendo la generalizacioacuten de los resultados A pesar de esto la originalidad del estudio radica en probar la existencia de este rol mediador La relevancia de los hallazgos reside en que se demuestra que la intencioacuten de abandonar la organizacioacuten por una percepcioacuten desfavorable del ambiente de trabajo se ve influenciada parcial pero significativamente por el conflicto trabajo-familia La implementacioacuten de acciones que promuevan en sus poliacuteticas de gestioacuten la posibilidad de apoyar a los empleados con el equilibrio entre sus relaciones laborales y sus relaciones familiares pueden facilitar un clima laboral que disminuya la rota-cioacuten de personal

Palabras clave clima organizacional intencioacuten de salida rotacioacuten de personal hotel hospitalidad conflicto tra-bajo-familia

A B S T R A C T

Currently studies have substantially documented the relationships between components of the organizational climate and intentions to leave an organization However there is scarce evidence of these relationships when there are conflicts between work and family This article aims to show the relationships of the organizational cli-mate with turnover intention when the work-family conflict (WFC) is involved in the prediction equation in its mediating role The method included the interview of 292 employees of five-star hotels for measuring the related attitudes between these three variables using linear regression analysis to test the hypotheses showing the model with the highest variance in the turnover intention The results describe the models required by the mediation test with the limitations of observing a single type of organization inhibiting the generalization of the results In spite of this the originality of the study lies in proving the existence of this mediating role The relevance of the findings is that it is shown that intention to leave because of unfavorable labor climate at organization is partially but signif-icantly influenced by the work-family conflict The implementation of actions that promote in their management policies the possibility of supporting employees with the balance between their work and family relationships can facilitate a work environment that reduces staff turnover

Keywords Organizational climate turnover intention personnel turnover hotel hospitality work-family conflict


88 L R Domiacutenguez-Aguirre I Lozano-Jimeacutenez Aacute F Ramiacuterez-Campos

1 INTRODUCCIOacuteN

A la luz de las uacuteltimas deacutecadas se observa que las organiza-ciones se han tenido que enfrentar con grandes cambios que las ha obligado constantemente a mejorar su competitividad Ade-maacutes los cambios han originado modificaciones en las actitudes y conductas de las personas de tal forma que el trabajo se percibe bajo un contrato psicoloacutegico diferente obligando tambieacuten a las organizaciones a tratar de ofrecer mejores condiciones de traba-jo para atraer y retener mejores empleados (Ertas 2015)

La hoteleriacutea no es la excepcioacuten y presenta peculiaridades que hacen maacutes compleja la tarea de retener a sus empleados Una industria con factores estresantes y difiacuteciles condiciones de tra-bajo que orientan a sus empleados a considerar dejar el empleo (Blomme Rheede y Tromp 2010 Dawley Houghton y Bucklew 2010) Estas condiciones estaacuten caracterizadas por largos diacuteas de trabajo que superan las horas establecidas como jornada con poca seguridad de mantener el empleo bajos salarios y alta ne-cesidad de acoplamiento y relaciones estrechas con los compantildee-ros y jefes-supervisores para realizar el trabajo favorecieacutendose la alta rotacioacuten de personal y complicando la atraccioacuten y retencioacuten de trabajadores (Marco-Lajara y Ubeda-Garciacutea 2013)

Los estudios sentildealan que el estreacutes generado por las altas exi-gencias laborales dificulta el balance entre la vida social de los trabajadores (Pasamar 2020) incluyendo la familiar y el trabajo (Mcnall Masuda y Nicklin 2010) Asiacute que la hoteleriacutea con largas e irregulares horas de trabajo requiere de sus empleados mucho tiempo y energiacutea con altos niveles de estreacutes (Chiang y Chang 2012 Mansour y Tremblay 2016) que les deja pocas oportunida-des para incluir praacutecticas de ocio en su tiempo libre

Los elementos anteriores posibilitan los conflictos familiares creando los escenarios para la reduccioacuten de la productividad decremento de la satisfaccioacuten y lealtad del cliente (Tung Chen y Schuckert 2017) asiacute como el incremento de la intencioacuten de abandonar la organizacioacuten

Actualmente las investigaciones han revelado que el clima organizacional (OC) tiene una correlacioacuten negativa con las in-tenciones de salida (IL) (Bal De Cooman y Mol 2013) y predice en el mismo sentido el conflicto trabajo-familia (WFC) (Man-sour y Tremblay 2018a) Ademaacutes Blomme et al (2010) mostra-ron que los conflictos entre el binomio trabajo-familia tienen una influencia positiva en la IL

Estos hallazgos han orientado trabajos que muestran que al modificar las condiciones laborales algunos resultados organi-zacionales se modifican Por ejemplo Mcnall et al (2010) en-contraron que algunas praacutecticas emergentes de flexibilidad en el trabajo se relacionaron de forma negativa con la IL y otros han encontrado estaacutes mismas praacutecticas como predictoras del com-promiso (Ongaki 2019)

En el contexto hotelero el WFC puede llegar a significar que el trabajo de sus empleados puede ser tan desgastante que limi-te las atenciones en el ambiente familiar (Mansour y Tremblay 2018a) En estas condiciones y en la buacutesqueda del equilibrio el trabajador puede utilizar tiempo y recursos para solventar la condicioacuten familiar y disminuir su satisfaccioacuten en el trabajo Por lo tanto las necesidades familiares pueden implicar que el con-trato psicoloacutegico contraiacutedo con la organizacioacuten cambie hacien-do que el trabajador valore de forma diferente lo que le rodea o

en su defecto procure equilibrar su conflicto buscando un nuevo empleo que le permita equilibrar sus relaciones familiares con un ambiente laboral satisfactorio manifestando asiacute una relacioacuten positiva entre el WFC y las IL (Pang y Yeh 2019)

Como se puede apreciar se ha examinado el papel del clima organizacional y las intenciones de salida de forma exhaustiva y se ha evidenciado que un clima favorable disminuye la intencioacuten de renunciar a la organizacioacuten pero muy poco se ha indagado sobre el efecto que el conflicto trabajo-familia tiene en estos dos factores Ademaacutes la mayoriacutea de las investigaciones publicadas sobre estos factores que influyen en la intencioacuten de salida se han centrado en personal de enfermeriacutea o de hospitales (Chen Brown Bowers y Chang 2015 Raza et al 2018)

Por lo que el presente trabajo bajo la perspectiva de la teoriacutea del intercambio social tiene la intencioacuten de incrementar la evi-dencia de que los niveles de prediccioacuten de las dimensiones del clima organizacional en la intencioacuten de salida cambian cuando en la ecuacioacuten interviene el conflicto del binomio trabajo-fami-lia Se argumenta que las personas que perciben un mayor con-flicto en el binomio trabajo-familia maacutes probablemente incre-menten sus exigencias de las condiciones de su ambiente laboral incrementando sus expectativas de intercambio con la organiza-cioacuten potenciando ademaacutes las posibilidades de sus intenciones de abandonar la organizacioacuten

En este sentido se realizaron las pruebas pertinentes para corroborar en primera instancia la existencia de relaciones es-tadiacutesticas entre las variables de forma independiente para poste-riormente efectuar el anaacutelisis de regresioacuten a priori entre el clima organizacional y la intencioacuten de salida Y a posteriori al integrar en la ecuacioacuten la variable de conflicto trabajo-familia pudiendo de esta forma observar los cambios en la varianza de las ecuacio-nes evidenciando los efectos de una mediacioacuten

El documento articula una revisioacuten de las condiciones teoacute-ricas existentes y conocidas de la relacioacuten de las variables clima organizacional conflicto trabajo-familia e intencioacuten de salida Se muestra el proceso metodoloacutegico la comprobacioacuten de las correlaciones las ecuaciones de regresioacuten y la discusioacuten de los resultados

2 MARCO TEOacuteRICO

21 La intencioacuten de salida

Como ha quedado demostrado la rotacioacuten de personal in-fluye en diversos resultados organizacionales como los costos de contratacioacuten por reemplazo la productividad el clima orga-nizacional y la satisfaccioacuten laboral (Ruiz Perroca y Jerico 2016 Zimmerman y Darnold 2009 Regts y Molleman 2012) Parti-cularmente en los hoteles se observa la rotacioacuten voluntaria de personal como uno de sus principales problemas por los costos que genera reemplazar a sus recursos humanos

Algunos estudios como el de Davidson Timo y Wang (2010) reportan maacutes de 100 mil doacutelares australianos en este indicador al reponer ejecutivos y llegan a promediar casi 10 mil doacutelares por puesto operativo La disminucioacuten del desempentildeo en las or-ganizaciones hoteleras puede redundar en la disminucioacuten de la calidad en el servicio debido al tiempo que lleva aprender e


El rol del conflicto trabajo-familia en la relacioacuten del clima organizacional y las intenciones de salida 89

integrarse al puesto y que es inherente a los fenoacutemenos de cam-bio o reemplazo Por lo que se ha vuelto de intereacutes el revisar la estructuracioacuten de las variables causales con el peso especiacutefico correspondiente de forma tal que se explique mejor la rotacioacuten voluntaria de las personas en el trabajo

La intencioacuten de salida (IL) se ha identificado como una va-riable clave que predice la rotacioacuten real con un efecto superior al de otros factores organizacionales lo que convierte a la IL en una variable de aproximacioacuten uacutetil para la medicioacuten de la rota-cioacuten voluntaria de personal (Griffeth Hom y Gaertner 2000) Si la rotacioacuten voluntaria de personal se ha comprendido como laquola salida de una organizacioacuten a pesar de que existe la oportunidad de quedarseraquo (Regts y Molleman 2012 p 194) o laquola accioacuten con-siente y deliberada de abandonar la organizacioacutenraquo (Mcnall et al 2010 p 65) entonces la intencioacuten de salida para el presente tra-bajo trasciende como el deseo manifiesto de los trabajadores por abandonar la organizacioacuten con la que tienen un viacutenculo laboral aunque tengan la posibilidad de continuar trabajando en ella

Estos deseos de desvincularse de las empresas se deben prin-cipalmente a los factores relativos a la organizacioacuten y sus condi-ciones y a los factores no relacionados con ella pero que influyen en su decisioacuten La intencioacuten de abandonar la organizacioacuten ha sido una actitud que se ha estudiado ampliamente como una variable dependiente (Blomme et al 2010 Chinomona y Chino-mona 2013 Lai y Kapstad 2009) dado que se busca contrarres-tar los efectos que se derivan del incremento cuantitativo de esta variable por lo que los modelos representados de este fenoacutemeno nos orientan a generar intervenciones organizacionales que lo disminuyan a traveacutes de mejorar las percepciones que los traba-jadores tienen de su ambiente de trabajo por lo que el concepto de clima organizacional toma una particular relevancia

22 El clima organizacional (OC) y la intencioacuten de salida (IL)

El presente artiacuteculo parte de las premisas del intercambio social (Blau 1964 Homans 1967) donde se considera que todas las conductas sociales humanas son un intercambio es decir la relacioacuten entre dos o maacutes personas se realiza si las partes esperan obtener recompensas de la relacioacuten y se mantiene si sus expecta-tivas se cumplen Las relaciones (en cantidad y calidad) son una funcioacuten del valor que se le asignan a las actividades que soportan la relacioacuten y por tanto eacutestas pueden ser positivas y negativas

Esto explica las actitudes y comportamientos en el trabajo de tal forma que si los trabajadores perciben una relacioacuten de trabajo con una organizacioacuten como un intercambio justo por sus esfuer-zos buscaraacuten mantener su relacioacuten con ella En caso contrario se degradaraacute o se perderaacute al buscar los equilibrios Bajo esta premi-sa se forman los contratos psicoloacutegicos donde se percibe que la organizacioacuten deberaacute mantener climas laborales favorables para el trabajador y su trabajo

El clima organizacional es un concepto que se ha visto desde diferentes perspectivas con el paso del tiempo (Furnham 2001) Sin embargo se han trabajado dos grandes enfoques 1) el que lo define como el laquoconjunto de caracteriacutesticas que describen a una organizacioacuten y que la distinguen de otras organizaciones son relativamente perdurables a lo largo del tiempo e influyen en el comportamiento de las personas en la organizacioacutenraquo (Forehand y Gilmer 1964 p 361) y 2) el enfoque de percepcioacuten que mane-

ja el concepto como los atributos de la organizacioacuten y coacutemo las personas lo perciben (Tagiuri 1968)

El clima organizacional se ha manejado como un constructo multidimensional que se caracteriza por las evaluaciones indi-viduales que tienen los trabajadores respecto de los componen-tes tangibles e intangibles de su contexto laboral (James y James 1989) Desde una perspectiva general estas evaluaciones pue-den observarse en dimensiones del entorno laboral tales como liderazgo apoyo roles cooperacioacuten (Davidson Manning Timo y Ryder 2001) que influyen en los resultados organizacionales propiciados por ellos

El presente trabajo parte de la idea de James y James (1989) en la cual se define como laquotodas las caracteriacutesticas internas que producen las organizaciones y que se traducen en la percepcioacuten cognitiva del ambiente laboral o de trabajoraquo (p 740) ya que eacutestas le dan significado e importancia a las actitudes y conductas del trabajador que modulan su desempentildeo (Nasurdin Tan y Khan 2018 Staufenbiel y Koumlnig 2010) En teacuterminos generales el clima organizacional refleja las percepciones que los empleados tienen acerca de los sucesos sus poliacuteticas normas procedimientos cul-tura y praacutecticas

Las percepciones se formulan por las expectativas que los empleados se han generado por el contrato psicoloacutegico mani-festado por su contexto social explicando gran parte de los re-sultados organizacionales reconocieacutendose que el cumplimiento de estas expectativas puede producir esfuerzos ordinarios y ex-traordinarios que contribuyen a un mayor desempentildeo una ma-yor lealtad y un mayor compromiso (Bal et al 2013)

Una de las dimensiones del clima organizacional tiene rela-cioacuten con la percepcioacuten de un lugar ordenado limpio y coacutemodo para trabajar (Muumlnderlein Ybema y Koster 2013) Esto incluye la sensacioacuten favorable que percibe un empleado de la distribu-cioacuten de su carga de trabajo por su equidad y contribucioacuten a los objetivos de la organizacioacuten aprovechando la capacidad poten-cial de un sujeto para realizar su trabajo Se espera que un lugar favorable para trabajar incluya actividades y tareas adecuadas de forma efectiva para el logro de metas claras (Muumlnderlein et al 2013) Algunos han estudiado estos aspectos a traveacutes de la sa-tisfaccioacuten laboral donde las condiciones de trabajo (Qu y Zhao 2012) el reparto de las tareas y el tiempo para realizarse (Mcnall et al 2010) asiacute como los esquemas de compensacioacuten y las con-diciones fiacutesicas del trabajo (Lai y Kapstad 2009) han sido in-cluidos para una mayor comprensioacuten del clima organizacional Habieacutendose demostrado consistentemente la relacioacuten negativa entre estos elementos y la intencioacuten de salida conformaacutendose como un contrato psicoloacutegico entre el sujeto y la organizacioacuten (Bal et al 2013)

Por otro lado el clima laboral no solo se configura a traveacutes de los elementos materiales que rodean al trabajador sino que tambieacuten incluye la relacioacuten que los trabajadores sostienen con las demaacutes personas a su alrededor Los jefes o supervisores son ge-neralmente los representantes de las empresas con mayor cerca-niacutea a los empleados y sustentan la obligacioacuten de informar sobre los objetivos e intenciones de la organizacioacuten a sus subalternos ademaacutes de personificar la cultura y apoyar con los ajustes que las habilidades y conocimientos de los empleados necesitan para cumplir con los requerimientos de su puesto de trabajo (Maertz Griffeth y Campbell 2007) Por lo tanto el apoyo del supervisor



en la adaptacioacuten del trabajador al puesto y la realizacioacuten de sus tareas juega un rol muy importante

Los supervisores tambieacuten tienen la capacidad de ajustar las expectativas y percepciones de los trabajadores acerca de su auto-ridad y responsabilidad dado que eacutestos administran los elemen-tos culturales que influyen en la forma en que los empleados se relacionan con sus compantildeeros o colegas en el trabajo (Dawley Houghton y Bucklew 2010) Este conjunto de expectativas y per-cepciones que los empleados tienen de los elementos culturales las capacidades organizativas las relaciones interpersonales y el binomio autoridad-responsabilidad estaacuten conjugados por el concepto de laquoapoyo percibidoraquo

Los trabajadores comparten el paradigma de que sus jefes son los responsables de dotar de las herramientas necesarias de oportunidades para su crecimiento asiacute como de ensentildeanzas para el incremento de sus destrezas y conocimientos (Lai y Kapstad 2009) ademaacutes de proporcionar las condiciones necesarias para optimizar su rendimiento (Staufenbiel y Koumlnig 2010) Los traba-jadores tienen la expectativa de que sus jefes brinden oportuni-dades para su desarrollo y promocioacuten en la organizacioacuten (Stahl Chua Caligiuri Cerdin y Taniguchi 2009) y que contribuyan a su satisfaccioacuten laboral (Mcnall et al 2010) Por lo que se espera que si el trabajador percibe mayor apoyo su compromiso afecti-vo incremente (Chinomona y Chinomona 2013) y sus intencio-nes de renunciar disminuyan (Dawley et al 2010)

Tambieacuten se ha demostrado que las relaciones de los emplea-dos con sus compantildeeros maacutes cercanos tienen un importante rol para entender el fenoacutemeno de la motivacioacuten que genera el acompantildeamiento para aprender buscar nuevas posiciones labo-rales innovar crecer y permanecer en el trabajo (Yang Gong y Huo 2011 Selvarajan Singh y Cloninger 2016) Las hipoacutetesis se orientan a creer que la retroalimentacioacuten aliento y apoyo de los compantildeeros de trabajo motivan a los empleados para poner en praacutectica nuevas habilidades buscar nuevos conocimientos cum-plir con el trabajo y buscar el desarrollo y el crecimiento en sus respectivos trabajos

En consecuencia el apoyo percibido puede configurar es-quemas culturales derivados de la estructura organizacional for-mando relaciones sociales capaces de satisfacer la necesidad de afiliacioacuten de los empleados formulando sinergias para el logro de metas ademaacutes de contribuir con otros resultados organiza-cionales como el compromiso la lealtad y el desempentildeo en el trabajo (Nasurdin Ling y Khan 2018) La falta de apoyo puede traducirse como una condicioacuten que inhibe estos indicadores y que influye en las intenciones de renunciar o abandonar la or-ganizacioacuten

De forma general se busca que las personas perciban los elementos con los que interactuacutean como favorables para tra-bajar e incluso que motiven para a la hora de realizar esfuer-zos extraordinarios en el trabajo asegurar el cumplimiento de las metas Consientes que las personas son influenciadas por aquellos aspectos que consideran como importantes las or-ganizaciones formulan herramientas que contribuyan con su motivacioacuten Por concepto el ejercicio de la motivacioacuten recono-ce factores intriacutensecos y extriacutensecos (Muumlndelein et al 2013) y normalmente se identifican juntos o combinados ya que un empleado puede simultaacuteneamente estar motivado por estos dos motivadores

Los factores motivacionales intriacutensecos se integran por aquellos que condicionan acciones por la satisfaccioacuten del su-jeto mismo sin que exista un contrato psicoloacutegico que inclu-ya la retribucioacuten por esas acciones Como se ha argumentado se busca que las personas encuentren en su ambiente laboral aquellos factores que favorecen la motivacioacuten intriacutenseca como la satisfaccioacuten que genera su propio rendimiento o las oportu-nidades de aprendizaje crecimiento o afiliacioacuten que ofrece (Lai y Kapstad 2009)

La composicioacuten de los factores extriacutensecos estaacute integrada por incentivos que proporciona la organizacioacuten y que acom-pantildean al trabajo como los sueldos y salarios los bonos pre-mios y algunas otras prestaciones (Muumlnderlein et al 2013) Estas herramientas utilizadas para motivar al trabajador son parte del clima de trabajo y pueden aumentar el aprecio por el puesto y aumentar la fidelidad a eacutel La insuficiencia de herra-mientas motivacionales en el clima laboral puede coadyuvar en las intenciones de abandonar una organizacioacuten para encontrar otra que ofrezca condiciones con factores motivantes que jus-tifiquen su permanencia Los empleados que se encuentran en un trabajo satisfactorio aprovisionado de motivadores que son dotados o incentivados por la organizacioacuten y que se perciben como favorables para trabajar estaraacuten menos orientados a re-nunciar (Muumlnderlein et al 2013) En caso contrario pueden comenzar a planificar su cambio de trabajo en otra organiza-cioacuten con otros patrones

Como se puede observar las correlaciones tiacutepicas observadas en la literatura entre el clima organizacional y la intencioacuten de salida han sido negativas Los trabajadores que no disfrutan de espacios y contenidos de trabajo (Muumlnderlein et al 2013) del so-porte de sus jefes o el apoyo de sus compantildeeros de trabajo (Yang et al 2011) y no cuentan con herramientas motivacionales satis-factorias pueden manifestar conductas negativas o intenciones de abandonar la organizacioacuten

De acuerdo con la literatura todos los componentes del cli-ma organizacional correlacionan de forma negativa con las in-tenciones de salida por lo que puede esperarse que las regresio-nes para comprobar las relaciones se observen tambieacuten de forma negativa

H1 Un incremento en las calificaciones del clima organizacional se relaciona con un descenso en la calificacioacuten de las inten-ciones de salida

23 Conflicto trabajo-familia (WFC) y la intencioacuten de salida (IL)

Nuevos esquemas se han dibujado en el contexto social que involucra entre otras cosas eventos como el incremento de mujeres en el mercado laboral (OIT 2018) el incremen-to del doble ingreso en el matrimonio donde ambas perso-nas cuentan con un empleo (Ogata 1995) yo redes sociales emergentes con nuevos mecanismos tecnoloacutegicos para comu-nicarse (OrsquoKeeffe y Clarke-Pearson 2011) Estas nuevas con-diciones han dejado como consecuencia nuevos fenoacutemenos y problemaacuteticas derivadas del incremento de nuacutemero de horas dedicadas al trabajo redundando en una demanda excesiva de labores que puede transferirse de forma negativa a la vida fa-miliar y viceversa El conflicto se puede manifestar cuando la



familia del empleado le exige mayor tiempo o recursos causan-do estreacutes y posibilitando la disminucioacuten del desempentildeo en su trabajo o cuando el trabajo le exige al empleado mayor tiempo y esfuerzo disminuyendo la fuerza de las relaciones familiares (Amstad Meier Fasel Elfering y Semmer 2011) El WFC se conceptualiza como laquouna forma de conflicto entre roles en el que el rol de las presiones del trabajo y los dominios familiares son mutuamente incompatibles en alguacuten aspectoraquo (Green-haus y Beutell 1985 p 77)

Esta divergencia entre los papeles laborales y familiares que juega el empleado en el que la tensioacuten propiciada por los roles baacutesicos de trabajo y familia son incompatibles entre si es cono-cido como laquoconflicto trabajo-familia (WFC) ya que la familia puede interferir con el trabajo o el trabajo interfiere con la fa-milia (Stewart 2013) siendo este conflicto un factor especiacutefico que genera estreacutes laboral y que ha llegado a ser relevante en las investigaciones sobre el comportamiento de las personas en el trabajo (Blomme et al 2010)

El WFC ha sido estudiado en las dos direcciones (el traba-jo interfiere con la familia la familia interfiere con el trabajo) lo que ha implicado su naturaleza bidireccional (Daderman y Basinska 2016) mostrando una afectacioacuten dantildeina en ambos sentidos ya que el trabajo puede perjudicar las relaciones intra-familiares y la familia puede llegar a afectar de forma negativa los requerimientos en el trabajo (Mcnall et al 2010)

Para efectos de esta investigacioacuten se consideraron las dos direcciones en el conflicto dado que las dos formas de con-flicto trabajo-familia familia-trabajo a pesar de ser concep-tualmente distintas estaacuten relacionadas y las dos impactan los resultados organizacionales y la intencioacuten de salida (Amstad et al 2011) Especiacuteficamente investigaciones anteriores han encontrado que la dualidad trabajo-familia familia-trabajo estaacute negativamente relacionada con los resultados organi-zacionales y positivamente relacionadas con la intencioacuten de salida Por lo tanto aunque el conflicto trabajo-familia y fami-lia-trabajo son construcciones distintas la interrelacioacuten entre las dos construcciones sugieren la posibilidad de integrarse como un solo fenoacutemeno estresante

Por lo que es posible deducir que

H2 Un incremento en las calificaciones del conflicto trabajo-fa-milia se relaciona con una mayor calificacioacuten en las intencio-nes de salida

24 El Clima organizacional y el Conflicto Trabajo-familia

Las configuraciones sociales que una organizacioacuten mani-fiesta estaacuten sustentadas en el clima organizacional y este se teje con el conjunto de intervenciones que se realizan con la fina-lidad de establecer percepciones favorables en sus trabajadores para mejorar su productividad satisfaccioacuten y calidad de vida (Mansour y Tremblay 2016) Estas percepciones favorables tambieacuten son influidas por otros factores que no necesariamen-te se encuentran en el interior de la organizacioacuten sino que se manifiestan en su ambiente pero que afectan a la forma en que se perciben sus poliacuteticas y procedimientos Tal es el caso de los conflictos existentes en el binomio trabajo-familia o fami-lia-trabajo (Stewart 2013)

La literatura ha manifestado ampliamente la relacioacuten exis-tente entre los factores estresantes causados por las divergencias entre el binomio y el propio ambiente de trabajo mostrando que resulta imperante comenzar a trabajar en la formulacioacuten de un clima laboral que favorezca las relaciones sanas de sus trabaja-dores con la familia (Mansour y Tremblay 2018b) dada la natu-raleza negativa de sus relaciones La literatura sugiere ambientes de apoyo organizacional con poliacuteticas amigables con la familia climas organizacionales de apoyo a la familia y apoyos del super-visor o jefe inmediato (Selvarajan et al 2016)

Esto no ha sido espontaacuteneo la evidencia hasta hoy presen-tada ha podido relacionar que la satisfaccioacuten en el trabajo se observa influenciada por la calidad de vida que tiene una per-sona pero que esta se ve moderada con la aparicioacuten de sujetos con variados niveles de conflicto trabajo-familia (Qu y Zhao 2012)

En particular cuando el trabajo se realiza en un clima la-boral desfavorable los trabajadores con altos niveles de WFC pueden sufrir desgastes personales que en consecuencia dis-minuyan los niveles de compromiso lealtad y satisfaccioacuten asiacute como que afecten a sus relaciones intrafamiliares (Daderman y Basinska 2016)

H3 Un incremento en las calificaciones del clima organizacional se relaciona con una menor calificacioacuten del conflicto traba-jo-familia

25 El rol mediador del conflicto trabajo-familia

De forma separada se han estudiado las dimensiones del clima organizacional y su relacioacuten con las intenciones de salida (Davidson et al 2001 Dawley et al 2010 Liu Cai Li Shi y Fang 2013) apuntando a que la intencioacuten de salida disminuye en la medida que los empleados perciben un clima laboral favo-rable y que su intencioacuten de salida incrementa cuando el clima se percibe desfavorable e inclusive se ha demostrado que sus niveles pueden llegar a explicar un tercio de la varianza en las intenciones de salida (Gahlawat y Kundu 2019) Tambieacuten se ob-serva que niveles altos de WFC coinciden con niveles altos de in-tenciones de salida lo que muestra que las personas que perciben conflictos o desgastes en las relaciones familiares por el trabajo o viceversa tienden a buscar otras alternativas de trabajo incremen-tando sus intenciones de salir de la organizacioacuten (Amstad et al 2011) Y por otro lado si no se cumplen algunas condiciones la-borales pueden llegar a formular altos niveles de WFC Visto de otra forma si los empleados sienten niveles de tensioacuten en la or-ganizacioacuten por sus condiciones pueden disminuir su capaci-dad de cumplir con los requerimientos familiares formulando desequilibrios desgastantes (Blomme et al 2010)

Pero iquestcuaacutel es la capacidad predictiva del clima organizacio-nal en la IL cuando el WFC aparece en la ecuacioacuten

Los empleados que tienen una relacioacuten que perciben como favorable motivadora o inspiradora con el clima organizacional estaraacuten maacutes comprometidos con la organizacioacuten y tendraacuten me-nos tendencias a salirse o buscar otro empleo Sin embargo exis-te evidencia que cuando un factor externo aparece esta relacioacuten puede verse mediada o moderada y cambiar el impacto de su re-lacioacuten con la intencioacuten de salida (Peachey Burton y Wells 2014)



Se reconoce pues al WFC como un factor estresante que mo-difica las relaciones entre la familia y el trabajo e interfiere con sus responsabilidades haciendo que dediquen mayores recursos en equilibrar la situacioacuten (Daderman y Basinska 2016) Para sol-ventar esta condicioacuten estresante los trabajadores optan por dejar la organizacioacuten o tener una disminucioacuten en su desempentildeo Se reconoce que el WFC propicia malestar fiacutesico y psicoloacutegico que produce cansancio insatisfaccioacuten con la vida peacuterdida del ape-tito inconformidad con las relaciones familiares insatisfaccioacuten laboral e insatisfaccioacuten con la vida familiar (Blomme et al 2010)

Por lo tanto se puede esperar que el WFC sea un elemento que bajo una perspectiva de intercambio modifique las expec-tativas del clima organizacional incrementando la posibilidad de insatisfaccioacuten y esto a su vez incremente el deseo de renunciar a la organizacioacuten (Chen et al 2015)

H4 La relacioacuten entre el clima organizacional (CO) y la intencioacuten de salida (IL) estaacute mediada por el conflicto trabajo-familia (WFC)

26 Modelo hipoteacutetico

Los trabajadores en una organizacioacuten cuentan con necesida-des que al verse satisfechas justifican su relacioacuten laboral o en caso contrario con la buacutesqueda de la ruptura Esta perspecti-va se ha utilizado bajo el nombre de intercambio social donde esencialmente las personas entregan sus recursos por otros a cambio (Bal et al 2013) Bajo esta premisa los trabajadores bus-can condiciones que satisfagan sus necesidades como el obtener un salario para el sustento de su familia pero lo buscan en un ambiente de trabajo que considera como favorable para desarro-llarse aprender y crecer en condiciones motivantes y retadoras (Lai y Kapstad 2009) Y por otro lado la organizacioacuten busca encontrar en el trabajador contratado su compromiso lealtad y productividad para el logro de objetivos o metas organizacio-nales de forma eficiente (Nasurdin et al 2018 Morales 1978) Bajo estos paradigmas el presente trabajo tiene la intencioacuten de analizar la relacioacuten entre el clima organizacional y la intencioacuten de salida cuando se observa el fenoacutemeno denominado conflicto trabajo-familia

Los conceptos de clima organizacional o satisfaccioacuten laboral se han estudiado por varios investigadores observando su rela-cioacuten con la intencioacuten de salida (Liu et al 2013 Chinomona y Chinomona 2013 James y James 1989) Tambieacuten se ha obser-vado la relacioacuten entre WFC y las IL pero iquestqueacute sucede con estaacutes relaciones cuando se involucra otra variable en la ecuacioacuten Las hipoacutetesis iniciales se muestran de forma conjugada en un modelo hipoteacutetico descrito en la Figura 1 donde se reflejan las relaciones y sus roles de independencia dependencia y mediacioacuten El mo-delo tambieacuten refleja la posibilidad de un cambio en el impacto de la relacioacuten de la variable independiente y dependiente cuando la variable mediadora se integra en la ecuacioacuten de regresioacuten

Las relaciones que se pueden esperar se presentan en la Fi-gura 1 como modelo hipoteacutetico que pueda contrastarse con las pruebas empiacutericas donde se observa las posibles relaciones entre las variables Aunque para comprobar la mediacioacuten se deberaacute contrastar el impacto de estas relaciones observaacutendose por sepa-rado las regresiones

r (ndash) r (+)

IL

r (ndash)

WFCOC

Figura 1 Relaciones hipoteacuteticas

Fuente elaboracioacuten propia con base en el marco teoacuterico

3 METODOLOGIacuteA

31 Muestra

Se encuestaron a 292 personas vinculadas laboralmente con organizaciones hoteleras en Puerto Vallarta (Meacutexico) con clasificacioacuten de 5 estrellas y gran turismo La muestra total estuvo constituida por el 56 de geacutenero masculino y el 44 femenino con un rango de edad de 21 a 39 antildeos El perfil edu-cativo alcanzaba 814 antildeos en promedio ponderado de edu-cacioacuten formal Se buscoacute que la muestra incluyera empleados de todas las aacutereas de forma proporcional a su tamantildeo 25 de ellos perteneciacutean al departamento de alimentos y bebidas 19 divisioacuten cuartos 175 mantenimiento y aacutereas puacuteblicas y el resto a las aacutereas administrativas que incluyeron recursos hu-manos reservas y ventas gerencia y contabilidad y tecnologiacuteas de la informacioacuten

32 Medidas

El Instrumento de Medicioacuten de la Intencioacuten de Salida (IMIS) (Domiacutenguez-Aguirre et al 2015) es un cuestionario que se compone de 40 iacutetems con siete dimensiones de las cuales incluye cuatro componentes del clima organizacional (OC) (Espacios y contenidos de trabajo apoyo del supervisor apoyo de los compa-ntildeeros de trabajo y motivacioacuten organizacional) un componente para el conflicto trabajo-familia (WFC) y un componente para la intencioacuten de salida (IL) En el instrumento se incluye un com-ponente que representa las oportunidades disponibles fuera de la organizacioacuten (AO) pero sus respuestas no fueron parte del anaacutelisis Se evaluaron las percepciones de los empleados utili-zando 24 iacutetems

La escala que se utilizoacute fue de cinco puntos de tipo Likert que va desde 1 con la etiqueta laquomuy en desacuerdoraquo hasta el cinco con la etiqueta laquomuy de acuerdoraquo Para el caso de clima organi-zacional como una variable de dimensiones agregadas la pun-tuacioacuten fue de 24 la miacutenima a 120 la maacutexima

Para reducir el sesgo metodoloacutegico (varianza del meacutetodo co-muacuten) (Podsakoff Mackenzie Lee y Podsakoff 2003) la encues-



ta incluyoacute en la parte de instrucciones la aclaracioacuten de que los datos se utilizariacutean de forma agregada respetando la integridad de los individuos y de las organizaciones manteniendo su anoni-mato y el control de los resultados obtenidos Tambieacuten incluyoacute la instruccioacuten de que no habiacutea respuestas correctas e incorrectas solicitaacutendoles la mayor honestidad posible

A El Clima organizacional (OC)

El clima organizacional (OC) se midioacute de forma agregada incorporando 24 reactivos que integraron afirmaciones como laquoson adecuadas las instalaciones en el lugar de trabajoraquo laquoel su-pervisor cuida de sus empleadosraquo laquolos compantildeeros de trabajo son de confianzaraquo entre otros Los 24 reactivos mostraron un alfa de Cronbach de 0750 Una puntuacioacuten alta en la codifica-cioacuten indicoacute una percepcioacuten maacutes favorable del OC

B Conflicto trabajo-familia (WFC)

Tres reactivos se consideraron para medir el WFC que in-corporaron enunciados como laquome siento vaciacuteo al final del diacutearaquo laquosiento cansancio antes de ir a trabajarraquo y laquosiento que no me queda tiempo para la familiaraquo Se observoacute una consistencia in-terna de 0738 en los 3 reactivos Niveles altos de WFC en la co-dificacioacuten indicaron una percepcioacuten maacutes alta de conflicto entre el trabajo y la familia

C Intencioacuten de salir o dejar la organizacioacuten (IL)

Se evaluoacute IL con siete reactivos que integraron afirmaciones como laquodejariacutea la organizacioacuten si tuviera una mejor oportuni-dad en otro lugarraquo laquosi pudiera llegariacutea tarde al trabajo mantildea-naraquo El alfa de Cronbach para estos reactivos fue de 0840 Una mayor IL se observa cuando las puntuaciones en la codifica-cioacuten son altas

33 Anaacutelisis estadiacutestico

Para el anaacutelisis estadiacutestico fue utilizado el software SPSS 220 (statistical package for social science) de IBM Se reali-zoacute el caacutelculo de promedios y relaciones estadiacutesticas de Pearson para todas las variables en el trabajo Se realizaron pruebas para comprobar la existencia de diferencias en hombres y mujeres a traveacutes de pruebas t de muestras independientes Para evaluar la relacioacuten entre el OC y la IL la relacioacuten entre el OC y el WFC la relacioacuten entre WFC y la IL se efectuoacute un anaacutelisis de regresioacuten lineal Por uacuteltimo se observoacute el cambio existente del impacto causado por OC en la IL cuando WFC se incorporaba a la ecua-cioacuten de regresioacuten El meacutetodo para evaluar los efectos de media-cioacuten incluyoacute cuatro fases (Baron y Kenny 1986) la primera fue mostrar la relacioacuten de la variable independiente (OC) con la variable dependiente (IL) la segunda verificar la relacioacuten exis-tente entre la variable independiente (OC) y la variable de me-diacioacuten (WFC) la tercera consistioacute en comprobar la existencia de la relacioacuten entre el factor de mediacioacuten (WFC) y la variable dependiente (IL) para que en la uacuteltima fase se observara si la relacioacuten entre OC e IL se alteraba despueacutes de que WFC se in-troduciacutea en la ecuacioacuten

4 RESULTADOS

En la Tabla 1 se pueden observar las variables del estudio con sus medias desviaciones y correlaciones bivariadas Los emplea-dos de los hoteles incluidos en el estudio reflejan una calificacioacuten sutilmente por debajo de la puntuacioacuten media en el WFC y las IL (M = 2215) y ligeramente por encima de la calificacioacuten media en OC Las pruebas t de muestras independientes no mostraron diferencias entre hombres y mujeres y con respecto a las varia-bles del estudio Tal como se esperaba el WFC resultoacute estar po-sitivamente relacionado con las IL El OC se relacionoacute con las IL de forma negativa

Tabla 1 Estudio de variables medias desviaciones estaacutendar y correlaciones

Estudio de variables M SD 1 2 3

1 Clima organizacional (OC) 1281 1667 mdash mdash mdash

2 Conflicto trabajo-familia (WFC) 2764 07461 ndash0249 mdash mdash

3 Intencioacuten de salida (IL) 2215 09108 ndash0399 0412 mdash

La correlacioacuten es significativa al nivel de 005 (dos colas) La correlacioacuten es significativa al nivel de 001 (dos colas)Fuente elaboracioacuten propia con base en los datos obtenidos

Los resultados del primer anaacutelisis de regresioacuten lineal jeraacuter-quica por pasos se muestran en la Tabla 2 con IL como variable de respuesta utilizando edad y geacutenero como factores de control La ecuacioacuten de regresioacuten comprueba una relacioacuten negativa en-tre el clima organizacional (OC) y las intenciones de salida (IL) confirmaacutendose la hipoacutetesis 1 al explicar el 18 de la varianza en IL a traveacutes del clima organizacional (OC) (F=33145 p lt 0001)

Tabla 2 Anaacutelisis de regresioacuten jeraacuterquica para predecir IL con OC (n = 305)

Pasos y variables introducidas Paso 1 Paso 2

1 Edad y geacutenerondash0151 ndash0145ndash0024 ndash0054

2 OC mdash ndash0396

Modelo de regresioacuten

R2 0023 0180

Cambio en R2 0023 0157

P lt 005 P lt 001 P lt 0001Nota valores de los coeficientes estandarizados (β) de la respectiva regresioacuten por pasos con significancia de t excepto el modelo de regresioacuten R2 y sus cambiosFuente elaboracioacuten propia con base en los datos obtenidos

El mismo procedimiento de regresioacuten se realizoacute pero con WFC como variable de resultado considerando OC como va-riable independiente mantenieacutendose las variables de control La matriz de regresioacuten demuestra una relacioacuten negativa entre WFC



y OC confirmaacutendose la hipoacutetesis 2a Como se observa en la Ta-bla 3 el modelo incluyoacute al OC explicando poco maacutes del 6 de la varianza en WFC OC β = ndash 0249 F = 20069 p lt 0001

Tabla 3 Anaacutelisis de regresioacuten jeraacuterquica para predecir WFC con OC

(n = 305)


Edad y geacutenerondash0022 ndash0030

0104 0087OC mdash ndash0249


R2 0012 0062


P lt 005 P lt 001 P lt 0001Nota valores de los coeficientes estandarizados (b) de la respectiva regresioacuten por pasos con significancia de t excepto el modelo de regresioacuten R2 y sus cambiosFuente elaboracioacuten propia con base en los datos obtenidos

Para comprobar la hipoacutetesis 2b el modelo de regresioacuten con-sideroacute la IL como variable de resultado y al conflicto trabajo-fa-milia (WFC) como variable independiente manteniendo la edad y geacutenero como variables de control El resultado indica una re-lacioacuten positiva en la matriz de regresioacuten entre las variables con-firmaacutendose asiacute la hipoacutetesis 2b Como se muestra en la Tabla 4 se incluyoacute al WFC para explicar casi el 19 de la varianza en IL F = 35121 p lt 0001 El WFC se encontroacute significativo (WFC β = 0407 p lt 0001)

Tabla 4 Anaacutelisis de regresioacuten jeraacuterquica para predecir IL con WFC (n = 305)


Edad y geacutenerondash0151 ndash0138ndash0024 ndash0067

WFC mdash 0407


R2 0023 0189



Para probar la tercera hipoacutetesis se realizoacute un anaacutelisis de los efectos mediadores a traveacutes de la regresioacuten lineal por pasos Al probarse 1) la relacioacuten entre la variable independiente OC y la variable dependiente IL 2) la relacioacuten entre la variable media-dora y la variable independiente y 3) la relacioacuten entre la varia-ble independiente y la variable mediadora 4) restando obser-var los cambios en el efecto de la variable independiente sobre la dependiente al incluir en la ecuacioacuten la variable mediadora

En la Tabla 5 se muestran los efectos del anaacutelisis de media-cioacuten En primer lugar se introdujeron en la ecuacioacuten las varia-bles edad y geacutenero como variables de control En el segundo paso se induce la variable independiente OC mostrando que el modelo explicaba el 18 de la varianza en IL con un coeficiente estandarizado significativo (β = ndash0396 plt0001) En el paso nuacutemero 3 se introduce WFC para observar los cambios en el impacto de OC resultando que poco maacutes del 28 explicaba la varianza de IL en este modelo Se observa que el coeficiente estandarizado de OC sufrioacute una disminucioacuten de β = ndash0396 a β = ndash0315 con plt0001 con un cambio en R2 de 0101 corro-boraacutendose asiacute la hipoacutetesis 3

Tabla 5 Anaacutelisis de regresioacuten jeraacuterquica para predecir IL con OC cuando

WFC se incluye (efecto de mediacioacuten)

Pasos y variables introducidas Paso 1 Paso 2 Paso 3

Edad y geacutenerondash0151 ndash0145 ndash0135

ndash0024 ndash0054 ndash0083OC mdash ndash0396 ndash0315WFC mdash mdash 0329


R2 0023 0180 0281

Cambios en R2 0023 0157 0101


Los resultados representados de forma graacutefica se pueden ob-servar en las Figuras 2 y 3 manifestando el efecto parcial que el WFC tiene en la relacioacuten existente entre OC y la IL Si las regre-siones se observan de forma directa entre las variables como en la Figura 1 OC tiene un impacto en IL que disminuye cuando WFC se incorpora a la ecuacioacuten (Figura 3) comprobaacutendose el modelo hipoteacutetico completo

(β = ndash 0396) (β = ndash 0407)

IL

(β = ndash 0249)

WFCOC

Figura 2 Betas de regresioacuten en modelos independientes

para la prueba de mediacioacutenFuente elaboracioacuten propia con base en los datos obtenidos



RIL = 3726 + Age ( ndash0135 ) + OC ( ndash0315 ) + WFC ( 0329 ) + e

ILWFCOC

Figura 3 Modelo de regresioacuten que incluye la mediacioacuten de WFC

Fuente elaboracioacuten propia con base en los datos obtenidos

5 ANAacuteLISIS Y DISCUSIOacuteN

Entender los factores actitudinales que influyen en los procesos de decisioacuten que detonan la rotacioacuten voluntaria de personal involucra considerar como los elementos organiza-tivos se perciben para motivar las intenciones de abandonar el centro de trabajo Relevantes y amplios han sido los esfuer-zos realizados por acadeacutemicos anteriores para mostrar una perspectiva maacutes completa integrando elementos convergentes que son responsabilidad de la organizacioacuten como parte de sus mecanismos de gestioacuten pero sin soslayar elementos externos que pudieran impactar moderando o mediando esta rela-cioacuten Por ejemplo se ha sugerido que el apoyo organizacional (POS) impacta o influye en la salida de personal mediado por el sacrificio personal y la adaptacioacuten al trabajo (Dawley et al 2010) Ademaacutes Bal et al (2013) antildeaden que la relacioacuten entre el contrato psicoloacutegico y las intenciones de salida se relacio-nan con el compromiso y la antiguumledad En ambos estudios se aprecia el uso de elementos condicionales del clima orga-nizacional

Por otro lado estudios recientes incorporan la dualidad tra-bajo-familia y familia-trabajo sugiriendo la posibilidad de que una dualidad puede influir como un moderador de la otra al cambiar el sentido en su relacioacuten con la intencioacuten de salida (Da-derman y Basinska 2016) Aunado a esto Mcnall et al (2010) mostraron que enriquecer el equilibrio entre la dualidad tra-bajo-familia ha actuado como un elemento mediador de la re-lacioacuten entre las condiciones flexibles de trabajo y la intencioacuten de salida Tambieacuten las evidencias mostradas por Peachey et al (2014) comprueban que los efectos del ambiente laboral sobre las intenciones de salida voluntaria pueden estar mediadas por factores como las oportunidades disponibles en el sector Como se observa las condiciones externas a la organizacioacuten deben ser consideradas para esquematizar el fenoacutemeno de la intencioacuten de salida y no solo las condiciones actitudinales organizativas (Maertz Griffeth y Campbell 2007)

El objetivo principal de este estudio fue extender los cono-cimientos previos del fenoacutemeno de la rotacioacuten voluntaria de personal examinando el papel mediador que ejerce el conflicto trabajo-familia en la relacioacuten entre el clima organizacional y las intenciones de salida De acuerdo con el marco teoacuterico anterior estos resultados confirman que el clima organizacional se rela-ciona de forma negativa con la intencioacuten de salida pero que estaacute mediado de forma parcial por el conflicto trabajo-familia sugi-riendo su consideracioacuten para modelar una gestioacuten maacutes eficiente

La evidencia empiacuterica permite argumentar que la percep-cioacuten favorable que tienen los trabajadores de los factores or-ganizacionales puede verse disminuida cuando el conflicto

trabajo-familia incrementa influyendo en la intencioacuten de los miembros de una organizacioacuten por abandonar su trabajo ac-tual Por lo tanto si el conflicto trabajo-familia media la rela-cioacuten entre el clima organizacional y la intencioacuten de salida se podriacutea argumentar que si se busca mejorar la percepcioacuten del clima laboral deberiacutea considerarse el potenciar el balance entre el binomio trabajo-familia

En otras palabras los empleados pueden disfrutar de un mejor clima laboral si pueden lograr un equilibrio entre su trabajo y su familia y en consecuencia no generar actitudes y conductas orientadas a buscar otras oportunidades fuera de la organizacioacuten

El estudio como cualquier otro que utilice modelos de re-gresioacuten deberaacute tomarse con las debidas precauciones por sus limitaciones de predecir causalidad La primera limitacioacuten es que la regresioacuten estaacute basada en la premisa de que las variables de resultado crecen o decrecen siguiendo los mismos patrones de las variables independientes aunque esto no implique necesa-riamente que unas causen las otras Sin embargo las evidencias encontradas en el presente trabajo y las evidencias de la literatura anterior sustentan el modelo resultante Otra limitante del estu-dio es que la muestra solo integra organizaciones de hospitali-dad u hospedaje de 5 estrellas y gran turismo dejando fraacutegil la posibilidad de generalizar los resultados en otras organizaciones o contextos

Algunas organizaciones presentan por naturaleza el fenoacuteme-no del conflicto trabajo-familia en proporciones maacutes altas como es el caso de las organizaciones dedicadas a la salud o las insti-tuciones gubernamentales (Daderman y Basinska 2016) por lo que las investigaciones futuras podriacutean replicar el estudio con datos de este tipo de organizaciones u otras donde el fenoacutemeno es poco manifestado Los resultados de estos esfuerzos podriacutean dar solidez el modelo presentado Otro posible mediador del binomio OC-IL que pudiera resultar de intereacutes es la conducta laquocomparaciones socialesraquo y sus dimensiones haciendo que el fenoacutemeno pueda modelarse con otros factores influyentes Por ejemplo Eddleston (2009) ya encontroacute evidencias de que estas conductas tienen un impacto en las IL de los gerentes

Por uacuteltimo se recomienda que las empresas hoteleras consi-deren la implementacioacuten de acciones en sus poliacuteticas de gestioacuten que promuevan la posibilidad de apoyar a los empleados con medidas que contribuyan con el equilibrio entre sus relaciones laborales y sus relaciones familiares Incrementando asiacute su satis-faccioacuten con los elementos que componen su ambiente laboral aumentando tambieacuten la probabilidad de que otras variables de resultado se vean favorecidas como la productividad la satisfac-cioacuten del cliente la calidad en el servicio y otras como la rentabi-lidad y por supuesto las intenciones de salida

6 AGRADECIMIENTOS

Los autores agradecen al Tecnoloacutegico Nacional de Meacutexico por haber financiado el proyecto en el programa de apoyo a la investigacioacuten cientiacutefica y tecnoloacutegica A Pilar Fernaacutendez Ferriacuten y Beleacuten Bande Vilela por su perspicaz y expedita guiacutea en los proce-sos editoriales y a los aacuterbitros anoacutenimos por todos los comenta-rios constructivos a este artiacuteculo



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Nasurdin A M Tan S L amp Khan S N 2018 The relation between turnover intention high performance work practices (HPWPs) and organisational commitment A study among private hospital nurses in Malaysia Asian Academy of Management Journal 23(1) 23-51

Ogata K 1995 The Fathers Care of Preschool-Children and Their Social Adaptability - A Comparison of Single Income Families and Double Income Families Japanese Journal of Educational Psycholo-gy 43(3) 335-342

OIT 2018 Sala de prensa OIT La participacioacuten de las mujeres en el trabajo Retrieved julio 29 2018 from Sitio web de la Organiza-cioacuten Internacional del Trabajo httpswwwiloorgamericassa-la-de-prensaWCMS_619953lang--esindexhtm

OrsquoKeeffe G S amp Clarke-Pearson K 2011 Clinical Report-The Impact of Social Media on Children Adolescents and Families Pediatrics 127(4) 800-804



Ongaki J 2019 An examination of the relationship between flexible work arrangements work-family confl ict organizational commit-ment and job performance Management 23(2) 169-187

Pang S-Y amp Yeh Y-J 2019 The crossover effect of work-family con-flict among hotel employees International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management 31(2) 812-829

Pasamar S 2020 Why a strong work-life balance system is needed Cuadernos de Gestioacuten 2020-04-27 DOI 105295cdg180903sp

Peachey J W Burton L J amp Wells J E 2014 Examining the influ-ence of transformational leadership organizational commitment job embeddedness and job search behaviors on turnover intentions in intercollegiate athletics Leadership amp Organization Development Journal 35(8) 740-755

Podsakoff P M MacKenzie S B Lee J-Y amp Podsakoff N P 2003 Common Method Biases in Behavioral Research A Critical Review of the Literature and Recommended Remedies Journal of Applied Psychology 88(5) 879-903

Qu H amp Zhao X 2012 Employeesrsquo workndashfamily conflict moderating life and job satisfaction Journal of business research 65(1) 22-28

Raza B Ali M Naseem K Moeed A Ahmed J amp Hamid M 2018 Impact of trait mindfulness on job satisfaction and turnover inten-tions Mediating role of workndashfamily balance and moderating role of workndashfamily conflict Cogent business and management 5 1-20

Regts G amp Molleman E 2012 To leave or not to leave When re-ceiving interpersonal citizenship behavior influences an employ-eersquos turnover intention Human relations The Tavistock Institute 66(193) 192-218

Ruiz P D Perroca M G amp Jerico M D 2016 Cost of nursing turno-ver in a Teaching Hospital Revista da escola de enfermagem da USP 50(1) 101-108

Selvarajan T T Singh B amp Cloninger P A 2016 Role of personality and affect on the social support and work family conflict relation-ship Journal of vocational behavior 94 39-56

Stahl G K Chua C H Caligiuri P Cerdin J-L amp Taniguchi M 2009 Predictors of Turnover Intentions in Learning-Driven and Demand-Driven International Assigments The role of repatriation Concerns Satisfaction With Company support And Perceived Ca-reer Advancement Opportunities Human Resource Management 48(1) 89-109

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ISSN 1131-6837 e-ISSN 1988-2157




Why a strong work-life balance system is needediquestPor queacute es necesario un sistema de conciliacioacuten de la vida profesional y personal fuerte

Susana PasamarUniversidad Pablo de Olavide Sevilla (Spain)

Corresponding author Susana Pasamar Universidad Pablo de Olavide Carretera de Utrera Km 1 41013 Sevilla (Spain) ndash spasreyupoes ndash httpsorcidorg0000-0002-0462-3104

A R T I C L E I N F OReceived 14 February 2018 Accepted 16 September 2019


DOI 105295cdg180903sp

JEL CODE M500 M54

A B S T R A C T

Purpose This paper describes the concept of ldquostrength of the work-life balance systemrdquo as a new and more advanced form of involvement in work-life issues which lead to a stronger relationship with positive out-comes such as performance commitment or satisfactionDesignmethodologyapproach From a theoretical point of view and following Bowen and Ostroff (2004 2016)rsquos framework of strength all the features of a strong work-life balance system are described We de-fine the characteristics that allow the work-life balance system to create strong situations in which clear messages are sent to employees about what appropriate behavior is Findings Offering specific practices or specific types of support is not enough a strong work-life balance system must also be in place The strength of the system which refers to the process allows the firm to convey a consistent message about the content of the practices Employeesrsquo motivation attitudes and be-haviors towards work-life balance are highly dependent on how they interpret the signals from employers about the work-life balance system designed but also implemented Practical implications Future research and practitioners should pay more attention not only to design work life practices but also to the implementation process in order not to fail in gaining all the positive outcomes related to work life balance for employers and employees Originalityvalue This paper is the first step in the exploration of the importance of the implementation process of a work-life balance system for a better contribution to organization positive outcomes

Keywords Work-life balance performance implementation process

R E S U M E N

Objetivo Este trabajo describe el concepto de fortaleza del sistema de conciliacioacuten de la vida profesional y personal como una nueva y maacutes avanzada forma de implicacioacuten de las empresas en temas de conciliacioacuten lo que conduciriacutea a una mayor relacioacuten con resultados positivos como resultados compromiso o satisfaccioacuten Disentildeometodologiacuteaenfoque Desde un punto de vista teoacuterico y siguiendo el marco de fortaleza de los sistemas propuesto por Bowen y Ostroff (2004 2016) se describen todas las caracteriacutesticas de un sistema de conciliacioacuten de la vida profesional y personal fuerteResultados La oferta de praacutecticas especiacuteficas no es suficiente se requiere un sistema de conciliacioacuten fuer-te La fortaleza del sistema que se refiere al proceso permite a la empresa enviar un mensaje consistente sobre el contenido de las praacutecticas La motivacioacuten actitudes y comportamientos de los empleados hacia la conciliacioacuten dependen en gran medida de coacutemo interpretan las sentildeales que reciben de la empresa seguacuten se haya implementado el sistema de conciliacioacutenImplicaciones praacutecticas Tanto profesionales como futuras investigaciones deben prestar maacutes atencioacuten al proceso de implementacioacuten y no solo al disentildeo de praacutecticas de conciliacioacuten para no perder todos los posibles resultados positivos derivados de la conciliacioacuten tanto para empleados como para empresas Originalidadvalor Este trabajo supone un primer paso para una mayor comprensioacuten de la importancia del proceso de implementacioacuten de un sistema de conciliacioacuten de la vida profesional y personal y para una mayor contribucioacuten a resultados positivos

Palabras clave Conciliacioacuten de la vida profesional y personal resultados proceso de implementacioacuten


1 INTRODUCTION

In recent years the literature has devoted a great deal of at-tention to work-life balance (WLB) practices and their diffusion in companies The related positive outcomes and how they can help an organization become more effective and achieve a com-petitive advantage have been discussed in the context of demo-graphic societal and cultural changes over the last few decades and may be even more important under challenging financial and economic conditions (Pasamar and Valle 2013 James 2014) Nevertheless although there is a general assumption that the availability of WLB practices leads to positive organizational re-sults through improved quality of life satisfaction commitment productivity and performance retaining and attracting highly qualified professionals (Scandura and Lankau 1997 Baral and Bhargava 2010) these effects are not automatic consequences

Despite its recurrence as a research topic in recent times little attention has been paid to the relationship between WLB measures and business performance (Perry-Smith and Blum 2000 Clifton and Shepard 2004 Beauregard and Henry 2009) Moreover the question of how WLB programs contribute to firm performance remains unanswered and this lack of clarity is one of the barriers to their implementation (De Luis et al 2002 Ce-garra-Leiva et al 2012) The use of WLB policies has been linked to positive outcomes for employers and employees under the as-sumption of the ldquohappy worker storyrdquo (Weeden 2005) and how these practices may enhance employeesrsquo job performance (Ga-jendram and Harrison 2007) Nevertheless some studies have found that WLB programs have no effects (Konrad and Mangel 2000 Bloom et al 2011) and others claim that the relationship between work-life initiatives and work-life conflict is not always so clear (Batt and Valcour 2003 Kelly et al 2008) Moreover the possibility of a flexibility stigma has been stated as many em-ployees report that they do not enjoy these benefits because they worry about negative career consequences (Williams et al 2013)

Previous studies have called for further research on the rela-tionship between Human Resource (HR) practices and organi-zational outcomes (Ferris et al 1999 Bowen and Ostroff 2004) Specifically WLB research has highlighted that the mere im-plementation of WLB practices is not enough to guarantee full company benefits (Cegarra-Leiva et al 2012 Pasamar 2015) and organizations have to make an effort to promote a WLB support-ive culture (McDonald et al 2005) The existence of a supportive WLB culture is a fundamental mechanism through which these practices produce such an effect on organizational outcomes (Cegarra-Leiva et al 2012)

Therefore while a number of studies details what an appro-priate set of WLB practices is (Goff et al 1990 Goodstein 1995 Kopelman et al 2006) it is also important to pay attention to the process of design and implementation of the WLB system (WLBS) Bowen and Ostroff (2004) proposed a framework for understanding how HR management practices can contribute to motivate employees to adopt desired attitudes and behaviors that eventually help achieve the organizationrsquos strategic goals and the expected increase in firm performance These authors discuss the importance of the climate as a channel to send signals to em-ployees that help them to make the desired and appropriate re-sponses and form a collective sense of what is expected of them

They introduced the concept of ldquostrength of the HRM systemrdquo and specify the metafeatures that lead to strong climates

Following this framework we describe the characteristics that allow WLBS to create strong situations in which clear mes-sages are sent to employees about what appropriate behavior is understanding that the success of the WLBS relies not only on the specific practices offered to the employees but in the imple-mentation process and how controlling the strength of the sys-tems companies make create strong climates that have an impact on attitudes and behaviors Therefore the propose of this paper is to describe the concept of ldquostrength of the WLBSrdquo as a new and more advanced form of involvement in WLB issues which lead to a stronger relationship with positive outcomes such as perfor-mance commitment or satisfaction

2 LITERATURE REVIEW LINKING SYSTEMS STRENGTH AND WLB

WLB practices are relevant because of their potential value for employers and employees Implementing WLB benefits can enhance organizational results but firms will fail in obtaining potential gains if employees are unaware of their existence or un-able to use them (Prottas et al 2007 Saacutenchez-Vidal et al 2012)

HRM can be understood as communications from the em-ployer to employee and employees must have adequate and unambiguous information to function effectively and make ac-curate attributions about a situation Through the lens of mes-sage-based persuasion and social influence literature Bowen and Ostroff (2004) identified distinctiveness consistency and consensus as the characteristics of HRM systems that would evolve into strong situations

21 Distinctiveness Visibility understandability legitimacy of authority and relevance

Distinctiveness refers to the features that make a system stand out in the environment thereby attracting attention and sparking interest There are four different system characteristics that can foster distinctiveness

Visibility Visibility of WLB practices refers to the degree of salience and observability of these practices and is a prerequi-site that enables employees to interpret them The WLB bene-fits offered can create a sense of assurance for employees that their employers are concerned about their well-being according to perceived organizational support theory (Baral and Bhargava 2010) but if WLB benefits are not transparent and communicat-ed properly to the employees the strength of the system will be affected

Previous research pointed out that is not unusual than em-ployees do not even know about the WLB offered by their com-panies (Lewis et al 2000 Kodz et al 2002) As Bowen and Os-troff proposed visibility can be assessed by comparing a list of the practices deemed by the organization to be in place with the extent to which employees indicate they are in place (Sanchez-Vidal et al 2012) This gap between leaders and employees in their views of what practices are in place shows the weakness of the HRM system (Bowen and Ostroff 2016)


100 S Pasamar

Managers should clearly communicate their support for the values of family and personal aspects of life (Cegarra-Leiva et al 2012) This explicit support would increase employeesrsquo visibility Employees are not always aware that they can take advantage of WLB practices (Yeandle et al 2002) and furthermore in some cases they do not feel entitled to do so (Bud and Mumford 2006)

To overcome this visibility problem work-life practices should be present throughout much of employeesrsquo daily work routines and activities If the WLBS includes a wide range of practices that also affect a large number of employees visibility is likely to be higher If WLB practices are only offered to female parents the firm is limiting its potential to achieve the benefits to business (Wise and Bond 2003) Understanding work-life conflict as ldquoonly a womenrsquos problemrdquo is a dangerously divisive assumption (Lewis et al 2003) While workersrsquo preferred WLB arrangements may vary according to gender life course or other circumstances all employees value the opportunity to achieve a balance not only young mothers (Kvande 2009 James 2011 Darcy et al 2012)

For organizations that truly wish to foster WLB a more ef-fective approach would be to engage with all employees not only women by offering benefits that align with other desires and promoting real diffusion among the workforce (Pasamar 2015) Shared meanings will not develop if the same practices are not perceived by or offered to most or all the employees (Bowen and Ostroff 2004)

Understandability Obviously connected to visibility under-standability refers to unambiguous and easy to comprehend WLB practice contents Organizational communication should aim to reduce ambiguity and vagueness (Bowen and Ostroff 2004) Em-ployessrsquo perceptions will be affected by factors such as previous experiences values and expectations (Den Hartog et al 2004) Employees must be able to understand how the WLB practice works to avoid multiple interpretations and even misunder-standings The recent case of Iberdrola provides a clear illustra-tion This Spanish company employs more than 9000 workers and recently introduced a working day with no lunch break The process was met with some skepticism employees managers and trade unions all had their own fears and doubts about it Howev-er two years later the company reports increased productivity although managers recognize that the organizational culture has had to adapt to new circumstances (Leoacuten 2014 Iberdrola 2019)

Obviously lack of understanding is even more important when in affects managers who play contradictory pivotal roles for the company Managers act not just as agents responsible for profitability and growth but also as victims of work-life conflict and paradoxically as important change agents in implementing policies designed to alleviate this conflict (Poelmans et al 2003) Interestingly although most HR managers perceive WLB bene-fits as incurring high economic costs they admit to not knowing with any clarity the real economic costs and benefits involved in implementing these practices (Pasamar and Valle 2011)

Legitimacy of authority According to Bowen and Ostroff (2004) this reflects the conceptual process that may lead ldquoem-ployees to consider submitting to performance expectations as formally sanctioned behaviorsrdquo The importance of any HR practice will rely on the top managementrsquos beliefs and values As Kasper et al (2005) state ldquothe way managers attribute sense

to WLB will affect not only the way in which they lsquowalk the talkrsquo but also how they implement organizational policiesrdquo Not surprisingly recent studies highlight not only the lack of WLB for those in managerial positions but also how relevant this message may be for the rest of the employees presenting WLB as an impossible objective that is incompatible with ad-vancements or promotion (Pasamar and Valle 2011) The use of WLB benefits may be inhibited not only by the presence of uncooperative supervisors but also by fear of negative career consequences which can occur when employees take up the WLB practices on offer (Breaugh and Frye 2008) Even when employees are fully informed of the WLB benefits available to them many express reluctances to use them because they do not want to be perceived as less committed cooperative or pro-ductive or to have fewer chances of promotion (Beauregard and Henry 2009)

There are also cases in which employees do not feel entitled to take the legal benefits established by law such as the numerous Spanish fathers who go back to work without taking the full days established by paternity leave legislation (15 days until 2019 at least eight weeks since then) These men find strong legitimacy for this behavior in the organizational culture particularly the attitudes of their bosses Precedents in taking paternity leave are an important influence in the decision of whether to take it or not These employees may have a feeling of insecurity related to their jobs and most of them are afraid of losing their positions (Romero-Balsas et al 2012)

The WLBS is perceived as more authoritative when it has significant and visible support from top management Legitima-cy can be reflected in aspects such as resource allocation or the involvement of the managers responsible of strategic decisions (Ostroff 1995) Investment in these practices involvement or top managersrsquo beliefs about the importance of WLB are some of the indicators or signals from top management that confirm the legitimacy or credibility of the system and that are positively related to an increase of the level of use of WLB benefits (Pasa-mar 2015)

Obviously communicator credibility is an essential compo-nent in attempts to attribute persuade and influence (Bowen and Ostroff 2004) The attributes of implementation include su-pervisor support for use and universality of practice availability and they will affect the degree to which WLB practices are seen by employees as fulfilling their needs (Ryan and Kossek 2008)

Relevance The relevance of the WLBS refers to whether the situation is defined in such way that employees see it as related to achieving a specific goal The most interesting aspect of relevance is the consideration of individualsrsquo and employeesrsquo goals and the alignment or congruence between these two types of goals (Bowen and Ostroff 2004) The situation must be defined in such a way that employees are willing to work toward goals that allow them to meet their own needs but also the organizational aims For instance making WLB arrangements available can have a positive impact on institutionalized learning and the innova-tion environment within the firm while employees experience improvements in their concentration motivation engagement creativity ability to interact and communicate with colleagues This availability may even improve the firmrsquos potential to attract and retain more a demographically diverse workforce develop-


Why a strong work-life balance system is needed 101

ing networks of external contacts and hence its capacity to solve new problems (James 2014)

Studies by Mitsuhasi et al (2000) Wright et al (2001) and McLean (2006) have already shown that HR managers may find some practices very relevant to achieve organizational goals while line managers may disagree depending upon the situation in their business unit

Finally the relationship between legitimacy and relevance has been highlighted by previous studies (Bowen and Ostroff 2004) It appears that relevance alone can be enough to enhance distinctiveness But when relevance is not strongly perceived le-gitimacy plays a greater role that can compensate for this with the result that such practices are perceived as distinctive (Taylor and Fiske 1991)

22 Consistency Instrumentality Validity and Consistent WLB messages

While distinctiveness focuses on the message and the com-municator and how they may increase the probability that the WLB message will be encoded and understood uniformly across employees it is clear that it is not enough on its own Bowen and Ostroff (2004) propose also focusing on features that could guarantee consistent relationships over time people and context such as instrumentality validity and consistent WLB messages

Instrumentality This involves establishing an explicit per-ceived cause-effect relationship that should ensure there are ade-quate incentives to foster the behavioral pattern desired (Bowen and Ostroff 2004) Specifically it would be the degree to which WLBS positively contribute to motivation commitment or any other desired effect in employees A strong system would be one that succeeds in encouraging the desired behavior reinforcing the intended performance (Delmotte et al 2012) WLB practic-es are more effective when the firms need them (Konrad and Mangel 2000 Liu and Wang 2011) Firms will be likely to adopt WLB practices only if the promised outcomes are important to the effectiveness of the organizationsrsquo benefits plan and are likely to be achieved (Barringer and Milkovich 1998) But companies may also prioritize objectives that are more engaged with cost containment in line with their strategic goals and the context in which they are operating (Pasamar and Valle 2015)

Validity The validity of WLBS is very important in making attributions WLB practices must show consistency between what they claim to do and what they really do When employ-ees are told about WLB benefits and their conditions and effects and the reality differ from their expectations they are receiving a contradictory message The practices must not only sound good in theory but function in practice (Delmotte et al 2012) Man-agers may perceive that what they were asked to achieve in the business may often be incompatible with formal work-life pol-icies (Wise and Bond 2003) Despite all the positive outcomes related to WLB and so many workers struggling to integrate of-ten conflicting life roles WLB programs are still under-utilized (Kossek et al 2011) Employees may receive mixed messages if organizations announce a WLB benefits package while expect-ing behaviors that are incompatible with this balance meetings outside normal working hours reductions in working hours to accommodate time for personal life but with the same workload

the expectation of continuous and uninterrupted availability be-cause of new technologies and so on If contradictions appear employees are left to develop their own interpretations and uni-formity is lost

Consistent WLB messages Employees want constancy and when it is lacking negative consequences can arise such as intense cognitive dissonance (Siehl 1985) Bowen and Ostroff proposed three types of required consistency that could apply to WLB sys-tems The first dimension refers to what senior managers say are the organizationrsquos goals and what employees actually conclude they are based on their own perceptions The inconsistency here refers to the espoused and inferred values and may be affected by miscommunication and mistrust (Martin and Siehl 1983) The lack of consistency may lead to misunderstanding and even employeesrsquo lack of satisfaction (Kepes and Delery 2007) In that sense organizations should make an effort to send a clear and unique message about WLB shaking off employeesrsquo fears about negative consequences Managersrsquo expectations for their em-ployees to work long hour prioritizing work over personal life technological advancements that make employees to be always available or the perceive insecurity in the labour market due to the economic crisis (Hyman et al 2003) may play against this consistency

The second requirement is internal consistency among WLB practices themselves They should all pursue the same goals and should be designed to complement each another and fit together to create a whole so as to achieve this internal consistency (Bowen and Ostroff 2004) The lack of planning in some companies may explain this inconsistency where WLB practices have been of-fered in response to requests from or needs of some groups of employees without an overall plan to integrate all the practices and more importantly to link them to other HR practices Pro-motions retribution training and the possibility of career devel-opment may be integrated in the WLBS If contradictions appear among these practices or there is a possibility of being penalized for having used WLB arrangements the message workers receive is that organizations do not want them to take part in WLB pro-grams (Brandth and Kvande 2002 McDonald et al 2007)

The third type of consistency is related to the stability of practices in time (Bowen and Ostroff 2004) In this sense the novelty of WLBS goes against them The sense of agreement is stronger in organizations where practices have remained stable across time Employeesrsquo behavior and its consequences are more predictable and they are positive about what they can expect from the organization and what is expected of them

23 Consensus Agreement among Decision Makers and Fairness

Consistency and consensus are distinct but interrelated When individuals experience consistency consensus is more likely to be achieved and vice versa Consensus is the result of agreement among employees about the effects of WLBS There-fore Bowen and Ostroff (2004) suggested analyzing the degree of agreement among principal decision makers and the fairness of the system

Agreement among principal WLB decision makers Agree-ment among the message senders would increase consensus among employees In WLBS the difficulty may lie in identify-


102 S Pasamar

ing the decision makers are they top managers HR managers supervisors or others When individuals perceive strong agree-ment among the message senders about the message they are more likely to reach a consensus (Fiske and Taylor 1991)

When top management HR manager and line supervisors agree on the way employees should be managed and clearly share the same vision there is an increased likelihood of successful strategy implementation and a positive impact on firm perfor-mance (Delmotte et al 2012)

Connecting this perception of agreement to distinctiveness we propose that when all the WLB decision makers agree on the message the visibility of the system will also be higher When supervisors HR managers and top managers interact the formulation and implementation of WLBS clearly sends an agreed message and also enhances the sense of legitimacy of authority

Where there is disagreement among WLB decision makers the message will be less visible relevant and consistent There-fore employees would experience different cause-effect rela-tionships and the WLBS it would be perceived as weaker All the organizational efforts to adopt design and implement WLB policies may eventually converge into single discretionary deci-sions by supervisors on whether or not to lsquoallowrsquo these policies (Poelmans and Beham 2008) Controlling the agreement among WLB decision makers is essential to achieve workersrsquo perception of the strength of the WLBS

Fairness Fairness of the WLBS refers to the employeesrsquo per-ception of whether the system complies with distributive proce-dural and interactional justice A fair WLBS is more likely to be accepted by employees

The distribution of WLB benefits may be perceived as fair by employees (distribution justice) In that sense WLBS have to be carefully designed to avoid feelings of unfairness among em-ployees such as the belief that benefits are only aimed at moth-ers or for taking care of younger children Moreover in the case of WLB benefits that HR department or line managers have to approve impartiality is essential and any preferential treatment for closer employees must be avoided at all costs (procedural jus-tice Delmotte et al 2012) Employeesrsquo perceptions of fairness in the WLB decision process demonstrations of honest concern for the employees and the provision of full information about the decision criteria and process may help avoid negative outcomes (Poelmans and Beham 2008) Employees were found to perceive even negative work outcomes as fair when clear and reliable in-formation was provided to justify these outcomes or when high levels of interpersonal justice were displayed (Greenberg 1996 Cropanzano and Greenberg 1997) Literature also draws atten-tion to the possibility of higher work load and coordination problems and the resulting sense of unfairness for coworkers (Carrasquer and Martin 2005)

Organizations that manage to handle the distinctiveness consistency and consensus of their WLBS can enhance their per-formance because of the strength of WLBS (Table 1) In these companies the shared meanings in promoting collective re-sponses would be consistent with the organizational goals

As a result it is suggested that the strength of the WLBS will lead not only to a better implementation of WL practices but also to the achievement of positive outcomes included perfor-

mance As it has been stated a strong WLBS would promote pos-itive attitudes which have the capacity to predict organizational behavior

Table 1 Theoretical WLBS model

Distintiveness

VisibilityAre WLB practices transparent and communicated properly to the employeesUnderstabilityDo employees understand how the WLB practices work to avoid multiple interpretations and even misunderstandingsLegitimacy of AuthorityDo employees perceive that their managers support these practicesRelevanceAre WLB practices aligned with the organizational goals

Consistency

InstrumentalityIs the relationship between WLB practices and motivation commitment performance or other desired effect on employees explicit ValidityWLB practices must show no contraction between what they claim to do and what they really doConsistent messagesManagersrsquo expectations for their employees to work long hour prioritizing work over personal life may play against this consistency

Consensus

AgreementIs there agreement among top managers HR managers supervisors or other manager around WLB issuesFairnessDo employees perceive distributive procedural and interactional justice around WLBS

Source Table created by the author

Previous research have observed the relationship between WLB benefits and different outcomes such as increases in per-ceived organizational support (Kopelman et al 2006) produc-tivity (Perry-Smith and Blum 2000 Clifton and Shepard 2004) innovation (James 2014) rises in price share (Arthur 2003) commitment and job satisfaction (Scandura and Lankau 1997) or career satisfaction (Lee et al 2002) and decreases in nega-tive elements for organizations such as tardiness absenteeism and turnover (Christensen and Staines 1990 Dalton and Mesch 1991) These empirical findings support the idea of the ldquohappy worker storyrdquo (Weeden 2005) under the assumption that those employees who enjoy a better WLB avoid all the negative conse-quences related to work-life conflict (Carlson et al 2010) More-over social exchange theory proposes that employees feel obli-gated to reciprocate when they treated kindly and supportively (Blau 1964) what again lead us to the relevance of the message that a company convey to their employees through the HR Man-



agement system The underutilization of WLB benefits is still a common issue that can challenge all the possible outcomes for employees and organizations (Budd and Mumford 2006 Pasa-mar 2015) While some organizations keep myopic in terms of addressing the needs and aspirations of employees (Eikhof et al 2007) the positive effects of WLB benefits will be lost (Kossek et al 2011)

For these reasons it can be argued that the strength of the WLBS is related to a broader diffusion of WLB benefits which would involve the real use of these practices and not only the mere offer as the WLBS would be better understood and accept-ed This strength would also lead to positive outcomes for organ-izations and employees as the firm would convey a consistent and clear message about WLB and employees would interpret those signals Employeesrsquo motivation attitudes and behaviors towards WLB are highly dependent on how they interpret the signals from employers and consequently a strong WLBS would be related to positive outcomes for workers and organizations (See Figure 1)

Proposition 1 The level of strength of the WLBS will be pos-itively related to the use of WL benefits

Proposition 2 The level of strength of the WLBS will be pos-itively related to positive outcomes for employees such as in-creases in satisfaction and decreases in work-life conflict

Proposition 3 The level of strength of the WLBS will be pos-itively related to positive outcomes for employers such as in-creases in performance commitment creativity and decrease in absenteeism and intention to quit

Use of WLB practices

Positive outcomes for employers and employees

Consistency

Distinctiveness

Consensus

Figure 1 Relationships between the Strength of WLBS and the Use

of Practices and OutcomesSource Figure created by the author

3 CONCLUSIONS

HR practices can help organizations build an organizational social structure that can increase flexibility and efficiency (Evans and Davis 2005) but the implementation of designed strategies can fail because of employeesrsquo perceptions about the HR man-agement system These practices seek to increase organizational performance by affecting employeesrsquo motivation attitudes and behaviors which are highly dependent on how employees inter-pret the signals from HR departments (Garciacutea-Carbonell et al 2014) Specifically WLB practices may help firms send a strong message to their current and potential employees about how the organization values their employees and the contributions they make (Perry-Smith and Blum 2000)

A strong WLBS increases a generalized norm of reciproci-ty between organizations and employees As long as WLBS re-main optional not mandatory firms that make these practices available may be highly valued because their decision to offer them is voluntary and expresses their appreciation of their em-ployees (Roehling et al 2001 Rhoades and Eisenberger 2002) Once the norm of reciprocity is created by WLBS the employees will perceive their obligation and will have increased motivation to work intention to remain with the organization coopera-tion and trust (Rhoades and Eisenberger 2002 Evans and Da-vis 2005) Furthermore according to Pfefferrsquos (1981) symbolic action perspective when organizations offer WLB benefits they send out signals to employees that allow them to draw conclu-sions about their values and philosophies (Waters and Bardoel 2006)

Offering specific practices or specific types of support is not enough there needs to be a strong WLBS in place The strength of the system which refers to the process allows the firm to con-vey a consistent message about the content of the WLB practic-es A strong WLB system would be a high level construct that enables organization to send unambiguous messages about the culture climate priorities and values related to WLB Accord-ing to Bowen and Ostroff (2004 2016) integrated content and process will be more effective in attaining the intended behav-iors which WLB studies should take into account in order to try to explain the connection between WLB benefits and organiza-tional performance and achieve the expected win-win situation for employees and employers (Pasamar 2015) A strong WLBS would convey a clear message to the employees and would create strong climates that have an impact on attitudes and behaviors WLB practices would be understood and accepted and their use would be also increased

This study holds important implications for practitioners who are currently facing important pressures to increase per-formance while manage limited resources and meet employ-eesrsquo expectations regarding their development and careers (De Haw and De Vos 2010) Organizations should focus on prac-tical strategies directed toward communication moreover when they have younger workers (Real et al 2010) and limited resources So far most companies have limited their offer of WLB practices to women with caring responsibilities forget-ting other employees (Pasamar 2015) Workers would respond to that organizational message with a limited use of practices which eventually would mean the lack of positive outcomes for employer and employees

One of the main limitations of this study is that only tackle the phenomenon from a theoretical point of view Moreover it would be debatable how far the implementation process should be generalizable to every context in order to attain the strength of the WLB system In the future practitioners and researchers should follow the theoretical SWLB system for a better result in the implementation Future studies should consider empirically how the implantation process of WLBS may affect the achieve-ment of all the positive outcomes for employers and employees

The analysis of all the features of a strong system is vital Spe-cifically the communication during the implementation of WLB systems is very relevant but has been neglected in previous re-search Practitioners should take care of the message they convey


104 S Pasamar

when they offer WLB benefit Not only the practices are relevant but also how they are offered to whom or what are the managersrsquo attitudes and expectations In summary the distinctiveness the consistency and the consensus around the WLB system will deter-mine its effectiveness Replication of this research including differ-ent case studies may help to shed additional light onto this topic

4 REFERENCES

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Baral R and Bhargava S 2010 Work-family enrichment as a media-tor between organizational interventions for work-life balance and job outcomes Journal of Managerial Psychology 25(3) 274-300

Bardoel EA 2003 The provision of formal and informal work-fam-ily practices The relative importance of institutional and resource dependent explanations versus managerial explanations Women in Management Review18(12) 7-21

Barringer M and Milkovich G 1998 A Theoretical Exploration of the Adoption and Design of Flexible Benefit Plans A Case of Hu-man Resource Innovation Academy of Management Review 23 305-324

Batt R and Valcour PM 2003 Human resources practices as predic-tors of work-family outcomes and employee turnover Industrial relations 42(2) 189-220

Beauregard T A and Henry LC 2009 Making the link between work-life balance practices and organizational performance Hu-man Resource Management Review 19(1) 9-22

Blau Peter M (1964) Exchange and Power in Social Life Transac-tion New York Wiley

Bloom N Kretschmer T and Van Reenen J 2011 Are family-friendly workplace practices a valuable firm resource Strategic Management Journal 32(4) 343-367

Bowen D and Ostroff C 2004 Understanding HRM-firm perfor-mance linkages the role of the lsquostrengthrsquo of the HRM The Academy of Management Review 29(2) 203-221

Bowen D and Ostroff C 2016 Reflections on the 2014 Decade Award Is There Strength in the Construct of HR System Strength Academy of Management Review 41(2) 196-214

Brandt B and Kvande E 2002 Reflexive fathers Negotiating Parental Leave and Working Life Gender Work and Organization 9(2) 186-203

Breaugh J A and Frye N K 2008 Work-family conflict The impor-tance of family-friendly employment practices and family-support-ive supervisors Journal of Business and Psychology 22(4) 345ndash353

Budd JW and Mumford KA 2006 Family-friendly work practices in Britain availability and perceived accessibility Human Resource Management 45(1) 23-42

Carrasquer P and Martiacuten A 2005 La poliacutetica de conciliacioacuten de la vida laboral y familiar en la negociacioacuten colectiva Un aspecto de la estrategia europea de empleo Cuadernos de relaciones laborales 231 131-150

Carlson D S Grzywacz J G and Kacmar K M 2010 The relation-ship of schedule flexibility and outcomes via the work-family inter-face Journal of Managerial Psychology 25(4) 330-355 httpsdoiorg10110802683941011035278

Cegarra-Leiva D Saacutenchez-Vidal M E and Cegarra-Navarro J 2012 Understanding the link between work life balance practices and or-ganisational outcomes in SMEs Personnel Review 41(3) 359-379

Cegarra-Navarro J G Saacutenchez-Vidal ME and Cegarra-Leiva D 2016 Linking Unlearning with WorkndashLife Balance An Initial Em-pirical Investigation into SMEs Journal of Small Business Manage-ment 54(1) 373-391

Clifton TJ and Shepard E 2004 Work and family programs and pro-ductivity Estimates applying a production function model Inter-national Journal of Manpower 25 (78) 714-728

Christensen KE and Staines G 1990 Flextime A Viable Solution to WorkFamily Conflict Journal of Family Issues 4 455-477

Cropanzano R and Greenberg J 1997 Progress in Organizational Jus-tice Tunnelling Through The Maze In Cooper CL and Robertson IT (Eds) International Review of Industrial and Organizational Psy-chology vol 12 243-298 Chichester Wiley

Dalton DR and Mesch DJ 1991 On the Extent and Reduction of Avoidable Absenteeism An Assessment of Absence Policy Provi-sions Journal of Applied Psychology 76 810-817

Darcy C McCarthy A Hill J and Grady G 2012 Work-life bal-ance One size fits all An exploratory analysis of the differential effects of career stage European Management Journal 30(2) 111-120

De Hauw S and De Vos A 2010 Millenialsrsquo Carreer Perspective and Psycologycal contract expetactions Does the recesioacuten lead to low-ered expectations Journal of Business Psycology 25 293-302

Delmotte J De Winne S and Sels L 2012 Toward an assessment of perceived HRM system strength scale development and validation The International Journal of Human Resource Management 23(7) 1481-1506

De Luis MP Martiacutenez Aacute Peacuterez M and Vela MJ 2002 La flexib-ilidad de la empresa y la conciliacioacuten de la vida laboral y familiar Boletiacuten Econoacutemico del ICE 2741 37-50

Den Hartog DN Boselie P and Paauwe J 2004 Performance man-agement Amodel and research agenda Applied Psycologue 53(4) 556-569

Eikhof DR Warhurst C and Haunschild A 2007 Introduction What work What life What balance Critical reflections on the work-life balance debate Employee Relations 29(4) 325-333 httpsdoiorg10110801425450710839452

Evans WA 1994 Approaches to intelligent information retrieval In-formation processing and management 7 (2) 147-168

Evans W R and Davis WD 2005 High-performance work systems and organizational performance The mediating role of internal so-cial structure Journal of Management 31 758-775

Ferris G R Hochwarter W A Buckley M R Harrell-Cook G and Frink D D 1999 Human resource management Some new direc-tions Journal of Management 25 385-415

Gajendran R S and Harrison D A 2007 The good the bad and the unknown about telecommuting Meta-analysis of psychological mediators and individual consequences Journal of Applied Psychol-ogy 92(6) 1524-1541

Garciacutea Carbonell N Martiacuten-Alcazar F and Saacutenchez Gardey G 2014 El papel moderador de la percepcioacuten del sistema de direc-cioacuten de recursos humanos y su influencia en los resultados organ-izativos Revista Europea de Direccioacuten y Economiacutea de la Empresa 23 137-146

Goff SJ Mount MK and Jamison RL 1990 Employer supported child care work-family conflict and absenteeism a field study Per-sonnel Psychology 43(4) 793-810

Goodstein J 1995 Employer involvement in eldercare An organiza-tional adaptation Academy of Management Journal 38(6) 1657-1671

Greenberg J 1996 The quest for justice on the job Essays and experi-ments Thousand Oaks CA Sage

Hyman J Baldry C Scholarios D and Bunzel D 2003 Work-life im-balance in call centres and software development British Journal of Industrial Relations 41(2) 215-239

Iberdrola 2019 httpswwwiberdrolacompersonas-iberdrolaconci-liacion



James A 2011 Work-life (im)lsquobalancersquo and its consequences for every-day learning and innovation in the New Economy evidence from the Irish IT sector Gender Place and Culture A Journal of Feminist Geography 18(5) 655-684

James A 2014 Work-life lsquobalancersquo recession and the gendered limits to learning and innovation (or why it pays employers to care) Gender Work and Organization 21(3) 273-294

Kasper H Meyer M and Schmidt A 2005 Managers dealing with work‐family‐conflict an explorative analysis Journal of Managerial Psychology 20(5) 440-461

Kelly E L Kossek E E Hammer L B Durham M Bray J Cher-mack K and Murphy L A 2008 Getting There from Here Re-search on the Effects of Work-Family Initiatives on Work-Family Conflict and Business Outcomes The Academy Of Management Annals 2(7) 305-339

Kepes S and Delery J E 2007 HRM systems and the problem of in-ternal fit In P Boxall J Purcell and P M Wright (Eds) The Oxford handbook of human resource management Oxford University Press

Kodz J Harper H and Dench S 2002 Work-life balance Beyond the rhetoric Institute for Employment Studies Report 384 London IES

Konrad A M and Mangel R 2000 The impact of work-life programs on firm productivity Strategic Management Journal 21(12) 1225-1237

Kopelman R Prottas D J Thompson C A and Jahn EW 2006 A Multilevel Examination of Work-Life Practices Is More Always Better Journal of Managerial Issues 18(2) 232-253

Kossek E E Baltes B B and Matthews R A 2011 How work-fam-ily research can finally have an impact in organizations Industrial and Organizational Psychology Perspectives on Science and Prac-tice 4 352-369

Kossek E Pichler S Bodner T and Hammer L 2011 Workplace so-cial support and work-family conflict a meta-analysis clarifying the influence of general and work-family specific supervisor and organ-izational support Personnel Psychology 64(2) 289-313

Kvande E 2009 Work-life balance for fathers in globalized knowledge work Some insights from the Norwegian context Gender work and organization16(1) 58-72

Lee M D MacDermid S Williams M Buck M and Leiba-OrsquoSul-livan S 2002 Contextual factors in the success of reduced-load work arrangements among managers and professionals Human Resource Management 41 209-223

Leoacuten P 2014 La felicidad de trabajar de ocho a tres httppoliticaelpaiscompolitica20141226actualidad1419616033_794119html

Lewis S Kagan C and Heaton P 2000 Managing work-family diver-sity for parents of disabled children beyond policy to practice and partnership Personnel Review 29(3) 417-430

Lewis S Rapaport R and Gambles R 2003 Reflections on the inte-gration of paid work with the rest of the life Journal of Managerial Psychology 18(8) 824-841

Liu N and Wang C 2011 Searching for a balance work-family practices work-team design and organizational performance International Journal of Human Resource Management 22(10) 2071-2085

Martin J and Siehl C J 1983 Organizational customer and counter-culture An uneasy symbiosis Organizational Dynamics 12(2) 52-64

McDonald P Brown K and Bradley L 2005 Explanations for the provision-utilisation gap in work-life policy Women in Manage-ment Review 20(1) 37-55

McDonald P Pini B and Bradley L 2007 Freedom or fallout in local government How work-life culture impacts employees using flex-ible work practices International Journal of Human Resource Man-agement 18 602-622

McLean M 2006 Evaluating the Importance and Performance of the Human Resources Function An Examination of a Medium Sized Scottish Retailer Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services 13 143-156

Mitsuhasi H Park HJ Wright PM and Chua RS 2000 Line and HR Executivesrsquo Receptions of HR Effectiveness in Firms in the Peoplersquos Republic of China The International Journal of Human Re-source Management 11 197-216

Ostroff C 1995 SHRMCCH Survey Human Resources management Ideas and Trend in Personnel Chicago Commerce Clearing House

Pasamar S 2015 Availability and use of Work-life benefits Whatrsquos in between Personnel Review 44(6) 949-969

Pasamar S and Valle R 2013 Work-life balance under challenging financial and economic conditions International Journal of Man-power 34(8) 961-974

Pasamar S and Valle R 2011 Conciliacioacuten de la vida profesional-per-sonal en empresas espantildeolas iquestmito o realidad Universia Business Review 29 14-31

Pasamar S and Valle R 2015 Antecedents of work-life involvement in work-life issues Institutional pressures efficiency gains or both The International Journal of Human Resource Management 26(8) 1130-1151

Perry-Smith J and Blum T 2000 Work-Family Human Resource Bundles and Perceived Organizational Performance Academy of Management Journal 43(6) 1107-1117

Pfeffer J 1981 Management as symbolic action The creation and maintenance of organizational paradigms In L L Cummings amp B M Staw (Eds) Research in organizational behavior 3 1-52 Green-wich CT JAI Press

Poelmans S and Beham B 2008 The moment of truth Conceptu-alizing managerial work-life policy allowance decisions Journal of occupational and organizational psychology 81(3) 393-410

Poelmans S Chinchilla N and Cardona P 2003 The adoption of fam-ily-friendly HRM policies Competing for scarce resources in the la-bour market International Journal of Manpower 24(2) 128-147

Prottas DJ Thompson CA Kopelman RE and Jahn EW 2007 WorkndashFamily Programs Factors Affecting Employee Knowledge and Accuracy Personnel Review 36(2) 163-189

Real K Mitnik AD and Maloney WF 2010 More similar than dif-ferent Millenials in the US Building Trades Journal of Business Psycology 25 303-313

Rhoades L and Eisenberger R 2002 Perceived Organizational Sup-port A Review of the Literature Journal of Applied Psychology 87 698-714

Roehling PV Roehling MV and Moen P 2001 The Relationship between Work-life Policies and Practices and Employee Loyalty A Life Course Perspective Journal of Family and Economic Issues 22 141-170

Romero-Balsas P Muntanyola-Saura D and Rogero-Garciacutea J 2012 Decision Making Factors in Paternity and Parental Leaves Why Spanish Fathers Take Time off Work Gender work and organiza-tion 20(6) 678-691

Ryan AM and Kossek EE 2008 Work‐life policy implementation Breaking down or creating barriers to inclusiveness Human Re-source Management 47 295-310

Saacutenchez-Vidal ME Cegarra-Leiva D and Cegarra-Navarra JG 2012 ldquobetween managersrsquo and employeesrsquo perceptions of work-life balance The International Journal of Human Resource Management 23(4) 645-661

Scandura T and Lankau MJ 1997 Relationships of Gender Family Responsibility and Flexible Work Hours to Organizational Com-mitment and Job Satisfaction Journal of Organizational Behavior 18 377-391


106 S Pasamar

Siehl C J 1985 After the founder An opportunity to manage culture In P Frost L Moore M Louis C Lundberg amp J Martin (Eds) Organizational culture 125-140 Beverly Hills CA Sage

Taylor S E and Fiske S T 1991 Social cognition Nueva York McGraw-Hill

Waters M A and Bardoel E A 2006 Work-family policies in the con-text of higher education Useful or symbolic Asia Pacific Journal of Human Resources 44(1) 67-82

Weeden KA 2005 Is there a flexiglass ceiling Flexible work arrangements and wages in the United States Social Science Research 34 454-482

Williams J C Blair-Loy M and Berdahl J 2013 Cultural schemas social class and the flexibility stigma Journal of Social Issues 69 (2) 209-234

Wise S and Bond S 2003 Work-life policy Does it do exactly what it says on the tin Women in Management Review 18(12) 20-31

Wright PM McMahan GC Snell SA and Gerhart B 2001 Com-paring Line and HR Executivesrsquo Perceptions of HR Effectiveness Services Roles and Contributions Human Resource Management 40 111-123

Yeandle S Crompton R Wigfield A and Dennet J 2002 Employed careers and family friendly employment policies London Joseph Rowntree Foundation Policy Press
















Management Letters Cuadernos de Gestioacuten Volume 20 Number 3 (2020)

ISSN 1131-6837 e-ISSN 1988-2157 bull httpwwwehueuscuadernosdegestionrevistaes


Editor Directora



Contents

Editorial

Pilar Fernaacutendez-Ferriacuten Mariacutea Isabel Saacutenchez Hernaacutendez Arturo Rodriacuteguez Castellanos Beleacuten Bande Vilela Cristina Loacutepez Caro Jon Charterina Abando



Role of Psychological Contract Breach and Violation in Generating Emotional

Ali Abdulhassan Abbas Hussein Hurajah Al Hasnawi

iquestContribuye la innovacioacuten a generar valor de marca y satisfaccioacuten en el cliente Evidencias en la gran distribucioacuten de alimentacioacuten

Antonio Mariacuten Garciacutea Irene Gil-Saura Maria Eugenia Ruiz-Molina

The mediating role of personnel training between innovation and performance Evidence from the German pharmaceutical industry

Julen Castillo-Apraiz Jesuacutes Matey De Antonio

The identification-loyalty relationship in a university context of crisis the moderating role of students and graduates

Gabriel Cachoacuten-Rodriacuteguez Camilo Prado-Romaacuten

Temporal optimisation of signals emitted automatically by securities exchange indicators

Rodrigo Martiacuten-Garciacutea Enrique Ventura Peacuterez Raquel Arguedas-Sanz


La relacioacuten entre uso de beneficios y poliacuteticas trabajo-vida y satisfaccioacuten laboral el rol mediador del conflicto trabajo-a-familia

Liliana Mariacutea Gutieacuterrez-Vargas Henry Antonio Arenas-Cardona Mariacutea del Socorro Loacutepez-Goacutemez

El rol del conflicto trabajo-familia en la relacioacuten del clima organizacional y las intenciones de salida

Luis Roberto Domiacutenguez-Aguirre Israel Lozano-Jimeacutenez Aacutelvaro Fabricio Ramiacuterez-Campos

Why a strong work-life balance system is needed

Susana Pasamar



Aims and Scope Objetivos y alcance

Management Letters Cuadernos de Gestioacuten is an international six- monthly publication dedicated to academic papers on Business Economics It was founded in 1985 by Enpresa Institutua- Institute of Applied Business Economics at the University of The Basque Country (UPVEHU) It has consistently published articles combining scientific accuracy with useful proposals and prescriptions for improvements in business management The journal includes theoretical methodological or empirical works and its areas of interest are Business Administration Marketing Innovation Finance Human Resource Management and Entrepreneurship opened also to other fields as long as these contribute significantly to addressing problems in business management

Management Letters Cuadernos de Gestioacuten es una publicacioacuten semestral de caraacutecter internacional para trabajos acadeacutemicos de Eco-nomiacutea de la Empresa Fue fundada en 1985 por Enpresa Institutua- Instituto de Economiacutea Aplicada a la Empresa de la Universidad del Paiacutes Vasco (UPVEHU) Se ha caracterizado desde su fundacioacuten por su rigor cientiacutefico y su utilidad para la mejora de la gestioacuten en la empresa La revista incluye trabajos teoacutericos metodoloacutegicos o empiacutericos y sus aacutereas de intereacutes son Organizacioacuten y Gestioacuten de Empresas Marketing Finanzas Recursos Humanos y Emprendimiento estando abierta tambieacuten a otros campos siempre y cuando contribuyan significativamente a tratar problemas en la gestioacuten empresarial

Indexed in Indizada en

Emerging Sources Citation Index Scopus Academic Search Premier Fuente Academica Plus Periodicals Index Online ABIINFORM Business Source Premier Business Source Elite DOAJ DIALNET

Evaluated in Evaluada en

CARHUS Plus+ 2018Sello de calidad FECYTDirectory of Open Access JournalsERIHPlusLATINDEX Cataacutelogo v10 (2002 - 2017)LATINDEX Cataacutelogo v20 (2018 - ) ICI Journals Mater List

Metrics in Meacutetricas en

SJR SCImago Journal amp Country Rank Scopus Sources

Published by Editada por

Enpresa institutua Instituto de Economiacutea Aplicada a la Empresa(Universidad del Paiacutes VascoEuskal Herriko Unibertsitatea)Avda Lehendakari Aguirre 83 48015 Bilbao (Espantildea)httpswwwehueuseswebieae

Supporting entity Fundacioacuten Emilio Soldevilla para la Investigacioacuten y Desarrollo de la Economiacutea de la Empresa

ISSN 1131-6837 e-ISSN 1988-2157 Depoacutesito legal BI - 1172-01

Photo Credit Vitor PintoEmail revistacuadernosdegestionehueus


Editor Directora























































ISSN 1131-6837 e-ISSN 1988-2157




Editorial









1 INTRODUCTION




















Editorial 7






5 ORDINARY SECTION















7 REFERENCES










Editorial 9

1 INTRODUCCIOacuteN




























Editorial 11









7 REFERENCIAS


















ISSN 1131-6837 e-ISSN 1988-2157










DOI 105295cdg181021aa

JEL CODE M14 L2

A B S T R A C T



R E S U M E N





1 INTRODUCTION



2 RESEARCH PROBLEM



3 RESEARCH GOALS























EmotionalExhaustion

JobProcrastination












































7 METHODOLOGY












72 Research Sample







Engineering 41

Science 21


Islamic Sciences 24



College of Law 28



Total 309




8 RESULTS




e170

PCB1

e271

PCB2

e383

PCB3

e455

PCB4

e564

PCB5

80

74

91

84

84







51PCV1

e246

PCV267

71

92

57 e386

PCV3

e432

PCV4







e144

PAP1

e251

PAP2

e355

PAP3

e444

PAP4

e560

PAP5

e643

PAP6

e752

PAP7

e846

PAV1

e972

PAV2

72

85

68

98

71

82

66

77

83

74

71

66

e1050

PAV3

e1167

PAV4



33

24






e148

EEX1

e252

EEX2

e365

EEX3

e477

EEX4

e573

EEX5

e663

EEX6

e773

EEX7

85

79

86

88

81

72

69

EmotionalExhaustion









654321SDMαVar


11714803049142 PsyConBre

14552297163438953 Pro Approach

18483861377493378394 Pro Avoidance






Hypothesis Test


Variable


Con β T Sig


1090117 2261 024






Hypothesis Test



Con β t Sig


1739483 5327 000





JobProcrastination

19 46

40

04

35


e1


EmotionalExhaustion

e2

Figure 6










hypothesis test


Indirect Effect

Total Effect R2








JobProcrastination

44 47

30

19

14


e1


EmotionalExhaustion

e2












Indirect Effect

Total Effect R2





EmotionalExhaustion

JobProcrastination

12

42

42

41


20

34

10



e1 e2

17













hypothesis test


Indirect Effect

Total Effect R2


0667 041




mdash 174




11 CONCLUSIONS














12 REFERENCES










































































































APPENDIX

Questionnaire Items


disagree







disagree






disagree










disagree






disagree













ISSN 1131-6837 e-ISSN 1988-2157









DOI 105295cdg191130am

JEL CODE M31

R E S U M E N



A B S T R A C T





1 INTRODUCCIOacuteN







































3 METODOLOGIacuteA





















510 encuestas


170 170 170


Abril-Mayo 2017














TIC

TIC1TIC2TIC3TIC4

0881 (0012)0920 (0045)0939 (0011)0648 (0019)

83571096714922 1729

0873 0914 0731


IN1IN2IN3IN4IN5

0818 (0026)0753 (0032)0850 (0020)0773 (0031)0791 (0029)

1571 2361 4299 2459 2754

0860 0897 0636





0723 (0030)0759 (0024)0845 (0016)0820 (0020)0855 (0012)0811 (0019)

2433 3151 5438 4076 7026 4237

0890 0918 0646


IN12IN13IN14

0805 (0027)0926 (0009)0928 (0008)

30231071711615

0866 0919 0789

Lealtad

LE1LE2LE3LE4

0924 (0008)0903 (0011)0915 (0008)0888 (0011)

11423 823711442 7949

0929 0949 0824


VM1VM2VM3VM4

0896 (0012)0754 (0045)0905 (0011)0870 (0019)

7321 1679 8424 4543

0880 0918 0737

Satisfaccioacuten

SF1SF2SF3SF4SF5

0885 (0012)0949 (0005)0925 (0007)0912 (0013)0853 (0019)

73141983113523 6963 4586

0946 0958 0820








de segundo orden



041405080245

266215901565
















TIC 0855




Lealtad 0346 0280 0255 0349 0908




















6 AGRADECIMIENTOS
















































































Variable Iacutetem

TIC





Innovacioacuten















Lealtad










Satisfaccioacuten











ISSN 1131-6837 e-ISSN 1988-2157










DOI 105295cdg180990jc

JEL CODE O31 M539

A B S T R A C T





R E S U M E N





1 INTRODUCTION
































32 Measures






Personneltraining

R2 = 0163


0403 0187

0324













0784


0638


0580


0828





0906







Performance 1

Innovation 0502 1








Bias corrected

95 confidence

interval


0423]


0187 1194 0036 3272 [0071 0296]


0403 1000 0194 8627 [0314 0496]




Table 4 Mediation













5 DISCUSSION


















7 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS



8 REFERENCES


































































































































































ISSN 1131-6837 e-ISSN 1988-2157









DOI 105295cdg191109gc

JEL CODE I23 M31

A B S T R A C T



R E S U M E N





1 INTRODUCTION































3 METHODOLOGY

31 Research context







32 Data collection









Identification




Loyalty






4 RESULTS









Iden

tific

atio




Loya

lty

Loyalty1 0942 118692

0964 0976 0966 0932 0825Loyalty2 0977 298033

Loyalty3 0978 348898

NA=not applicable








standardized beta






Step 2Partial Invar


Confidence level 95


Iden

tific

atio

n


Loya





p-valuepermutation

p-value PLS-MGA

R2Acceptance

students graduates

H2 0008 0001 0490 0675 YesYes


5 CONCLUSIONS











6 REFERENCES




































































ISSN 1131-6837 e-ISSN 1988-2157








DOI 105295cdg170851rm

JEL CODE G17

A B S T R A C T


R E S U M E N




1 INTRODUCTION

















31 Methodology








time lag










Start date End date





















SELL SIGNAL

CRITERION

BUY SIGNAL

CRITERION


periods 12








(SMA)





(EMA)





(MACD)









days




























Conf level () 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95

Significance () 875 908 936 957 973 9844 992 9966 999 9999







1 ITX Inditex 1799



4 IBE Iberdrola 79


6 ELE Endesa 362



9 AMS Amadeus 313

10 CABK CaixaBank 3

11 AENA AENA 294


13 REP Repsol 265


15 GRF Grifols 224

16 BKIA Bankia 204







23 MAP MAPFRE 118




27 ANA Acciona 077



30 ACX Acerinox 041





35 SCYR Sacyr 015






35


35 (3)

where


i = company i







4 RESULTS








SMA 00-01 9911 7390 7185 9777

SMA 05-01 7101 7736 8907 9756

RSI 02-15 7040 7859 8329 9741

SMA 00-00 10000 8492 6994 9728

EMA 08-03 6987 9053 8374 9726

EMA 05-03 6900 9182 8475 9702

SMA 00-03 8723 6842 7243 9685

SMA 02-01 8446 7363 6712 9645

RSI 02-13 7493 8274 6696 9639

EMA 08-02 7673 7904 6696 9639

SMA 01-01 9813 7778 6656 9626

SMA 05-02 7072 6538 7682 9585





Significance2005-2009 2010-2014 2015-2016

15-13 7715 5018 5047 8763



50 60 70

15-13

RoC - (2005-2009) - (2010-2014)

80 90 100

100

90

80

70

60

50

50 60 70

15-13

RoC - (2005-2009) - (2015-2016)

80 90 100

100

90

80

70

60

50






Significance2005-2009 2010-2014 2015-2016

00-08 5192 8730 7294 888900-10 5334 7598 6600 898401-13 5476 6803 5938 907401-15 6738 7799 6519 957802-08 5269 8998 7045 894102-10 5856 10000 5966 928902-13 6706 8866 6223 946102-15 5331 6513 7339 898203-13 6153 6655 5638 917003-15 7341 5296 6649 8959

50 60 70

03-15

03-1301-13

00-10

00-0802-08

02-13

02-10

02-15

01-15

RSI - (2005-2009) - (2010-2014)

80 90 100

100

95

90

85

80

75

70

65

60

55

50

50 60 70

03-1301-13

01-1500-1002-08

00-0802hellip

03hellip

02-1302-10

RSI - (2005-2009) - (2015-2016)

80 90 100

100

95

90

85

80

75

70

65

60

55

50






Significance2005-2009 2010-2014 2015-2016

02-05 7207 5825 5074 8805

03-10 6871 6208 5961 9341



50 60 70

03-10

SMA - (2005-2009) - (2010-2014)

80 90 100

100

95

90

85

80

75

70

65

60

55

50

02-05

50 60 70

03-10

02-05

SMA - (2005-2009) - (2015-2016)

80 90 100

100

95

90

85

80

75

70

65

60

55

50







Significance2005-2009 2010-2014 2015-2016

08-03 7003 7504 10000 9731

05-03 6910 7980 9541 9705

08-02 8055 7146 8355 9768

05-02 6316 7171 7837 9500

05-00 6577 7783 6194 9449

05-01 8039 8623 5722 9217

05-05 6708 5286 6093 8952

10-03 5745 5027 9605 8770

13-02 5555 5128 5074 8804

50 60 70

03-10

05-02

05-00

08-03

05-03

05-01

08-02

EMA - (2005-2009) - (2010-2014)

80 90 100

100

95

90

85

80

75

70

65

60

55

5013-02

10-03 05-05

50 60 70

13-02

05-0105-05

05-00

05-02

08-02

10-0305-03

08-03EMA - (2005-2009) - (2015-2016)

80 90 100

100

95

90

85

80

75

70

65

60

55

50







46 Bollinger bands




Significance2005-2009 2010-2014 2015-2016

00-13 6450 6079 7947 9397

50 60 70

00-13

BOLLINGER - (2005-2009) - (2010-2014)

80 90 100

100

90

80

70

60

50

50 60 70

00-13

BOLLINGER - (2005-2009) - (2015-2016)

80 90 100

100

90

80

70

60

50






Significance2005-2009 2010-2014 2015-2016

00-10 6912 7784 5730 9221

01-13 7117 5232 5202 8896

01-10 6492 9865 5170 8873

50 60 70

01-13

00-10

STOCHASTIC - (2005-2009) - (2010-2014)

80 90 100

100

95

90

85

80

75

70

65

60

55

50

01-10

50 60 70

01-10 01-13

00-10

STOCHASTIC - (2005-2009) - (2015-2016)

80 90 100

100

95

90

85

80

75

70

65

60

55

50




5 CONCLUSIONS






6 REFERENCES










































APPENDIX














ISSN 1131-6837 e-ISSN 1988-2157









DOI 105295cdg191098lg

JEL CODES M120 M140

R E S U M E N



A B S T R A C T





1 INTRODUCCIOacuteN
























M


(JS)

Uso de WLBPs(USOB)

a1 b1

H1 = crsquo

















3 METODOLOGIacuteA
















4 RESULTADOS
















JS1 0860 18996 0925 0936 0928 0684 JS2 0765 13935JS3 0787 16252JS4 0659 9906JS5 0914 26061JS6 0944 28292








WFC JS WFC

WFC 0738















(WFC)

R2 WFC = 0080

M


(JS)

R2JS = 0226

Uso de WLBPs(USOB)

a1 -0281

b1-0324

H1 = crsquo0265



0010

-0027




R2 JS = 0226

R2 WFC = 0080

Percentil Bootstrap


explicada



H1 + USOB rarr JS 0265 7070 0202 0327 0083 950 1091 Si














WFC 0080 0076 0041

JS 0226 0221 0141











Inferior Superior

0356 9910 H1 cʹ 0265 7070 H2 = a1 times b1 0091 5003 0064 0123 2557
















6 AGRADECIMIENTOS


7 REFERENCIAS












































































































ISSN 1131-6837 e-ISSN 1988-2157










DOI 105295cdg181004ld

JEL CODES J28 M54

R E S U M E N



A B S T R A C T





1 INTRODUCCIOacuteN










































































r (ndash) r (+)

IL

r (ndash)

WFCOC



3 METODOLOGIacuteA

31 Muestra


32 Medidas















4 RESULTADOS














R2 0023 0180








(n = 305)





R2 0012 0062







WFC mdash 0407


R2 0023 0189











R2 0023 0180 0281

Cambios en R2 0023 0157 0101



(β = ndash 0396) (β = ndash 0407)

IL

(β = ndash 0249)

WFCOC






ILWFCOC













6 AGRADECIMIENTOS




7 REFERENCIAS






























































ISSN 1131-6837 e-ISSN 1988-2157









DOI 105295cdg180903sp

JEL CODE M500 M54

A B S T R A C T



R E S U M E N




1 INTRODUCTION















100 S Pasamar





























102 S Pasamar











Distintiveness


Consistency


Consensus













Consistency

Distinctiveness

Consensus



3 CONCLUSIONS








104 S Pasamar


4 REFERENCES















































































106 S Pasamar



























Editor Directora



Contents

Editorial




















Susana Pasamar

Editor Directora























































ISSN 1131-6837 e-ISSN 1988-2157




Editorial









1 INTRODUCTION




















Editorial 7






5 ORDINARY SECTION















7 REFERENCES










Editorial 9

1 INTRODUCCIOacuteN




























Editorial 11









7 REFERENCIAS


















ISSN 1131-6837 e-ISSN 1988-2157










DOI 105295cdg181021aa

JEL CODE M14 L2

A B S T R A C T



R E S U M E N





1 INTRODUCTION



2 RESEARCH PROBLEM



3 RESEARCH GOALS























EmotionalExhaustion

JobProcrastination












































7 METHODOLOGY












72 Research Sample







Engineering 41

Science 21


Islamic Sciences 24



College of Law 28



Total 309




8 RESULTS




e170

PCB1

e271

PCB2

e383

PCB3

e455

PCB4

e564

PCB5

80

74

91

84

84







51PCV1

e246

PCV267

71

92

57 e386

PCV3

e432

PCV4







e144

PAP1

e251

PAP2

e355

PAP3

e444

PAP4

e560

PAP5

e643

PAP6

e752

PAP7

e846

PAV1

e972

PAV2

72

85

68

98

71

82

66

77

83

74

71

66

e1050

PAV3

e1167

PAV4



33

24






e148

EEX1

e252

EEX2

e365

EEX3

e477

EEX4

e573

EEX5

e663

EEX6

e773

EEX7

85

79

86

88

81

72

69

EmotionalExhaustion









654321SDMαVar


11714803049142 PsyConBre

14552297163438953 Pro Approach

18483861377493378394 Pro Avoidance






Hypothesis Test


Variable


Con β T Sig


1090117 2261 024






Hypothesis Test



Con β t Sig


1739483 5327 000





JobProcrastination

19 46

40

04

35


e1


EmotionalExhaustion

e2

Figure 6










hypothesis test


Indirect Effect

Total Effect R2








JobProcrastination

44 47

30

19

14


e1


EmotionalExhaustion

e2












Indirect Effect

Total Effect R2





EmotionalExhaustion

JobProcrastination

12

42

42

41


20

34

10



e1 e2

17













hypothesis test


Indirect Effect

Total Effect R2


0667 041




mdash 174




11 CONCLUSIONS














12 REFERENCES










































































































APPENDIX

Questionnaire Items


disagree







disagree






disagree










disagree






disagree













ISSN 1131-6837 e-ISSN 1988-2157









DOI 105295cdg191130am

JEL CODE M31

R E S U M E N



A B S T R A C T





1 INTRODUCCIOacuteN







































3 METODOLOGIacuteA





















510 encuestas


170 170 170


Abril-Mayo 2017














TIC

TIC1TIC2TIC3TIC4

0881 (0012)0920 (0045)0939 (0011)0648 (0019)

83571096714922 1729

0873 0914 0731


IN1IN2IN3IN4IN5

0818 (0026)0753 (0032)0850 (0020)0773 (0031)0791 (0029)

1571 2361 4299 2459 2754

0860 0897 0636





0723 (0030)0759 (0024)0845 (0016)0820 (0020)0855 (0012)0811 (0019)

2433 3151 5438 4076 7026 4237

0890 0918 0646


IN12IN13IN14

0805 (0027)0926 (0009)0928 (0008)

30231071711615

0866 0919 0789

Lealtad

LE1LE2LE3LE4

0924 (0008)0903 (0011)0915 (0008)0888 (0011)

11423 823711442 7949

0929 0949 0824


VM1VM2VM3VM4

0896 (0012)0754 (0045)0905 (0011)0870 (0019)

7321 1679 8424 4543

0880 0918 0737

Satisfaccioacuten

SF1SF2SF3SF4SF5

0885 (0012)0949 (0005)0925 (0007)0912 (0013)0853 (0019)

73141983113523 6963 4586

0946 0958 0820








de segundo orden



041405080245

266215901565
















TIC 0855




Lealtad 0346 0280 0255 0349 0908




















6 AGRADECIMIENTOS
















































































Variable Iacutetem

TIC





Innovacioacuten















Lealtad










Satisfaccioacuten











ISSN 1131-6837 e-ISSN 1988-2157










DOI 105295cdg180990jc

JEL CODE O31 M539

A B S T R A C T





R E S U M E N





1 INTRODUCTION
































32 Measures






Personneltraining

R2 = 0163


0403 0187

0324













0784


0638


0580


0828





0906







Performance 1

Innovation 0502 1








Bias corrected

95 confidence

interval


0423]


0187 1194 0036 3272 [0071 0296]


0403 1000 0194 8627 [0314 0496]




Table 4 Mediation













5 DISCUSSION


















7 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS



8 REFERENCES


































































































































































ISSN 1131-6837 e-ISSN 1988-2157









DOI 105295cdg191109gc

JEL CODE I23 M31

A B S T R A C T



R E S U M E N





1 INTRODUCTION































3 METHODOLOGY

31 Research context







32 Data collection









Identification




Loyalty






4 RESULTS









Iden

tific

atio




Loya

lty

Loyalty1 0942 118692

0964 0976 0966 0932 0825Loyalty2 0977 298033

Loyalty3 0978 348898

NA=not applicable








standardized beta






Step 2Partial Invar


Confidence level 95


Iden

tific

atio

n


Loya





p-valuepermutation

p-value PLS-MGA

R2Acceptance

students graduates

H2 0008 0001 0490 0675 YesYes


5 CONCLUSIONS











6 REFERENCES




































































ISSN 1131-6837 e-ISSN 1988-2157








DOI 105295cdg170851rm

JEL CODE G17

A B S T R A C T


R E S U M E N




1 INTRODUCTION

















31 Methodology








time lag










Start date End date





















SELL SIGNAL

CRITERION

BUY SIGNAL

CRITERION


periods 12








(SMA)





(EMA)





(MACD)









days




























Conf level () 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95

Significance () 875 908 936 957 973 9844 992 9966 999 9999







1 ITX Inditex 1799



4 IBE Iberdrola 79


6 ELE Endesa 362



9 AMS Amadeus 313

10 CABK CaixaBank 3

11 AENA AENA 294


13 REP Repsol 265


15 GRF Grifols 224

16 BKIA Bankia 204







23 MAP MAPFRE 118




27 ANA Acciona 077



30 ACX Acerinox 041





35 SCYR Sacyr 015






35


35 (3)

where


i = company i







4 RESULTS








SMA 00-01 9911 7390 7185 9777

SMA 05-01 7101 7736 8907 9756

RSI 02-15 7040 7859 8329 9741

SMA 00-00 10000 8492 6994 9728

EMA 08-03 6987 9053 8374 9726

EMA 05-03 6900 9182 8475 9702

SMA 00-03 8723 6842 7243 9685

SMA 02-01 8446 7363 6712 9645

RSI 02-13 7493 8274 6696 9639

EMA 08-02 7673 7904 6696 9639

SMA 01-01 9813 7778 6656 9626

SMA 05-02 7072 6538 7682 9585





Significance2005-2009 2010-2014 2015-2016

15-13 7715 5018 5047 8763



50 60 70

15-13

RoC - (2005-2009) - (2010-2014)

80 90 100

100

90

80

70

60

50

50 60 70

15-13

RoC - (2005-2009) - (2015-2016)

80 90 100

100

90

80

70

60

50






Significance2005-2009 2010-2014 2015-2016

00-08 5192 8730 7294 888900-10 5334 7598 6600 898401-13 5476 6803 5938 907401-15 6738 7799 6519 957802-08 5269 8998 7045 894102-10 5856 10000 5966 928902-13 6706 8866 6223 946102-15 5331 6513 7339 898203-13 6153 6655 5638 917003-15 7341 5296 6649 8959

50 60 70

03-15

03-1301-13

00-10

00-0802-08

02-13

02-10

02-15

01-15

RSI - (2005-2009) - (2010-2014)

80 90 100

100

95

90

85

80

75

70

65

60

55

50

50 60 70

03-1301-13

01-1500-1002-08

00-0802hellip

03hellip

02-1302-10

RSI - (2005-2009) - (2015-2016)

80 90 100

100

95

90

85

80

75

70

65

60

55

50






Significance2005-2009 2010-2014 2015-2016

02-05 7207 5825 5074 8805

03-10 6871 6208 5961 9341



50 60 70

03-10

SMA - (2005-2009) - (2010-2014)

80 90 100

100

95

90

85

80

75

70

65

60

55

50

02-05

50 60 70

03-10

02-05

SMA - (2005-2009) - (2015-2016)

80 90 100

100

95

90

85

80

75

70

65

60

55

50







Significance2005-2009 2010-2014 2015-2016

08-03 7003 7504 10000 9731

05-03 6910 7980 9541 9705

08-02 8055 7146 8355 9768

05-02 6316 7171 7837 9500

05-00 6577 7783 6194 9449

05-01 8039 8623 5722 9217

05-05 6708 5286 6093 8952

10-03 5745 5027 9605 8770

13-02 5555 5128 5074 8804

50 60 70

03-10

05-02

05-00

08-03

05-03

05-01

08-02

EMA - (2005-2009) - (2010-2014)

80 90 100

100

95

90

85

80

75

70

65

60

55

5013-02

10-03 05-05

50 60 70

13-02

05-0105-05

05-00

05-02

08-02

10-0305-03

08-03EMA - (2005-2009) - (2015-2016)

80 90 100

100

95

90

85

80

75

70

65

60

55

50







46 Bollinger bands




Significance2005-2009 2010-2014 2015-2016

00-13 6450 6079 7947 9397

50 60 70

00-13

BOLLINGER - (2005-2009) - (2010-2014)

80 90 100

100

90

80

70

60

50

50 60 70

00-13

BOLLINGER - (2005-2009) - (2015-2016)

80 90 100

100

90

80

70

60

50






Significance2005-2009 2010-2014 2015-2016

00-10 6912 7784 5730 9221

01-13 7117 5232 5202 8896

01-10 6492 9865 5170 8873

50 60 70

01-13

00-10

STOCHASTIC - (2005-2009) - (2010-2014)

80 90 100

100

95

90

85

80

75

70

65

60

55

50

01-10

50 60 70

01-10 01-13

00-10

STOCHASTIC - (2005-2009) - (2015-2016)

80 90 100

100

95

90

85

80

75

70

65

60

55

50




5 CONCLUSIONS






6 REFERENCES










































APPENDIX














ISSN 1131-6837 e-ISSN 1988-2157









DOI 105295cdg191098lg

JEL CODES M120 M140

R E S U M E N



A B S T R A C T





1 INTRODUCCIOacuteN
























M


(JS)

Uso de WLBPs(USOB)

a1 b1

H1 = crsquo

















3 METODOLOGIacuteA
















4 RESULTADOS
















JS1 0860 18996 0925 0936 0928 0684 JS2 0765 13935JS3 0787 16252JS4 0659 9906JS5 0914 26061JS6 0944 28292








WFC JS WFC

WFC 0738















(WFC)

R2 WFC = 0080

M


(JS)

R2JS = 0226

Uso de WLBPs(USOB)

a1 -0281

b1-0324

H1 = crsquo0265



0010

-0027




R2 JS = 0226

R2 WFC = 0080

Percentil Bootstrap


explicada



H1 + USOB rarr JS 0265 7070 0202 0327 0083 950 1091 Si














WFC 0080 0076 0041

JS 0226 0221 0141











Inferior Superior

0356 9910 H1 cʹ 0265 7070 H2 = a1 times b1 0091 5003 0064 0123 2557
















6 AGRADECIMIENTOS


7 REFERENCIAS












































































































ISSN 1131-6837 e-ISSN 1988-2157










DOI 105295cdg181004ld

JEL CODES J28 M54

R E S U M E N



A B S T R A C T





1 INTRODUCCIOacuteN










































































r (ndash) r (+)

IL

r (ndash)

WFCOC



3 METODOLOGIacuteA

31 Muestra


32 Medidas















4 RESULTADOS














R2 0023 0180








(n = 305)





R2 0012 0062







WFC mdash 0407


R2 0023 0189











R2 0023 0180 0281

Cambios en R2 0023 0157 0101



(β = ndash 0396) (β = ndash 0407)

IL

(β = ndash 0249)

WFCOC






ILWFCOC













6 AGRADECIMIENTOS




7 REFERENCIAS






























































ISSN 1131-6837 e-ISSN 1988-2157









DOI 105295cdg180903sp

JEL CODE M500 M54

A B S T R A C T



R E S U M E N




1 INTRODUCTION















100 S Pasamar





























102 S Pasamar











Distintiveness


Consistency


Consensus













Consistency

Distinctiveness

Consensus



3 CONCLUSIONS








104 S Pasamar


4 REFERENCES















































































106 S Pasamar



























Editor Directora



Contents

Editorial




















Susana Pasamar





















ISSN 1131-6837 e-ISSN 1988-2157




Editorial









1 INTRODUCTION




















Editorial 7






5 ORDINARY SECTION















7 REFERENCES










Editorial 9

1 INTRODUCCIOacuteN




























Editorial 11









7 REFERENCIAS


















ISSN 1131-6837 e-ISSN 1988-2157










DOI 105295cdg181021aa

JEL CODE M14 L2

A B S T R A C T



R E S U M E N





1 INTRODUCTION



2 RESEARCH PROBLEM



3 RESEARCH GOALS























EmotionalExhaustion

JobProcrastination












































7 METHODOLOGY












72 Research Sample







Engineering 41

Science 21


Islamic Sciences 24



College of Law 28



Total 309




8 RESULTS




e170

PCB1

e271

PCB2

e383

PCB3

e455

PCB4

e564

PCB5

80

74

91

84

84







51PCV1

e246

PCV267

71

92

57 e386

PCV3

e432

PCV4







e144

PAP1

e251

PAP2

e355

PAP3

e444

PAP4

e560

PAP5

e643

PAP6

e752

PAP7

e846

PAV1

e972

PAV2

72

85

68

98

71

82

66

77

83

74

71

66

e1050

PAV3

e1167

PAV4



33

24






e148

EEX1

e252

EEX2

e365

EEX3

e477

EEX4

e573

EEX5

e663

EEX6

e773

EEX7

85

79

86

88

81

72

69

EmotionalExhaustion









654321SDMαVar


11714803049142 PsyConBre

14552297163438953 Pro Approach

18483861377493378394 Pro Avoidance






Hypothesis Test


Variable


Con β T Sig


1090117 2261 024






Hypothesis Test



Con β t Sig


1739483 5327 000





JobProcrastination

19 46

40

04

35


e1


EmotionalExhaustion

e2

Figure 6










hypothesis test


Indirect Effect

Total Effect R2








JobProcrastination

44 47

30

19

14


e1


EmotionalExhaustion

e2












Indirect Effect

Total Effect R2





EmotionalExhaustion

JobProcrastination

12

42

42

41


20

34

10



e1 e2

17













hypothesis test


Indirect Effect

Total Effect R2


0667 041




mdash 174




11 CONCLUSIONS














12 REFERENCES










































































































APPENDIX

Questionnaire Items


disagree







disagree






disagree










disagree






disagree













ISSN 1131-6837 e-ISSN 1988-2157









DOI 105295cdg191130am

JEL CODE M31

R E S U M E N



A B S T R A C T





1 INTRODUCCIOacuteN







































3 METODOLOGIacuteA





















510 encuestas


170 170 170


Abril-Mayo 2017














TIC

TIC1TIC2TIC3TIC4

0881 (0012)0920 (0045)0939 (0011)0648 (0019)

83571096714922 1729

0873 0914 0731


IN1IN2IN3IN4IN5

0818 (0026)0753 (0032)0850 (0020)0773 (0031)0791 (0029)

1571 2361 4299 2459 2754

0860 0897 0636





0723 (0030)0759 (0024)0845 (0016)0820 (0020)0855 (0012)0811 (0019)

2433 3151 5438 4076 7026 4237

0890 0918 0646


IN12IN13IN14

0805 (0027)0926 (0009)0928 (0008)

30231071711615

0866 0919 0789

Lealtad

LE1LE2LE3LE4

0924 (0008)0903 (0011)0915 (0008)0888 (0011)

11423 823711442 7949

0929 0949 0824


VM1VM2VM3VM4

0896 (0012)0754 (0045)0905 (0011)0870 (0019)

7321 1679 8424 4543

0880 0918 0737

Satisfaccioacuten

SF1SF2SF3SF4SF5

0885 (0012)0949 (0005)0925 (0007)0912 (0013)0853 (0019)

73141983113523 6963 4586

0946 0958 0820








de segundo orden



041405080245

266215901565
















TIC 0855




Lealtad 0346 0280 0255 0349 0908




















6 AGRADECIMIENTOS
















































































Variable Iacutetem

TIC





Innovacioacuten















Lealtad










Satisfaccioacuten











ISSN 1131-6837 e-ISSN 1988-2157










DOI 105295cdg180990jc

JEL CODE O31 M539

A B S T R A C T





R E S U M E N





1 INTRODUCTION
































32 Measures






Personneltraining

R2 = 0163


0403 0187

0324













0784


0638


0580


0828





0906







Performance 1

Innovation 0502 1








Bias corrected

95 confidence

interval


0423]


0187 1194 0036 3272 [0071 0296]


0403 1000 0194 8627 [0314 0496]




Table 4 Mediation













5 DISCUSSION


















7 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS



8 REFERENCES


































































































































































ISSN 1131-6837 e-ISSN 1988-2157









DOI 105295cdg191109gc

JEL CODE I23 M31

A B S T R A C T



R E S U M E N





1 INTRODUCTION































3 METHODOLOGY

31 Research context







32 Data collection









Identification




Loyalty






4 RESULTS









Iden

tific

atio




Loya

lty

Loyalty1 0942 118692

0964 0976 0966 0932 0825Loyalty2 0977 298033

Loyalty3 0978 348898

NA=not applicable








standardized beta






Step 2Partial Invar


Confidence level 95


Iden

tific

atio

n


Loya





p-valuepermutation

p-value PLS-MGA

R2Acceptance

students graduates

H2 0008 0001 0490 0675 YesYes


5 CONCLUSIONS











6 REFERENCES




































































ISSN 1131-6837 e-ISSN 1988-2157








DOI 105295cdg170851rm

JEL CODE G17

A B S T R A C T


R E S U M E N




1 INTRODUCTION

















31 Methodology








time lag










Start date End date





















SELL SIGNAL

CRITERION

BUY SIGNAL

CRITERION


periods 12








(SMA)





(EMA)





(MACD)









days




























Conf level () 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95

Significance () 875 908 936 957 973 9844 992 9966 999 9999







1 ITX Inditex 1799



4 IBE Iberdrola 79


6 ELE Endesa 362



9 AMS Amadeus 313

10 CABK CaixaBank 3

11 AENA AENA 294


13 REP Repsol 265


15 GRF Grifols 224

16 BKIA Bankia 204







23 MAP MAPFRE 118




27 ANA Acciona 077



30 ACX Acerinox 041





35 SCYR Sacyr 015






35


35 (3)

where


i = company i







4 RESULTS








SMA 00-01 9911 7390 7185 9777

SMA 05-01 7101 7736 8907 9756

RSI 02-15 7040 7859 8329 9741

SMA 00-00 10000 8492 6994 9728

EMA 08-03 6987 9053 8374 9726

EMA 05-03 6900 9182 8475 9702

SMA 00-03 8723 6842 7243 9685

SMA 02-01 8446 7363 6712 9645

RSI 02-13 7493 8274 6696 9639

EMA 08-02 7673 7904 6696 9639

SMA 01-01 9813 7778 6656 9626

SMA 05-02 7072 6538 7682 9585





Significance2005-2009 2010-2014 2015-2016

15-13 7715 5018 5047 8763



50 60 70

15-13

RoC - (2005-2009) - (2010-2014)

80 90 100

100

90

80

70

60

50

50 60 70

15-13

RoC - (2005-2009) - (2015-2016)

80 90 100

100

90

80

70

60

50






Significance2005-2009 2010-2014 2015-2016

00-08 5192 8730 7294 888900-10 5334 7598 6600 898401-13 5476 6803 5938 907401-15 6738 7799 6519 957802-08 5269 8998 7045 894102-10 5856 10000 5966 928902-13 6706 8866 6223 946102-15 5331 6513 7339 898203-13 6153 6655 5638 917003-15 7341 5296 6649 8959

50 60 70

03-15

03-1301-13

00-10

00-0802-08

02-13

02-10

02-15

01-15

RSI - (2005-2009) - (2010-2014)

80 90 100

100

95

90

85

80

75

70

65

60

55

50

50 60 70

03-1301-13

01-1500-1002-08

00-0802hellip

03hellip

02-1302-10

RSI - (2005-2009) - (2015-2016)

80 90 100

100

95

90

85

80

75

70

65

60

55

50






Significance2005-2009 2010-2014 2015-2016

02-05 7207 5825 5074 8805

03-10 6871 6208 5961 9341



50 60 70

03-10

SMA - (2005-2009) - (2010-2014)

80 90 100

100

95

90

85

80

75

70

65

60

55

50

02-05

50 60 70

03-10

02-05

SMA - (2005-2009) - (2015-2016)

80 90 100

100

95

90

85

80

75

70

65

60

55

50







Significance2005-2009 2010-2014 2015-2016

08-03 7003 7504 10000 9731

05-03 6910 7980 9541 9705

08-02 8055 7146 8355 9768

05-02 6316 7171 7837 9500

05-00 6577 7783 6194 9449

05-01 8039 8623 5722 9217

05-05 6708 5286 6093 8952

10-03 5745 5027 9605 8770

13-02 5555 5128 5074 8804

50 60 70

03-10

05-02

05-00

08-03

05-03

05-01

08-02

EMA - (2005-2009) - (2010-2014)

80 90 100

100

95

90

85

80

75

70

65

60

55

5013-02

10-03 05-05

50 60 70

13-02

05-0105-05

05-00

05-02

08-02

10-0305-03

08-03EMA - (2005-2009) - (2015-2016)

80 90 100

100

95

90

85

80

75

70

65

60

55

50







46 Bollinger bands




Significance2005-2009 2010-2014 2015-2016

00-13 6450 6079 7947 9397

50 60 70

00-13

BOLLINGER - (2005-2009) - (2010-2014)

80 90 100

100

90

80

70

60

50

50 60 70

00-13

BOLLINGER - (2005-2009) - (2015-2016)

80 90 100

100

90

80

70

60

50






Significance2005-2009 2010-2014 2015-2016

00-10 6912 7784 5730 9221

01-13 7117 5232 5202 8896

01-10 6492 9865 5170 8873

50 60 70

01-13

00-10

STOCHASTIC - (2005-2009) - (2010-2014)

80 90 100

100

95

90

85

80

75

70

65

60

55

50

01-10

50 60 70

01-10 01-13

00-10

STOCHASTIC - (2005-2009) - (2015-2016)

80 90 100

100

95

90

85

80

75

70

65

60

55

50




5 CONCLUSIONS






6 REFERENCES










































APPENDIX














ISSN 1131-6837 e-ISSN 1988-2157









DOI 105295cdg191098lg

JEL CODES M120 M140

R E S U M E N



A B S T R A C T





1 INTRODUCCIOacuteN
























M


(JS)

Uso de WLBPs(USOB)

a1 b1

H1 = crsquo

















3 METODOLOGIacuteA
















4 RESULTADOS
















JS1 0860 18996 0925 0936 0928 0684 JS2 0765 13935JS3 0787 16252JS4 0659 9906JS5 0914 26061JS6 0944 28292








WFC JS WFC

WFC 0738















(WFC)

R2 WFC = 0080

M


(JS)

R2JS = 0226

Uso de WLBPs(USOB)

a1 -0281

b1-0324

H1 = crsquo0265



0010

-0027




R2 JS = 0226

R2 WFC = 0080

Percentil Bootstrap


explicada



H1 + USOB rarr JS 0265 7070 0202 0327 0083 950 1091 Si














WFC 0080 0076 0041

JS 0226 0221 0141











Inferior Superior

0356 9910 H1 cʹ 0265 7070 H2 = a1 times b1 0091 5003 0064 0123 2557
















6 AGRADECIMIENTOS


7 REFERENCIAS












































































































ISSN 1131-6837 e-ISSN 1988-2157










DOI 105295cdg181004ld

JEL CODES J28 M54

R E S U M E N



A B S T R A C T





1 INTRODUCCIOacuteN










































































r (ndash) r (+)

IL

r (ndash)

WFCOC



3 METODOLOGIacuteA

31 Muestra


32 Medidas















4 RESULTADOS














R2 0023 0180








(n = 305)





R2 0012 0062







WFC mdash 0407


R2 0023 0189











R2 0023 0180 0281

Cambios en R2 0023 0157 0101



(β = ndash 0396) (β = ndash 0407)

IL

(β = ndash 0249)

WFCOC






ILWFCOC













6 AGRADECIMIENTOS




7 REFERENCIAS






























































ISSN 1131-6837 e-ISSN 1988-2157









DOI 105295cdg180903sp

JEL CODE M500 M54

A B S T R A C T



R E S U M E N




1 INTRODUCTION















100 S Pasamar





























102 S Pasamar











Distintiveness


Consistency


Consensus













Consistency

Distinctiveness

Consensus



3 CONCLUSIONS








104 S Pasamar


4 REFERENCES















































































106 S Pasamar



























Editor Directora



Contents

Editorial




















Susana Pasamar

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