May 1966

(19th year)

U.K.: 1/6 stg.

Canada : 30 cents

France: 1 F 4

Man and Space

A GREAT

INTERNATIONAL

VENTURE

iiir

TREASURES

OF

WORLD ART ©

© Jean Suquet

Gallic dancer

Though remarkably modern in appearance, this six-inch bronze statuette of a woman danceractually dates back well over 2,000 years. An outstanding example of early European art, it wasunearthed in the Loire Valley area of France in 1861, with other similarly styled figures fashionedby Celtic artists of ancient Gaul. Celtic art continued to exert an influence in later centuries

and some of its outstanding characteristics are incorporated in Roman and Gothic sculpture

Orléanais Historical Museum, Orleans, France

MAY 1966 - 19TH YEAR

PUBLISHED IN

NINE EDITIONS

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Published monthly by UNESCO

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THE HEART OF THE MATTER

Statements by Yuri Gagarin and Walter Schirra

A GREAT INTERNATIONAL VENTURE

The peaceful exploration of outer spaceBy A.H. Abdel-Ghani

'IT DOES NOT MATTER WHO REACHES

THE MOON FIRST...'

By Anatoly Biagonravov

'JOINT SPACE ENTERPRISES

ARE NOW A GOING CONCERN...'

By Arnold W. Frutkin

TRICKS PLAYED ON HAND AND EYE

SPACE FLIGHT AND THE RULE OF LAW

By Eugène Pepin

COLOUR PAGES

EUROPE'S GROWING STAKE IN SPACE SCIENCE

Ten countries pool their efforts in space research

By Pierre Auger

WHY WE ARE OUTWARD BOUND

The viewpoint of a scientist-astronaut

By Konstantin Feoktistov

FROM DREAM TO REALITY

LUNAR INTERNATIONAL LABORATORY

By Bruno Friedman

HEROES, HOBBIES OF JUNIOR ASTRONAUTS

FROM THE UNESCO NEWSROOM

LETTERS TO THE EDITOR

Cover photo

Astronaut's view of space andearth photographed from Vos-khod (Sunrise) I capsule duringa 24-hour flight on October 12,1964. Ghostly polygons of lightare caused by rays of sunlightreflected on spacecraft window.Piloted by Vladimir Komarov,Voskhod carried the first trained

scientists to venture into spaceBoris Egorov, a research phy¬

sician, and Konstantin Feokis-

tov (see article page 27) whotook this photograph, and whosestudies in space included obser¬vations of the different layersof the atmosphere.

© APN

THE HEART OF THE MATTER

Five years ago, on April 12, 1961, Yuri Gagarin whirledinto orbit around the earth and became the first man in

space. We open this issue devoted to international

co-operation in space research and exploration with

statements addressed to the Unesco Courier bytwo famous astronauts: Yuri Gagarin and Walter

Schirra. In 1962, Walter Schirra accomplished a solo

spaceflight and in 1965 he was one of four astronauts

who made the first manned rendezvous in space.

Yuri Gagarin:

On the occasion of the 5th anniver¬

sary of the first manned space flight,I greet all who work in the field of

space research, and especially mycolleagues, the American and Soviet

astronauts. The age of cosmic flightand bold research ventures in the

far reaches of space has begun. I amfirmly convinced that greater inter¬national co-operation is needed for

the mastery and utilization of outer

space so that each manned flightand each launching of a spacestation or laboratory for cosmic

research can serve man in positiveand peaceful ways.© APN

Walter M. Schirra:

It is perhaps an obvious fact, butnonetheless an important one, thatthere are no boundaries a hundred

miles up, and there are none visibleon earth when it is viewed from a

space capsule.

That the exploration of space goesbeyond political boundaries was nodoubt in the minds of the framers of

the Space Act of 1958. The actwhich established the National Aero¬

nautics and Space Administrationand dedicated our nation to the

exploration of space included as oneof its objectives co-operation withother nations and groups of nationsin the peaceful applications of ourspace efforts.

NASA

A.

Man and Space

A GREATINTER¬

NATIONALVENTURE

by A. H. Abdel-Ghani

HE myriad of organizations, governmental and nongovern¬mental, national and international, scientific and technical,

pursuing their legitimate interests in the field of outer spaceexploration seems at times to be sufficient to fill the vast expanseof outer space itself.

Each organization may be concerned with but a single facetof space exploration. The World Meteorological Organizationfollows with increasing interest the development of earth-orbitingweather satellites; the International Telecommunication Union must

continually grapple with the growing problem of space commun¬ications; the possibility of a navigational satellite system catchesthe attention of the International Maritime Consultative Organizationand the International Civil Aviation Organization; Unesco exploresthe potentialities of space communications for public informationand education; and the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR)of the International Council of Scientific Unions is primarilyconcerned with the scientific aspects of space research.

These are but a few, and one need only consult a calendar ofmeetings devoted to aspects of space exploration to note the profu¬sion of organizations involved and the variety of interests displayed.

One group, however, occupies a special position in the extensivenetwork of organizations active in this field. The United NationsCommittee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space is the only inter¬governmental body exclusively concerned with all matters connec¬ted with outer space activities. The committee, made up of twenty-eight member states (1), has a broad membership which includesthe two major space powers and a representative group of countriesat varied levels of economic and scientific development, and there¬fore provides an effective forum for consideration of the problemsof outer space. At the same time, the committee furnishes the "fo¬cal point for co-operation in the peaceful exploration of outer space"envisaged by the U.N. General Assembly.

Because of its central position, the committee is well placed tomake an overall survey of international co-operation efforts in thespace field; to provide a basis for objective, technical assess¬ments of international programmes and their economic and socialpotentials; and to provide a "rallying point" for the many organiza¬tions engaged in this field by furnishing encouragement and supporton an international governmental level.

In undertaking these important functions, the committee is assist¬ed by its two specialized sub-committees one scientific and

technical, the other legal and by a small group of experts in theUnited Nations Secretariat the Outer Space Affairs Group. It alsobenefits from the experience of the specialized agencies and otherbodies invited to participate in its work.

When the committee was first established, there were only twonations capable of launching earth orbiting satellites and planet¬ary probes, the United States and the Soviet Union. At this point,there was no doubt in any mind that the primary objective for thecommittee in this field was to attempt to avoid the .extension ofnational rivalries into outer space and to ensure its uses for peace¬ful purposes only. All plans had to reflect this overwhelmingdesire and necessitated, therefore, taking into account the polit¬ical ramifications of any United Nations action in this area.

(1) Albania, Argentina, Australia, Austria, Belgium, Brazil, Bulgaria, Canada, EChad, Czechoslovakia, France, Hungary, India, Iran, Italy, Japan, Lebanon, Mexico, **Mongolia, Morocco, Poland, Rumania, Sierra Leone, Sweden, U.S.S.R., United ArabRepublic, United Kingdom, United States.

INTERNATIONAL VENTURE (Cont'd)

In this spirit, the committee submitted to the General Assemblyin November 1963 a declaration of legal principles governing theactivities of states in the exploration and use of outer space. Thedeclaration was unanimously adopted by the General Assembly.(See article page 17).

In addition to pursuing its consideration of the legal problemsand principles, the committee has presented a series of recommend¬ations on the exchange of information, the encouragement ofinternational programmes, the creation of international soundingrocket launching facilities, potentially harmful effects of space exper¬iments, and education and training which lay the groundwork forfurther practical action to develop international co-operation.

Recently, the working group of the whole recommended to thecommittee the holding of an international conference in the latterhalf of 1967 on the peaceful uses of outer space. The conferencewould have two objectives: an examination of the practical benefitsto be derived from space research and exploration on the basisof technical and scientific achievements and the extent to which

non-space powers, especially the developing countries, may enjoythese benefits, particularly in terms of education and develop¬ment; and an examination of the opportunities available to non-space powers for international co-operation in space activities,taking into account the extent to which the United Nations mayplay a role.

As the first decade of outer space exploration nears its comple¬tion, it is clear that many nations of the world are now aware oftheir stake in this new activity of mankind. The nations are deter¬mined to build the necessary international structure which willensure the peaceful exploration of outer space for the benefit of all.

C ABDEL HAMID ABDEL-GHANI is head of the United Nations Outer Space AffairsGroup and secretary of the U.N. Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space.Between 1949 and 1961, he represented the United Arab Republic on severalbodies in the United Nations.

FIRST OF THE MANY. Not long agothe "space pilot" was thought

of as a character from science fiction.

Today, well over a score or menand one woman Valentina Tereshkova

have flown in space, and manymore are being trained

to follow them.

Below, animal pathfinderswho paved the way for man

include dogs,mice and guinea pigs.

Photos © APN

It dw

w

is

to

oes not matter

ho reaches the moonhat countsthe benefit

first;

e

man

by Anatoly Blagonravov

WE are now in the ninth year

of the Space Age, theperiod of history that opened with thelaunching of Sputnik 1 in 1957.

Nobody now doubts that the con¬quest of space is one of the para¬mount problems facing mankind today.The leap into space marked an impor¬

tant stage in the history of civilization.The most alluring prospects, hithertoundreamed of possibilities, have open¬

ed up before man.

Space research is a branch ofscience in which all mankind has a

stake. In the final analysis, the resultsof the research should benefit all

people the world over, irrespective ofwhich country obtains them. The studyof outer space helps man understandthe general laws governing the uni¬verse that surrounds us, the knowledgegained promotes progress in scienceand technology, and today scientificand technical achievement reaches

most of the world's inhabitants.

Man today needs space research,but the tasks involved, especiallyflights to outer space, demand a tre¬mendous concentration of effort and

ANATOLY BLAGONRAVOV, a distinguishedSoviet astrophysicist, is chairman of theCommission for the Exploration and Useof Cosmic Space, U.S.S.R. Academy ofSciences.

CONT'D ON NEXT PAGE

FOR THE BENEFIT OF MAN (Cont'd)

A gigantic natural laboratory

8

funds which puts it beyond the resour¬ces of many countries. It is no wonder,therefore, that the Soviet Union and theUnited States of America, countries

in which science and technology havereached the highest development,should take upon themselves the mainburden of space exploration. Theirsuccesses in this field go far beyondthe bounds of mere national achieve-

men they are of service to all man¬kind.

Scientific achievements are signif¬icant not merely because they solvevarious practical problems but mainlybecause they accelerate progress.

It took man many millenia to findout what our earth is made of and

what position it occupies in the uni¬verse; to learn the rudiments of mech¬

anics, physics, mathematics and astro¬nomy man toiled for hundreds of years.It was this gigantic labour that pre¬pared the "way for the amazing leapforward that science has made in the

past few decades, the leap that led tothe accomplishment of space flights.

In a relatively short time earth satel-

Unlted Technology Center

lites, spaceships and interplanetary sta¬tions have provided scientific materialof tremendous value that would have

required long years of persistent andoften useless labour to acquire by theold methods. Space research hascompelled scientists to reconsider thephysics of the upper layers of theatmosphere. It has enabled man tophotograph the side of the moon neverseen from the earth and has providedvaluable Information on Mars and Ve¬

nus and on primary cosmic rays, solarradiation, meteoric matter and the in¬

terplanetary medium. Space researchhas also thrown fresh light on the ef¬fect of solar activity on geophysical

processes.

Rockets and artificial earth satel¬

lites have given us ultra-violet rayand X-ray astronomy, new methodsof studying the universe. The So¬viet automatic station Luna 9, mak¬

ing a soft landing on the moon, hassent back photographs of the lunarlandscape and other valuable infor¬mation. More recently, Luna 10 be¬came a satellite of our natural satellite.

Earlier in the century scientists had

Space stations will beof vital Importance In thefuture exploration of the

universe. Whatever form

they are given, they arelikely to be built from

prefabricated partslaunched Into orbit for

astronaut technicians

to assemble. Artist's

Impression (right) showsa space platform shaped

like a lighthouse with aspacecraft "docked" in

foreground. Drawingbelow shows astronauts

assembling a spacestation with the

aid of "tractor" rockets

(foreground and in rear).Some scientists believe

that a large wheel will bethe most likely shape for

a large space platform.When completed it would

be spun to provideartificial gravity

for the crew.

already begun to feel the need toextend the study of outer space andto obtain scientific material that could

be made accessible only by using theuniverse itself as a natural laboratory.

At first glance our planet appearsto be a completely isolated celestialbody, but actually thousands of threadsconnect the earth with the various pro¬

cesses taking place in outer space.It has long been known, for instance,that solar light and heat play a uniquerole in the life of the planet and ofman; in more recent times it has beendiscovered that the sun is the source

of other types of radiation that alsoexercise considerable influence on the

earth. We now possess information

concerning sun-earth relations whoseexistence we formerly never evendreamed of.

Other and more distant cosmic

bodies also have an undoubted effect

on terrestrial processes. Some of thesebodies, for Instance, are sources ofwhat is known as cosmic radiation

whose intensity determines the radia¬tion background at the earth's surface.One could list other examples of theway the "terrestrial" depends on the"cosmic", but it will be better to sum

them up by saying that a profound un¬derstanding of many earthly phenom¬ena, the study of their real causesand the explanation of their nature,

V,- tftww*v

^>

\

would be impossible without properconsideration of cosmic factors.

That, however, is only one aspect.Science, as we know, progresses fromstudy of individual phenomena to thediscovery of general laws that operateIn nature. This is the only way mod¬ern science can solve the giganticproblems Involved in harnessing evernew and more powerful natural pro¬cesses for the benefit of man.

If the researcher hopes to under¬stand these processes fully he cannotremain on earth; his sphere of activitymust widen to embrace outer spaceas well as our own planet.

To study the laws of the structureand evolution of the earth we must

have data for comparison from otherbodies in the solar system with whichthe earth is connected, not only bytheir external similarity, but also bytheir common origin. To study thesun we must have information about

similar stars in other parts of theuniverse. Even the study of the shapeof the earth requires observations

made from space by means of artificialearth satellites.

Thus many problems of a terrestrialnature require a transition fromplanetary to cosmic research.

The cosmos, outer space itself, is

a gigantic, inexhaustible, infinitely var

ied laboratory created by nature.Here we can observe and study newphenomena, reveal new laws of nature

and then use the knowledge obtainedfor the benefit of man, for the solution

of practical problems on earth.

Progress in science requires a con¬stantly Increasing volume of Informationabout phenomena In the universe.Conventional terrestrial research must

be developed but at the same timethe area from which information is

gathered must extend into space.

LL scientific and technical

progress depends on thespeed at which many modern, disci¬plines develop especially physicschemistry, astronomy, biology andcybernetics; the development of thesesciences also determines the rate of

production growth In the community,and these are the branches that stand

in ever greater need of informationfrom outer space.

However, the main purpose of today'sspace research of space flights in par¬ticular, is to learn more about the part

of the universe surrounding our planet.We should not expect, therefore, thedata obtained by space research to

have an immediate application,although in time this knowledge willfind an increasing number of uses.

© APN

Even today we can name quite afew scientific discoveries that have

come to us straight from the depthsof space. Take atomic energy, forexample. From early days astronomersstudying the sun and other stars realiz¬ed that they are powerful heat radiators.It was obvious that a new type of en¬ergy was involved, since none of thehitherto known sources of energy couldprovide such a colossal output as thatobserved. The discovery of this factwas a powerful incentive to scientists

to step up the study of the sun andother stars. The parallel study of thestructure of matter developed inten¬sively until man's efforts enabled him

to release and harness the energycontained in the atomic nucleus.

How many still unknown sources ofenergy are there? How many naturalprocesses that can be placed at the

service of man does space still hidefrom us?

No matter how we look at the spe¬cific nature of modern science we are

led to the conclusion that develop¬ment of space research is absolutelyessential.

As we have said, not all space prob¬lems can be solved by terrestrial ob¬servation. More and more problemsare coming to the fore that must bestudied outside the earth's atmosphere,either in outer space or from the sur-

CONT'D ON NEXT PAGE

9

FOR THE BENEFIT OF MAN (Cont'd)

Efforts repaid a hundredfold

10

face of other celestial bodies. For

this scientists must have space vehi¬

cles capable of delivering measuringinstruments and apparatus and theresearcher himself to various points

in space. The era of the study andconquest of space, the main featureof which is space flights, is an

essential stage in man's development.

The space era in the developmentof terrestrial civilization, however, is

not merely a matter of launching arti¬ficial earth satellites and making space

flights. It is the use of an ever-grow¬ing concentration of the forces ofscience and of funds to study thenumerous phenomena occurring onearth and outside the earth and to

carry out extensive research on botha planetary and cosmic scale.

HE broader the scope ofscientific research, the

greater the scale on which it develops,and the greater the need for closerinternational co-operation. Research is

most likely to bring the desired resultsif it follows an agreed programme anduses standardized instruments, and

also if the data acquired are processedand analysed jointly. The effort thusexpended will pay for itself a hundred¬fold, as joint international research con¬ducted In recent years has proved mostconvincingly. The International Geo¬physical Year and the Year of theQuiet Sun are excellent examples ofsuch fruitful co-operation to say noth¬

ing of the pre-arranged programmesunder which the scientists of different

countries study solar eclipses andother astronomic phenomena.

Today the attack on the secrets ofnature is being waged with increasinglypowerful scientific forces. In a numberof countries mighty accelerators andbig optical and radio-telescopes arebeing built, and the latest achievementsof physics, electronics, cyberneticsand other sciences are being mobi¬lized in the service of astronomy.

In turn space exploration exerts a

strong influence on the developmentof other fields of science and technol¬

ogy. For instance, it stimulates thefurther development of cyberneticsand electronics and compels scientists

to seek ways of creating micro¬miniature laboratory equipment.

For this mighty technical array tobe used most effectively, for scientificprogress to be achieved at maximumtempo, there must be a broad ex¬change of information between scien¬tists of various countries, concerted

effort and close contact. A goodexample of such collaboration is theUnited Nuclear Research Institution in

Dubna, near Moscow, where scientists

from many socialist countries workside by side.

Another example of internationalco-operation in space exploration isthe joint Soviet-French experimentsin colour TV transmissions using

the French Secam system via theSoviet space communications satellite"Molniya" (see page 23).

There has also been some success¬

ful co-operation between Soviet andAmerican astronomers; in one in¬

stance a Soviet scientist, A. D. Kuzmin,

worked at the observatory of the Calif¬ornia Technological Institute forseveral months. Joint research produc¬

ed some interesting data on physicalconditions on Venus. World science

forums are being held more and morefrequently.

The tendency to unite scientificeffort to develop international research,is one of the outstanding features ofcontemporary science, especially inthe field of space research. This, inturn, leads to greater international co¬operation and mutual assistance be¬tween different countries and different

social systems, and leads to a streng¬thening of world peace.

The successes of modern science

in designing space vehicles of varioustypes power carrier rockets, space¬ships and steerable automatic stations

have enabled researchers to pro¬

gress from the passive study ofphenomena to experiments in theupper atmosphere and in interplanet¬

ary space.

Experimentation is the most rapidand effective way of acquiring know¬ledge. The observer always has towait for the right conditions; the exper¬imenter creates the conditions he

needs; he can change them at willin the course of the experiment, andthen observe the results of the

changes.

The first experiment in space was

the launching of an artificial earthsatellite. It was preceded by theoret¬ical calculations based on celestial

mechanics and it proved that our

previous knowledge of the structureof the solar system and the lawsgoverning the motion of heavenlybodies was correct.

When a manned satellite went into

orbit the possibilities for observationand experimentation increased Immeas¬

urably, for man's actual presence inspace is essential for precise seien-

Photos C APN

PIONEERS OF

ASTRONAUTICSThe names of many men figure in thestory of man's progress from theconcept of space flight to actual accom¬plishments in astronautics. One suchman is Konstantin Eduardovich Tsiol-

kovsky (above), a Russian schoolteacher who was born in 1857 in Kaluga.When the first aeroplanes were beingcoaxed to leave the ground, Tsiolkovsk/was already writing about satellites,"ether suits" (space suits), the use ofplants to provide oxygen and food forspace travellers and even the coloniza¬tion of the planets. In the latter partof his life (he died in 1935) his geniuswas fully appreciated, and today acrater on the moon bears his name.

His vision inspired Soviet scientists whoin 1929 founded an organization forstudying rocket motors. Above right,members of this group are seen with anexperimental rocket they built in theearly 1930s. In the group is SergeKorolyov, later to become a celebratedSoviet designer of rockets and space¬ships, who died earlier this year.Another authentic pioneer was a U.S.physics professor, Robert HutchingsGoddard. In the early 1920s. Goddardnot only worked out calculations on roc¬ketry and space flight, but also experi¬mented with fuels, built rockets and

actually flew them. Right, in March 1926,Goddard prepares to launch the world'sfirst liquid fuel rocket, the forerunnerof the powerful engines that hurl space¬craft into orbit todey.

USIS

tifie work. As we have said the main

purpose of our invasion of space, forthe time being at least, is to obtaina more profound understanding of ourimmediate surroundings.

In space itself it is possible to makea direct study of phenomena and pro¬cesses still unknown to science, and

this of course, means that the space

explorer must inevitably face theunknown. As man penetrates furtherand further into space that unknownwill gradually become more and moreextraordinary; it will be more andmore difficult to relate it to what is

known and it will be necessary oneach occasion to find new, originalapproaches to problems.

With science and technology attheir present level such research can

be done only by man, because thehuman brain possesses potentialitiesfar in excess of the most perfect ofour modern electronic computers andother cybernetic apparatus. Situationsmay arise during a space flight thathave not been foreseen, and the

optimum decision that has to be made

instantaneously can be made only byman.

Research during space flights be¬came still more practicable when Soviet

scientists and engineers designedthe multi-seat spacecraft that made a

successful flight carrying astronautsKomarov, Yegorov and Feoktistov.

Spaceship crews may include suchspecialists as astronomers, physicists,biologists, doctors and engineers; eachof them, working in his own field, canconduct continuous and varied obser¬

vations. There is no doubt that in the

relatively near future we shall seemany scientific discoveries made onboard spaceships.

Another important advance in spaceexploration was made during theflight of the Soviet spaceship Vos-khod 2 when an astronaut, Alexei

Leonov, stepped ont of his ship intospace for the first time; he remained

outside for ten minutes protected onlyby the spacesuit he was wearing. Thiswas a scientific and technical

achievement that ranked with such

other accomplishments as the orbitingof the first artificial earth satellite

and the flight of Yuri Gagarin, the firstastronaut.

N astronaut must have a

, certain freedom of move¬

ment in flight if he is to carry out allthe operations necessary for an effec¬tive exploration of space, but the cap¬sule of the spaceship hampers hismovements considerably. The flight ofPavel Belyayev and Alexei Leonovshowed that this obstacle can be sur¬

mounted. Using a special spacesuitwhich supplies him with oxygen andprotects him from the hazards of space,the astronaut can leave the ship, move

freely in space and carry out differenttasks.

A short time later this experiment

was repeated by U.S. astronauts.Since it has been shown that a man

can leave his ship in space, it will be

much easier to do such things as join¬ing two spaceships, building researchstations in orbit and landing expedi¬tions on other heavenly bodies.

U.S. scientists have made an impor¬

tant contribution to the conquest of

space. Among other things U.S.spacemen have made flights alongballistic trajectories the first steptowards the future establishment of

inter-continental rocket transport; they

have also developed the technique of

landing on water.

Valuable information was sent back

to earth by the U.S. space stationsMariner 2 and Mariner 4 from the vici¬

nity of Venus and Mars; another U.S.contribution was made by photographstransmitted by the Ranger Space Sta¬tion as it approached the moon.

U.S. scientists have carried out

fascinating experiments with lasers todetermine the orbital position of artifi¬cial earth satellites. This was done byreflectors on the vehicle powerful

enough to send the light signals of thelasers back to earth. This method of

observation showed the position of the

vehicle in orbit with an accuracy of 15metres. Various types of lasers, work¬ing in different wavebands, are an im¬portant new tool for space studies.

U.S. scientists and engineers haveachieved outstanding successes in thepractical use of space vehicles; oneexample being the systems of meteor¬ological and communications satellitesthey have created.

An important new stage in theconquest of space was marked by theflight of Soviet Automatic Station Luna9. The moon being our nearest neigh¬bour in space, its study is of tremen¬dous interest to science, and the soft

landing constitued a substantial contrib¬ution to lunar exploration.

The comprehensive study of the nat¬ure of the moon, the structure of its

surface and interior, the composition oflunar matter and the physical condi¬tions prevailing there will greatly ex¬tend our knowledge of the structure ofthe planets of the solar system and of

the history of their origin and develop¬ment. In the final analysis this willhelp us study our own planet and makethe best use of its colossal natural

resources.

The astronomers' dream of an orbital

observatory beyond the terrestrialatmosphere is already coming true.

The idea of building a space stationon the moon at some future date is a

fascinating one. Such a station, func¬tioning in a vacuum and in a gravita¬

tional field one sixth of the strength ofthat of the earth, could be an invalu¬

able cosmic observatory and a physico-chemical laboratory in which scientistscould study various processes underunusual conditions.

Soviet scientists made an extremelyimportant step forward in space ex¬ploration at the end of 1965 and the

beginning of 1966 when automatic in¬terplanetary probes Venera 2 andVenera 3 were sent to Venus. After a

three-month flight, the Venera 3 probereached the surface of the planet onMarch 1, 1966 and delivered a pennantwith the emblem of the Soviet Union.

This precision landing was achievedby a correction of the probe's trajectorysuccessfully carried out on December26, 1965.

Venus became the second celestial

body, after the moon, to be reached bya man-made space vehicle.

Problems on a planetary scale arebeing solved in the course of spaceexploration, and this makes it an areain which all-round co-operation be¬tween scientists of a number of coun¬

tries would be most effective. Space

CONT'D ON NEXT PAGE

H

12

FOR THE BENEFIT OF MAN (Cont'd)

Weather eyes

open in space

research itself, moreover, must beconducted on a broad basis. Soviet

' scientists are convinced that rockets

and spaceships must serve the causeof peace and the progress of humanity.

Data obtained from space satellites,to complement information from groundmeteorological stations, is an importantfactor in reliable weather forecasting.

Following a Soviet-American agree¬ment, a round-the-clock communicationchannel now provides for a two-waytransmission of meteorological data,

meteorological charts and photographs.This channel will assume a special

significance when a continuous actionsystem of weather-service satellitesis put into orbit.

Some international space studies

have already been carried out, amongothers the Anglo-Soviet radio trans¬missions through the U.S. satelliteEcho and through the moon and Venus.Radio signals transmitted from Britain'sJodrell Bank Observatory were reflect¬ed from the surface of one of these

planets and picked up by the Sovietradio-astronomic station at Zimenki,

near Gorky.

The purpose of these experimentswas to extend our knowledge of theconditions under which radio waves

penetrate the upper layers of theearth's atmosphere. This is of greatpractical importance for the develop¬ment of long distance radio communi¬cation of the earth-spaceship-earthtype, to ensure reliable radio commun¬ication between the earth and space¬

ships and other objects that in thefuture will be placed in orbit.

Special communications satellites,put in high orbits to ensure prolongedoperation, are of major significance inestablishing a world-wide system ofradio communication and television.

The sucessful launching of the Molniyarelay satellite by the Soviet Union, forexample, has made possible a regulartelevision link between Vladivostok and

Moscow.

Actually, it does not matter whichcountry is first able to send an expedi¬tion to the moon or is responsible forsome other success in space; the im¬

portant thing is the benefit it will bringto people; this is the real purpose ofall these achievements.

The history of science shows thatwhen outstanding scientific discoveriesare made in any country, their furtherdevelopment is due to the joint effortof the scientists of the whole world.

The conquest of space will be noexception.

t

*n

BLAST-OFF FOR ARIEL

The first international satellite,

Ariel I, a joint United Kingdom-United States co-operative pro¬ject, rises from a U.S. launchingbase (above) on April 26, 1962.Ariel I (in drawing, left, as itwould appear in orbit) was de¬signed to collect informationabout the ionosphere (a layer ofthe earth's upper atmosphere)and how it is affected by solarradiations. The Goddard SpaceFlight Center in the U.S.A.launched the satellite and later

picked up its data through aworld-wide network of trackingstations. The U.K. designedand arranged the instrumentsto carry out six experiments tomeasure cosmic, ultraviolet andX-rays. A second satellite,Ariel II, was launched into orbitin March 1964, and work on a

third Ariel is now proceeding.

Photos NASA

Joint enterprises are nowa going concernin the exciting fieldof space research'

by Arnold W. Frutkln

INTERNATIONAL co-operation In the scientific exploration ofspace provides both a present reality which is yielding practical

benefits and a highly attractive prospect for future contributions to theknowledge and welfare of all nations.

The United States civilian space agency, the National Aeronautics andSpace Administration (NASA), since its establishment in 1958, has carriedout a broad and varied programme of co-operative space activities involving70 countries and jurisdictions. The objectives of this programme are toafford opportunities for the best brains abroad to participate in spaceresearch, to stimulate technical development abroad, to help reduce eco¬nomic and political strain between states, and to provide a framework withinwhich countries can pool their efforts and join in cost-sharing and comple¬mentary programmes.

Existing international co-operativespace activities demonstrate the values

which flow from joint participation inthis relatively new and exciting branchof scientific investigation and technicaldevelopment.

NASA has placed in orbit six satel¬lites designed and engineered byscientists and engineers in Canada,France, Italy and the United Kingdomand has agreements to launch eightmore co-operative satellites. From theexperiments conducted with these

spacecraft, the countries concerned

have derived a large volume of signif¬icant information which they are shar¬ing with the United States and the

ARNOLD W. FRUTKIN, Assistant Admi¬nistrator for International Affairs at the

National Aeronautics and Space Administra¬tion (NASA), Washington, has been re¬sponsible for NASA's programmes of co¬operation with foreign governments andagencies in space science and technologysince 1959 when he was appointed Directorof the Office of International Programmes.He is a member of the U.S. delegation tothe U.N. Committee on the Peaceful Uses

of Outer Space. Before joining NASA,Mr. Frutkin served as Director of Public

Affairs and later as Deputy Executive Direc¬tor of the U.S. National Committee for the

International Geophysical Year.

rest of the world scientific community.Foreign scientists are invited by

NASA to propose individual experi¬ments for inclusion on NASA satellites.

These proposals are reviewed In com¬

petition with those submitted by Amer¬ican scientists and, if selected, are

funded and prepared by the sponsor¬ing agencies abroad. Four such ex¬

periments have already flown success¬fully, sixteen additional ones have been

scheduled for later flights and severalmore are under consideration. NASA

has opened virtually all categories ofits spacecraft, including the Apollomanned spacecraft, to foreign partici¬pation on this co-operative basis, thusproviding opportunities for foreignscientists and engineers to obtainvaluable data and experience.

Co-operative sounding-rocket pro¬jects have special international appeal.To nations wishing to initiate spaceprogrammes, they offer relatively low-cost opportunities on a smaller but

significant scale. They offer the useof launching locations of unique scien¬tific interest and permit simultaneouslaunchings in different locations, apractice required for certain scientificobjectives. More than 130 rockets

have been launched in joint NASA pro¬jects with 17 countries.

Sounding rocket projects havebrought into being a large number ofranges in scientifically significant re¬gions of the world auroral, equatorial,southern hemisphere and these

ranges now make possible increasinglyimportant programmes in rocket

astronomy, meteorology, aeronomy,and ionospheric physics.

A study of atmospheric circulationof the Indian Ocean basin, with bothIndia and Pakistan participating, hasresulted in valuable contributions to

scientific knowledge. A particularlyinteresting by-product of this bilateralprogramme has been the establish¬

ment of the first international soundingrocket range, at Thumba on the geo¬magnetic equator. This range is opento all users who follow a code of

open investigation laid down by theUnited Nations. To the extent thatunique advantages may be derivedfrom their geographic location, theremay be room for the establishment of

more such ranges.

O NE of the attractive aspectsof bilateral sounding rocket

projects is that they tend to serve asnuclei for broadening internationalactivity. Ionospheric studies conduct¬

ed under a U.S. agreement with Nor¬way have led to collaborative efforts

among all three Scandinavian count¬

ries. Argentina and Brazil are nowundertaking with NASA joint sound¬ing rocket studies which serve as ele¬

ments in an experimental inter-American

meteorological sounding rocket net¬work. This network, it is hoped, willeventually engage western hemispheremeteorologists from the Antarctic pen¬insula to the shores of Hudson Bay.Argentina and Brazil together have

CONT'D ON NEXT PAGE

13

JOINT SPACE ENTERPRISES (Cont'd)

Satellite beacons for ships and planes

formulated an agreement which pro¬vides a framework for future co-opera¬

tion in space research to which thesecountries can bring capabilities devel¬oped in the co-operative programmeswith NASA.

Co-operation in ground-based pro¬grammes has been of the greatest im¬portance for flight projects and haspermitted participation in space pro¬grammes of great scope without re¬quiring expensive vehicle or space¬craft hardware. In meteorology, the

co-operative sharing of practical spacebenefits has reached new levels

through the inclusion of an AutomaticPicture Transmission (APT) system onUnited States advanced meteorologicalsatellites.

The APT camera can provide con¬tinuous read-out of cloud-cover photo¬

graphs. A simple and relatively inex¬pensive ground station permits directand immediate acquisition and printing

of cloud-cover photographs taken bythe satellite as it passes within range.Thirteen countries have acquired APT

sets at their own expense and usedthem successfully, many reporting

direct improvements in weather fore¬casting. Numerous other countries areacquiring the sets which offer bothimmediate forecasting and long-rangeresearch gains for weather service anduniversity interests.

14

OMMUNICATIONS satel¬

lites made possible earlydramatic transoceanic telephone andtelevision demonstrations and have

now entered the phase of direct com¬

mercial application with the clear pro¬mise of cultural and economic benefit.

The early experimental co-operation,in which a dozen countries undertook

construction of ground stations at theirown expense, under agreement withNASA, undoubtedly contributed to this

implementation.

Another prospect, of potential bene¬fit to both air and sea transportation,

is that of navigation satellites. Theincreasing density of traffic on aircraftand shipping routes may make itdesirable and profitable to develop a

satellite navigation system which wouldcontribute to the safety and economyof transportation, particularly on themost heavily travelled routes.

Of primary importance to programmesof space exploration and experimenta¬

tion are ground stations for tracking

and reception of data sent back byradio. International co-operation in thelocation, construction and operation ofthese stations is clearly essential. Inall countries where NASA has estab¬

lished tracking and data acquisitionstations, local technicians are invited

to work side by side with United Statespersonnel and, in most cases, do so.Indeed, in a number of locations, the

stations are operated entirely by crewsof the host country. This co-operationnot only provides necessary services,but contributes to the spread of

modern technologies and the con¬tinued growth of understanding.

Personnel exchanges and trainingarrangements are important in most

international efforts. Programmes havebeen set up under which senior scien¬tists from abroad may spend a year ormore in research or experimental work

at NASA centres. Fellowships at the

graduate level are available in Ameri¬can universities for foreign students.Training necessary for the executionof co-operative projects in which theUnited States participates is madeavailable at appropriate NASA centres.

In these latter two programmes, therequirement that the sponsoring coun¬tries meet travel and subsistence costs

assures careful selection of personnel

selected for training, and their futureutilization at home.

In each of the co-operative projectsreferred to, that portion which is theresponsibility of the co-operating coun¬try is in fact a bona fide contributionof that country, funded by it withoutfinancial support from the U.S. Eachof the projects referred to is ofmutual interest to the participants and

possesses valid scientific objectives.The scientific results of each of these

projects are made available to the

world scientific community.

What are the limitations on con¬

tinued expansion of international co¬

operation in space research and explor¬ation? It would be unrealistic not to

recognize that constraints exist andthat the primary ones are money, tech¬nology and will (which in turn may bea function of the level of appreciationof the broad benefits which can in fact

be derived from an engagement inspace technology).

One means of reducing costs to indi¬vidual participating countries is thebanding together of a group of coun¬tries, as in the European SpaceResearch Organization (ESRO) and theEuropean Launcher Development Orga¬nization (ELDO) (see page 24). Other,

CONT'D ON PAGE 16

North American Aviation

TRICKS PLAYED

ON HAND & EYE

Venturing into outer space, manencounters new, bewildering con¬ditions that play tricks with hisvision. The earth's atmosphereproduces diffuse reflection oflight, but in space the astronautcan see only bright objects illum¬inated by the sun and visibleagainst an absolutely blackbackground. Such misleadingand unstable perspectives dis¬tort human perceptions of depthand shape and produce opticalillusions. Astronauts are taughtto beware of mirages in space.

Hold this figure (Necker's cube) at armslength and keep your eyes fixed on it.Its aspect will change. First the top (orbottom) will appear as viewed from above,and then from below. You will not be able

to retain one image for very long. Thisillustrates the kind of optical illusion thatmay complicate the work of astronauts inassembling the sections of stations inspace. Against the blackness of space acube becomes diamond-shaped and a circletakes on elliptical form. Right two drawingsby the Dutch engraver, Maurits-CornelisEscher, illustrate the same kind of opticalillusion. In "Belvedere", the men on theladder are placed ¡[logically, the lower oneinside and the upper one outside the edi¬fice; below them a seated figure contem¬plates Necker's cube. In "Perpetual Mo¬tion", a drawing trick makes the waterfalling on the wheel appear to climb againto give the mill an unending water supply.

Stresses experiencedby an astronaut

in flight acceleration,weightlessness, heat,

oxygen intake, magneticdisturbances

can affect

his perceptionsand actions.

Left, checking the effectof acceleration

on the human eye.Circular pattern

is projected on the eyeand photographed

after flight to revealchange caused by rapid

acceleration.

erratic squiggles, Right,recalling certain works

of modern art,

are gesturesof astronauts

with electric bulbs

fixed to their wrists,

photographed duringsimulated space flight.

1

PlSl£ ^P

1 Jn \IS

M 1 JL

3

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Courtesy "Jardin des Arts", Paris.

Shadowgraph revealsthe shock wave

and turbulence set

up by the profile of a Mercuryspace capsule. Testsunder laboratoryconditions determine

how the capsule willbehave at high speedsin the atmosphere.

JOINT SPACE ENTERPRISES (Cont'd)

Bridges between the continents

16

regional groupings might perform asimilarly useful function.

The scope for advanced projects ofmutual interest is also limited by dis¬

parities in the development of therequired technology. The past fewyears of space activity, through nation¬al, regional, and NASA-co-operativeprojects, have, however, already estab¬lished a significant base for moreadvanced projects. Disparities in tech¬nology can be further reduced throughregional space research organizations,such as ESRO and ELDO, in which

each participant concentrates on thoseareas of science and technology inwhich it is most proficient.

Finally, genuine co-operation re¬quires the will to co-operate on the partof all participants. The will to co-oper¬ate presupposes a conviction that co¬operation can serve the common inter¬est It is of some interest that the

United States has steadfastly sought

to open new opportunities for spaceco-operation with the Soviet Union.A certain limited success has been

achieved by the two countries. Follow¬ing specific proposals for co-operationby President Kennedy in 1962, nego¬tiators were designated by both sides.The resulting talks between the lateDr. Hugh L. Dryden and AcademicianA. A. Blagonravov produced an agree¬ment dated June 8, 1962.

The agreement provided for threeundertakings. The first was for co¬ordinated launchings of experimentalmeteorological satellites and theexchange of data thus obtained over aconventional communications link. This

link has been established and is beingused for the exchange of conventionalmeteorological data pending the avail¬ability of satellite data from the SovietUnion.

The second undertaking was for thelaunching by each country of an earthsatellite equipped with absolute magnet¬ometers and the subsequent exchangeof data. The third part of the agree¬ment was for co-operative communica

tions experiments by means of theUnited States passive satellite Echo II.The communications project has beencompleted. The exchange of magneticfield data obtained by ground-basedinstruments has begun and will providea basis for analysis of satellite data.

The most recent evidence of United

States willingness to join with othersin the exploration of space isPresident Johnson's suggestion ofDecember 1965 that countries may wish

to co-operate in a major new spaceendeavour of greater magnitude andmore far-reaching technological implic¬ations than anything proposed hereto¬fore. The President's proposal is, in

effect, a response to the frequently-stated desire of other developed coun¬

tries for greater participation in thedevelopment of advanced space tech¬nology.

Other interested nations may wishto share in the benefits which America

is deriving from major advanced tech¬nological programmes through a com¬bination of advanced management

techniques, technology and a fruitful

TURTLE-TRACKIN6

SATELLITESSatellites have proved

their worth in manyfields, including

meteorology andtelecommunications.

They may soon be helpingzoologists discover how

green turtles navigate1,400 miles of sea

to reach the sites where

they lay their eggs.Professor Archie Carr,

zoology professor atthe University of

Florida, suggests thatsatellites be used to

track turtles equippedwith a radio

transmitter fixed to

their shells (right).NASA Is studyinghow to co-operate

in these

turtle-tracking studies.

partnership of government, universityand private industry. Such collabora¬tion could contribute to the develop¬

ment of mutual Interests transcending

space technology, relating it to othertechnology so as to employ the totalcapability for broader progress andunderstanding for all peoples.

In his report to the Congress onUnited States Aeronautics and SpaceActivities for 1965, President Johnson

said, "As our space programme con¬

tinues, the impact of its developmentson everyday life becomes daily moreevident." It continues to stimulate our

education, improve our material well-being, and broaden the horizons ofknowledge. It is also a powerful forcefor peace.

"The space programme of the UnitedStates today is the largest effort everundertaken by any nation to advancethe frontiers of human knowledge.What we are discovering and buildingtoday will help solve many of the greatproblems which an increasingly com¬plex and heavily-populated world willface to morrow."

O Archie Carr

\K¡üHb&J5m¡

iffifl K

l8*il

From behind a plasticplanisphere, specialistat the Brétigny aero¬space centre. France,indicates (on right)point where FrenchFR-1 satellite went into

orbit, and (on left)where it passed overEurope on orbit one.

0 P. Lei lèvre

fê*£

mr'i

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\

joy Eugène Pepin

What happens if aspaceship launchedby one countrylands in another?

Can any nationclaim sovereigntyon the moon?

What are the

responsabilitiesof a countrywhose satellite

collides with

a communications

satellite placedin orbit byanother country?

SPACE FLIGHT

AND THE RULE

OF LAW

J:IURISTS did not wait for

the launching of the firstSputnik, on October 4, 1957, before

they started considering the problemswhich would arise as a result of the

exploration and utilization of spaceby artificial satellites. The articles and

discussions of the "pre-Sputnik" era,however dealt mainly with theoreticalquestions, such as the scope and lim¬

its of national sovereignty in space.

Very soon, Soviet and Americanspace successes forced jurists to con¬

sider more practical problems resultingfrom the progress of the new scienceof astronautics. International and na¬

tional associations of jurists studiedand discussed the legal aspects of

EUGENE PEPIN, President of the Inter¬national Institute of Space Law (Inter¬national Astronautical Federation) is pro¬fessor of air and space law at theInstitut des Relations Internationales

Contemporaines, Paris. He was formerlydirector of the Legal Department of theInternational Civil Aviation Organization.

space flight, and reported their findingsto various international bodies.

On December 13, 1958, the United

Nations General Assembly, recogniz¬ing the common interest of mankindin the exploration and use of outerspace, established an ad hoc Com¬mittee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer

Space, and included on the list of thetechnical studies to be undertaken a

survey of the nature of legal problemswhich might arise in carrying out pro¬grammes of space exploration.

The first legal principles for guidancein the exploration and use of outer

space were adopted by the U.N. Gen¬eral Assembly on December 20, 1961,in a resolution which affirmed that:

International law, including theCharter of the United Nations, ap¬plies to outer space and celestialbodies.

Outer space and celestial bodiesare free for exploration and use by nall states in conformity with inter- ' «national law and are not subject tonational appropriation.

CONT'D ON NEXT PAGE

SPACE LAW (Cont'd)

No national sovereignty in space

18

In this resolution, the General As¬

sembly, envisaging the United Nationsas a focal point for international co¬operation in the peaceful explorationand use of outer space, called uponstates launching objects into orbit togive the United Nations full informa¬tion for keeping a public register oflaunchings.

The need for adding to the two basicprinciples proclaimed in this resolutionbecame evident in March 1962, at the

first meeting of the legal sub-commit¬tee of the new permanent Committeeon the Peaceful Uses of Outer

Space. Whilst priority was given totwo important problems assistance toastronauts and space vehicles andresponsibility for damage resultingfrom space activities the Soviet Dele¬gation submitted a draft declaration ofthe principles which should govern theactivities of states in outer space, to

be signed by all countries. At subse¬quent sessions, further lists of generalprinciples were submitted by theUnited Arab Republic, the United King¬dom and the United States of America.

HE first question to besettled was that of the

general legal principles. In 1963, theU.N. Committee on the Peaceful Uses

of Outer Space and its legal sub¬committee discussed at length not onlythe principles themselves, but also theform in which to embody them: as an

agreement for signature or as aGeneral Assembly resolution. A com¬promise text was drafted and present¬ed to the 1963 U.N. General Assembly,

which adopted it unanimously. Thiswas the Solemn Declaration of Dec¬

ember 13, of the "Legal Principles Gov¬erning the Activities of States in theExploration and Use of Outer Space."It did not, however, satisfy all states,

some of which regarded it merely asa recommendation; so the General

Assembly recommended that the Com¬mittee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer

Space consider the possibility of in¬corporating these principles in aninternational agreement.

This Declaration of 1963 is both a

reasonable compromise calculated tounite and not divide members of the

United Nations, and, at the same timea further illustration of international co¬

operation in space activities, comple¬menting the resolution banning nuclearweapons in space, which was adoptedby acclamation on October 17, 1963.This called on states to refrain from

placing in orbit around the earth any

objects carrying nuclear weapons orany other kinds of weapons of massdestruction, or stationing such weaponsin outer space in any other man¬ner; also to refrain from encouragingor in any way participating in suchactivities.

The U.N. Declaration endorses the

legal principles for guidance in theexploration and use of space adopted

In 1961, and defines them in greaterdetail. The main principle proclaimedis, as before, that all nations shall be

free and equal as regards the explor¬ation and use of outer space and the

celestial bodies, providing that:

H the exploration and use of outerspace shall be carried on for thebenefit and in the interests of all

mankind;

the activities of states in the explor¬

ation and use of outer space shallbe carried on in accordance with

international law, including the Char¬ter of the United Nations, in the in¬

terest of maintaining internationalpeace and promoting internationalco-operation and understanding;

states shall be guided in their activ¬ities by the principle of co-opera¬tion and mutual assistance and shall

conduct them with due regard forthe interests of other states.

The Declaration also proclaims that

outer space and celestial bodies are

not subject to national appropriation byclaim of sovereignty, by means of useor occupation, or by any other means.

The remaining articles contain a briefenumeration of other principles to be

proclaimed in subsequent conventions.

Another problem which, since the

beginning of the space age, has pre¬occupied countries engaged in spaceresearch is that of giving aid to astro¬nauts and space vehicles in diffi¬

culty and assisting their return. TheDeclaration contains provisions on

these points.

As regards space vehicles the Dec¬laration states that ownership of

objects launched Into outer space, andof their component parts, is in no wayaffected by their passage throughouter space or by their return to theearth, and it stipulates that such ob¬

jects or their parts found beyond thelimits of the country of registry shallbe returned to that country, whichshall furnish identifying data upon re¬quest before repatriation takes place.

As for astronauts, they should beregarded them as envoys of mankindin 'outer space and therefore givenevery possible assistance in the event

of accident, distress, or emergencylanding on the territory of a foreignstate or on the high seas. Astronautswho make such a landing shall besafely and promptly returned to thestate of registry of their space vehicle.

FOR the application of these

principles detailed provi¬sions will have to be laid down. A

number of draft conventions have been

submitted to the Committee on the

Peaceful Uses of Outer Space, but no

definite text has yet been drafted.Although the need for renderingassistance to astronauts in difficulties

is generally accepted, discussion con¬tinues as to whether astronauts should

be returned to the state of registry oftheir space vehicle, and whether such

vehicles or their components should

be returned to the country of origin inall circumstances, or only when launch¬ings are made in conformance withthe general principles of the Declar¬ation of 1963.

The problem of the responsibilityfor damages resulting from activitiesin outer space has now ceased to be

a theoretical one. Objects launched

into space or fragments from them cancause damage when they fall back tothe earth. For instance in November

1960 cattle were killed near the villageof Olguin, Cuba, by debris from arocket; and fragments of rockets havebeen found on the ground on severaloccasions, particularly in Canada, theUnited States and South Africa. With

more and more objects (rocket-stages,

CONT'D ON PAGE 35

© NASA, Washington

COLOUR PAGE, OPPOSITE: Turbulent cloud formations reveal presenceof storm approaching the Moroccan coast near Agadir in this photographtaken from space by U.S. astronauts Gordon Cooper and Charles Conrad,during their eight-day Gemini 5 mission in August 1965. Today meteorol¬ogists are no longer confined to a "worm's eye" view of the weather. Thefirst meteorological satellite launched in 1960 televised over 22,000 photo¬graphs of global weather conditions in eleven weeks.

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Colour page, opposite : Photographed by U.S. astronauts FrankBorman and James Lovell from the spacecraft Gemini 7, the moonhang? like a lamp against the dark backdrop of space. Gemini 7,whose nose is seen lower left, travelled 5.7 million miles andstayed in orbit for 14 days.

© NASA

ASTRONAUT-PHOTOGRAPHERS

AT A RENDEZVOUS IN SPACE

Centre colour pages.

Left, two views of Gemini 7 taken as Gemini 6, with astronautsWalter Schirra and Tom Stafford aboard, closed in for the firstrendezvous in space. This space chase lasted nearly six hoursduring which time both craft travelled three and a half timesround the globe. Top, Gemini 7 seen from the rear. Bottom, thetwo craft nose to nose, orbiting in formation some 20 feet apartwhile travelling at 17,500 m.p.h., 160 miles above the earth. Right,a spectacular panoramic view of the eastern Mediterranean.Photographed by Gemini 7 during its 56th orbit, it reaches about600 miles from Egypt and the Red Sea to Turkey and Cyprus.Numbered on reproduction right are (1) Nile Valley (2) NileDelta (3) Red Sea (4) Bitter Lakes (5) Suez Canal (6) Sinai (7)Dead Sea (8) Sea of Galilee (9) Israel (10) Syria (11) Jordan (12)Lebanon (13) Turkey (14) Cyprus. Spaceborne cameras have

< already brought back new knowledge of great value to ocean¬ic ographers, meteorologists, geologists, cartographers and otherQ scientists. And pointing their cameras into the reaches ofó space, astronaut-photographers can take pictures of the moon,| planets and stars without the distortions picked up from theS earth's atmosphere in ground-based optical equipment.

FLOWERS

VIA

SATELLITE^P BnflKufJ^BBB*flSBBMBBBB& ' -- BS

- tip . a

The U.S.S.R. and France were linked for . ':..; .; ' ' . .the first time by colour television on Nov ! \ember 30, 1965, when a programme put bV 1out by Moscow was re-transmitted by the « V -: . Jkj^Soviet communications satellite, Molniya 1(right). The programme, picked up in 1% W j^bbIFrance by the Pleumeur-Bodou station, TzsZpresented a number of films, including

BBBBBBBBBB^BBBtä» K À''BBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBbIBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBB»¡m^yfi^>M*^BBBB""»""""»"

one on flowers from which the colour photo ' ^SjjV^.of columbines (left) is taken. Launched ^^ j^2|l 'in April 1965, Molniya (Lightning), made ^^WbP^Lpossible the first regular television trans

* (*'!& ^^ ' ^bVmissions between Moscow and Vladi

vostok. Since 1958, increasingly complex" ...» . .

communications satellites have been put.-.... i, . - » .

into orbit, including Telstar I, which first Photo ® APN

relayed live TV pictures across the Atlantic

in 1962. Among other vistas opened by"comsats" is the possibility of three beingplaced in an orbit at the right distance 23

\% from the earth to relay telephone and tele-© vision signals over most of the world.

=

TEST BENCH

FOR SPACE

EXPLORERS

To operate successfully in the vacu¬um of outer space, man-madesatellites have to withstand extremes

of temperature heating on the sur¬face facing the sun and the bittercold of space itself, with tempera¬

tures dropping as low as 270 de¬grees below zero C. Last January a

large vacuum chamber for carryingout temperature tests on space satel¬

lites was put into service at theEuropean Space Technology Centre,at Noordwijk, Netherlands. Right,model of the international satellite,

Esro I in this chamber. Esro I, due

to be launched late in 1967, will be

used for studying the ionosphereand polar aurora. Far right, twin

domes at the European space rangenow being completed inside the Arc¬tic Circle at Kiruna, Sweden, cover

telemetry equipment for picking updata transmitted by sounding rockets.

Photos ESRO

EUROPE'S GROWING STAKE IN SPACE SCIENCE

s

24

PACE research throughinternational co-operation

might be said to function like a three-stage rocket launching a space vehicleinto orbit, with each stage completingits task and then handing over theoperation for the next stage to carryit one step further.

The first stage is obviously one ofpaper work and planning the co-ord¬ination of programmes, choice of normsand general planning at the interna¬tional level. An outstanding exampleof this stage is the work done by theCommittee for Space Research (COS-PAR) of the International Council ofScientific Unions.

PIERRE AUGER is Director-General of the

European Space Research Organization, whichhe helped to set up, and president of theInternational Computation Centre (Rome).A leading French physicist, he was head ofUnesco's Department of Natural Sciencesfrom 1948 to 1959. He is the author of"Current Trends in Scientific Research", acomprehensive survey of world scientific andtechnological research (3rd ed., 1963, Unesco,Paris; 33¡-, $6.75. hard cover).

by Pierre Auger

Next comes co-operation and thejoint implementation of specific partsof national programmes through specialagreements and associations as, forexample, the launching by U.S. rocketsof Canadian, British, French and Italiansatellites.

The third stage, a pooling of resour¬ces that makes it possible to carry outan international project, is todayrepresented by various collective Euro¬pean programmes set up by twoInter-governmental organizations: theEuropean Space Research Organiza¬tion (ESRO) and the EuropeanLauncher Development Organization(ELDO). It is primarily the work ofESRO that I propose to deal with here.

The aims of this organization arepurely scientific. They are the studyof conditions in outer space (includingthe outermost layer of the atmosphere,at altitudea-of 150 kilometres, 93 miles;and beyond), and the study of celestialbodies by rockets, satellites and long

distance probes launched into space.It is hardly surprising, therefore,

that the initiative which led to its

creation should have come from

scientists themselves. The idea was

in fact originally conceived at a meet¬ing of the space research committeeof the International Council of Scien¬

tific Unions in 1960.

Subsequently, the programme andoperational arrangments for the futureorganization were worked out ingreater detail, and a preparatory com¬mission, presided over by Sir HarrieMassey and subsidized by France, wascreated the same year. Between 1960and 1964 the work of setting up thenew international organization wascompleted, and in March 1964 aconvention established ESRO.

ESRO's membership at presentconsists of ten European states: Fran¬ce, where it has its headquarters; theNetherlands, where the main technicalcentre is being built; the Federal Repu¬blic of Germany, where the data-pro¬cessing centre is being installed;

Sweden, in whose far north the sound¬

ing-rocket launching range is located;Italy, where the advanced researchlaboratory is to be built; Belgium,which is to have a satellite trackingstation; the United Kingdom, Denmark,Spain and Switzerland.

The organization aims to promotecollaboration among European statesin space research and technology,exclusively for peaceful purposes. Todo so it has drawn up a scientific andtechnical programme which concen¬trates mainly on the construction, per¬fecting and launching of space ve¬hicles, sounding rockets and satellitescapable of carrying scientific apparatusdesigned and produced by researchteams in member states. These teams

work, as a rule, either in universitiesor in large research laboratories.

In short, ESRO is designed to helpscientists and researchers by providingthem with means of putting their appar¬atus into orbit or at least of launchingit temporarily out of the atmosphere.The organization will keep track of thespace craft and apparatus it launchesby means of a world-wide network oftracking and telemetry stations. It willpick up, process and analyse tJatafrom space.

The organization was launched withan 8-year financial plan totalling three

hundred million dollars, with the reser¬vation that annual budgets may, afterthe preparatory period, attain fiftymillion dollars. This clearly rules outany very major projects such as send¬ing men to the moon; and in any caseESRO has decided to confine itself to

unmanned space vehicles. It has,however, been able to draw up a pro¬gramme of rocket and satellite laun-chings that will enable scientists tocarry out a variety of experiments incosmic physics and astrophysics. Theorganization will procure soundingrockets from France and the United

Kingdom; satellite-launching appara¬tus from the United States.

T HE programme providesfor the launching of some

hundreds of sounding rockets able toreach altitudes of between 150 and

300 km. (90-190 miles); and of a seriesof artificial satellites of three types:small satellites placed in orbit by Amer¬ican Scout rockets, medium satellitesorbited by Thor Delta rockets, andlarge satellites weighing about a tonand needing far more powerful laun¬chers. It is probable that the largesatellites will be placed in orbit by the3-stage rockets of the type now beingconstructed by the European Launcher

Development Organization (ELDO), anorganization which was set up at aboutthe same time as ESRO through theassociation of seven governments,those of the United Kingdom, France,the Federal Republic of Germany, Italy,the Netherlands, Belgium and Australia.

The first item on ELDO's programmeis the. design, development and cons¬truction of the three-stage "Europa"satellite-launching rocket. The firststage will be the British Blue Streakrocket, the second, the French rocketCoralie and the third, a German rocket.The satellite test vehicles are beingbuilt by Italy, while Belgium and theNetherlands are producing varioustypes of telemetry and guidance equip¬ment and Australia is providing thelaunching range at Woomera.

What kinds of experiments arecarried out with the aid of apparatuswhich has been and is to be placedin these rocket-heads and satellites?

They are designed to make a studyof the uppermost strata of the atmos¬phere and the ionosphere, in particularthe auroral region, for which the site atKiruna, 200 km. (125 miles) inside thepolar circle, was selected; and toinvestigate the solar radiations whichare the cause of most of the phenom¬ena occurring in this part of theatmosphere. Data will be obtained on

25

CONT'D ON NEXT PAGE

EUROPE'S GROWING SPACE SCIENCE (Cont'd)

© Mount Wilson and Mount PalomarObservatories

SOLAR FLARES AND POLAR AURORA.Satellites and sounding rockets havebeen sent up to probe the mysteriesof solar activity which emits high-energyparticles (cosmic rays) and a "solarwind", a stream of gas formed of pro¬tons and electrons which is blown from

the solar corona. Millions of times less

brilliant than the solar disc itself, these

low-energy solar particles are only visi¬ble during total eclipses of the sunwhen the disc is obscured by the moon,as on the photo above, taken during thesolar eclipse of June 8, 1918. Enteringinto collision with molecules and atoms

of the earth's upper atmosphere, thecharged particles can produce the glow¬ing aurora borealis (below).

© Upsala Ionosphere Observatory

electronic density, the temperature ofelectrons, night glow, the turbulenceand temperature of the upper atmos¬phere, and also on the ultra-violet,X and gamma rays of the sun in itsperiods of activity and calm.

Special activities will be undertakenduring the annular eclipse of the sun(when the moon's disc eclipses thewhole of the sun except an outer ring),which is due to occur on May 20, 1966.Five small rockets of the Areas typeare to be launched at regular intervals;also three large Centaure-type rocketsimmediately before, during and directlyafter the maximum eclipse phase.

The most important part of the scien¬tific programme is obviously that relat¬ing to satellites. The first two satelli¬tes are to be launched in 1967 by theNational Aeronautics and Space Admi¬nistration (NASA), from Americanbases. One of them, Esro I, will bean auroral satellite; the other, a cosmicsatellite. In other words, the first willstudy the particles responsible for theupper atmosphere auroral displays oflight in the polar regions; the simul¬taneous launching of rockets duringthe useful life of the satellite is alsoplanned.

To obtain maximum results fromthese simultaneous launchings atelemetry station will be set up atTromsö, in Norway. Here the datatransmitted back to earth will be pro¬cessed and analysed immediately.The second satellite, Esro 2, is toconcentrate on cosmic radiations, in

particular those emanating from thesun. It will also study the rays "trap¬ped" in the earth's magnetic field andcirculating in the vast cloak of radiationknown as the Van Allen belt.

Yet a further step forward will bemarked by the launching, scheduledfor 1968 and 1969, of medium stabilizedsatellites, that is, satellites able to traintheir apparatus on to any particularregion of the sky the sun, a planet, orcertain stars. The first of these (namedTD 1 because it will be launched bya Thor Delta unit) is to concentrateon spectrographic observation in radia¬tion fields extending from the infra-redto gamma ray radiation which, be¬cause of atmospheric absorption, neverreaches the earth's surface.

It is hoped that interesting sourceswill be revealed by these means; butthe satellite will in addition make amore detailed survey of the ultra-violetspectra of certain stars. As is known,our ignorance of these spectra is anobstacle to checking the validity oftheories about the origin and evolutionof the stars. Lastly, attention willbe paid to X and gamma rays: theformer in relation to radiations whichmay have their source actually inspace; the latter, in relation to stel¬lar radiations.

The second medium satellite, witha total weight of approximately 400 kg.,is to be placed on a polar orbit, soas to pass over both the earth's polarregions in succession; and its maintask will be to study the sun and itseffects during the phase of its maxi¬mum activity. The experiments it willcarry out will be related to the ultra¬violet and X-ray radiation from the sunand the low energy particles streamingfrom the sun, which are the sourcesof the solar wind.

Other experiments will concentrateon the emission of light from the upperatmosphere due to the ionizing influ¬ence of the sun; and lastly, on theelectronic density in the upper part ofthe Ionosphere, studied from outsidethe atmosphere instead of by sound¬ings from the earth, as hitherto.

The fifth medium satellite Heos,on which work has now begun, willbe launched into a highly eccentric orbit.Heos will concentrate on the ter¬restrial and solar magnetic fields, thesolar wind, and the radiation fluxesoccuring in the zone outside the mag-netosphere, a zone which, thanks toits elongated orbit, it will be able toexplore. It will attain a distance of morethan 200,000 kms. (125 000 miles) fromthe earth.

We now come to the most ambitiouspart of the satellite programme theconstruction and launching of a largeastronomical satellite about a ton in

weight, designed for detailed spectro¬scopy of the stars.

Some features of this satellite still re¬main to be defined. But its equipmentwill include telescopes that can beaccurately directed on selected stars,spectrographic devices, and ultra-violetradiation receivers or detectors.

Work on the European SpaceTechnology Centre (ESTEC) atNoordwijk, the Netherlands, the Euro¬pean Space Data Centre (ESDAC) atDarmstadt, Federal Republic of Ger¬many, and the launching base atKiruna,Sweden, is now in full swing. Thelaunching base may even be inaug¬urated this year, and ESTEC andESDAC in the course of next year.Four satellite tracking stations arebeing built, located respectively in Bel¬gium, Alaska, Spitsberg and the Falk¬land Islands, so as to cover as muchof the surface of the globe as possible.Lastly, a site has been selected nearRome for the European SpaceResearch Institute (ESRIN).

It can thus be seen that the orga¬nization has made great strides sinceit was officially set up in April 1964.Meantime, several sounding rocketshave already been launched from theItalian base in Sardinia, for Europeanscientists are impatient to pursue theirresearch.

Photos © APN Floating through the air with the greatest of ease, astronaut Adrian Nicolaiev learns tocope with conditions of weightlessness during training session in an aeroplane in flight.

WHY WE ARE OUTWARD BOUNDby Konstantin Feoktistov

KONSTANTIN FEOKTISTOV, the author ofthis article, learns to withstand accelerationstresses. On October 12, 1964, the Sovietspaceship Voskhod 1 made a 24-hour flight.It carried Vladimir Komarov, the pilot, BorisEgorov, a research physician and KonstantinFeoktistov who carried out scientific studies

while in flight.

^^U HEN the first artificial earth" satellite was launched a

friend and I made bets on the year inwhich the first manned vehicle would

go into orbit. Our prophecies wereboth wrong, but I won either by pureluck or because I was the more

optimistic. Yuri Gagarin's flight tookplace much sooner than could have

been foretold nine years ago.

What is it that compels man to leave

the confines of his own planet? Is itrational to spend so much effort andmaterial on the exploration of outerspace when there are still so manyunsolved problems In our own world?To what extent is this expenditure on

sputniks and luniks and other vehiclesjustified when so many people stilllack food, clothing and proper housing?

It is doubtful whether anyone wouldtry to give a definitive answer to thesequestions. Each answer could, atbest, be only one of many possiblepoints of view.

The idea of space travel has

absorbed me for many years and will,it seems, keep me busy till the endof my life. Here I should like to setdown some ideas on the subject thatderive from my own personalexperience.

When I was about ten I came across

a book called Interplanetary Traveland, reading it, caught the "moondisease". The flights seemed to meto be so real and so easy toaccomplish, and the need for them

was so indisputable that, with all the

sincerity of youth, I accused the grown¬ups around me of laziness andlack of scientific acumen. I could not

reconcile myself to the idea that earth-moon communications had not been

established. So my elder brother andI decided to get busy on the problemimmediately.

We had to postpone our naive plans,however. War broke out, my brotherwas killed and I was wounded.

CONT'D ON NEXT PAGE

27

CENTURIES BACK

Cyrano de Bergerac, the French writer, in"Voyages to the Moon and the Sun" (1650)imagined a weird method of becomingspace borne. His hero reasoned that thesun causes the morning dew to rise, sowent aloft by attaching vials filled withdew to his body. On the moon he en¬countered another earthling, carried therein a machine powered by geese (above).This was the adventurous traveller describ¬

ed by the English author, Francis Godwin,In "The Man in the Moone". (1638).

NOT SO LONG AGO

In his cell at the Peter and Paul Fortress

in St. Petersburg, where he had beenimprisoned for revolutionary activities, ayoung Russian, Nicolas Kibaltchitch (1853-1881). speculated about space flight anddevised a rocket type machine for cosmictravel. Drawing above Is based on hissketches of this rocket-propelled spacecraft.

YESTERDAY

The 19th-century science fiction works ofJules Verne were a mixture of scientific

accuracy, astute speculation and outrightimagination. In "Around the Moon," a 900-ftcannon fires a capsule into space. Illustra¬tion shows Verne's astronauts floating hel¬plessly in a state of weightlessness in theircabin. But Jules Verne correctly foresawmany space problems, including the needfor tremendous speed to escape earth'sgravity and for a means to change coursewhile in space by the use of retro rockets.

WHY WE ARE OUTWARD BOUND (Cont'd)

At 40, I have not lost hope

of landing on the moon

28

Despite all the dramatic events of thewar years, my dream of space travelnever left me; it was with me when

I enrolled in the higher technical schooland when I was working as anengineer. I chose it as the subjectof the thesis I presented for the degreeof candidate of science.

Two years ago I spent a day and anight in orbital flight as a member ofthe crew of the spaceship Voskhod I.

My dream has still not been fulfilled,but 1 am on the right road. There isevery reason to believe that the agelimit for astronauts will be progressivelyraised as technical improvements

are made, and although I recentlycelebrated my fortieth birthday I havestill not lost hope of one day steppingout of a spaceship onto the moon. IfI do not, my life will seem incomplete.

The "Call of the Cosmos" emergedfrom a dream. Like almost everydream it came before its time, far in

advance of man's technical capabilities.Eduard Tsiolkovsky (an early Russiantheorist on the principles of space

flight, see page 10), translated JulesVerne's pure fantasy into a potentiallyattainable scientific concept.

The generation born at the beginningof this century began the job ofembodying Tsiolkovsky's ideas inmetal and of turning his propheciesinto convincing facts. At first thework was sporadic and unorganized,and as has often been the case in the

history of science, eccentrics andenthusiasts watched over the cradle

of the new-born science.

When the group for the study ofrocket motors (GIRD) was founded inMoscow, followed by the laboratory

of gas dynamics (GDL) and still later,in 1955, by the rocket institute,experiments that had hitherto beenrather primitive became part of thestate plan of the U.S.S.R. One of the

founders of GIRD was Sergei Korolyov,later a member of the U.S.S.R.

Academy of Sciences and a designerof carrier-rockets and spaceships,

who died at the beginning of this year.

If a man has begun to take aninterest in a problem, he is already

mature enough to penetrate moredeeply into it. Every problem is achallenge to man, every problemmakes him think. Thinking leads toplans for the solution of the problem.

A sort of chain reaction sets in.

When you have given some thoughtto the problem of supplying powerfor a heavy interplanetary vehicle youcome to the conclusion that an

expedition to another planet cannot

use chemical fuel the engines mustbe more effective, they must be ionor plasma motors.

And when you think of the dutiesof the crew that is to carry out acertain mission you also begin tothink of the people who will composethat crew. This naturally gives rise toproblems of providing food, water andair for the crew during flight. Here itis obvious that a complete ecologicalcycle must be maintained on boardthe spaceship) the crew must beprovided with everything necessary tosupport life, and their body wastesmust be eliminated or, better still, used

in a rational way.

As this huge skein of problems isunravelled we begin to visualize thespace expedition of the distant future.

The very possibility of visualizing turnsa man's thoughts, whether he wishesit or not, to the search for newsolutions.

From dream to realityFrom far off times man has been ob¬

sessed by the idea of space travel, andusually the goal of his imaginary jour-

teys has been the moon. Indeed, storyellers, poets and writers reached the

earth 's natural satellite well in advance

of the sate/lite moon probes sent outby space science. To do so they deviseda wealth of ingenious, however imprac¬tical, methods.

TODAY

he first guided automaticiterplanetary station waslunched towards Venus

y Soviet scientists onaU^iam 10 ioßi r^;«k*-\

he station weighed 1,419)s. Strange looking ve-icles like this one. in

fhich science has outdone

science fiction," are blaz-

ig a trail to the planets.

TOMORROW

The four-armed monster,

in this drawing, called the"Schmoo." is an unmanned

repair craft sent out by thewheel-shaped space station inbackground to render assist¬ance to a nuclear-powered

space vehicle in difficulty.

A concrete scheme of experi¬mentation and designing is born of thefree play of intellects. These flightsof fancy are becoming a necessarystage in preparatory work that

sometimes takes years to complete.The basis of it all is a perfectlycomprehensible and natural human

quality man finds it difficult not toyield to the temptation to think aheadof his time.

It would of course be naive to

suggest that this one human qualityis sufficient explanation of man's urgeto get out into the great universe.There are objective causes of a

demographic and social nature that arerather more difficult to understand.

One can quite easily imagine thetime, a few hundred years from now,when the population of the world willbecome so dense that each continent

will be turned into one big city likeMoscow or New York. Man will feel

the overcrowding physically so thatfor him the mastery of considerableareas in outer space will have a

practical significance. The futurespread of man is bound up with spacesince he will be unable to confine

himself to his own planet, even if, forthe time being, he has not realizedthis. This, too, was one of Tsiol-

kovsky's ideas.

Long before the physical over¬crowding is felt, however, people willbegin to feel a spiritual constraint. Asurplus of energy within a close-knit

community must find an outlet or there

will be stagnation and retrogression.Man always stands in need of a goalthat mobilizes his spiritual and physicalenergy. Sooner or later all mankindwill unite and there will be no further

danger of the nuclear self destructionof civilization.

Then, to a greater degree than now,the single community will have beforeit a great purpose the conquest ofspace, beginning with circumsolarspace.

Today's space flights are merereconnaissance; the means for a

thorough study of conditions in spaceand dangers that await man there have

still to be created. The dangers Ihave in mind are solar flares, lethal

radiation, dust clouds, meteoric

showers, the effect of long periods ofweightlessness on the human organismand other hazards specific to travel

beyond the bounds of the earth.

Wé have still to develop, on thegrand scale, ways of studying theplanets, their surfaces and theircomposition, their atmosphere and

their radiation and magnetic fields.

Lastly we have still to designspaceships capable of journeys toother planets that may last severalyears, provide them with ultra-long¬distance communications and with

navigation instruments, and supplyoxygen, food and water for the crewunder conditions in which every ounceof weight counts.

To do all this cybernetics will haveto be extensively developed, electroniccomputers and analysers perfectedand a "Sun Service" organized thatwill provide a series of circumsolarautomatic satellites to transmit data

predicting solar flares, the directionin which radiation streams are beinggenerated, and so on. Space biologyand planetology must also be furtherdeveloped. There will be a need tobuild observatories in space, artificialinhabited planets from which studiesof the universe can be made and

which can be used to facilitate spacetravel.

Even this sketchy programme ofspace exploration gives some idea ofthe colossal effort man must make

and the expenditure that will benecessary to put it into effect.

Has not the world perhaps begun itsinvasion of space prematurely? Is notthe expenditure of effort and resourcesinadvisable since it has to be made

now, whereas people will live in spacein hundreds of years' time? Would itnot be more reasonable to create better

living conditions everywhere on earthand let space wait its turn...?

In principle, one cannot open thedoor to a new sphere of activity andthen suddenly slam it shut again, noteven for the sake of economy. Theprocess works only one way; it isirreversible if the technical means

for space travel exist they cannotremain unused. The exploration of

CONT'D ON NEXT PAGE

29

30

Why we areoutward bound (com-d)

space, moreover, is already bringingbeneficial results, even at this initial

stage.

The implementation of an intricate'programme for the design of carrierrockets, automatic space stations andspaceships is promoting the rapiddevelopment of the more progressivebranches of science and engineering

cybernetics, physics, biology andmedicine, radio engineering and theaerodynamics of supersonic velocities.The results of this development alsoeffect ordinary "terrestrial" lifebecause they promote general tech¬nical progress and thus better livingstandards.

Some of the achievements of space

engineering have already made theirmark in economic and cultural life.

Retransmission satellites are used for

telecommunications, including tele¬

vision on a global scale. Navigationsatellites make sea travel more

reliable. Meteorological satellites arereducing errors in forecasting weatherconditions in various parts of theworld.

I think it is a mistake to weigh space

exploration against man's efforts toimprove his living standards. Theseare different aspects of the totalityof human progress and they are notcontradictory.

The two "space powers", theU.S.S.R. and the U.S.A., are working

separately, independently of eachother. Does this have a negativeeffect on the rate of development andthe results of space exploration?

Personally, I think not; I believethat this involuntary rivalry has not,up to now, been a hindrance. Whenanything new is started, an approachfrom different angles tends to furtherits development.

Steps have already been made alongthe road to co-operation. Work onthe U.S. satellite Echo 2 has begunon an international scale. There are

also prospects of space collaborationwith France. We may expect the nextstage in the development of thisco-operation to be the exchange ofinformation, the exchange of orders forthe manufacture of various installations

and a certain degree of specialization.

It is quite obvious that as the

exploration of space proceeds, sooneror later problems will arise that cannotbe solved by any one country butwhich will require the united effortsof all mankind.

MOON CRAWLER. Capable, sturdy self-contained vehicles will be re¬quired for lunar exploration and development. This drawing showsone concept of such a vehicle. Equipped with threepoint caterpillartreads for stability and a rocket system, this hybrid vehiclewould be able to crawl or make short flights over moon terrain.It would carry geophysicists, geochemists, geologists andother scientists on long range investigations over the moon's surface.

Drawing Northrop, California

** T-.X5

Goodyear, Ohio

MAMMOTH TYRES (above)are a mock-up of those

being developed for aU.S. moon vehicle. Though

16 ft. in diameter,each will weigh only 125 lbs.

LUNAR LANDSCAPE.The surface of the moon

photographed last Februaryby the Soviet moon probe,Lunar 9, first spacecraft tomake a soft lunar touchdown.

LUNAR

INTERNATIONAL

LABORATORY

by Bruno Friedman

S OMETIME around 1970 a

human being will, for thefirst time in the history of the universe,set foot upon the moon. The visible

vehicle that will carry him there willbe a rocket. Yet in a very real sensethe true thrust will be generated notby burning fuel, but by the surge ofscience over the centuries.

The truth of this statement is reveal¬

ed when it is realized that the epochalfeat will be synthesized out of majorcontributions from virtually everybranch of modern science (and ofengineering, as well): chemistry, phy¬sics, electronics, mathematics, medi¬

cine, bacteriology, psychology, astro¬nomy, geophysics, metallurgy, andothers.

Now let us note for it is germaneto what follows that science is, above

all, international. There is no branch

of science that has been developed bya single nation. Rather, every branchof science is the creation of know¬

ledge-seekers, great and obscure, ofall nations, each making his contribu¬tion over the course of time to erect

the total moon-achieving structure.

With science so much the shaper of

the achievement, it is most fitting thatscience will be a great beneficiary ofman's installation on the moon. As

Dr. Frank Malina states it: "Just about

every branch of science will find the

moon, with its unique environmentalconditions no atmosphere, a gravityonly 1/6th that of earth., very weak ornon-existent magnetic field a greatlaboratory for a host of experimentsand observations essentially impos¬sible to perform on earth. Great pro¬gress must inevitably be stimulated."

Dr. Malina speaks as Chairman of

the Lunar International Laboratory(LIL) Committee of the International

Academy of Astronautics (IAA). Andthe LIL Committee, composed ofdistinguished space scientists fromseveral nations, is the embodiment of

the awareness that the moon's greatpotential for science can best be

realized if the investigations are"onducted as an international venture

and in an international laboratory.

The LIL Committee came into beingin August 1960, when the concept

of a lunar international laboratorywas put forward by Dr. Malina atStockholm during the 11th Congress

CONT'D ON NEXT PAGE

31

LUNAR LABORATORY (Cont'd)

Will the moon disclose

a lost record of the universe?

of the International Astronautical Fed¬

eration (IAF) and was welcomed as ameaningful project by the then newly-formed Academy (1).

The committee has two purposes:

to awaken the interest of the world's

scientific community at large in thelunar laboratory, and to explore bymeans of discussions and symposiathe various lines of research that can

be profitably conducted on the moon.These are generally held at the annualIAF congresses, whose seats are thecapitals of the world.

'HE committee's efforts_ have met with considerable

success. Its meetings and a discussionpanel held at Warsaw in 1964 have pro¬duced a broad overall view of lunar

science. Now the sciences are being

explored in depth at symposia devotedto particular subjects. At the firstsymposium at Athens in September1965, the papers presented dealt speci¬fically with lunar geosciences andastronomy and astrophysics. The sub¬jects for the Madrid symposium, inOctober 1966, are the life sciences andlunar medicine.

That the majority of the papers arepresented by experts who are notcommittee members reveals the wide¬

spread response of the internationalscientific community to the idea ofa lunar laboratory.

From these studies will be evolved

a sound scientific programme for alaboratory, when the time is ripe forit. When? The committee foresees

that this will be sometime in the period1975-85.

The scientific investigations on themoon may greatly advance our under-

32

(J) Its present roster Includes such lumi¬naries of the space sciences as: M. Florkinof Belgium; N. Boneff of Bulgaria; A. Dollfusand L. Malavard of France; H. Oberth of theGerman Federal Republic; F. Zwicky ofSwitzerland; L.I. Sedov of the U.S.S.R.; AC.Clarke, Z. Kopal and Sir Bernard Love//(Vice-Chairman) of the U.K.; and W.H.Pickering, S.F. Singer, L. Spitzer Ir., H.Strughold and H.C. Urey of the U.S.A. NoralrSissakian of the U.S.S.R., was also a memberuntil his death last March.

standing of man, his environment andthe universe in which he lives.

The priority subject will be, ofcourse, the moon itself. The founda¬tion work will be done at the national

level by the first moon explorers,American and Soviet, perhaps actingin co-operation as the nations do inAntarctica.

The large-scale work of mapping themoon's geographical, geological andgeophysical features will be done bycircumlunar satellites, some put intoorbit even before the first human

landings, others after. These highlysophisticated orbiters, using infra-redsensors, radar, radio microwaves,radiation counters and other devices,

will not only map the surface, butprobe under the surface.

The lunar scientists themselves will

make direct observations and experi¬

ments to determine the nature of the

lunar rocks, the moon's seismic and

volcanic activity, its internal tempera¬ture and structure.

What is learned about the moon

may help answer many questionsabout our earth. The geologicalrecord of the earth's history has been

greatly damaged and obscured by thevolcanic, seismic, erosive and sedi¬

mentary processes to which the crusthas been subjected over the 4.5thousand million years of the earth'sexistence.

This is much less true of the moon,

with no atmosphere, no oceans and afar cooler interior. Reading the geolo¬

gical record of the moon, which isas old as the earth, may reveal much,by analogy, particularly about theearth's formative period, its first onethousand million years.

Moreover, this reading of the moon'searly history, taken together with anal¬yses of the remains of meteorites onthe lunar surface, will give the scien¬tists valuable clues as to how the

solar system itself was formed.

Meteorites are artifacts of the solar

system's genesis, relics left over fromthe age when dispersed matter agglom¬erated to form the planets and theirmoons. These invaluable information

carriers from the past reach the earthin frustratingly limited numbers, forvery few survive the fiery passagethrough the atmosphere. But themoon's surface will be rich with their

remains.

CONT'D ON PAGE 34

Heroes & hobbies

of the juniorastronaut

The conquest of space fascinates

young people the world over. Right, Polish

youngsters perch beneath pictures of U.S.and Soviet astronauts their real-life

heroes. Far right, reverie beneath

a large-scale model of a lunar landscape.

Right, young Soviet space enthusiast

displays a model interplanetary

station he has designed and made; it will

join spacecraft and installations on the

model of a future inhabited planet (below)

made by other members of a

junior astronauts' club in the U.S.S.R.

vS s V fr*

LUNAR LABORATORY (Cont'd)

A superb new window

on the far reaches of space

34

Valuable indications as to how life

evolved on earth may also be foundin the lunar surface. That any lifeforms, or even remains of life forms,will be discovered is doubtful, giventhe moon's harsh conditions. Yet the

lunar scientists may find carbon com¬pounds, produced by natural chemicalreactions, which represent intermediatestages in the formation of the firstprimitive carbon-based living mole¬cules from which all life on earth devel¬

oped. This would be a resoundingdiscovery.

There is even a remote possibility,points out Prof. H. Florkin of the Uni¬versity of Liege, that primitive lifeforms or their remains may be foundin lunar micro-environments, where the

conditions are far less severe than

in the gross environment. Such micro-environments may be, for example,deep pits in craters, the interiors ofporous rocks or some metres downin the lunar surface layer.

To the new insights that lunarscience may provide about the solarsystem, earth and life, add those thatmay be gained about the origins andformation of the great universe itself,because the moon will be such a

superb observatory for both opticaland radio astronomy.

On earth, the atmosphere greatlylimits the passage of light waves andradio waves. Moreover, man himself

is a considerable impediment, pro¬

ducing enormous quantities of artifi¬cial light and interfering radio wavesfrom all forms of electronic equipment.

Astronomy on the moon will gaingreatly from the absence of thesedisadvantages, as well as from specificlunar advantages, such as a far slowerrotation period, enabling astronomicalinstruments to follow their targets overa much longer period of time.

Lunar telescopes, optical and radio,will be able to probe much farther out

into the reaches of space, will be ableto "see" heavenly objects far dimmerthan can be now seen from earth,will be able to resolve much finer

details of these objects, will be ableto "see" much better into the interior

of our Milky Way, a typical spiralgalaxy.

From the new information gainedas, for example, by the accuratecounting of distant galaxies it may be

possible for cosmologists to decidebetween two current conflicting hypo¬theses about the origins of our universe

or to reject both and propose abetter one.

The moon will also be an outstandingmeteorological observatory, helping toraise weather prediction to new levelsof accuracy, it was noted by Prof. K.Y.Kondratiev and co-workers of the Uni¬

versity of Leningrad in a paper pre¬sented at the Athens LIL symposium.Telescopic observations from the

moon will' follow the large-scale move¬ments of clouds and air masses in the

earth's atmosphere. Their big viewwill complement the smaller-range,more detailed observations made bya system of meteorological satellitesorbiting the earth.

LL the above is a veryincomplete catalogue of

science on the moon. In addition,

observations, presently impossible fromearth, will be made on cosmic rays

and on the nuclear particles that fillinterplanetary space; experiments inconsiderable variety will be made inchemistry and physics in the lunar

vacuum and in plant and animal biologyin rigorous lunar conditions. Importantadvances in all these fields cannot fail

to result.

Moreover, much will be learned

about man himself: about his physio¬logy, his psychology and his sociolog¬ical relationships in the high-stresslunar environment. The LIL scientists

themselves will be the guinea pigs.

For, as Prof. C. Stark Draper ofthe Massachusetts Institute of Tech¬

nology has emphasized, humans willbe in short supply in the lunar labor¬atory for a long time because of thehigh costs of placing men and equip¬ment there. Much of the data gatheringwill be done by compact automaticsensors. These data, after conden¬

sation in the laboratory's lightweightcomputers, will be telemetered to co¬

operating research centres and uni¬versities on earth for analysis.

Which points up a question: Howwill a lunar laboratory be created,organized and managed as a co-oper¬ative international activity?

The LIL Committee cannot deal with

this question, for this is a matter thatgovernments must resolve. Quitepossibly, however, a suggested scien¬tific programme evolved out of thecommittee's work will be helpful when

the intergovernmental deliberationsregarding a laboratory begin.

The committee feels that possiblythe lunar international laboratory couldbe established under the auspices of

an existing international organization,such as the U.N. or Unesco. And

an indication of Unesco's awakeninginterest in the matter is the fact that

it is contributing funds to enablescientists to attend the 1966 Madrid

LIL symposium.

Certainly these bodies, the U.N. andUnesco, have long been interestedin the establishment of international

scientific centres.

A few such centres have indeed

been created: CERN (European Centrefor Nuclear Research) at Geneva andthe International Computation Centreat Rome, both founded throughUnesco initiative, though they arenot Unesco bodies; also, there arethe United Institute of Nuclear Re¬

search at Dubna, U.S.S.R. (the Eastern

European equivalent of CERN), theEuropean Launcher Development Or¬ganization (ELDO) and the EuropeanSpace Research Organization (ESRO).

So the nations can get together.Moreover, the problems of establishinga lunar centre, a lunar international

laboratory, may be much reduced bycomparison with those which haveblocked the founding of terrestial sci¬entific centres, by the moon's remote¬ness thus reducing the conflicts ofnational self-interest and by its power¬

ful appeal as a human adventure. Sothe world's states may have a stronger

will to bring a laboratory of this kindinto being.

The foundations for a lunar interna¬

tional laboratory may well have beenlaid on December 13, 1963, when the

General Assembly of the United Na¬tions unanimously approved a Dec¬laration of the Legal Principles Gov¬erning the Activities of States in theExploration and Use of Outer Space.The first principle states:

"The exploration and use of outerspace shall be carried on for the bene¬fit and in the interests of all mankind."

SPACE FLIGHT AND THE RULE OF LAW

Continued from page 18

Who put me into orbit thewrong way round?

O Plem

What did I do with my space-pilot's licence?

Lookl the Martian canals are

simply abstract paintings.

satellites, fragments) circulating in out¬er space and liable, sooner or later, to

fall back to earth, the danger of theircolliding either with other similar ob¬

jects or with space vehicles traversingthe atmosphere will increase as time

goes on.

The 1963 Declaration already pro¬claims, as a general principle, that eachstate which launches or originates thelaunching of an object into outerspace and each state from whose terri¬

tory or installations an object is launch¬ed, is Internationally liable for damageto a foreign state or to persons orproperty within its borders by suchobject or its parts, whether the dam¬age is caused on the earth, in the air,

or In outer space.

This provision in general terms needsto be followed up by an internationalconvention such as that which the

Committee on the Peaceful Uses of

Outer Space is at present engaged indrafting, on the basis of proposalssubmitted by Belgium, Hungary andthe United States. The convention

will need to define what is meant by"damage" (material damage, moraldamage, financial loss and so on). Theextent of liability will also have to bespecified. Should provision be madefor exemption or attenuation? Is lia¬

bility to be limited? How is liabilityto be shared out in the event of jointenterprises by several states?

In the case of launchings carriedout by an international organization,who will be responsible for damagecaused? The Declaration of 1963

simply states that "responsibility forcompliance with the principles setforth in this Declaration shall be borne

by the international organization andby the states participating in it." Isprovision to be made for joint respon¬sibility? Procedures to be followedto obtain compensation for damageswill also have to be drawn up.

In addition to these two important

legal questions, now being considered,the Declaration mentions various others

for which international agreements willdoubtless be necessary. There is, forinstance, the principle whereby statesshall conduct their activities in outer

space with due regard for the corres¬ponding interests of other states. Thisprovision was included on account ofcertain experiments in the past which

gave rise to some agitation amongst

the users of space, in particular astron¬omers.

The Declaration outlines an arrange¬ment whereby if a state believes

that an activity or experiment in spacewhich it or its citizens plan to carryout might interfere with the peacefulexploration and use of space by otherstates, it should first consult them.

Conversely, such consultations couldalso be requested by states if theyconsidered that certain activities pro¬posed by other states might interferewith the peaceful exploration and useof space. However, this text lacks

precision, and lays down no specificprocedure for such consultations or

for following them up.

HE broader principle ofensuring that certain ex¬

periments cause no harm to mankind

as a whole has been the subject ofdetailed studies both at the Institute of

International Law in Brussels and at the

David Davies Memorial Institute of

International Studies in London. Both

have stressed the danger that mightresult from any modifications of theearth or the celestial bodies, their

atmosphere or space itself, by the in¬troduction of elements liable to upset

the existing equilibrium, such as bychanging the climate or meteorologicalconditions of specific regions.

The British institute has drawn upvarious regulations designed to pro¬vide against and sanction any suchactivities. Here again, a conventionis called for; also a convention to

prevent biological, radiological orchemical contamination of outer spaceand the celestial bodies by vehiclesfrom the earth and vice-versa.

With the installation, in the nearfuture, of manned scientific stations

first on the moon and subsequentlyon other celestial bodies, the legalstatus of such stations, will naturallyhave to be considered. In view of the

general principles proclaimed in theDeclaration of 1963 the installation of

such stations will not, of course,constitute grounds for national appro¬priation of the moon or celestial

bodies, or even of the particular areaon which such stations are located.

35

CONT'D ON NEXT PAGE

From the Unesco New

An alphabet is bornSix major West African languages have

now been given a unified alphabet. Meet¬ing at Bamako, Mali, under Unesco's aus¬pices (see the Unesco Courier, March1966) an international group of linguistshas produced a simple alphabet that en¬ables all the sounds in six languages theMandingo languages, Songhay-Jerma, Ta-mashek, Hausa, Kanuri and Fulani to beaccurately represented. The alphabet's sixlanguages, in roman letters, will be basi¬cally identical, and Fulani, Hausa, Tama-shek and Songhay-Jerma will require onlyeight new letters. Six linguistic groupsspread over seven nations now have alpha¬bets that should enable them to transcribe

an immense heritage of oral literature, andgovernments have national languages foradult literacy teaching and primary edu¬cation.

World's longest radioantenna

A steel and aluminium cable almost two

miles long has been stretched over afjord in northern Norway. It is an antenna

the longest in the world and one ofthe links in the international Omega navi¬gational trial system which so far com¬prises transmitters in Trinidad, Hawaii, andForestport, New York

Space is 'in'What is uppermost in the minds of

Americans today? Visitors to the Ameri¬can Library Association's computerizedlibrary exhibit at the New York World'sFair gave a clear indication that it istravel in space. Visitors were able to putquestions to a computer which respondedby producing reading lists at five educa¬tional levels, or essays in English or four

languages on 75 current interest topics."Travel in Space" led in both the numberof reading lists and essays requested.

Helping deaf childrento speak

A combined headphone-microphone unitdesigned in the United Kingdom can helppartially deaf children to speak. It canbe used to magnify the volume of soundwithout distortion so that even a deaf child

can listen to its own first efforts at formingsounds and words. In the classroom the

children's headphones can be connectedto a common amplifier set before the teach¬er, whose voice can then be heard by thechildren.

Colourful highwaysA laboratory in the Federal Republic of

Germany has perfected a method of per¬manently colouring road surfaces. Experi¬ments now being conducted indicate thatcolour-coded roads might eventually replacethe forest of warning signs that distractalmost as much as they instruct the driveron high-speed freeways.

Electricity from a coconutCoconut milk, as well as the Juice from

sugar cane, yams and certain fruits, canbe used to produce electricity. The tech¬nique perfected by a group of U.S. scien¬tists, involves the use of bacteria (aero-monas formicans) which turn the coconutmilk into formic acid. This is an electro¬

chemical fuel from which a battery candraw electric current. The system, knownas the biochemical fuel cell, has alreadybeen used to power a transistor radio.

World population atlasSoviet scholars have begun the com¬

pilation of a "World Population Atlas".Maps showing the migration of populations,their distribution and location, social andcultural features will provide a picture ofthe varied character of the world populationtoday. The atlas will also contain mapsshowing the settlement of nomads, urbani¬zation, the rise and growth of new metro¬polises and the connexion between thespread of the population and irrigationdevelopments.

Unesco - Dominique Roger

An international group of jazz artists donat¬ed their services for a concert given atUnesco headquarters recently for the bene¬fit of the world campaign against illiteracy.Among them were the trios of Art Simmons,Michel Sardaby, Ron Jefferson and ErrolParker; instrumentalists Don Jetter, HalSinger, Nathan Davis (above, on left) andGlen Ragland; Singer Jenny Gordee, RubleBlakey, who introduced the artists, andTed Easton's Jazz Band. Proceeds from

the concert, which was organized by theJazz Club of Unesco's Staff Association,will be used to help finance literacyprojects in various parts of the world.

Space flight and the rule of law (Cont'd)

36

The David Davies Memorial Institute

of International Studies has suggestedthat these stations should be placedas soon as possible under UnitedNations control, but that the state

which has established, or permittedits nationals to establish such a station

should retain jurisdiction over allpersons inhabiting it, and over such ofthe surrounding area as has to betraversed for the use and upkeep ofthe station.

In the event of two stations

belonging to different states beinginstalled in close proximity on a celes¬tial body, it would be essential todefine their respective fields of compe¬tence and also to take certain other

measures designed in particular toprevent interferences in their radiocommunications.

The status of lunar or planetarystations, and also of space platforms,now presents an urgent legal problem

for jurists to take into consideration.Other legal problems either have

arisen or will arise as a result of the

recent development of communications

by satellite, a new system whichclearly holds great promise not onlyas a means for supplementing andfacilitating communications by the trad¬itional methods, but also for the rapidspreading of education and devel¬

opment of cultural exchanges. Suchcommunications will, however, require

Tracing fresh water 'leaks'in the ocean

A new method of locating undergroundwater is being used by the U.S. Geolo¬gical Survey. Infra-red photographic detec¬tors, sensitive to heat, are mounted onaircraft and are used to scan the coast¬

lines of Puerto Rico and the Virgin IslandsIn search of much needed fresh water

sources. Since the fresh water is either

warmer or cooler than the ocean water,the heat detectors can clearly distinguishit flowing into the ocean from undergroundwater-bearing rocks. Scientists then tracethese "leaks" to their source, which caneventually be tapped.

Roadbuildingaround the world

The Soviet Union has begun to con¬struct a 620-mile (1,000 km.) freeway thatwill link Moscow and Wolgograd (formerlyStalingrad). A 1.300-mile (2,090 km.)road Is to be built in India from Dehra Dun

to Amingaon through the states of UttarPradesh, Bihar, West Bengal and Assam,paralleling the Ganges River for most ofthe way. Work will begin this year on a

one mile (1.6 km.) tunnel underthe River Elbe, by-passing Hamburg, Fede¬ral Republic of Germany. Some 1,200-miles (1,930 km.) of road were built in InnerMongolia In 1964.

School for communityleaders

A college of a new kind has beenfounded in Palermo, Sicily, by a group ofItalian, Swedish and British specialists.The Sicilian Institute for the Training ofDevelopment Workers, as it is called, willtrain unionists, co-operative members,farmers, teachers and other potential localleaders to take greater responsibility andInitiative in the development of their owncommunities.

Level of Caspian fallingBetween 1930 and 1965 the depth of the

Caspian, the world's largest inland sea,dropped by 2.5 metres (8 ft.) and is

expected to fall a further metre by 1976.Soviet scientists say this is due in partto the warming up of the Caspian basinwhich has reduced the flow of rivers, butthe construction of large reservoirs hasalso contributed. The drop has doubledthe need for dredging in ports and canalsand has caused a decline in fish catches.

The oceanography committee of the SovietAcademy of Sciences is studying severalschemes to halt the decline.

Martian laboratory

A chamber reproducing the climate andatmosphere of the planet Mars has beendeveloped at the Microbiology Institute ofthe U.S.S.R. Academy of Sciences to studythe behaviour of bacteria. It automaticallyreproduces (under an atmospheric pressureone-hundredth of that on earth) the changesthat take place in a Martian day, and tem¬peratures varying between 60 degreesand' + 30 Centigrade.

Flashes...

Jupiter, the largest planet of our solarsystem, radiates two and a half times asmuch heat as it receives from the sun,

report astronomers at the University ofArizona.

A new teleprinter developed in theUnited Kingdom can transmit 1,250 wordsa minute 76 times faster than conventional

teleprinters.

About 750,000 seafarers are employedon the world's foreign-going ships, butonly 1 % of them are women reportsWHO in a world-wide study on the healthof mariners.

A new National Park, the third in France,is being created in the Pyrenees. Cover¬ing 125,000 acres, it adjoins the Spanishfrontier south of Lourdes.

0 More than 10,000 foreign students areenrolled in Austria's universities and tech¬

nical colleges and comprise about 20 %of the country's total student population.

BOOKSHELF

Art Treasures of the United Nations

By Jacob Baal-Teshuva. On the art that

embellishes U.N. .Headquarters. ThomasYoseloff, New York and London, 1964($7.50).

Management of Wild Mammals in Capti¬vity

By Lee S. Crandall, General Curator Emer¬

itus, New York Zoological Park. The Uni¬versity of Chicago Press, Chicago andLondon ($13.50).

The Black Ship Scroll

By Oliver Statler. An account of Commo¬

dore Perry's expedition to Japan in 1854,based on contemporay records and Japan¬ese scroll paintings in full colour. CharlesE. Turtle Company, Rutland, Vermont,U.S.A., 1964 ($.5.00).

The Housewarming and other selectedwritings

By Rabindranath Tagore. A Signet Classic(paperback), The New American Library,New York and Toronto (75 c.) ; The NewEnglish Library Ltd., London, 1965.

The Arabs

By E.C. Hodgkin. A new volume in TheModern World series. Oxford UniversityPress, London, 1966 (paperback; 7/6).

The Birth of the Gods:

the origin of primitive beliefs

By Guy E. Swanson. University of MichiganPress, Ann Arbor, U.S.A.; Ambassador

Books Ltd. Toronto. Canada, 1960 ($5.95).

The Population Dilemma

A picture of population trends and pros¬pects in the world presented by elevenauthorities and edited by Philip M. Häuser.(The American Assembly, Columbia Univer¬

sity series). Prentice-Hall Inc., EnglewoodCliffs, N.J.. U.S.A., 1963 (Paperbound, $1.95;clothbound, $3.95).

the elaboration of new laws, espec¬ially when it becomes possible forradio and television signals transmittedfrom some part of the earth to bereceived direct, via a satellite, at any

other point on the earth.

Even at the present stage in the

development of telecommunications,numerous legal difficulties have arisen,for which a solutions must be found.

Some of these difficulties were dis¬

cussed recently at a meeting of expertson the use of space communications

by the mass media, held at Unesco

Headquarters, in December 1965.They are due, for instance, to suchthings as differences in the laws onthe use of satellites in transmitter and

receiver countries, differences in libel

laws, variations in copyright lawsaccording to whether or not countriesare parties to the copyright conven¬tions, and whether or not advertisingis allowed in radio programmes.

There will be a need for special

regulations governing the compositionof programmes for universal transmis¬sion, so as to avoid infringing certain

regulations in force. The Preamble tothe Declaration of December 13, 1963

recalls that a General Assembly resol¬ution of November 3, 1947, which

condemned propaganda designed orlikely to provoke or encourage anythreat to the peace or act of aggres¬sion, is applicable to outer space.

As the science of astronautics

achieves new successes in the con¬

quest of space, fresh legal problems __will arise, in addition to those outlined g/above, calling for solution by wideinternational co-operation.

Letters to the EditorWHAT IT IS...'

Sir.

Why not send a pamphlet such as"Unesco, what it is, what it does,how it works" to each new subscriber

along with the first number of theUnesco Courier? This would give yournew readers a clear understandingof Unesco's aims and show them its

wide range of activities, and theywould get even greater benefit fromreading the Courier.

G. Thevenot

Châteaudun, France

An excellent suggestion which hasbeen adopted. Arrangements arebeing made for a copy of 'Unesco,what it is, what it does, how it works',

in English, French or Spanish, toaccompany the acknowledgement ofeach new subscription Editor.

SPACE-AGE REAPING

Sir,

We are interested to see that yourJanuary 1966 issue contains an article,"Messages to the Stars", by Dr. D.M.A.Mercer, one of a series of papersdelivered at the Science Fiction

session of the Southampton meetingof the British Association for the

Advancement of Science last year.

We should be obliged if you wouldfind space to insert a note drawingyour readers' attention to the factthat this paper and the other threepapers In the Science Fiction sessionare available In "The Advancement

of Science", the Journal of the BritishAssociation (Vol. 22, No. 98, August1965, price 5/-). The titles of theother three papers are Travel In Spaceand Time, Problems of Alien Biology,and Alien Sociology.

J.M. Robertson

Editor, The Advancement of Science3 Sanctuary Buildings

20 Great Smith Street, London S.W. 1.

WOMEN IN SCIENCE

38

AND TECHNOLOGY

Sir,

In connexion with International Co¬

operation Year we have Just beencelebrating, I would like to call yourattention to an activity of internationalco-operation: to help promote theeducation of women In scientific-tech¬

nological fields where women repre¬sent a valuable, yet relatively untappedsource, and where there is a needfor them to supplement manpower.

In 1964, the First InternationalConference of Women Engineers andScientists was held in New York and

brought together over 500 womenengineers and scientists from 35 coun¬tries and all 50 states of the U.S.A.,

who shared experiences, plans andaspirations with each other. They nowlook forward to the second such Inter¬

national conference, to be held in Eng¬land in July 1967, one of whosethemes will be "Enough for Everyonethe application of technology to worldfood problems." (The conferencesecretary is Mrs I.H. Hardwich, AEIPower Group Research Laboratory,Trafford Park, Manchester 17, England.)

I have been a Unesco Courier

subscriber for many years and havecontributed toward a better under¬

standing of the U.N. and especiallyof Unesco's immense programmesthroughout the world by putting on alocal radio information programmeand city-wide displays to familiarizethe people of my community. I alsoinitiated in Connecticut the adoptionof a Unesco Gift Coupon Project forEcuador. Now I would like to see

publicity being given to the fact thatthere is an urgent need and a placefor women, properly qualified andinterested, in science and technologyall over the world.

Vera H. ZeplerChairman, Connecticut Section,

Society of Women Engineers, U.S.A.

YOUTH OF GABON

GREET UNESCO

Sir,

Members of the Central Club ofGabonese School Activities for Unesco

(Lycée Léon Mba, Libreville) and theyoung people of Gabon as a wholewere deeply stirred by the New Yearmessage to youth from the Director-General of Unesco published in yourFebruary issue. As general-secretaryof the Unesco club, I wish to thankthe Director-General and to ask him

to accept the good wiàhes of theyouth of Gabon for 1966. If there isanyone to whom the world's youngpeople should send their greetings,that person is certainly the Director-General of Unesco, who is helpingthem and working for them throughthe organization he directs.

Joseph Boussamba-KouckaLibreville, Gabon

VOLUNTEERS OF VALUE

Sir.

Your issue on Youth (July-August1965) contained an enthusiastic articleon the work of young volunteers. Itmight influence people who holdopposite views and sometimes discussthe Idea of stopping all recruitment ofyoung volunteers workers If they heardthe story of the two volunteers I knowmost about.

Tony Sleight and Steve Cuthbert,came from the United Nations Associ¬ation of Great Britain and Northern

Ireland in 1964-65, to help me at the

Ramallah Men Teacher Training Centre,an institution for Palestine refugeesset up in Jordan by the United NationsRelief and Works Agency (UNRWA).

From the start they showed abilityand willingness to do any job. TonySleight, a graduate in chemistry, hada real talent for experimental work,and took charge of the chemistrylaboratory. Steve Cuthbert, a physicsgraduate, took over the physics labo¬ratory. They worked hard to keeptheir laboratories in running order,repaired instruments and built teachingdevices.

In the first semester we were short

of one science instructor, so ourvolunteers became teachers and des¬

pite the language barrier were ableto give students valuable guidance inexperimental work. In the secondsemester we were able to make greateruse of portable science kits with whichteachers in schools without labor¬

atories can demonstrate some 500

experiments in physics, chemistry andbiology. This inspired our volunteersto produce a 50-page English-Arabicscience dictionary and a 25-pageglossary. To finish this before leavingJordan they often worked long afterschool hours. They also helped toplan a summer in-service trainingcourse and took part in it too.

It is easy to criticize and to quotecases where volunteers have created

nothing. However, providing they arethe right kind of young people and ifthey have a chance to work creativelyand are made to see that we need

their help, we have in them a power¬ful force to reinforce the efforts of

the developing countries.

Karl SlemmingRamallah, Jordan

Mr Slemming Is a mathematics andscience specialist loaned to UNRWAby the Danish Refugee CouncilEditor.

BUILDING PEACE

Sir.

I consider the Unesco Courier to

be one of the most significant publica¬tions of our times, and I loan my copyand quote from it amongst my friendsand business associates, and at myRotary and sports clubs.

Many people despair of the UnitedNations, but they see only the distrustand bickering of the political section.If despite Its undoubted weaknessesIn this area, the United Nations cankeep us out of major war which wouldinevitably escalate Into total destruc¬tion of our civilization, there is somereason to hope that the other bran¬chesWHO, UNICEF, Unesco, etc.will set In motion an avalanche of

enlightenment which will overwhelmthose whose fingers itch on the trigger.

Leslie J.V. HenryNorth Rockhampton

Australia

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GLOBAL VIEW OF

WORLD COMMUNICATIONSFirst published in 1950, World Communications has won recognition as anauthoritative reference work for communication studies, for use in schools

of journalism and as a handbook for mass media enterprises.The latest (4th) edition is a completely revised version and discusses recentdevelopments in mass media : the use of space satellites to relay word andimage between continents ; television as entertainment and as a tool forteaching ; the development of transistors and the growing use of radio fac¬simile and teletypesetting for the simultaneous publication of newspapers indifferent continents.

Two offprints from World Communications

newspapersand

news agencies

world radioand

television

%

380 pp

unesco

40/-; % 8.00; 28 F

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159 pp 15/-; $3.00; 10.50 F 159 pp 17/6; $3.50; 12.50 F

WHERE TO RENEW YOUR SUBSCRIPTIONand order other Unesco publications

Order from any bookseller, or write direct tothe National Distributor in your country. (See listbelow ; names of distributors in countries notlisted will be supplied on request.) Payment ismade in the national currency ; the rates quotedare for an annual subscription to THE UNESCOCOURIER in any one language.

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MALTA. Sapienza's Library 26 Kingsway, Valletta.(15/-). Nalanda Company Ltd., 30,Bourbon Street, Port-Louis (1 5/-). MONACO. BritishLibrary, 30, Bid des Moulins, Monte-Carlo. (F. 10).NETHERLANDS. N. V. Martinus Nijhoff, LangeVoorhout, 9, The Hague, (fl. 8.50). NETHERLANDSANTILLES. G. C. T. Van Dorp & Co. (Ned Ant.)N.V., Willemstad. Curaçao. N.A. (NA fl 4.50). NEWZEALAND. Government Printing Office, 20, MolesworthStreet (Private Bag), Wellington ; Government Book¬shops: Auckland (P.O. Box 53 44), Christchurch (P.O. Box1721), Dunedin P.O. Box 1104) (15/-). NIGERIA.C.M.S. Bookshops, P.O. Box 174, Lagos (10/-). -

NORWAY. All publications : A.S. Bokhjornet, LilleGrensen 7, Oslo. For Unesco Courier only: A.S- Nar-vesens Litteraturjeneste, Box 6125, Oslo 6, (17.50kr.).

PAKISTAN. The West-Pak Publishing Co. Ltd.,Unesco Publications House, P.O. Box 374 G.P.O. Lahore;Showrooms : Urdu Bazar, Lahore, and 57-58 MurreeHighway, G /6-I, Islamabad. PHILIPINES. The ModernBook Co., 508 Rizal Avenue, P.O. Box 632, Manila.

POLAND. "RUCH", ul. Wronia, 23, Warsaw 10(zl. 60). PORTUGAL. Dias & Andrade Lda. LivrariaPortugal, Rua do Carmo 70, Lisbon. PUERTO RICO,Spanish English Publications, Eleanor Roosevelt 115,Apartado 1912, Hato Rey. SOUTHERN RHODESIA.The Book Centre, and Educational Supply Co., Colonial Mu¬tual Building, Salisbury. SUDAN. AI Bashir Bookshop,

. P.O. Box 1118, Khartoum. SWEDEN. All publi¬cations : A/B CE. Fritzes Kungl. Hovbokhandel,Fredsgatan 2, Stockholm 16. For the UnescoCourier: Svenska Unescorädet. Vasagatan 15-17, Stock¬holm, C (Kr. 12); SWITZERLAND. All publications :Europa Verlag, 5 Rämistrasse, Zurich. Payot, rue Grenus 6,1 211, Geneva 11, C.C.P. 1-236. "Courier" only: GeorgesLosmaz, 1, rue des Vieux-Grenadiers, Geneva. C.C.P.1-4811. (Fr. S. 10). TANZANIA. Dar-es-SalaamBookshop. P.O.B. 9030, Dar-es-Salaam.Suksapan Panit Mansion 9, Rajdamnern Avenue. Bangkok.(35 ticals). TURKEY. Librairie Hachette. 469 IstiklalCaddesi, Beyoglu, Istanbul. UGANDA. Uganda Book¬shop, P.O. Box1 45, Kampala (1 0/-). SOUTH AFRICA.All publications *. Van Schaik's Book-store (Pty) Ltd.,Libri Building, Church Street, P.O. Box 724 Pretoria.For the Unesco Courier (single copies) only : CentralNews Agency P.O. Box 1033, Johannesbourg. (R1.-50).

UNITED ARAB REPUBLIC (EGYPT). LibrairieKasr El Nil, 38, rue Kasr El Nil, Cairo. Sub/agent :La Renaissance d'Egypte, 9 Sh. Adly-Pasha, Cairo.UNITED KINGDOM. H.M. Stationery Office. P.O.Box 569, London, S.E.I, and Government Bookshopsii London, Edinburgh, Cardiff, Belfast, Manchester.Birmingham and Bristol. (15/-). UNITED STATES,Unesco Publications Center, 317 East 3 4th St, New York,N.Y. 1 001 6 ($ 5.00) U.S.S.R. Mezhdunarodnaja Kniga,Mocow. G-200. YUGOSLAVIA. JugoslovenskaKnjiga Terazije, 27, Belgrade.

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