Male and Female Basketball Players' Goal Orientation, Perceived Motivational Climate, Perceived Ability and the Sources of Sport

Confidence

By:Dongfang Chie-derSoochow University

Steve ChenUnited States Sports Academy

Chou Hung-yu & Chi Li-kangNational College of PE & Sports

Introduction

Self-confidence and sport confidence (SC) have been viewed as some of the most important factors that influence the sport performance. Many studies had shown that athletes with high sport confidence would possess better concentration, game strategies, healthy emotions, control of tempos, and performance (Chi, 1996; Gould, 1981; Mahoney, Gabriel & Perkin, 1987). Therefore, the relationship between sport confidence and performance should be a critical topic for sport psychologists to investigate.

In reality, sport confidence can be an inconsistent and temporary variable. The inconsistence of sport confidence within a period of time is basically affected by the sources of the confidence. Researchers can try to understand how the sources of sport confidence could influence the athlete’s level of confidence, cognition, emotion, and behaviors (Vealey 1986). They may carefully examine the sources of confidence by understanding the interaction of the social background, organizational cultures, and the characteristics of the athletes.

Sport competition is a basic environment for pursuing excellence and performance (Duda, 1987). How do athletes develop their confidence? The Achievement Goal Theory under the social-cognitive construct has gradually become a popular model for this research topic in the field of sport psychology. (Ames & Archer, 1988; Elliott & Dweck, 1988; Nicholls, 1984, 1989; Mills, 1997; Huang& Chi, 1994).

The previous researches in the Achievement Goal Theory discovered that the task-oriented climate would enhance the development of motivation and confidence (Duda, 1992). There is a relationship between goal orientation and sport confidence. Especially, the task orientations of athletes are positively correlative to their sport confidence. In another words, if an athlete tends to emphasize skill-acquisition (perfection), and both learning and competitive processes, his/her sport confidence would be higher. Shane (2000) examined 620 high school and collegiate athletes of both genders to examine the relationship between goal orientation and sport confidence. The findings indicated that male and females athletes are significantly different in task orientation, ego orientation, and several factors related to the source of sport confidence, such as skill perfection, demonstration of ability, and physiological/psychological preparation. In addition, the perceived sources of sport confidence were different between high school and collegiate athletes of both genders.

Based on the above studies, we may conclude that athletes’ emotions, cognition levels and behaviors would further affect their levels of confidence. Many studies indicated that people who possess task-oriented characteristics or function a task-oriented climate would have higher self-perception, self-perceived ability, and positive emotion. As athletes have recognized their self-ability more, this would have a strong impact on their sport confidence (Mills, 1997; Huang & Chi, 1994). However, researches in sport confidence that focused on the environmental factors and organizational cultures (e.g., the variable of perceived motivational climate) were rarely found. In Taiwan, the research construct of sport confidence is a seldom-addressed topic in sport psychology. What would be the variables that cause male and female basketball players to formulate their confidence? What are the factors that influence the athletes’ confidence prior to the competitions? This study would investigate the sources of sport confidence based on the construct of motivational theories. The primary focus was to examine the differences and relationships between male and female high school basketball players’ goal orientation, perceived motivational climate, perceived ability, the sources of their sport confidence, and sport confidence levels prior to the competition.

Method

Subjects

Participants of the study were 174 male and female basketball players who had played for the 2003 HBL Division-I Tournament. Their average age was 17.09 year old (SD= .91).

Test inventories

Four types of research questionnaires were used to specifically measure participants’ goal orientation, motivational climate, perceived ability, and sport confidence. The following paragraphs gave brief introductions of each questionnaire and its purpose.

a. Sport Goal Orientation Questionnaire This questionnaire was modified by Chi (1993) based on the Sport Goal Orientation Questionnaire of Duda & Nicholls (1989). This questionnaire, which contains 13 questions, primarily accesses an individual’s goal orientation in a sport setting.

b. Perceived Sport Motivation Climate Questionnaire This questionnaire contains two parts. It was modified by Huang & Chi (1994) based on the Perceived Sport Motivation Climate Questionnaire of Seifriz, Duda & Chi (1992). The questionnaire, which contains 34 questions, primarily accesses an individual’s perceived motivation-climate in a team setting.

c. Perceived Ability QuestionnaireThis four-question questionnaire was modified based on the version of Nicholls et al. (1985).

d. Sport Confidence QuestionnaireThis questionnaire was modified by Wu & Chi (2000)

based on the Sources of Sport-Confidence(SSCQ)of Vealey et al. (1998) Sources of Sport-Confidence. This questionnaire primarily accesses an individual’s sources of sport confidence. There are a total of 35 seven-point Likert Scale questions in the questionnaire. These questions are divided and distributed into eight factors of sources of confidence. The number of questions within each factor is listed as follow: perfection of skills (5), demonstration of ability (6), physiological/psychological preparation (4), physical performance (3), social support (3), vicarious experience (4), leadership styles of coaches (7), and positive environment (3). The percent of variance was 71.03%. The Cronbach alpha of each factor was in the range of .70 -.96. The above results indicate that the revised Sport Confidence Questionnaire has a strong validity and reliability.

Procedures

Before the survey had taken place, coaches and trainers would try to develop a good relationship with players, so they could understand players’ practice and game schedules precisely. Players would take the survey together two hours prior to their practice time. Before the survey was administered, the researchers would explain the content of the questionnaires to the players. Researchers had informed the players that their responses were submitted anonymously, and the information that was gathered was strictly confidential. It would take 30 minutes for players to fill out the Sport Goal Orientation Questionnaire, Perceived Sport Motivation Climate Questionnaire, Perceived Ability Questionnaire, and Sport Confidence Questionnaire.

Results

The t-test analyses indicated the differences in goal orientation, perceived motivational climate, perceived ability, and sources of sport confidence between male and female players. Table 1 reported the results of the t-test analyses. Male players had recorded higher scores in “perceived ego-climate” and the “perfection of skills” and “physical performance” factors of sport-confidence than female players did.

Table 1. Differences in goal orientation, perceived motivational climate, perceived ability and sources of sport confidence between male and female players.

Gender Male Female   Number 87 87 tVariable Mean SD Mean SD  

Task Orientation 4.052 0.529 4.123 0.569 -0.84Ego Orientation 3.580 0.556 3.500 0.567 0.94

Perceived Task-climate 3.894 0.437 3.911 0.499 -.24Perceived Ego-climate 3.483 0.479 3.264 0.530 2.86*

Perceived ability 4.452 1.171 4.168 1.025 1.69Perfection of skills 5.365 0.971 5.181 1.056 1.19**

Demonstration 5.523 0.971 5.181 1.056 1.24**Physiological/psychological

Preparation5.508 1.016 5.416 1.046 0.55

Physical Performance 4.869 0.897 4.521 1.204 2.16*Social support 5.272 0.940 5.157 1.199 0.70

Leadership styles 5.492 0.924 5.527 1.145 -0.21Vicarious Experience 5.486 0.932 5.416 1.088 0.33Positive Envinroment 5.134 1.029 5.038 1.185 0.59

  *p<.05 **p<.01      

Tables 2 and 3 presented the results of the simple correlation analyses. Both of the male and female players’ task orientations, perceived task-climates, and perceived abilities were positively related to the eight factors of sport-confidence source. These included perfection of skills, demonstration of ability, physical performance, physiological/psychological preparation, social support, vicarious experience, leadership styles of coaches, and positive environment. Male players’ ego orientation was positively related to demonstration of ability, physical performance, and social support. Their perceived ego-climate was positively related to demonstration of ability, physical performance, physiological/psychological preparation, social support, vicarious experience, leadership styles of coaches, and positive environment.

As for female players, their ego-orientation was positively related to demonstration of ability, physical performance, physiological/psychological preparation, social support, vicarious experience, leadership styles of coaches, and positive environment. Both vicarious experience and positive environment were positively related to females’ perceived ego-climate.

Table 2. Simple correlation between various variables based on males’ responses (N=87)

Variable TaskOrientation

EgoOrientation

Perceivedask-climate

PerceivedEgo-

climate

Perceivedability

Perfection of skills .596** .179 .568** .203 .265*Demonstration of ability .395** .270* .398** .358** .285

Physiological/psychologicalpreparation

.430** .093 .478** .260* .272**

Physical performance .320** .212* .284** .288** .373**Social support .518** .213* .524** .303** .390**

Leadership style .517** .192 .568** .284** .401**Vicarious experience .412** .188 .541** .286** .302**Positive environment .302** .144 .410** .365** .237**

     

*p< 0.05, **p < 0.01 (two-tailed).

Table 3. Simple correlation between various variables based on females’ responses (N=87)

Variable TaskOrientation

EgoOrientation

Perceivedtask-

climate

PerceivedEgo-

climate

Perceivedability

Perfection of skills .639** .325** .664** .068 .415**Demonstration of ability .570** .552** .541** .350** .263**

Physiological/psychologicalpreparation

.683** .340** .688** .155 .365**

Physical performance .465** .397** .429** .091 .349**Social support .637** .457** .648** .128 .426**

Leadership style .659** .479** .647** .203 .401**Vicarious experience .595** .250* .684** .058 .536**Positive environment .511** .309** .494** .227* .500

*p< 0.05, **p < 0.01 (two-tailed).

Male players’ perceived task climate could effectively predict the variables such as demonstration of ability, physical performance, social support, vicarious experience, leadership styles of coaches, and positive environment. Their task orientation could effectively predict variables of perfection of skills and physiological/psychological preparation. Female players’ perceived task-climate was an effective predictor of perfection of skills, physical performance, social support, vicarious experience, and positive environment. Their task-orientation was an effective predictor of demonstration of ability, physiological/psychological preparation, leadership styles of coaches, and positive environment.

Conclusion and Suggestion

Based on the results of this study, the significant differences in perceived ego-climate and three factors of sources of sport confidence-perfection of skills, demonstration, and physical performance, were found between male and female players. In addition, the sources of confidence were closely related to players’ task orientation, perceived task-climate, and perceived ability. The stepwise regression analyses showed both genders’ sources of sport confidence could be effectively predicted by their task orientation, motivation task-climate, and self perceived ability. This finding has matched the results of several previous studies (Vealey, 1998; Shane, 2000; Wu & Chi). The findings indicated that people who were more task oriented, or prefer to work in a task climate, valued the participative process (i.e., effort, perfection, and learning) instead of the outcomes of the competitions. Their emphasis would have a positive effect on their sport confidence and the sources of the confidence. Therefore, the researchers suggest that sport coaches should try to understand the sources of athletes’ sport confidence, and work harder to create a task-oriented practice environment (climate) in order to enhance athletes’ confidence.

In terms of the suggestions for future studies, the researchers propose the sequential effects of different types of motivational climates on sources of sport confidence (effort and performance), cognitive anxiety, state anxiety, and satisfaction could be further examined.

Reference

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Abstract

The purpose of this study was to discuss the differences and relationships between male and female high school basketballs’ goal orientation, perceived motivational climate, perceived ability, and the sources of their sport confidence. Participants of the study were 174 male and female basketball players who had played for the 2003 HBL Division-I Tournament. Their average age was 17.09 year old (SD= .91). Significant findings were summarized as following: (1) Male players had recorded higher scores in perceived ego-climate and the “perfection of skills” and “physical performance” factors of sport-confidence than female players did. (2) Based on the results of simple correlation analyses, both of male and female players’ task orientation, perceived task-climate, and perceived ability were positively related to the eight factors of sport-confidence source, which included perfection of skills, demonstration of ability, physical performance, physiological/psychological preparation, social support, vicarious experience, leadership styles of coaches, and positive environment. Male players’ ego orientation was positively related to demonstration of ability, physical performance, and social support. Their perceived ego-climate was positively related to demonstration of ability, physical performance, physiological/psychological preparation, social support, vicarious experience, leadership styles of coaches, and positive environment. As for female players, their ego-orientation was positively related to demonstration of ability, physical

performance, physiological/psychological preparation, social support, vicarious experience, leadership styles of coaches, and positive environment. Female players’ ego orientation, male players’ perceived ego climate and the eight factors of sport-confidence source were positively related to pre-competition confidence. (3) Based on the results of the stepwise regression analyses, male players’ task orientation and perceived ability could effectively predict the pre-competition sport confidence. The total equality of variance was 22.6%, and the variance for each variable was 17.6% and 5%, respectively. Female players’ perceived ability and perceived task-climate were effective predictors of pre-competition sport confidence. The total equality of variance was 43.9%, and the variance for each variable was 39.6% and 4.3%, respectively

The results of the study indicated that more confidence could be generated from a task-oriented environment. Players who were task-oriented also had more confidence. Therefore, the researchers suggest that sport coaches should work harder to create a task-oriented practice environment (climate) to enhance players’ confidence.

Key words: goal orientation, perceived motivation-climate, perceived ability and source of sport confidence, pre-competition sport confidence