making gold : nuclear alchemy
DESCRIPTION
Making Gold : Nuclear Alchemy. Prof. Paddy Regan Department of Physics University of Surrey Guildford, GU2 7XH [email protected]. Medieval alchemist…trying to turn base metals into gold… Mistake…to try and use ‘chemistry’…needed nuclear physics. - PowerPoint PPT PresentationTRANSCRIPT
Making Gold : Nuclear Alchemy
Prof. Paddy Regan
Department of Physics
University of Surrey
Guildford, GU2 7XH
Medieval alchemist…trying to turn base metals into gold…Mistake…to try and use ‘chemistry’…needed nuclear physics
Atoms (‘indivisible’) …… ~10-10 m, electrons (and their
orbital structure) determine chemistry of the elements, e.g., NaCl
Nuclei…..~10-14m across, protons determine the
chemical element (Z); neutron number (N) determines
the mass, (A = N+Z). > 99.9 % of the mass of the atom
is in the nucleus.
Nucleons (protons and neutrons ~10-15m) have a
substructure, three quarks in each nucleon
(‘ups’ and ‘downs’)…but they don’t exists on their
own.
What makes a nucleus ‘stable’?
• There is an ongoing interplay and competition between coulomb
repulsion and strong nuclear force interactions
• The result is that only certain combinations of Z and N give rise to
stable configurations (about 300 in total).
• Other non-stable types can ‘radioactively decay’ (about 7,000
predicted).
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Radioactive species in the body
Isotope Average amount by weight Activity
U-Uranium 90μg 1.1Bq
Th-Thorium 30 μg 0.11Bq
40K 17mg 4.4 kBq
Ra 31pg 1.1Bq
14C 22ng 3.7kBq
3H-tritium 0.06pg 23Bq
Po-Polonium 0.2pg 37Bq
Some variation- for example smokers have 4-5 times more Po.
X-rays come fromatomic ‘vacancies’
i.e. holes in the electron shellsaround the atom.
Quantum mechanicsmeans that theelectron orbits arefixed in energy….
X-rays come from anelectron ‘dropping’ from one energy level to a lower one
X-rays come fromatomic ‘vacancies’
i.e. holes in the electron shellsaround the atom.
Quantum mechanicsmeans that theelectron orbits arefixed in energy….
X-rays come from anelectron ‘dropping’ from one energy level to a lower one
X-rays come fromatomic ‘vacancies’
i.e. holes in the electron shellsaround the atom.
Quantum mechanicsmeans that theelectron orbits arefixed in energy….
X-rays come from anelectron ‘dropping’ from one energy level to a lower one
X-ray emitted
Full-sky Comptel map of 1.8 MeV gamma rays in 26Mg following 26Al -decay.
Radioactive 26Al around the Galaxy….Diehl et al., Astron. Astrophys 97, 181 (1993)
Nuclear Fusion creates energy up to A~56 (Z=26 = Iron)If the star is hot enough, nuclear fusion will fuel the starand create elements up to A~56
Once you have 4He what next?• 4He + H→ 5Li not energetically allowed…neither is
4He+4He → 8Be…we’re stuck with A=1,2,3 and 4….
• BUT!!! 4He can fuse with 2 other 4He (8Be) stuck together for a short time (~10-16sec) to make 12C…complicated but understood.
• Once we have made 12C (Z=6) nuclei can fuse together and gain energy (if the star is hot and massive enough) to make all elements up to Z=26 (Iron=Fe).
Once you have 56Fe what next?
• Top of the binding energy per nucleon curve reached at A~56…fusion above this costs energy…bad news for the star - supernova
• BUT elements from 27-92 exist in nature – how are these made ?
• Neutron Capture – neutrons have no charge – no electrostatic repulsion.
Example of a mass parabola
Mass energy
(mc2)
A=N+Z=125
p →
n + + +
125Xe : Z=54; N=71
125Cs : Z=55; N=70
125I : Z=53; N=72
125Ba : Z=56; N=69
125Te : Z=52; N=73
STABLE ISOBAR
FOR A=125
125In : Z=49
125Sn : Z=50;
125Sb : Z=51;
n →
p + - +
Beta –radioactive decay, (consequence of E=mc2)2 types: (i) Beta- plus proton changes to a neutron (Z ->Z-1) (ii) Beta – minus neutron changes to a proton (Z -> Z+1)
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Proton Drip Line
Neutron Drip Line
Super Heavies
Fewer than 300 nuclei
For a give fixed A (isobar), we have
different combinations of Z and N.
e.g., A=Z+N=125 can be from
Z=52, N=73 →125Te73 ; or
Z=51, N=74 → 125Sb74…
Mass Parabolas and Radioactive Decays
A = constant
Q210Pb) = 5.41 MeVE = 5.30 MeV E(206Pb) = 0.11 MeVT1/2 = 138 days.
‘218Po =Radium A’
‘218At =Radium B’
C
D
E
210Po=Radium ‘F’ Radon
=‘Emanation’
‘Radium’
C’
C’’
The Natural Decay Chain for 238U
Figure Wiescher, Regan & Aprahamian, Physics WorldFeb. 2002, page 33-38
Slow-neutron capture processallows formation of elementsfrom A~56 to A=209 (Bi)...
terminates at 209Bi...why?
Neutron capture…no electrostatic barrier to nuclear fusion….all you need are enoughNeutrons…
Nuclear reactions in Red giant stars create‘spare’ neutrons
Stellar neutron sources in the middle of Red Giant stars (e.g., Betelguese)
13C+4He→17O*→16O + n 22Ne+4He →26Mg*→25Mg + n
So, how do you make Gold ?
• Gold has 79 protons (i.e. Z=79)
• Start with Z=78 protons (i.e. Platinum)
• Specifically 196Pt ( Pt = Z=78, N=196-78=118)
• Reaction is 196Pt + neutron to make 197Pt
• 197Pt is radioactive and ‘beta-decays’ to make 197Au (i.e., normal ‘stable’ gold).
S-process makes 209Bi from 208Pb+n → 209Pb (T1/2=3.2hr) → 209Bi
Neutron capture on stable 209Bi → 210Bi (T1/2 =5 days) → 210Po.
210Po → + 206Pb (stable nucleus, as is 207Pb and 208Pb).
Summary What’s made where and how.
– Hydrogen to Helium (in the sun, p-p chain CNO cycles).
– Helium to Carbon, triple-alpha process, special fusion.
– Carbon to iron: nuclear fusion reactions, if hot enough.
– Above 56Fe, • (a) up to Z=92, 238U, supernova, rapid neutron captures...also
spits out material for future neutron capture in 2nd / 3rd generation star
• (b) can get up to 209Bi (210Po end-point) by slow neutron capture