major components of social sciences.pptx

8/14/2019 MAJOR COMPONENTS OF SOCIAL SCIENCES.pptx

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TWO MAJOR COMPONENTS OF

SOCIAL SCIENCES

1. Theoryworld of ideas, theories,

models2. Empirical researchworld of

observation and experience

PRESENTED BY: LIWAYWAY S. VILORIA


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Goals of Social Sciences

Explore, explain phenomena

prediction

Theoretical / Conceptual

World Empirical World

Strategies linking

Theoretical & Empirical

Worlds

Theory

before

Research

Research

before

Theory

Quantitative

Paradigm

Method

Qualitative

Paradigm

Method

Triargulation

( mixed / multiple

theories, methods,

data, researches ) Within Paradigm /

MethodBetween Paradigm /

Across method


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1. Theory-then-research2. Research-then-theory

3. Spiraling Strategy

Theory and research must

interact constantly Contrast between these

strategies are more apparent

than real

Theory-Then-Research Strategy

Idea Theory Design

Data Collection AnalysisFindings/Generalizations

Research-Before-Theory Strategy

Idea Design Data

Collection Theory AnalysisMajor Findings

Spiraling Strategy

Idea Theory Design Data

Collection and OrganizationAnalysis and Interpretation

Conclusion

Literature Review

( Note: see Berge, 1995:16)

RESEARCH STRATEGIES TO LINK

CONCEPTUAL AND EMPIRICAL

WORLDS


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SOURCES OF RESEARCH PROBLEM

Theories

Direct Observations /Experiences

- Issues, difficulties,

current practices

Critical Review of

Professional Literature

- Familiarizes with the

current state of

knowledge (related to

the research topic)

- Contribute to

cumulative nature ofscientific knowledge

Concepts

Theories

Conceptual and Operational Definitions

Problems and hypotheses studied by others

Research methods used

Findings

Recommendations

FOCUS OF CRITICAL REVIEW & PROFESSIONAL /

RELATED LITERATURE


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Main Stages of the Research Process

Theory

Problem

Hypothesis

Research

Design

MeasurementData Collection

Data Analysis

Generalization


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Establishes the Directionfor the research

- Captures in a singlesentence or paragraph,the essence of the study

- Must be written as clearly andconcisely as possible

- Needs to be firmly grounded in theparadigm assumption ( basic indicator of agood purpose statement ) e.g. a goodqualitative purpose statement expresses /implies the assumptions of qualitativeparadigmi.e., language of qualitativeresearch and methodology of an emergingdesign based on experiences of individualsin the natural setting.

The Purpose Statement & All Caps


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QUALITATIVE RESEARCH PROBLEM

- represents specific statements of the purposeof the study

Typically uses research questions, notobjectives or hypotheses

Ask one or two grand tour questions followedby not more than five to seven subquestionsto narrow the focus of the study but that donot constrain the qualitative researcher.

- Write not more than 12 questions in all(Miles&Huberman, 1984)

- These questions become topics explored ininterviews, observations, documents andarchival material

The question format might be related tospecific qualitative design types.

Begin the research questions with the wordswhat or how. Tell the reader that the studywill do one of the following, which convey the

language of an emerging design.- discover (e.g. grounded theory )

- explain or seek to understand (e.gethnography)

- explore the process (e.g case study )

- describe the experience (e.g. phenomenology)

Pose questions that use nondirectional

wording

- These questions describe, rather than relate

variables or compare groups.

- Delete words that suggest or refer a

quantitative study, words with a directional

orientation.

- e.g affect, influence, impact, determine, case

and effect.

Expect the research questions to evolve and

change during the study

Use open-ended questions without

experience to the literature or theory unless

otherwise dictated by a qualitative design

type.

Use a single focus and specify the researchsite in the research questions.


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QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH PROBLEM

- represents specific restatements of the

purpose of the study

In survey designs, these restatements of the purpose

of the study take the form of research of questions or

objectives

In experiments, they are hypotheses:

- may be a comparison between two or more groups in

terms of a dependence variable.

- may be a comparison between two or more

independent and dependent variables.

- may be descriptive questions to describe responses tothe independent and dependent variables.


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1. Develop the

hypotheses, questions, or

objectives from theory

- in the deductive

methodological process

of quantitative research,

they are test table

propositions deduced

from theory ( Kerlinger,

1979 ).

2. Keep theindependent and

dependent variables

separate and measure

them separately

- this procedure

reinforces the cause-

and-effect logic

quantitative research.

3. When writing this passage, select

one form.

- write questions, objectives or

hypotheses but not a combination.

Hypothesisdeclarative statement

of the relations between two or

more variables ( Kerlinger, 1979;

Mason and Bamble, 1989)

Research Questions- also poses a

relationship, but phrases the

relationship as a

question(Krathwohl, 1988)

Objectiveis the same relationship

statement in declarative form.

Mixing hypotheses with questions

or objectives conveys an informal

(and redundant) style of writing.

Guidelines in the Development of Quantitative Questions ,

Objectives and Hypotheses


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4. If hypotheses are used, consider thealternative forms for writing them andmake a choice based on the audience forthe research

Use the formal, traditional language towrite hence for the research

Use the formal, traditional language towrite hypotheses.

Null hypothesesstates that there is nosignificant relationship between or

among the variables

- or there is nosignificant differences between or amonggroups (Armstrong, 1974)

Alternative hypothesesstate a

direction for the relationship or thedifferences. This is used if the literaturesuggests a hypothesized direction for thevariables (Krathword, 1988).

Consider writing hypotheses in one offour forms:

a) literary null (concept oriented, no

direction)

b) literary alternative (concept oriented,

directional)

c) operational null (operational, no

direction)

d) operational alternative (operational,

directional)

Literacy formmeans that the variables willbe stated in abstract, concept-oriented

language

Operational formthe variables will be

stated in more specific language.


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5. Use major variables

other than demographics

as independent variables,

unless the study merits a

close examination of

demographic variables.

-Quantitative studies

verify a theory-

demographic variables

typically enter these

models as intervening or

mediating variables.6. Use the same pattern of

word order in the

questions, objectives, or

hypothesis to establish a

formal rhetorical style.

-Repeat Key phrases andorder the variables by

beginning with the

independent and

concluding with the

dependent variables.

-Example of word order with

independent variables stated

first.

1. There is no relationship

between use of ancillary

support services and

academic persistence of

nontraditional-aged college

women.


between family support

systems and academicpersistence of nontraditional

aged college women.


between ancillary support

services and family support

systems

7. Use this model for writing questions

or hypotheses:

Write descriptive questions (or

hypotheses) followed by multivariate

(or inferential) questions or hypotheses.

1. write description question(s) for

each independent and dependent

variable (and important mediating

variables, if necessary) in the study.

2. Descriptive questions are then

followed by multivariate questions

that relate variables and compare

groups.

3. Multivariable questions are

followed by questions that add any

mediating or controlled variables.


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X1 + Y1+

Z1_

X2 _ Y2

Two Groups, X1and X2, Are Compared in Terms of Z1, Controlling for the Effects

of Y1and Y2

Independent

Variable

Mediating

Variable

Dependent

Variable


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Researcher Tests a Theory

Researcher Tests Hypotheses or Research

Questions Derived from the Theory

Researcher Operationalizes Concepts or VariablesDerived from the Theory

Researcher Uses an Instrument to MeasureVariables in the Theory

The Deductive mode of Research in a Quantitative Study


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Paradigm - the theory dominant in any historical period

-helps understand phenomena

- advances assumption about the social world,

how science should be conducted, and what

constitute legitimate problems, solution, and

criteria of proof.

-

differ by discipline fields, and are oftencontested.

RESEARCH PARADIGMS


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Focus the topic by describing it

succinctly, drafting a working title,

and considering whether it is

researchable.

FOCUSING THE STUDYFocus for the studythe central concept being examined in a scholarly study may emerge from:

In a single sentence describe the focus concisely

working title helps focus the direction of research

working title may be modified as one proceeds with a project.

be brief and avoid wasting words.

eliminate unnecessary words such as An approach to and A Study of.

use a single title or a double title ( Wilkinson, 1991)

title must not be longer than 12 words

eliminate mot articles and prepositions

make sure it includes the focus or topic of the study

extensive literature receive

suggestions from colleagues, advisors,

researchers practical experiences


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Criteria for Determining the Researchability of the topic


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Triangulation

use multiple methods of data collectionand analysis

these methods might be drawn from withinmethods approaches (i.e. different types ofquantitative data collection strategiese.g.survey and experiment)

between methods qualitative andquantitative data collection procedures (e.g.in-depth interviews and a survey)

(Jick, 1979; Grant and Fine, 1992)

Observations may be supplemented withstructured, quantitative observations

mixing of ethnography and experimental

research survey research and qualitative procedures

TRIANGULATION METHOD

/


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Two-phase designconsist of aqualitative phase and a separatequantitative phase of the study. Thisclearly separates the two paradigms.

Dominant-less dominant designplacesthe study within a single, dominant

paradigm with one small component ofthe overall study drawn from thealternative paradigm.

E.g. * experimental study with smallqualitative interview component in thedata collection

* qualitative observationfollowed by a quantitative survey of asample from a population

MixedMethodology Designinvolvesmixing aspects of the qualitative andquantitative paradigm at all or manymethodological steps in the design.

Conceptan abstraction- a symbol- a

representation of an object or one of its

properties, or of a behavioral phenomenon.

Functions of Concepts

1. Provide a common language, whichenables scientist to communicate with

one another

2. Concepts give scientists a perspective- a

way of looking at phenomena

3. Concepts allow scientists to classify their

experience and to generalize from them4. Concepts are components of theories-

they define a theorys content and

attributes

MODELS OF TRIANGULATION/COMBINED DESGINS

Twophase design

Dominantuse dominant design

Mixedmethodology design Concepts


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Conceptual Definitions Definitions thatdescribe concepts by using other concepts;or by using primitive terms (concrete andcannot by defined by other concepts) and

derived terms constructed by usingprimitive terms

Operational Definition describes a set of

procedures to establish the existence ofthe phenomenon described by theconcept.


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Theory provides explanation to the hypotheses,questions or objectives (basically in a quantitative

study) Given its importance in the conceptualization of

research, it is introduced in the design process.

Definition of theory in Quantitative paradigm a set ofinterrelated constructs (variables), definitions, andpropositions that presents a systematic view ofphenomena by specifying relations among variables,with the purpose of explaining natural phenomena(Krlinger, 1979)

interrelated set of constructs (or variables) are formed

into propositions or hypothesis that specify therelationships among variables

relationships among variables-specified in terms ofmagnitude or direction

systemic view-might be an argument, a discussion, ora rationale that helps explain (or predict phenomena)that occur in the world.

Theoretical rationale an idea add to systemic viewof phenomena by Lebovits and Hagedorn (1977:17)-

means specifying how and why the variables andrelational statements are interrelated

Terms that may be used to refer to thepassage/section in a quantitative study that discussesits theorical foundation:

Theory base

Theoretical rationale

Theoretical perspective

Bases for Classification of Theories

1. Breadth or scopea) Grand theories ( explain large categories of phenomena,

common in the natural sciences-e.g. Darwing Theory ofevolution)

b) Middle-range theories (fall between workinghypotheses of everyday life and grand theories-e.g. lifespan development Theories, deviance theories)

c) Substantive theories restricted to a particular setting,group, time, population, or problem.

2. Form of presentationshows a causal ordering of variables

a) A series ofifthen statements that explain whyindependent variables influence or cause the dependentvariables (e.g. Homanstheory of interaction, 1950: 112,118, 120)

b) a series of hypotheses [e.g. Hopkins (1964) theory of theinfluence processes involves 5 variables and 15propositions]

3. Levels of Abstraction (Parsons and Shils)

a) Ad hoe classificatory systems

b) Categorical system ( Parsonsanalysis of Social Action)

c) Conceptual frameworks

d) Theoretical Systems

e) function- deals with static or dynamic phenomena

f) Structure logical systems of thought w/ closely levelinterrelationships, or

- closely defined set of propositions

Use of a Theory in Quantitative Paradigm of

Research


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Parsms, Social ActionTheory

Behavior attributes -goal oriented, occurs ingroup situations,

mormatively regulated,involves expenditure,

energy

Forms of SocialSystems

PersonallySystem

CulturalSystem

SocialSystem

These behavior

attributes constitute a

social system


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Conceptual FrameworkThird levelof Theory

Systematic placement/arrangement ofdescriptive categories in a broad structureof explicit propositions, statements ofrelationships between two or moreempirical properties, to be accepted orrejected

Conceptual modelan abstractrepresentation of reality that ordersand simplifies our views of reality byrepresenting its essential characteristics

delineates those aspects of the real worldconsidered to be relevant to the probleminvestigated

make a explicit the significant relationshipsamong those aspects

enables the researcher to formulate empirically

testable propositions regarding the nature ofthree relationships

After testing, and achieving a betterunderstanding of some parts of the real world,the scientist may decide to change the model toconform with his or her new insights.

also used to gain insight into the phenomena

that the scientist cannot observe directly.

tools for explanation and predictions

often changed to represent reality moreaccurately and to incorporate new knowledge.

critical attribute of a scientific model is that itcan be tested empirically; that is, it can be

proved false and changed or discarded.


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Key Components

Establishing the problem leading to thestudy (1stand/ or 2ndparagraph)

Casting the problem within a largerscholarly literature

Discussing deficiencies in the literatureabout the problem

Targeting an audience and noting thesignificance of the problem for this

audience

INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY

Sets the stage for the entire study

Provides background information for the research

Establishes a framework for the research

PARTS OF INTRODUCTION to the STUDY

1STand/2ndParagraphsCreates readersinterests and Establish the problem or issuethat leads to the study

Problemissue that emerges from theliterature, theory or practice that

creates/leads to a need

for the study.

- rationale for the study

3rdParagraph - Discusses the literature that hasaddressed the problem

Review entire volumes of research, not

single or isolated studies

Casts the problem within the ongoingdialogue in the literature (place the in-textreferences

at the end of the paragraph or at the endof the Summary about several studies)


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3rdparagraph

Literature About the Problem

review entire volumes of research, not single, isolated studies about the problem

cast the problem within the larger literature / ongoing dialogue in the literature

4thParagraphDiscuss deficiencies in the past literature

Write about areas overlooked by past studies, including topics, special statistical

treatments, and significant implications.

Discuss how the present study addresses these deficiencies and provides a unique

contribution to the literature

5thParagraphTarget the Audience

End the introduction by discussing the significance of the problem for a specific audience.

- may consist of a short phrase or a longer passage

- may address diverse audience: (practitioners, other researchers, or policymakers)


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Write an opening sentence that stimulate and conveys to which a broad readership can relate

Specify the problem (dilemma, issue leading to the study)

What issue serves as a strong need / justification to conduct the study?

Indicate why the problem is important

Focus the problem on the Key concept being tested quantitatively or explored qualitatively.

In quantitative studythis concept is the dependent variable

In qualitative studythis is the main phenomenon of interest

As a general rule, refrain from using quotes in the lead sentence.

This rule may be relaxed in the qualitative studies written form a literary style.

Refrain from using idiomatic expressions or trite phrases (e.g sacred cow)

Consider numeric information for impact

Consider short sentences for impact

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