Egypti/idpt/(Arabic:Mir), is atranscontinental countryspanning thenortheast corner of Africaandsouthwest corner of Asia, via aland bridgeformed by theSinai Peninsula. Most of its territory of 1,010,000 square kilometers (390,000sqmi) lies within theNile ValleyofNorth Africaand is bordered by theMediterranean Seato the north, theGaza StripandIsraelto the northeast, theGulf of Aqabato the east, theRed Seato the east and south,Sudanto the south andLibyato the west.With over 84 million inhabitants, Egypt is one of the most populous countries in Africa and the Middle East, and the 15th-most populated in the world. The great majority of its people[4]live near the banks of theNileRiver, an area of about 40,000 square kilometers (15,000sqmi), where the onlyarable landis found. The large regions of theSaharaDesert, which constitute most of Egypt's territory, are sparsely inhabited. About half of Egypt's residents live in urban areas, with most spread across the densely populated centres of greaterCairo,Alexandriaand other major cities in theNile Delta.Egypt has one of the longest histories of any modern state, having been continuously inhabited since the 10th millennium BC.[10]Its monuments, such as theGiza Necropolisand itsGreat Sphinx, were constructed by itsancient civilization, which was one of the most powerful of its time and one of the first six civilizations to arise independently in the world. Its ancient ruins, such as those ofMemphis,Thebes,Karnak, and theValley of the KingsoutsideLuxor, are a significant focus of archaeological study and popular interest from around the world. Egypt's rich cultural legacy, as well as the attraction of itsRed Sea Riviera, have madetourisma vital part of the economy, employing about 12 percent of the country's workforce.Theeconomy of Egyptis one of the most diversified in the Middle East, with sectors such as tourism, agriculture, industry and services at almost equal production levels. Egypt is considered to be aregionalandmiddle power, with significant cultural, political, and military influence inNorth Africa, theMiddle Eastand theMuslim world.[11]Contents[hide] 1Names 2History 2.1Prehistory and Ancient Egypt 2.2Ptolemaic and Roman Egypt 2.3Middle Ages 2.4Egypt Eyalet 2.5Muhammad Ali dynasty 2.6Republic 2.72011-2013 Revolutions and coup coup d'tat 3Geography 3.1Climate 3.2Biodiversity 4Politics 4.1Law 4.2Military 4.3Human rights 4.4Foreign relations 5Administrative divisions 6Economy 6.1Tourism 6.2Transport 6.2.1Railway 6.2.2Metro 6.2.3Air Transport 6.2.4Suez Canal 7Demographics 7.1Languages 7.2Religion 7.3Largest cities 8Culture 8.1Arts 8.2Literature 8.3Popular culture 8.4Cinema in Egypt 8.5Music of Egypt 8.6Dance in Egypt 8.7Museums 8.8Festivals 8.9Cuisine 8.10Sports 9Telecommunication 9.1Cellular 9.2Smart Village 9.3Post 10Education 11Healthcare 11.1Health Insurance 11.257357 12See also 13Notes 14References 15External linksNamesThe English nameEgyptis derived from theancient GreekAgyptos(), viaMiddle FrenchEgypteandLatinAegyptus. It is reflected inearly GreekLinear Btablets asa-ku-pi-ti-yo. The adjectiveaigpti-, aigptioswas borrowed into Coptic asgyptios,and from there into Arabic asqub, back formed intoqub, whence EnglishCopt. The Greek forms were borrowed fromLate Egyptian(Amarna) Hikuptah"Memphis", a corruption of the earlierEgyptiannameHwt-ka-Ptah(wt-k-pt), meaning "home of theka(soul) of Ptah", the name of a temple to the godPtahatMemphis.[12]Straboattributed the word to afolk etymologyin whichAgyptos() evolved as a compound fromAigaiou huptis(A ), meaning "below theAegean".Mir(IPA:[mesr]) is theLiterary Arabicand modern official name of Egypt, whileMar(IPA:[ms]) is the common pronunciation inEgyptian Arabic. The name is ofSemiticorigin, directlycognatewith other Semitic words for Egypt such as theHebrew(Mitzryim), literally meaning "the two straits" (a reference to the dynastic separation of upper and lower Egypt).[citation needed]The word originally connoted "metropolis" or "civilization" and means "country", or "frontier-land".The ancient Egyptian name of the country waskm.t, which means "black land", referring to the fertile black soils of the Nile flood plains, distinct from thedeshret(dt), or "red land" of thedesert.[13]This name is commonly vocalized asKemet, but was probably pronounced[kumat]in ancient Egyptian.[14]The name is realized askmeandkmin theCopticstage of the Egyptian language, and appeared in early Greek as(Khma, which inmodern Greekmeanschemistry).[15]Another name wast-mry"land of the riverbank".[16]The names ofUpper and Lower EgyptwereTa-Sheme'aw(t-mw) "sedgeland" andTa-Mehew(t mw) "northland", respectively.HistoryMain article:History of EgyptPrehistory and Ancient EgyptMain articles:Prehistoric EgyptandAncient EgyptThere is evidence ofrock carvingsalong theNileterraces and in desert oases. In the10th millennium BC, a culture ofhunter-gatherersandfisherswas replaced by agrain-grindingculture. Climate changes or overgrazing around 8000 BC began to desiccate the pastoral lands of Egypt, forming theSahara. Earlytribal peoplesmigrated to the Nile River where they developed a settled agriculturaleconomyand more centralizedsociety.[17]By about 6000 BC, aNeolithicculture rooted in the Nile Valley.[18]During the Neolithic era, several predynastic cultures developed independently inUpper and Lower Egypt. TheBadarianculture and the successorNaqadaseries are generally regarded as precursors todynastic Egypt. The earliest known Lower Egyptian site, Merimda, predates the Badarian by about seven hundred years. Contemporaneous Lower Egyptian communities coexisted with their southern counterparts for more than two thousand years, remaining culturally distinct, but maintaining frequent contact through trade. The earliest known evidence ofEgyptian hieroglyphicinscriptions appeared during the predynastic period on Naqada III pottery vessels, dated to about 3200 BC.[19]

TheGreat Sphinxand thepyramids of Giza, built during theOld Kingdom.A unified kingdom was founded c. 3150 BC by KingMenes, leading to aseries of dynastiesthat ruled Egypt for the next three millennia.Egyptian cultureflourished during this long period and remained distinctively Egyptian in itsreligion,arts,languageand customs. Thefirst two ruling dynastiesof a unified Egypt set the stage for theOld Kingdomperiod,c. 27002200 BC., which constructed manypyramids, most notably theThird Dynastypyramid of Djoserand theFourth DynastyGiza pyramids.TheFirst Intermediate Periodushered in a time of political upheaval for about 150 years.[20]Stronger Nile floods and stabilization of government, however, brought back renewed prosperity for the country in theMiddle Kingdomc. 2040 BC, reaching a peak during the reign of PharaohAmenemhat III. Asecond period of disunityheralded the arrival of the first foreign ruling dynasty in Egypt, that of theSemiticHyksos. The Hyksos invaders took over much of Lower Egypt around 1650 BC and founded a new capital atAvaris. They were driven out by an Upper Egyptian force led byAhmose I, who founded theEighteenth Dynastyand relocated the capital fromMemphistoThebes.TheNew Kingdomc. 15501070 BC began with the Eighteenth Dynasty, marking the rise of Egypt as aninternational powerthat expanded during its greatest extension to an empire as far south asTombosinNubia, and included parts of theLevantin the east. This period is noted for some of the most well knownPharaohs, includingHatshepsut,Thutmose III,Akhenatenand his wifeNefertiti,TutankhamunandRamesses II. The first historically attested expression ofmonotheismcame during this period asAtenism. Frequent contacts with other nations brought new ideas to the New Kingdom. The country was later invaded and conquered byLibyans,NubiansandAssyrians, but native Egyptians eventually drove them out and regained control of their country.[21]TheThirtieth Dynastywas the last native ruling dynasty during the Pharaonic epoch. Itfell to the Persiansin 343 BC after the last native Pharaoh, KingNectanebo II, was defeated in battle.Ptolemaic and Roman Egypt

The Greek Ptolemaic queenCleopatra VIIand her son by Julius Caesar,Caesarionat theTemple of Dendera.Main articles:History of Ptolemaic EgyptandEgypt (Roman province)ThePtolemaic Kingdomwas a powerfulHellenisticstate, extending from southernSyriain the east, toCyreneto the west, and south to the frontier with Nubia.Alexandriabecame the capital city and a center ofGreekculture and trade. To gain recognition by the native Egyptian populace, they named themselves as the successors to the Pharaohs. The later Ptolemies took on Egyptian traditions, had themselves portrayed on public monuments in Egyptian style and dress, and participated in Egyptian religious life.[22][23]The last ruler from thePtolemaicline wasCleopatra VII, who committed suicide following the burial of her loverMark Antonywho had died in her arms (from a self-inflicted stab wound), afterOctavianhad captured Alexandria and her mercenary forces had fled. The Ptolemies faced rebellions of native Egyptians often caused by an unwanted regime and were involved in foreign and civil wars that led to the decline of the kingdom and its annexation by Rome. NeverthelessHellenistic culturecontinued to thrive in Egypt well after theMuslim conquest.Christianity was brought to Egypt bySaint Mark the Evangelistin the 1st century.[24]Diocletian's reign marked the transition from theRomanto theByzantineera in Egypt, when a great number of Egyptian Christians were persecuted. TheNew Testamenthad by then been translated into Egyptian. After theCouncil of Chalcedonin AD 451, a distinctEgyptian Coptic Churchwas firmly established.[25]Middle AgesMain article:Egypt in the Middle AgesThe Byzantines were able to regain control of the country after a briefPersianinvasion early in the 7th century, until 63942, when Egypt was invaded andconquered by the Islamic Empireby theMuslimArabs. When they defeated the Byzantine Armies in Egypt, the Arabs broughtSunni Islamto the country. Early in this period, Egyptians began to blend their new faith with indigenous beliefs and practices, leading to variousSufiorders that have flourished to this day.[24]These earlier rites had survived the period ofCoptic Christianity.[26]Muslim rulers nominated by theIslamic Caliphateremained incontrol of Egyptfor the next six centuries, withCairoas the seat of the Caliphate under theFatimids. With the end of theKurdishAyyubid dynasty, theMamluks, aTurco-Circassianmilitary caste, took control about AD 1250. By the late 13th century, Egypt linked the Red Sea, India, Malaya, and East Indies.[27]The mid-14th-centuryBlack Deathkilled about 40% of the country's population.[28]Egypt EyaletMain article:Egypt Eyalet

Napoleon defeated Mamluk troops in theBattle of the Pyramids, 21 July 1798, painted byLejeuneEgypt was conquered by theOttoman Turksin 1517, after which it became a province of theOttoman Empire. The defensive militarization damaged its civil society and economic institutions.[27]The weakening of the economic system combined with the effects of plague left Egypt vulnerable to foreign invasion. Portuguese traders took over their trade.[27]Between 1687 and 1731, Egypt experienced six famines.[29]The 1784faminecost it roughly one-sixth of its population.[30]Egypt was always a difficult province for the OttomanSultansto control, due in part to the continuing power and influence of theMamluks, the Egyptian military caste who had ruled the country for centuries. As such, Egypt remained semi-autonomous under the Mamluks until it was invaded by theFrenchforces ofNapoleon Iin 1798. After the French were expelled, power was seized in 1805 byMuhammad Ali Pasha, an Albanian military commander of the Ottoman army in Egypt.Egypt under the Muhammad Ali dynastyremained nominally an Ottoman province. It was granted the status of anautonomous vassal stateorKhedivatein 1867.Isma'ilandTewfik Pashagoverned Egypt as a quasi-independent state under Ottoman suzerainty until theBritish occupationof 1882. Nevertheless, theKhedivate of Egypt(18671914) remained ade jureOttoman province until 5 November 1914,[31]when it was declared aBritishprotectoratein reaction to the decision of theYoung Turksof the Ottoman Empire to join theFirst World Waron the side of theCentral Powers.Muhammad Ali dynastyMain articles:History of Ottoman EgyptandHistory of Egypt under the Muhammad Ali dynasty

Muhammad Ali Pashais founderMuhammad Ali dynastyand firstkhediveof the Egypt andSudan.After the French were defeated by the British, a power vacuum was created in Egypt, and a three-way power struggle ensued between theOttoman Turks, EgyptianMamlukswho had ruled Egypt for centuries, andAlbanian mercenariesin the service of the Ottomans. It ended in victory for the Albanians led byMuhammad Ali.While he carried the title ofviceroyof Egypt, his subordination to the Ottoman porte was merely nominal.[citation needed]Muhammad Ali established adynastythat was to rule Egypt until the revolution of 1952. In later years, the dynasty became a British puppet.[32]

Female nationalists demonstrating inCairo, 1919The introduction in 1820 of long-staplecottontransformed its agriculture into a cash-cropmonoculturebefore the end of the century, concentrating land ownership and shifting production towards international markets.[32]Muhammad Ali annexedNorthern Sudan(18201824),Syria(1833), and parts ofArabiaandAnatolia; but in 1841 the European powers, fearful lest he topple the Ottoman Empire itself, forced him to return most of his conquests to the Ottomans. His military ambition required him to modernize the country: he built industries, a system of canals for irrigation and transport, and reformed thecivil service.[32]Muhammad Ali Pasha evolved the military from one that convened under the tradition of thecorveto a great modernized army. He introduced conscription of the male peasantry in 19th century Egypt, and took a novel approach to create his great army, strengthening it with numbers and in skill. Education and training of the new soldiers was not an option; the new concepts were furthermore enforced by isolation. The men were held in barracks to avoid distraction of their growth as a military unit to be reckoned with. The resentment for the military way of life eventually faded from the men and a new ideology took hold, one of nationalism and pride. It was with the help of this newly reborn martial unit that Muhammad Ali imposed his rule over Egypt.[33]Muhammad Ali was succeeded briefly by his sonIbrahim(in September 1848), then by a grandsonAbbas I(in November 1848), then bySaid(in 1854), andIsma'il(in 1863).TheSuez Canal, built in partnership with the French, was completed in 1869. Its construction led to enormous debt to Europeanbanks, and caused popular discontent because of the oneroustaxationit required. In 1875 Ismail was forced to sell Egypt's share in the canal to the British Government. Within three years this led to the imposition of British and Frenchcontrollerswho sat in the Egyptian cabinet, and, "with the financial power of the bondholders behind them, were the real power in the Government."[34]

British infantry nearEl Alamein, 17 July 1942Local dissatisfaction with Ismail and with European intrusion led to the formation of the first nationalist groupings in 1879, withAhmad Urabia prominent figure. Fearing a reduction of their control, the UK and France intervened militarily, bombarding Alexandria and crushing the Egyptian army at thebattle of Tel el-Kebir.[35]They reinstalled Ismail's sonTewfikas figurehead of ade factoBritish protectorate.[36]In 1906, theDinshaway Incidentprompted many neutral Egyptians to join the nationalist movement.In 1914, the Protectorate was made official, and the title of the head of state was changed tosultan, to repudiate the vestigial suzerainty of the Ottoman sultan, who was backing theCentral powersinWorld War I.Abbas IIwas deposed as khedive and replaced by his uncle,Hussein Kamel, as sultan.[37]After the First World War,Saad Zaghluland theWafd Partyled the Egyptian nationalist movement to a majority at the localLegislative Assembly. When the British exiled Zaghlul and his associates toMaltaon 8 March 1919, the country arose in itsfirst modern revolution. The revolt led theUK governmentto issue aunilateral declaration of Egypt's independenceon 22 February 1922.[38]Thenew governmentdrafted and implemented aconstitutionin 1923 based on aparliamentarysystem. Saad Zaghlul was popularly elected asPrime Minister of Egyptin 1924. In 1936, theAnglo-Egyptian Treatywas concluded. Continued instability due to remaining British influence and increasing political involvement by the king led to the dissolution of the parliament in a militarycoup d'tatknown as the1952 Revolution. TheFree Officers Movementforced KingFaroukto abdicate in support of his sonFuad. British military presence in Egypt lasted until 1954.[39]RepublicMain article:History of the Republic of Egypt

Egyptian tanks advancing in the Sinai desert during theYom Kippur War, 1973Following the1952 Revolutionby theFree Officers Movement, the rule of Egypt passed to military hands. On 18 June 1953, theEgyptian Republicwas declared, with GeneralMuhammad Naguibas the first President of the Republic. Naguib was forced to resign in 1954 byGamal Abdel Nasser the real architect of the 1952 movement and was later put underhouse arrest. Nasser assumedpoweras President in June 1956. British forces completed their withdrawal from the occupied Suez Canal Zone on 13 June 1956. Henationalizedthe Suez Canal on 26 July 1956, prompting the 1956Suez Crisis.In 1958, Egypt and Syria formed a sovereign union known as theUnited Arab Republic. The union was short-lived, ending in 1961 whenSyriaseceded, thus ending the union. During most of its existence, the United Arab Republic was also in a looseconfederationwithNorth Yemen(formerly the Mutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen), known as theUnited Arab States. In 1959, theAll-Palestine Governmentof the Gaza Strip, an Egyptian client state, was absorbed intoUnited Arab Republicunder the pretext of Arab union, and was never restored.In early 1960s, Egypt became fully involved in theNorth Yemen Civil War. The Egyptian President, Gamal Abdel Nasser, supported the Yemeni republicans with as many as 70,000 Egyptian troops and chemical weapons. Despite several military moves and peace conferences, the war sank into a stalemate. Egyptian commitment in Yemen was greatly undermined, when in the 1967Six Day War, Israel invaded and occupied Egypt'sSinai Peninsulaand theGaza Strip, which Egypt hadoccupiedsince the1948 ArabIsraeli War. During the 1967 war, anEmergency Lawwas enacted, and remained in effect until 2012, with the exception of an 18-month break in 1980/81.[40]Under this law, police powers were extended, constitutional rights suspended and censorship is legalized.At the time of the fall of the Egyptian monarchy in the early 1950s, less than half a million Egyptians were considered upper class and rich, four million middle class and 17 million lower class and poor.[41]Fewer than half of all primary-school-age children attended school, and most of them being boys. Nasser's policies changed this. Land reform and distribution, the dramatic growth in university education, and government support to national industries greatly improved social mobility and flattened the social curve. From academic year 1953-54 through 1965-66, overall public school enrollments more than doubled. Millions of previously poor Egyptians, through education and jobs in the public sector, joined the middle class. Doctors, engineers, teachers, lawyers, journalists, constituted the bulk of the swelling middle class in Egypt under Nasser.[41]

Celebrating the signing of the Camp David Accords:Menachem Begin,Jimmy Carter,Anwar Al Sadat.In 1970, President Nasser died and was succeeded byAnwar Sadat. Sadat switched Egypt'sCold Warallegiance from the Soviet Union to the United States, expelling Soviet advisors in 1972. He launched theInfitaheconomic reform policy, while clamping down on religious and secular opposition. In 1973, Egypt, along with Syria, launched theOctober War, a surprise attack to regain part of the Sinai territory Israel had captured 6 years earlier. it presented Sadat with a victory that allowed him to regain the Sinai later in return for peace with Israel.[42]In 1975, Sadat shifted Nasser's economic policies and sought to use his popularity to reduce government regulations and encourage foreign investment through his program of Infitah. Through this policy, incentives such as reduced taxes and import tariffs attracted some investors, but investments however were mainly directed at low risk and profitable ventures like tourism and construction, abandoning Egypt's infant industries.[43]Even though Sadat's policy was intended to modernize Egypt and assist the middle class, it mainly benefited the higher class, and, because of the elimination of subsidies on basic foodstuffs, led to the1977 Egyptian Bread Riots.Sadat made a historic visit to Israel in 1977, which led to the 1979peace treatyin exchange for Israeli withdrawal from Sinai. Sadat's initiative sparked enormous controversy in theArab worldand led to Egypt's expulsion from theArab League, but it was supported by most Egyptians.[44]However, Sadat was assassinated by an Islamic extremist.Hosni Mubarakcame to power after the assassination of Sadat in a referendum in which he was the only candidate.[45]Hosni Mubarak reaffirmed Egypt's relationship with Israel yet eased the tensions with Egypt's Arab neighbors as well. Domestically, Mubarak faced many serious problems. Even though farm and industry output expanded, the economy could not keep pace with the population boom. Mass poverty and unemployment led rural families to stream into cities like Cairo where they ended up in crowded slums, barely managing to survive.In the 1980s, 1990s, and 2000s, terrorist attacks in Egypt became numerous and severe, and began to target ChristianCoptsand foreign tourists as well as government officials.[46]In the 1990s anIslamistgroup,Al-Gama'a al-Islamiyya, engaged in an extended campaign of violence, from the murders and attempted murders of prominent writers and intellectuals, to the repeated targeting of tourists and foreigners. Serious damage was done to the largest sector of Egypt's economytourism[47]and in turn to the government, but it also devastated the livelihoods of many of the people on whom the group depended for support.[48]During Mubarak's reign, the political scene was dominated by theNational Democratic Party, which was created by Sadat in 1978. It passed 1993 Syndicates Law, 1995 Press Law, and 1999 Nongovernmental Associations Law which hampered freedoms of association and expression by imposing new regulations and draconian penalties on violations. As a result, by the late 1990s parliamentary politics had become virtually irrelevant and alternative avenues for political expression were curtailed as well.[49]On 17 November 1997,62 people, mostly tourists, were massacrednearLuxor. In late February 2005, Mubarak announced a reform of the presidential election law, paving the way for multi-candidate polls for the first time since the1952 movement.[50]However, the new law placed restrictions on the candidates, and led to Mubarak's easy re-election victory.[51]Voter turnout was less than 25%.[52]Election observers also alleged government interference in the election process.[53]After the election, Mubarak imprisonedAyman Nour, the runner-up.[54]Human Rights Watch's 2006 report on Egypt detailed serious human rights violations, including routinetorture, arbitrary detentions and trials before military and state security courts.[55]In 2007,Amnesty Internationalreleased a report alleging that Egypt had become an international center for torture, where other nations send suspects for interrogation, often as part of theWar on Terror.[56]Egypt's foreign ministry quickly issued a rebuttal to this report.[57]Constitutional changes voted on 19 March 2007 prohibited parties from using religion as a basis for political activity, allowed the drafting of a new anti-terrorism law, authorized broad police powers of arrest and surveillance, and gave the president power to dissolve parliament and end judicial election monitoring.[58]In 2009, Dr.Ali El Deen Hilal Dessouki, Media Secretary of the National Democratic Party (NDP), described Egypt as a "pharaonic" political system, and democracy as a "long term goal". Dessouki also stated that "the real center of power in Egypt is the military".[59]2011-2013 Revolutions and coup coup d'tatMain articles:Egyptian Revolution of 2011,Egyptian Revolution of 2013, and2013 Egyptian coup d'tat

Celebrations inTahrir SquareafterOmar Suleiman's statement announcingHosni Mubarak's resignationOn 25 January 2011, widespread protests began against Mubarak's government. On 11 February 2011, Mubarak resigned and fled Cairo. Jubilant celebrations broke out in Cairo'sTahrir Squareat the news.[60]TheEgyptian militarythen assumed the power to govern.[61][62]Mohamed Hussein Tantawi, chairman of theSupreme Council of the Armed Forces, became thede factointerimhead of state.[63][64]On 13 February 2011, the military dissolved the parliament and suspended the constitution.[65]Aconstitutional referendumwas held on 19 March 2011. On 28 November 2011, Egypt held itsfirst parliamentary electionsince the previous regime had been in power. Turnout was high and there were no reports of major irregularities or violence.[66]Mohamed Morsiwas elected president on 24 June 2012.[67]On 2 August 2012, Egypt's Prime MinisterHisham Qandilannounced his 35 member cabinet comprising 28 newcomers including four from the Muslim Brotherhood.[68]Liberal and secular groups walked out of theconstituent assemblybecause they believed that it would impose strict Islamic practices, while Muslim Brotherhood backers threw their support behind Morsi.[69]On 22 November 2012, President Morsi issued a declaration immunizing his decrees from challenge and seeking to protect the work of the constituent assembly.[70]The move has led to massive protests and violent action throughout Egypt.[71]On 5 December 2012, tens of thousands of supporters and opponents of president Morsi clashed, in what was described as the largest violent battle between Islamists and their foes since the country's revolution.[72]Mohamed Morsi offered a "national dialogue" with opposition leaders but refused to cancel theDecember 2012 constitutional referendum.[73]On 30 June 2013,massive protestswere organized across Egypt againstMorsi's rule, leading to the ousting of Morsi by the military on 3 July 2013, where the military removed Morsi from power in acoup d'tatand installed an interim government.[74]On 4 July 2013, 68-year old Egyptian judgeAdly Mansourwas sworn in as acting president over the new government following the removal of Morsi.On 18 January 2014, the interim government institutionalised anew constitution. The constitution was supported by 98.1% by a voter turnout of only 38.6%.[75]GeographyMain article:Geography of Egypt

A branch of the Nile near AswanEgypt lies primarily between latitudes22and32N, and longitudes25and35E. At 1,001,450 square kilometers (386,660sqmi),[76]it is the world's 30th-largest country. Nevertheless, due to the aridity of Egypt's climate, population centres are concentrated along the narrow Nile Valley and Delta, meaning that about 99% of the population uses only about 5.5% of the total land area.[77]98% of Egyptians live on 3% of the territory.[78]Egypt is bordered by Libya to the west, the Sudan to the south, and the Gaza Strip and Israel to the east. Egypt's important role in geopolitics stems from its strategic position: atranscontinental nation, it possesses a land bridge (the Isthmus of Suez) between Africa and Asia, traversed by a navigable waterway (theSuez Canal) that connects the Mediterranean Sea with the Indian Ocean by way of the Red Sea.Apart from the Nile Valley, the majority of Egypt's landscape is desert, with a fewoasesscattered about. Winds create prolificsand dunesthat peak at more than 100 feet (30m) high. Egypt includes parts of theSahara Desertand of theLibyan Desert. These deserts protected the Kingdom of the Pharaohs from western threats and were referred to as the "red land" in ancient Egypt.Towns and cities includeAlexandria, the second largest city;Aswan;Asyut;Cairo, the modern Egyptian capital and largest city;El-Mahalla El-Kubra;Giza, the site of the Pyramid of Khufu;Hurghada;Luxor;Kom Ombo;Port Safaga;Port Said;Sharm el Sheikh;Suez, where the south end of the Suez Canal is located;Zagazig; andAl-Minya.OasesincludeBahariya,el Dakhla,Farafra,el KhargaandSiwa.Protectoratesinclude Ras Mohamed National Park, Zaranik Protectorate and Siwa.SeeEgyptian Protectoratesfor more information.Climate

Satellite image of EgyptMain article:Climate of EgyptMost of Egypt's rain falls in the winter months.[79]South of Cairo, rainfall averages only around 2 to 5mm (0.1 to 0.2in) per year and at intervals of many years. On a very thin strip of the northern coast the rainfall can be as high as 410mm (16.1in),[80]mostly between October and March.Snowfalls on Sinai's mountains and some of the north coastal cities such as Damietta, Baltim, Sidi Barrany, etc. and rarely in Alexandria. A very small amount of snow fell on Cairo on 13 December 2013, the first time Cairo received snowfall in many decades.[81]Frostis also known in mid-Sinai and mid-Egypt.Temperatures average between 80 and 90F (26.7 and 32.2C) in summer, and up to 109F (43C) on the Red Sea coast. Winter temperatures average between 55 and 70F (13 and 21C). A steady wind from the northwest helps lower temperatures near the Mediterranean coast. TheKhamaseenis a wind that blows from the south in spring, bringing sand and dust, and sometimes raises the temperature in the desert to more than 100F (38C).Prior to the construction of theAswan Dam, the Nile flooded annually (colloquiallyThe Gift of the Nile) replenishing Egypt's soil. This gave the country consistent harvest throughout the years.The potential rise in sea levels due toglobal warmingcould threaten Egypt's densely populated coastal strip and have grave consequences for the country's economy, agriculture and industry. Combined with growing demographic pressures, a significant rise in sea levels could turn millions of Egyptians intoenvironmental refugeesby the end of the 21st century, according to some climate experts.[82][83]

Coral reef in theRas Muhammadnational park near the southern coast of Sinai with many schooling colored fish in the scene.BiodiversityEgypt signed the RioConvention on Biological Diversityon 9 June 1992, and became a party to the convention on 2 June 1994.[84]It has subsequently produced aNational Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan, which was received by the convention on 31 July 1998.[85]Where manyCBDNational Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plansneglect biological kingdoms apart from animals and plants,[86]Egypt's plan was unusual in providing balanced information about all forms of life.The plan stated that the following numbers of species of different groups had been recorded from Egypt: algae (1483 species), animals (about 15,000 species of which more than 10,000 were insects), fungi (more than 627 species), monera (319 species), plants (2426 species), protozoans (371 species). For some major groups, for example lichen-forming fungi and nematode worms, the number was not known. Apart from small and well-studied groups like amphibians, birds, fish, mammals and reptiles, the many of those numbers are likely to increase as further species are recorded from Egypt. For the fungi, including lichen-forming species, for example, subsequent work has shown that over 2200 species have been recorded from Egypt, and the final figure of all fungi actually occurring in the country is expected to be much higher.[87]PoliticsMain article:Politics of Egypt

U.S. Secretary of StateJohn Kerrymeets with Egypt's first democratically elected president,Mohamed Morsi, on May 25, 2013.

Egyptian Foreign Minister Nabil Fahmy speaks with U.S. Secretary of State John Kerry at the outset of a meeting in Cairo, Egypt, on 3 November 2013.The Egyptian parliament is bicameral, consisting of theShura Council, elected for six-year terms, and theHouse of Representatives, whose members are elected to serve five-year terms.[88]Electionswere last held betweenNovember 2011 and January 2012; elections for the House of Representatives were to be held inearly 2013, but have been delayed; while election for the Shura Council are to be heldwithin one year.[88]In the latest elections to the Shura Council, theDemocratic Alliance for Egyptwon 105 seats, theAlliance for Egypt45 seats, theNew Wafd Party14, theEgyptian Bloc8, while other parties and independents held 8 seats. Presidential appointees held 9 seats.[88]In the House of Representatives, the Democratic Alliance of Egypt holds 235 seats, Alliance for Egypt 123, New Wafd Party 38, Egyptian Bloc 35,Al-Wasat10,Reform and Development Party9,The Revolution Continues Alliance8,National Party of Egypt5,Egyptian Citizen Party4,Freedom Party4, while other parties and independents held 27 seats. SCAF appointees held 10 seats.[88]On 24 June 2012, Egypt's election commission announced thatMuslim BrotherhoodcandidateMohammed Morsihad won Egypt's presidential runoff. Morsi won by a narrow margin overAhmed Shafiq, the last prime minister under deposed former presidentHosni Mubarak. The commission said Morsi took 51.7 percent of the vote versus 48.3 for Shafiq.[89]Morsi was sworn in Saturday 30 June 2012, as Egypt's firstdemocratically electedpresident.[90]On 3 July 2013 following millions of protesters demonstrated across Egypt againstMorsireported as one of the biggest protests in world history.[91]GeneralAbdul Fatah Al-Sisiannounced the removal of PresidentMorsifrom office and suspending the constitution for modification. 50-member constitution committee was formed for modifying the constitution which is expected to be published for public voting end of the year.[92]While thepresidential electionis expected to be held in the summer of 2014 in Egypt.In 2013, theFreedom Houseratedpolitical rightsin Egypt at "5" (with 1 representing the most free and 7 the least),civil libertiesas "5" which gave it the freedom rating of "Partly Free."[93]Egyptian nationalismpredates its Arab counterpart by many decades, having roots in the 19th century and becoming the dominant mode of expression of Egyptian anti-colonial activists and intellectuals until the early 20th century.[94]The ideology espoused byIslamistssuch as theMuslim Brotherhoodis mostly supported by the lower-middle strata of Egyptian society.[95]Egypt has the oldest continuous parliamentary tradition in the Arab world.[96]The first popular assembly was established in 1866. It was disbanded as a result of the British occupation of 1882, and the British allowed only a consultative body to sit. In 1923, however, after the country's independence was declared, a new constitution provided for a parliamentary monarchy.[96]LawMain article:Law of EgyptThe legal system is based onIslamicand civil law (particularlyNapoleonic codes); and judicial review by a Supreme Court, which accepts compulsoryInternational Court of Justicejurisdiction only with reservations.[39]Islamic jurisprudence is the principal source of legislation. Sharia courts and qadis are run and licensed by theMinistry of Justice.[97]The personal status law that regulates matters such as marriage, divorce and child custody is governed by Sharia. In a family court, a woman's testimony is worth half of a man's testimony.[98]On 26 December 2012, the Muslim Brotherhood attempted to institutionalise a controversial new constitution. It was approved by the public in areferendumheld 1522 December 2012 with 64% support, but with only 33% electorate participation.[99]It replaced the2011 Provisional Constitution of Egypt, adopted following the revolution.The Penal code was unique as it contains a "Blasphemy Law."[100]The present court system allows a death penalty including against an absent individualtriedin absentia. Several Americans and Canadians were sentenced to death in 2012.[101]On 18 January 2014, the interim government successfully institutionalised a moresecular constitutionsets up a president and parliament.[102]The president is elected to a four year term and may serve 2 terms.[102]The parliament may impeach the president.[102]Under the constitution, there is a guarantee of gender equality and absolutefreedom of thought.[102]The military retains the ability to appoint the national Minister of Defence for the next 8 years.[102]Under the constitution, political parties may not be based on "religion, race, gender or geography".[102]MilitaryMain article:Egyptian Armed Forces

Egyptian Air ForceF-16refueling duringOperation Bright StarTheEgyptian Armed forceshave a combined troop strength of around 450,000 active personnel.[103]According to the former chair of Israel's Knesset Foreign Affairs and Defense Committee,Yuval Steinitz, theEgyptian Air Forcehas roughly the same number of modern warplanes as theIsraeli Air Forceand far more Western tanks, artillery, anti-aircraft batteries and warships than theIDF.[104]Egypt is speculated by Israel to be the second country in the region with aspy satellite,EgyptSat 1.[105]The Egyptian military has dozens of factories manufacturing weapons as well as consumer goods. The Armed Forces' inventory includes equipment from different countries around the world. Equipment from the formerSoviet Unionis being progressively replaced by more modern U.S., French, and British equipment, a significant portion of which is built under license in Egypt, such as theM1 Abramstank.TheEgyptian Navyis the largest navy inAfricaandMiddle Eastand theArab World, and is the seventh largest in the world measured by the number of vessels.[106]The United States of America provides Egypt with annual military assistance, which in 2009 amounted to US$ 1.3 billion (inflation adjusted US$ 1.43 billion in 2014).[107]The military has a lot of influence in the political life of Egypt as well as the economy and it exempts itself from laws that apply to other sectors. It also enjoys considerable power, prestige and independence within the state and has been widely considered part of the Egyptian "deep state".[45][108]Human rightsMain article:Human rights in EgyptSee also:Sudanese refugees in EgyptandPersecution of CoptsTheEgyptian Organization for Human Rightsis one of the longest-standing bodies for the defence ofhuman rights in Egypt.[109]In 2003, the government established the National Council for Human Rights.[110]The council came under heavy criticism by local activists, who contend it was a propaganda tool for the government to excuse its own violations[111]and to give legitimacy to repressive laws such as the Emergency Law.[112]ThePew Forum on Religion & Public Liferanks Egypt as the fifth worst country in the world for religious freedom.[113][114]TheUnited States Commission on International Religious Freedom, a bipartisan independent agency of the U.S. government, has placed Egypt on its watch list of countries that require close monitoring due to the nature and extent of violations of religious freedom engaged in or tolerated by the government.[115]According to a 2010PewGlobal Attitudes survey, 84% of Egyptians polled supported thedeath penaltyfor those wholeave Islam; 77% supported whippings and cutting off of hands for theft and robbery; and 82% support stoning a person who commits adultery.[116]Coptic Christiansface discrimination at multiple levels of the government, ranging from disproportionate representation in government ministries to laws that limit their ability to build or repair churches.[117]Intolerance ofBah'sand non-orthodox Muslim sects, such asSufisandShi'a, also remains a problem.[55]When the government moved to computerize identification cards, members of religious minorities, such asBah's, could not obtainidentification documents.[118]An Egyptian court ruled in early 2008 that members of other faiths may obtain identity cards without listing their faiths, and without becoming officially recognized.[119]Clashes continue between military and supporters of former President Mohamed Morsi, at least595 civilians were killedin Cairo on 14 August 2013,[120]the worst mass killing in Egypts modern history.[121]Foreign relationsMain article:Foreign relations of EgyptThe permanentHeadquarters of the Arab Leagueare located in Cairo and the Secretary General of the Arab League has traditionally been Egyptian. Former Foreign Minister Nabil El-Arabi is the current group's Secretary General. The Arab League briefly moved from Egypt toTunisin 1978 to protest theEgypt-Israel Peace Treaty, returning in 1989.Egypt was the first Arab state to establish diplomatic relations with Israel, with the signing of the treaty. Despite the peace treaty, Israel is still largely considered an enemy country within Egypt.[122]Egypt has historically played an important role as a mediator in resolving disputes between various Arab states, and in theIsraeli-Palestinian dispute. Egypt is amajor allyof the United States.Former EgyptianDeputy Prime MinisterBoutros Boutros-Ghaliserved asSecretary-General of the United Nationsfrom 1991 to 1996.In the 21st century, Egypt has had a major problem with immigration, as millions of persons from other African nations flee poverty and war. Border control methods can be "harsh, sometimes lethal."[123]Administrative divisionsMain articles:Governorates of EgyptandRegions of Egypt

Governorates of EgyptEgypt is divided into 27 governorates. The governorates are further divided into regions. The regions contain towns and villages. Each governorate has a capital, sometimes carrying the same name as the governorate.1. Matrouh2. Alexandria3. Beheira4. Kafr el-Sheikh5. Dakahlia6. Damietta7. Port Said8. North Sinai9. Gharbia10. Monufia11. Qalyubia12. Al Sharqia13. Ismailia14. Giza15. Faiyum16. Cairo17. Suez18. South Sinai19. Beni Suef20. Minya21. New Valley22. Asyut23. Red Sea24. Sohag25. Qena26. Luxor27. Aswan

EconomyMain article:Economy of Egypt

Graphical depiction of Egypt's product exports in 28 color-coded categories.Egypt's economy depends mainly on agriculture, media, petroleum imports, natural gas, and tourism; there are also more than three million Egyptians working abroad, mainly inSaudi Arabia, thePersian Gulfand Europe. The completion of theAswan High Damin 1970 and the resultantLake Nasserhave altered the time-honored place of the Nile River in the agriculture and ecology of Egypt. A rapidly growing population, limitedarable land, and dependence on the Nile all continue to overtax resources and stress the economy.[124]The government has invested in communications and physical infrastructure. Egypt has receivedUnited States foreign aidsince 1979 (an average of $2.2 billion per year) and is the third-largest recipient of such funds from the United States following the Iraq war. Egypts economy mainly relies on these sources of income: tourism, remittances from Egyptians working abroad and revenues from the Suez Canal.[125]Egypt has a developed energy market based on coal, oil,natural gas, andhydro power. Substantial coal deposits in the northeast Sinai are mined at the rate of about 600,000metric tons(590,000long tons; 660,000short tons) per year. Oil and gas are produced in the western desert regions, theGulf of Suez, and the Nile Delta. Egypt has huge reserves of gas, estimated at 1,940 cubic kilometres (470cumi), andLNGup to 2012 exported to many countries. In 2013, the Egyptian General Petroleum Co (EGPC) said the country will cut exports of natural gas and tell major industries to slow output this summer to avoid an energy crisis and stave off political unrest, Reuters has reported. Egypt is counting on top liquid natural gas (LNG) exporter Qatar to obtain additional gas volumes in summer, while encouraging factories to plan their annual maintenance for those months of peak demand, said EGPC chairman, Tarek El Barkatawy. Egypt produces its own energy, but has been a net oil importer since 2008 and is rapidly becoming a net importer of natural gas.[126]

Egypt, Trends in theHuman Development Index1970-2010Economic conditions have started to improve considerably, after a period of stagnation, due to the adoption of more liberal economic policies by the government as well as increased revenues from tourism and a boomingstock market. In its annual report, theInternational Monetary Fund(IMF) has rated Egypt as one of the top countries in the world undertaking economic reforms.[127]Some major economic reforms undertaken by the government since 2003 include a dramatic slashing of customs and tariffs. A newtaxation lawimplemented in 2005 decreased corporate taxes from 40% to the current 20%, resulting in a stated 100% increase intax revenueby the year 2006.Foreign direct investment(FDI) in Egypt increased considerably before the removal of Hosni Mubarak, exceeding $6 billion in 2006, due toeconomic liberalizationandprivatizationmeasures taken by minister of investment Mahmoud Mohieddin.[citation needed]Since the fall of Hosni Mubarak in 2011, Egypt has experienced a drastic fall in both foreign investment and tourism revenues, followed by a 60% drop in foreign exchange reserves, a 3% drop in growth, and a rapid devaluation of the Egyptian pound.[128]Although one of the main obstacles still facing the Egyptian economy is the limited trickle down of wealth to the average population, many Egyptians criticize their government for higher prices of basic goods while theirstandards of livingor purchasing power remains relatively stagnant. Corruption is often cited by Egyptians as the main impediment to further economic growth.[129][130]The government promised major reconstruction of the country's infrastructure, using money paid for the newly acquired third mobile license ($3 billion) byEtisalatin 2006.[131]In theCorruption Perceptions Index2013, Egypt was ranked 114 out of 177.[132]

Container shipHanjin Kaohsiungtransiting theSuez CanalEgypt's most prominent multinational companies are theOrascom Groupand Raya Contact Center. The information technology (IT) sector has expanded rapidly in the past few years, with many start-ups selling outsourcing services to North America and Europe, operating with companies such as Microsoft, Oracle and other major corporations, as well as many small and medium size enterprises. Some of these companies are theXceed Contact Center, Raya, E Group Connections and C3. The IT sector has been stimulated by new Egyptian entrepreneurs with government encouragement.An estimated 2.7 million Egyptians abroad contribute actively to the development of their country throughremittances(US$ 7.8 billion in 2009), as well as circulation of human and social capital and investment.[133]Remittances, money earned by Egyptians living abroad and sent home, reached a record US$21 billion in 2012, according to the World Bank.[134]Egyptian society is moderately unequal in terms of income distribution, with an estimated 35 - 40% of Egypt's population earning less than the equivalent of $2 a day, while only around 23% may be considered wealthy.[135]TourismMain article:Tourism in Egypt

Al Muizz Street has the greatest concentration of medieval architectural treasures in the Islamic world

Pyramid of MenkaureTourism is one of the most important sectors in Egypt's economy. More than 12.8 million tourists visited Egypt in 2008, providing revenues of nearly $11 billion. The tourism sector employs about 12% of Egypt's workforce.[136]Tourism Minister Hisham Zaazou told industry professionals and reporters that tourism generated some $9.4 billion in 2012, a slight increase over the $9 billion seen in 2011.[137]

White Knight Bay,Sharm el SheikhTheGiza Necropolisis Egypt's most iconic site. It is also Egypt's most popular tourist destination since antiquity, and was popularized in Hellenistic times when the Great Pyramid was listed byAntipater of Sidonas one of theSeven Wonders of the World. Today it is the only one of those wonders still in existence.Egypt has a wide range of beaches situated on the Mediterreanean and the Red Sea that extend to over 3,000km. The Red Sea has serene waters, colored coral reefs, rare fish and beautiful mountains. The Akba Gulf beaches also provide facilities for practicing sea sports. Safaga tops the Red Sea zone with its beautiful location on the Suez Gulf. Last but not least,Sharm el-Sheikh(or City of Peace),Hurghada,Luxor(known as world's greatest open air museum/ or City of the 1/3 of world monuments),Dahab,Ras Sidr,Marsa Alam,Safagaand the northern coast of the Mediterranean are major tourists destinations of the recreational tourism.With a lot of touristic activities in Egypt it's considered a fun place for historical, religious, medical and entertainment tourism.TransportMain article:Transport in EgyptTransport in Egypt is centered in Cairo and largely follows the pattern of settlement along the Nile.RailwayMain article:Egyptian National RailwaysThe main line of the nation's 40,800-kilometer (25,400mi) railway network which is the second oldest railway network in the history runs from Alexandria to Aswan and is operated by Egyptian National Railways. The badly maintained vehicle road network has expanded rapidly to over 21,000 miles, consisting of 28 line, 796 stations, 1800 train covering the Nile Valley and Nile Delta, the Mediterranean and Red Sea coasts, the Sinai, and the Western oases.MetroMain article:Cairo Metro

The Cairo Metro (line 2)TheCairo Metroin Egypt is the first of only two full-fledged metro systems in Africa and the Arab World. It is considered one of the most important recent projects in Egypt which cost around 12 billion Egyptian pounds. The system consists of three operational lines with a fourth line expected in the future.Air TransportMain article:EgyptAirEgypt is considered one of the pioneer countries in using air transport having established its most important and main flag carrier airline of Egypt,EgyptAirin 1932, 100% owned by the Egyptian Government. The airline is based atCairo International Airport, its main hub, operating scheduled passenger and freight services to more than 75 destinations in theMiddle East,Europe,Africa,Asia, andthe Americas. The CurrentEgyptAirfleet includes 80 airplane.Suez CanalMain article:Suez Canal

Suez Canal BridgeThe Suez Canal is an artificial sea-level waterway in Egypt considered the most important center of the maritime transport in theMiddle East, connecting the Mediterranean Sea and the Red Sea. Opened in November 1869 after 10 years of construction work, it allows ship transport betweenEuropeandAsiawithout navigation aroundAfrica. The northern terminus is Port Said and the southern terminus is Port Tawfiq at the city of Suez. Ismailia lies on its west bank, 3km (1.9mi) from the half-way point. the canal is 193.30km (120.11mi) long, 24m (79ft) deep and 205 metres (673ft) wide as of 2010. It consists of the northern access channel of 22km (14mi), the canal itself of 162.25km (100.82mi) and the southern access channel of 9km (5.6mi). The canal is a single lane with passing places in the "Ballah By-Pass" and the Great Bitter Lake. It contains no locks; seawater flows freely through the canal. In general, the canal north of the Bitter Lakes flows north in winter and south in summer. The current south of the lakes changes with the tide at Suez.DemographicsMain articles:Demographics of EgyptandEgyptiansHistorical populations in thousands

YearPop.% p.a.

18826,712

18979,669+2.46%

190711,190+1.47%

191712,718+1.29%

192714,178+1.09%

193715,921+1.17%

194718,967+1.77%

196026,085+2.48%

196630,076+2.40%

197636,626+1.99%

198648,254+2.80%

199659,312+2.08%

200672,798+2.07%

201384,314+2.12%

Source: Population in Egypt[5]

Egypt population density (people per km2)Egypt is the most populated country in the Middle East, and the third most populous on theAfrican continent, with about 84 million inhabitants as of 2013.[4]Its population grew rapidly from 1970 to 2010 due tomedical advancesand increases in agricultural productivity[138]enabled by theGreen Revolution.[139]Egypt's population was estimated at only 3 million whenNapoleoninvaded the country in 1798.[140]Egypt's people are highly urbanized, being concentrated along the Nile (notably Cairo and Alexandria), in the Delta and near the Suez Canal. Egyptians are divided demographically into those who live in the major urban centers and thefellahin, or farmers, that reside in rural villages.Ethnic Egyptians are by far the largest ethnic group in the country, constituting 91% of the total population.[39]Ethnic minorities include theAbazas,Turks,Greeks,BedouinArab tribes living in the eastern deserts and theSinai Peninsula, theBerber-speakingSiwis(Amazigh) of theSiwa Oasis, and theNubiancommunities clustered along the Nile. There are also tribalBejacommunities concentrated in the south-eastern-most corner of the country, and a number ofDomclans mostly in the Nile Delta andFaiyumwho are progressively becoming assimilated as urbanization increases.According to theInternational Organization for Migration, an estimated 2.7 million Egyptians live abroad. Approximately 70% of Egyptian migrants live in Arab countries (923,600 inSaudi Arabia, 332,600 inLibya, 226,850 inJordan, 190,550 inKuwaitwith the rest elsewhere in the region) and the remaining 30% reside mostly in Europe and North America (318,000 in the United States, 110,000 in Canada and 90,000 in Italy).[133]Egypt also hosts an unknown number ofrefugeesand asylum seekers, estimated to be between 500,000 and 3 million.[141]There are some 70,000Palestinian refugees,[141]and about 150,000 recently arrivedIraqi refugees,[142]but the number of the largest group, theSudanese, is contested.[nb 1]The once-vibrant and ancientGreekandJewish communities in Egypthave almostdisappeared, with only a small number remaining in the country, but many EgyptianJewsvisit on religious or other occasions and tourism. Several important Jewish archaeological and historical sites are found in Cairo, Alexandria and other cities.Among the people of the ancient Near East, only the Egyptians have stayed where they were and remained what they were, although they have changed their language once and their religion twice. In a sense, they constitute the world's oldest nation. For most of their history, Egypt has been a state, but only in recent years has it been truly a nation-state, with a government claiming the allegiance of its subjects on the basis of a common identity.LanguagesMain article:Languages of EgyptTheofficial languageof the Republic isModern Standard Arabic.[9]Thespoken languagesare:Egyptian Arabic(68%),Sa'idi Arabic(29%),Eastern Egyptian Bedawi Arabic(1.6%),Sudanese Arabic(0.6%),Domari(0.3%),Nobiin(0.3%),Beja(0.1%),Siwiand others. Additionally,Greek,ArmenianandItalianare the main languages of immigrants. InAlexandriain the 19th century there was a large community ofItalian Egyptiansand Italian was the "lingua franca" of the city.The main foreign languages taught in schools, by order of popularity, areEnglish,French,Germanand Italian.HistoricalEgyptian languages, also known as Copto-Egyptian, consist of ancientEgyptianandCoptic, and form a separate branch among the family ofAfro-Asiatic languages. The "Koin" dialect of theGreek language, though not native to Egypt, was important inHellenisticAlexandria. It was used extensively in thephilosophyandscienceof that culture, later being the subject of study by Arab scholars.ReligionMain article:Religion in EgyptReligions in Egypt (Pew Research)[143][144]

ReligionsPercent

Muslim90%

Orthodox9%

Other1%

Mosque of Muhammad Aliwas built between 1828 and 1848 by Ottoman Egyptian wliMuhammad Ali Pashain memory of his sonTusun Pasha.Egypt is a predominantlySunniMuslim country withIslamas its state religion. The percentage of adherents of various religions is a controversial topic in Egypt. An estimated 90% are identified as Muslim, 9% asCoptic Christians, and 1% as other Christian denominations.[nb 2]Non-denominational Muslimsform roughly 12% of the populaion.[145]After Islam arrived in the 7th century, Egypt emerged as a center of politics and culture in theMuslim world. UnderAnwar Sadat, Islam became the officialstate religionandShariathe main source of law.[146]It is estimated that 15 million Egyptians follow nativeSufiorders,[147][148][149][pageneeded]with the Sufi leadership asserting that the numbers are much greater as many Egyptian Sufis are not officially registered with a Sufi order.[148]There is also a minority ofShi'a. TheJerusalem Center for Public Affairsestimates the Shia population at one to 2.2 million[150]and could measure as much as three million.[151]TheSalafi(ultra-conservative) population is estimated at five to six million.[152]Cairois famous for its numerousmosqueminaretsand has been dubbed "the city of 1,000 minarets".[153]

Church of The Virgin Mary, IsmailiaOf theChristian minority in Egyptover 90% belong to the native Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria, anOriental OrthodoxChristian Church.[154]Other native Egyptian Christians are adherents of theCoptic Catholic Church, theEvangelical Church of Egyptand various otherProtestantdenominations. Non-native Christian communities are largely found in the urban regions of Cairo and Alexandria, the largest formerly being the Christians ofSyro-Lebanese, or "Levantine", descent who belong toGreek Catholic,Greek Orthodox, andMaronite Catholicdenominations.[155]Syro-Lebanese Christians formerly had a much larger community in Egypt before the Nasser regime and the adoption of laws of nationalization. EthnicGreeksalso made up a largeGreek Orthodoxpopulation in the past. Likewise Armenians made up the then largerArmenian OrthodoxandCatholiccommunities, withItalian Egyptianslargely making up theRoman Catholiccommunity.Egypt hosts two major religious institutions, theCoptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria, established in the middle of the 1st century CE bySaint Mark the Evangelist, andAl-Azhar University, founded in 970 CE by theFatimidsas the first[dubiousdiscuss]Islamic University in the world.Egypt recognizes only three religions: Islam, Christianity, and Judaism. Other faiths practiced by Egyptians, such as the smallBah'community, are not recognized by the state, and Baha'is face persecution.[156]Individuals, particularly Baha'is and atheists, wishing to include such religions on their mandatory state issued identification cards are denied this ability (seeEgyptian identification card controversy), and are put in the position of either not obtaining required identification or lying about their faith. A 2008 court ruling allowed members of unrecognized faiths to obtain identification and leave the religion field blank.[118][119]Largest citiesSee also:List of cities in Egypt v t eLargest cities or towns ofEgyptworld-gazetteer Estimates for 2012

RankNameGovernoratePop.RankNameGovernoratePop.

Cairo

Alexandria1CairoCairo8,105,07111AsyutAsyut403,202Giza

Shubra El-Kheima

2AlexandriaAlexandria4,388,21912IsmailiaIsmailia352,411

3GizaGiza3,348,40113FaiyumFaiyum338,959

4Shubra El-KheimaQalyubia1,072,95114ZagazigAl Sharqia314,331

5Port SaidPort Said607,35315DamiettaDamietta299,296

6SuezSuez547,35216AswanAswan281,891

7LuxorLuxor487,89617MinyaMinya253,767

8MansouraDakahlia480,49418DamanhourBeheira252,017

9El-Mahalla El-KubraGharbia458,29719Beni SuefBeni Suef223,789

10TantaGharbia437,79320HurghadaRed Sea223,124

CultureMain article:Culture of Egypt

Al-Azhar Parkis listed as one of the world's sixty great public spaces by theProject for Public Spaces

Bibliotheca Alexandrinais a commemoration of the ancientLibrary of Alexandriain Egypt's second largest city.Egypt is a recognized cultural trend-setter of the Arabic-speaking world, and contemporary Arabic and Middle-Eastern culture is heavily influenced by Egyptian literature, music, film and television. Egypt gained a regional leadership role during the 1950s and 1960s, giving a further enduring boost to the standing of Egyptian culture in the Arab world.[157]Egyptian identity evolved in the span of a long period of occupation to accommodateIslam,Christianityand Judaism; and a new language,Arabic, and its spoken descendant,Egyptian Arabic.[158]The work of early 19th-century scholarRifa'a al-Tahtawirenewed interest inEgyptian antiquityand exposed Egyptian society toEnlightenmentprinciples. Tahtawi co-founded with education reformerAli Mubaraka nativeEgyptologyschool that looked for inspiration to medieval Egyptian scholars, such asSuyutiandMaqrizi, who themselves studied thehistory,languageandantiquitiesof Egypt.[159]Egypt's renaissance peaked in the late 19th and early 20th centuries through the work of people likeMuhammad Abduh,Ahmed Lutfi el-Sayed,Muhammad Loutfi Goumah,Tawfiq el-Hakim,Louis Awad,Qasim Amin,Salama Moussa,Taha HusseinandMahmoud Mokhtar. They forged aliberalpath for Egypt expressed as a commitment to personal freedom,secularismand faith in science to bring progress.[160]Arts

Weighing of the heart scene from theBook of the DeadThe Egyptians were one of the first major civilizations to codify design elements in art and architecture.Egyptian blue, also known as calcium copper silicate is a pigment used by Egyptians for thousands of years. It is considered to be the first synthetic pigment. The wall paintings done in the service of thePharaohsfollowed a rigid code of visual rules and meanings. Egyptian civilization is renowned for its colossalpyramids,templesand monumental tombs. Well-known examples are thePyramid of Djoserdesigned by ancient architect and engineerImhotep, theSphinx, and the temple ofAbu Simbel. Modern and contemporary Egyptian art can be as diverse as any works in the world art scene, from the vernacular architecture ofHassan FathyandRamses Wissa Wassef, toMahmoud Mokhtar's sculptures, to the distinctiveCoptic iconographyofIsaac Fanous. TheCairo Opera Houseserves as the main performing arts venue in the Egyptian capital.LiteratureMain article:Egyptian Literature

Naguib Mahfouzthe first Arabic-language writer to win theNobel Prizein Literature.Egyptian literaturetraces its beginnings toancient Egyptand is some of the earliest known literature. Indeed, the Egyptians were the first culture to develop literature as we know it today, that is, thebook.[161]It is an important cultural element in the life of Egypt. Egyptian novelists and poets were among the first to experiment with modern styles ofArabic literature, and the forms they developed have been widely imitated throughout the Middle East.[162]The first modern Egyptian novelZaynabbyMuhammad Husayn Haykalwas published in 1913 in theEgyptian vernacular.[163]Egyptian novelistNaguib Mahfouzwas the first Arabic-language writer to win theNobel Prize in Literature. Egyptian women writers includeNawal El Saadawi, well known for herfeministactivism, andAlifa Rifaatwho also writes about women and tradition.Vernacular poetry is perhaps the most popularliterary genreamong Egyptians, represented by the works ofAhmed Fouad Negm(Fagumi),Salah JaheenandAbdel Rahman el-Abnudi.Popular cultureEgypt's media industry has flourished, today with more than thirty satellite channels and over one hundred motion pictures produced each year.Egyptian mediaare highly influential throughout theArab World, attributed to large audiences and increasing freedom from government control.[164][165]Freedom of the media is guaranteed in the constitution; however, many laws still restrict this right.[164][166]Cinema in Egypt

Omar Sharifis considered the most famous actor in Egypt starring inHollywoodand winning twoGolden Globe AwardsEgyptian cinemabecame a regional force with the coming of sound. In 1936,Studio Misr, financed by industrialistTalaat Harb, emerged as the leading Egyptian studios, a role the company retained for three decades.[167]For more than 100 year, more than 4000 films have been produced in Egypt, three quarters of the total Arab production.[citation needed]Egypt in considered the leading country in the field of cinema in theMiddle East. Actors from all over theArab Worldseeks for appearing in the Egyptian Cinema for the sake of fame. TheCairo International Film Festivalhas been rated as one of 11 festivals with a top class rating worldwide by the International Federation of Film Producers' Associations.[168]Music of EgyptMain article:Music of Egypt

Umm Kulthumis widely regarded as the greatest female Arabic singer in history.Egyptian musicis a rich mixture of indigenous, Mediterranean, African and Western elements. It has been an integral part ofEgyptian culturesince antiquity. The ancientEgyptianscredited one of their godsHathorwith the invention ofmusic, whichOsirisin turn used as part of his effort to civilize the world. Egyptians used music instruments since then.[169]Contemporary Egyptian music traces its beginnings to the creative work of people such asAbdu-l Hamuli, Almaz andMahmud Osman, who influenced the later work ofSayed Darwish,Umm Kulthum,Mohammed Abdel WahabandAbdel Halim Hafezwhose age is considered the golden age of music in Egypt. Prominent contemporary Egyptian pop singers includeAmr DiabandMohamed Mounir.Dance in EgyptToday, Egypt is often considered the home ofbelly dance. Egyptianbelly dancehas two main styles -raqs baladiandraqs sharqi. There are also numerous folkloric and character dances that may be part of an Egyptian-style belly dancer's repertoire, as well as the modern shaabi street dance which shares some elements withraqs baladi.Samia Gamalwas the most famous dancer in Egypt.MuseumsMain article:List of museums in Egypt

The Egyptian MuseumEgypt has one of the oldest civilizations in the world. Thus, it has been in contact with many other civilizations and nations and also has been through so many eras, starting from pre-historic age to the modern age, passing through so many ages such as; Pharonic, Roman, Greek, Islamic and many other ages. Because of this wide variation of ages, the continuous contact with other nations andthe big number of conflictsEgypt had been through, at least 60 museums may be found in Egypt, mainly covering a wide area of these ages and conflicts.

Tutankhamun's burial mask isThe Egyptian Museum's major attractionThe Three main museums in Egypt are;The Egyptian Museumwhich has more than 120,000 items, theEgyptian National Military Museumand the6th of October Panorama.The Grand Egyptian Museum (GEM), also known as the Giza Museum, is a planned museum of artifacts of ancient Egypt. Described as the largest archaeological museum in the world,[170]the museum is scheduled to open in 2015. The museum will be sited on 50 hectares (120 acres) of land approximately two kilometers from the Giza Necropolis and is part of a new master plan for the plateau.FestivalsEgypt celebrates many festivals and religious carnivals, also known asmulid. They are usually associated with a particular Coptic or Sufi saint, but are often celebrated by Egyptians irrespective of creed or religion.Ramadanhas a special flavor in Egypt, celebrated with sounds, lights (local lanterns known asfawanees) and much flare that many Muslim tourists from the region flock to Egypt to witness during Ramadan.The ancient spring festival ofSham en Nisim(Coptic:shom en nisim) has been celebrated by Egyptians for thousands of years, typically between theEgyptian monthsofParemoude(April) andPashons(May), followingEasterSunday.CuisineMain article:Egyptian cuisine

Kushari, one of Egypt's national dishes.Egyptian cuisine is notably conducive to vegetarian diets, as it relies heavily on vegetable dishes. Though food in Alexandria and the coast of Egypt tends to use a great deal of fish and other seafood, for the most part Egyptian cuisine is based on foods that grow out of the ground. Meat has been very expensive for most Egyptians throughout history, so a great number of vegetarian dishes have been developed.Some considerkoshari(a mixture of rice, lentils, and macaroni) to be thenational dish. Fried onions can be also added to koshari. In addition,ful medames(mashed fava beans) is one of the most popular dishes. Fava bean is also used in makingfalafel(also known as "ta'meyya"), which may have originated in Egypt and spread to other parts of the Middle East. Garlic fried with coriander is added tomulukhiyya, a popular green soup made from finely chopped jute leaves, sometimes with chicken or rabbit.Sports

Crowd in Cairo StadiumFootballis the most popularNational Sportof Egypt. TheCairo Derbyis one of the fiercest derbies in Africa, and the BBC picked it as one of the 7 toughest derbies in the world.[171]Al Ahlyis the most successful club of the 20th century in the African continent according to CAF, closely followed by their rivalsZamalek SC.Al Ahlywas named in 2000 by theConfederation of African Footballas the "African Club of the Century". Al Ahly is currently the most successful club in terms of international titles won together Boca Juniors and A.C Milan (18).TheEgyptian national football teamwon theAfrican Cup of Nationsseven times, including three times in a row in 2006, 2008, and 2010. considered the most successful African national team, Egypt has only qualified to theFIFA World Cuptwo times only though.

Ramy AshourWorld N.1Squashplayer in 2010Squashandtennisare other popular sports in Egypt. The Egyptian squash team has been known for its fierce competition in international championships since the 1930s.Amr ShabanaandRamy Ashourare Egypt's best players.Among all African nations, theEgypt national basketball teamholds the record for best performance at theBasketball World Cupand at theSummer Olympics.[172][173]Further, the team has won a record number of 16 medals at theAfrican Championship.In the 34 times theAfrican Men's Handball Championshiphas been held, Egypt has won first place five times (including 2008), five times second place, and four times third place.Egypt has taken partin theSummer Olympic Gamessince 1912.Egypt has hosted several international competitions. the last one was2009 FIFA U-20 World Cupwhich took place between 24 September - 16 October 2009.TelecommunicationMain article:Telecommunications in EgyptThe wired and wireless telecommunication industry in Egypt has started in 1854 with the first telegram line connectingCairo&Alexandrialaunching. while the first telephone line between the two cities was installed in 1881.[174]In September 1999 a national project for technology renaissance was announced which reflects the interest the Egyptian government gave for necessity of developing the information technology industry in Egypt then.CellularCellularGSMservices were first launched in Egypt in 1996.[174]Egypt has 3 companies offering cellular services; Mobinilowned byGlobal Telecom HoldingandOrange S.A.. Vodafone Egyptowned byVodafoneandTelecom Egypt. Etisalatowned byEmirates Telecommunication Corporation.Smart VillageMain article:Smart Village Egypt

Smart Village EgyptSmart Villages development and Management Company was founded in November 2001 as a Public-Private-Partnership investment with a mandate to establish and manage a branded chain of Technology cluster and Business parks as well as variety of other products and services . It specialize in the establishment and management of communities through innovative thought and practical work. Our multipurpose ecosystems are built on quality, collaboration and trust to the satisfaction of all stakeholders.PostMain article:Egypt PostEgypt Post which was established in 1865 is one of the oldest institutions in Egypt, Egypt is considered one of the countries that contributed in establishing theUniversal Postal Unionalong with another 21 country named initially under the name "General Postal Union", as a result of theTreaty of Bernsigned on 9 October 1874. Egypt also contributed in establishing The Arab Postal Union and The African Postal Union.Egypt Post's clients overtook the number of 15 million. Egypt Post is an economic organization contributes directly in achieving the country's plan for of achieving the development in this field.EducationMain article:Education in Egypt

Cairo UniversityThe adult literacy rate in 2010 was estimated at 72.0%.[175]A European-style education system was first introduced in Egypt by the Ottomans in the early 19th century in order to nurture a class of loyal bureaucrats and army officers.[176]Under British occupation investment in education was curbed drastically, and secular public schools, which had previously been free, began to charge fees.[176]In the 1950s, president Nasser phased in free education for all Egyptians.[176]The Egyptian curriculum influenced other Arab education systems, which often employed Egyptian-trained teachers.[176]Demand soon outstripped the level of available state resources, causing the quality of public education to deteriorate.[176]Today this trend has culminated in poor teacherstudent ratios (often around one to fifty) and persistent gender inequality.[176]Basic education, which includes six years of primary and three years of preparatory school, is a right for Egyptian children from the age of six.[177]After grade 9, students are tracked into one of two strands of secondary education: general or technical schools. General secondary education prepares students for further education, and graduates of this track normally join higher education institutes based on the results of theThanaweya Amma, the leaving exam.[177]Technical secondary education has two strands, one lasting three years and a more advanced education lasting five. Graduates of these schools may have access to higher education based on their results on the final exam, but this is generally uncommon.[177]According to theWebometrics Ranking of World Universities, the top-ranking universities in Egypt areCairo University(1203rd worldwide),American University in Cairo(1306th) andMansoura University(1712th).[178]QS World University Rankingsfor 2013 top-ranking universities in Egypt are American University in Cairo (348 worldwide), Cairo University (551-600) andAin Shams University(601-650).[179]HealthcareMain article:Health in EgyptIn 2010, spending on healthcare accounted for 4.66% of the country's GDP. In 2009, there were 16.04 physicians and 33.80 nurses per 10,000 inhabitants.[180]The life expectancy at birth was 73.20 years in 2011, or 71.30 years for males and 75.20 years for females. Egypt spends 3.7 percent of its gross domestic product on health including treatment costs 22 percent incurred by citizens and the rest by the state.[181]According to theWorld Health Organizationin 2008, an estimated 91.1% of Egypt's girls and women aged 15 to 49 have been subjected togenital mutilation.[182]Health InsuranceThe state is keen on extending health insurance coverage to include non-insured new categories. The total number of the insured beneficiaries reached 37.300 million, of which about 27.92 million under laws and a number of 11.208 million insured child under ministerial decrees, showing an insurance coverage of about 51.6 percent of Egypts population.[183]5735757357 Hospital, located inCairo, is one of the biggest hospitals specialized in children's cancer in the world. Fundraising for the hospital, including well-attended benefit festivals, started in 1998, with a target date for opening of December 2003. The Hospital is completely free and paying is not an option.The CCHE 57357 is awarded the World Health Organizations UAE Health Foundation 2008.See alsoEgypt portal

Middle East portal

Index of Egypt-related articles Outline of ancient Egypt Outline of EgyptNotes1. Jump up^SeeThe U.S. Committee for Refugees and Immigrantsfor a lower estimate. The"The Egyptian Organization for Human Rights". Archived fromthe originalon 30 December 2007.states on its web site that in 2000 theWorld Council of Churchesclaimed that "between two and five million Sudanese have come to Egypt in recent years". MostSudanese refugeescome to Egypt in the hope of resettling in Europe or the US.2. Jump up^The population of Egypt is estimated as being 90% Muslim, 9% Coptic Christian and 1% other Christian by the US Department of State ("Background Note: Egypt". US Department of State. 2010-11-10. Retrieved 2011-03-05.); the CIA World Factbook ("Egypt". CIA. 2008-09-04.) and the United Kingdom's Foreign and Commonwealth Office ("Egypt". Foreign and Commonwealth Office. 2008-08-15.). Microsoft Encarta Online similarly estimates the Sunni population at 90% of the total. (Egypt. Microsoft Encarta Online. 2008-09-30. Archived fromthe originalon 2009-10-21.). The Pew Forum on Religion and Public Life gave a higher estimate of the Muslim population at 94.6% ("Mapping The Global Muslim Population"(PDF). Pew Forum on Religion and Public Life. p.8. Retrieved 25 July 2011.)

Theeconomy ofEgyptwas highly centralized under PresidentGamal Abdel Nasser. In the 1990s, a series ofInternational Monetary Fundarrangements, coupled with massive external debt relief resulting from Egypt's participation in theGulf Warcoalition, helped Egypt improve its macroeconomic performance. Since 2000, the pace of structural reforms, including fiscal, monetary policies, privatization and new business legislations, helped Egypt move towards a moremarket-oriented economyand prompted increased foreign investment. The reforms and policies have strengthened macroeconomic annual growth results which averaged 5% annually but the government largely failed to equitably share the wealth and the benefits of growth have failed to trickle down to improve economic conditions for the broader population, especially with the growing problem of unemployment and underemployment among youth under the age of 30 years. A youth protest demanding more political freedoms, fighting corruption and delivering improved living standards forced President Mubarak to step down on 11 February 2011. After the revolution Egypts foreign exchange reserves fell from $36 billion in December 2010 to only $16.3 billion in January 2012, also in February 2012 Standard & Poors rating agency lowered the Egypts credit rating from B+ to B in the long term.[10]In 2013, S&P lowered Egypts long-term credit rating from B- to CCC+, and its short-term rating from B to C on worries about the countrys ability to meet its financial targets and maintain social peace more than two years after President Hosni Mubarak was overthrown in an uprising, ushering in a new era.[11]Contents[hide] 1Macroeconomic trend 2Reform era 2.1External trade and remittances 2.2Public finances 2.3Opportunity cost of conflict 2.4The financial sector 2.4.1Monetary policy 2.4.2Exchange rate policy 3Natural resources 3.1Land, agriculture and crops 3.2Water resources 3.3Mineral and energy resources 4Main economic sectors 4.1Agricultural sector 4.2Industrial sector 4.2.1Automobiles manufacturing 4.2.2Chemicals 4.2.3Consumer electronics and home appliances 4.2.4Steel industries 4.2.5Textiles and clothing 4.3Construction and contracting sector 4.4Services sector 4.4.1Banking & insurance 4.4.2Communications 4.4.3Transport 4.4.4Tourism sector 5Emerging sectors 5.1ICT sector 6Largest companies 7Investment 7.1Investment climate 8Response to the global financial crisis 9Poverty and income distribution 10Causes of poverty 10.1High population growth 10.2High unemployment 10.3Ineffective policies 11Statistics 12Notes 13See also 14References 15External linksMacroeconomic trend[edit]Egypt has a stable economy enjoying continuous growth, averaging 4%5% in the past quarter-century. The economy embarked on various stages of development during which the public and private sectors played roles varying in relative importance as follows: The First Republic: 1952-2012, Import and nationalization, 19521966, during which the first program of industrialization in 1957 was established and led by the public sector in heavy industries such as iron and steel and chemical industries. Nationalization reduced the relative importance of the private sector. Inter-War, 19671973, adversely affected the performance of the economy and public sector role in import substitution. Openness Euphoria, 19741982 during which policies were introduced to encourage Arab and foreign investment through a series of incentives and liberalizing trade and payment; the economy expanded but this proved unsustainable and growth consequently scaled back. External Debt Crisis, 19821990, the external debt crisis andParis Clubre-scheduling and debt reduction. Economic Reform, 19912007, reform policies were introduced to meet the terms of international institutions, lenders and donors, including wider incentives to the role of the private sector in all economic activities. The Post Global Financial Crisis, 2008-2011, soaring food prices, especially for grains, led to calls for the government to provide more immediate assistance to the population of more than 40% in the "poverty tunnel" and to strike a "new deal" on agriculture policy and reform. Egypt faced the long term supply- and demand-side repercussions of the global financial crisis on the national economy. Egypt's gains from annual growth rates benefited the rich and failed to trickle down and reduce the poverty which increased to about 50% in 2011 leading to socioeconomic political instability and popularrevolutionon 25 January 2011. The Second Republic: 2012 - Present, Egypt need to strengthen the economy to exogenous shocks, improve productivity, competition, get out of the "informality trap," invest in human capital via social protection from a human right-based approach to correct for market failures and build good trust in governance. The biggest questions for the new president-elect and new government are how to address corruption at the level of the bureaucracy, citizens and parties; how to address the expectations of the Egyptian people; how to bring people from different backgrounds and different voices to support social accountability during economic and political transition to an active developmental state.Egyptian economy is still suffering from a severe downturn following the2011 revolutionand the government faces numerous challenges as to how to restore growth, market and investor confidence. Political and institutional uncertainty, a perception of rising insecurity and sporadic unrest continue to negatively affect economic growth.[12]Reform era[edit]

Under comprehensive economic reforms initiated in 1991, Egypt has relaxed manyprice controls, reduced subsidies, reduced inflation, cut taxes, and partially liberalized trade andinvestment.Manufacturinghad become less dominated by thepublic sector, especially in heavy industries. A process of public sector reform and privatization has begun to enhance opportunities for theprivate sector.Agriculture, mainly in private hands, has been largely deregulated, with the exception of cotton and sugar production. Construction, non-financial services, and domestic wholesale and retail trades are largely private. This has promoted a steady increase ofGDPand the annualgrowth rate. The Government of Egypt tamed inflation bringing it down from double-digit to a single digit. Currently, GDP is rising smartly by 7% per annum due to successful diversification.Gross domestic product (GDP) per capita based on purchasing-power-parity (PPP) increased fourfold between 1981 and 2006, from US$ 1355 in 1981, to US$ 2525 in 1991, to US$ 3686 in 2001 and to an estimated US$ 4535 in 2006. Based on national currency, GDP per capita at constant 1999 prices increased from EGP 411 in 1981, to EGP 2098 in 1991, to EGP 5493 in 2001 and to EGP 8708 in 2006. Based on the current US$ prices, GDP per capita increased from US$ 587 in 1981, to US$ 869 in 1991, to US$ 1461 in 2001 and to an estimated US$ 1518 (which translates to less than US$ 130 per month) in 2006. According to theWorld BankCountry Classification, Egypt has been promoted from the low income category to lower middle income category. As of 2013, the average weekly salaries in Egypt reached LE641 (approx. $92), which grew by 20% from the previous year[13]Indicator[14]19811991200120052006

GDP (PPP) per capita, (US$)1,354.812,524.993,685.984,316.594,534.82

GDP per capita at constant prices, (EGP)3,121.854,075.475,138.365,519.095,692.24

GDP per capita at current prices, (EGP)411.202,098.715,493.287,890.658,707.88

GDP per capita at current prices, (US$)587.42869.301,460.981,315.751,517.85

The reform programme is a work in progress. Noteworthy that the reform record has substantially improved since Nazif government came to power. Egypt has made substantial progress in developing its legal, tax and investment infrastructure. (See Nawar 2006) Indeed, over the past five years, Egypt has passed, amended and admitted over 15 legislative pieces. The economy is expected to grow by about 4% to 6% in 2009/2010.Surging domestic inflationary pressures from both economic growth and elevated international food prices led theCentral Bank of Egyptto increase the overnight lending and deposit rates in sequential moves since February 2008. The rates stood at 11.5% and 13.5%, respectively, since 18 September 2008.The rise of theWorld Global Financial Crisisled to a set of fiscal-monetary policy measures to face its repercussions on the national economy, including reducing the overnight lending and deposit rates by 1% on 12 February 2009. The rates currently stand at 10.5% and 12.5%, respectively.[15]Reform of energy and food subsidies, privatization of the state-ownedBank of Cairo, andinflation targetingare perhaps the most controversial economic issues in 2007/2008 and 2008/2009.External trade and remittances[edit]

Egyptian exports in 2006Egypt's trade balance marked US$10.36 billion in FY2005 compared to US$7.5 billion. Egypt's main exports consist of natural gas, and non-petroleum products such as ready-made clothes, cotton textiles, medical and petrochemical products, citrus fruits, rice and dried onion, and more recently cement, steel, and ceramics. Egypt's main imports consist of pharmaceuticals and non-petroleum products such as wheat, maize, cars and car spare parts. The current account grew from 0.7% of GDP in FY2002 to 3.3% at FY2005. Egypt's Current Account made a surplus of US$4478 million in FY2005 compared to a deficit of US$158 million in FY2004. Italy and the USA are the top export markets for Egyptian goods and services. In theArab world, Egypt has the largest non-oil GDP as of 2005.According to theInternational Organization for Migration, an estimated 2.7 million Egyptians abroad contribute actively to the development of their country throughremittanceinflows, circulation of human and social capital, as well as investment. In 2009Egyptwas the biggest recipient of remittances in theMiddle East; an estimated US$ 7.8 bn was received in 2009, representing approximately 5% of national GDP, with a decline of 10% from 2008, due mostly to the effect of the financial crisis. According to data from Egypt's Central Bank, theUnited Stateswas the top sending country of remittances (23%), followed byKuwait(15%), theUnited Arab Emirates(14%) andSaudi Arabia(9%).[16]Public finances[edit]On the revenues side, total revenues of the government were EGP 89.1 billion in FY2002 and are projected to reach EGP184.7 bn in FY2008. Much of the increase came from a rise in tax revenues, particularly personal income and corporate taxes which constituted the bulk of total domestic taxes, due to recent tax reforms. This trend is likely to gradually widen the tax base in the forthcoming years. Revenues, however, have remained more or less constant (about 21% ) as a percentage of the GDP over the past few years.On the expenditures side, strong expenditure growth has remained a main feature of the budget. This is mainly a result of continued strong expansion of (1) the public-sector wages driven by government pledges. Wages and Compensations increased from EGP30.5 bn in FY2002 to EGP59.6 bn in FY2008; (2) high interest payments on the public debt stock. Interest payments rose from EGP21.8 bn in FY2002 to EGP52.0 bn in FY2008. Importantly, dramatic increase in domestic debt which is projected to be roughly 62% of GDP in FY2008 up from 58.4% in FY2002; and (3) the costs of food and energy subsidies, which rose from EGP18.0 bn in FY2002 to EGP64.5 bn in FY2008.The overall deficit, after adjusting for net acquisition of financial assets, remains almost unchanged from the cash deficit. The budget's overall deficit of EGP 43.8 bn or -10.2% of GDP for FY2002 has become 49.2 bn in FY2007, so that is narrowed to -6.7% of GDP. Deficit is financed largely by domestic borrowing and revenue from privatization sales, which became a standard accounting practice in budget Egypt. The government aims at more sales of assets in FY2008.Recently, the fiscal conduct of the government was under strong criticism and heated debate and discussions in the Egyptian Parliament. In particular, reference was made to weak governance and management, loose implementation of tax collec