mahperd journal

m a h p e r d j o u r n a l

Vo l u m e 2 , I s s u e 0 1

the official journal of the mississippi association of health, physical education, recreation & dance

e d i t o r i a l b oa r d

john alvarez

brandi shappley

kathy tucker

shane mcneil

r e v i e w b oa r d

matt dalrymple

mary ann simpkins

mary l. jones

deborah myers

jerry mayo

bette miller

don rockey

brandi childers

pickett

cheri anglin

tamika bradley

rose hickey

p h o t o g r a p h y

todd davis

3

Please send correspondence to:

Lindsey C. Blom

School of Physical Education,Sport, and Exercise Science

Ball State University

[email protected] | 765.285.5130Muncie, IN 47306

Lindsey C. Blom, EdDBall State University

Tammy BrantSelma Middle School

John Alvarez , Ph.DDelta State University

Geoffrey Hudson, PhDThe George Washington University

Lei Zhang, PhD,MBAMississippi State Department of Health

Jerome R. Kolbo, PhDThe University of Southern Missisippi

i n c r e a s i n g F i t n e s s t o i m p r ov e

ac a d e m i c p e r F o r m a n c e :

i m p l i c at i o n s F o r

p h y s i c a l e d u c at i o n

p r o F e s s i o n a l s

IncreasIng FItness to Improve academIc perFormance4

efforts to make decisions about

physical education programs,

researchers have attempted to explore

the influence of physical education on

academic performance (Trost & van der

Mars, 2009). Recent research indicates

that fitness levels may actually be

the crucial component to successful

physical education classes regarding

the link to academic achievement (e.g.,

Blom et al., 2011; Chomitz et al., 2009;

Hudson et al., unpublished). Therefore, the

purpose of this article is to summarize the

recent research on this link and discuss

the implications for physical education

professionals. With the research regarding

the positive effects of physical fitness,

policy makers should realize the importance

that physical education plays

in educating the whole student.


INCReasINg FITNess To IMpRove aCadeMIC peRFoRMaNCe: IMpLICaTIoNs FoR pHysICaL eduCaTIoN pRoFessIoNaLs

In efforts to support or refute the decisions to cut physical education (pe) programs

in elementary and secondary schools, researchers have attempted to explore the

influence of physical education and fitness on academic performance (Trost & van der

Mars, 2009). While the results have shown that physical education is not harmful to

academic performance (e.g. dwyer, sallis, Blizzard, Lazarus, & dean, 1983; Hervet, 1952;

sallis et al., 1999), findings are inconclusive as to whether it is actually helpful (e.g., Coe,

pivarnik, Womack, Reeves, & Malina 2006; stevens, To, stevenson, & Lochbaum, 2008).

However, more recent research indicates that fitness levels may actually be the crucial

component to successful physical education classes regarding the link to academic

achievement. Therefore, the purpose of this article is to summarize the recent research

on the link between physical education and fitness with academic success and discuss the

implications for physical education professionals.

ReseaRCH oN THe FITNess-aCadeMIC aCHIeveMeNT ReLaTIoNsHIp

When comparing the physical education enrollment and out-of-school physcal activity,

one study found that 6th graders’ academic achievement was not significantly related to

pe, but it was to time spent in vigorous activity (Coe et al., 2006). similar findings were

identified in other studies with elementary aged (stevens et al., 2008) and middle school

children (dwyer et al., 2001), but researchers did not specifically examine intensity levels

of physical activity.

While the previous studies found significant relationships between physical activity and

academic achievement, Tremblay, Inman, and Williams (2000) found a trivial negative


relationship between the two variables; however, only 4-items were used to measure

physical activity levels and the item-reliability was .68. When combined with body mass

index (BMI) and diet, physical activity was found to explain up to 24% of academic

achievement (sigfusdóttir, Kristijánsson, & allegrante, 2007).

assessing weekly physical activity time also has its challenges. seven-day or 3-day recalls

have been routinely used to average daily or weekly activity, but children may forget their

activities or exaggerate the amount of time spent. Therefore, finding more objective

measures of fitness has been a strong recommendation (e.g. Chomitz et al., 2009; eveland-

sayers, Farley, Fuller, Morgan, & Caputo, 2009). The Fitnessgram (Cooper Institute for

aerobic Research, 2007) is a specific objective battery of fitness tests that has become

a gold standard in schools across the country; this test battery allows users to examine

specific components of fitness (i.e. aerobic, abdominal strength, flexibility, upper body

strength, and trunk lift) as well as a total fitness level. Results comparing objective fitness

levels, like the Fitnessgram, and academic achievement have been much more consistent

than previous research using physical education or physical activity levels. studies have

routinely found fitness to be significantly linked to academic achievement (Blom, alvarez,

Zhang, & Kolbo, 2011; Castelli, Hillman, Buck, & erwin, 2007; Chomitz et al., 2009; eveland-

sayers et al., 2009; Hudson, alvarez, Blom, Zhang & Kolbo, unpublished; Kwak et al., 2009;

Wittberg, Northrup, & Cottrel, 2009).

Blom et al. (2011) and Chomitz et al. (2009) have explored the link between the number

of fitness components passed and academics, and found that the odds for a student to

pass both math and english/Language arts achievement tests significantly improved as

they passed more fitness tests. In Chomitz et al., the improvement for math was 38%

with each additional fitness test, while they observed a slightly lower increase for english

at 24%. additionally, Hudson et al (unpublished) recently completed a similar study

with approximately 6500 3rd – 8th grade students from 22 Mississippi schools between


the years of 2008-2010, and found again an upward linear trend between fitness zones

achieved and percent of students with high performance in Math and Language arts.

Because objective fitness assessments measure separate fitness components, more

specific details of the fitness-academic achievement can also be explored. aerobic (i.e.

cardiovascular) fitness was the first component to repeatedly reveal an independent

relationship with academic achievement (Castelli et al., 2007; Wittberg et al., 2009), but

other researchers have found trivial differences between the components (dwyer et al.,

2001; Hudson et al., unpublished). Castelli et al. (2007) found that scores on the paCeR

cardiovascular test were significantly related to the reading and math scores of 3rd-5th

graders. When exploring the relationships of fitness components without other mediating

variables, Wittberg et al. (2008) found achievement test differences with 5th graders

who were in the Healthy Fitness Zone (HFZ) for aerobic capacity, abdominal strength,

flexibility, and upper body strength when compared to those not in the HFZ; trunk lift

was not significant. However, when researchers explored all fitness measures, with BMI,

gender, and meal program to achievement test scores, only aerobic capacity appeared

consistently important. These results indicate that while aerobic fitness seems to be

very important, there appear to be other mediating variables of relevance (Wittberg et

al., 2008). Hudson et al (unpublished) found different results with the Fitnessgram and

standardized tests. There were no specific fitness components that predicted Language

arts performance, absences, or school disciplinary incidents; however, performance on

the curl-up component predicted high math performance.

In an attempt to elucidate the physical fitness-academic link, researchers have begun to

explore academic subject differences. In a meta-analysis utilizing a variety of measures

of physical activity and cognition in children, all cognitive tests had significant effect

sizes, but perceptual tests had the strongest link at .49 (sibley & etnier, 2003). academic

achievement (i.e. grades) had an effect size of .30, with math and verbal standardized test


scores at .20 and .17, respectively. as previously mentioned, Chomitz et al. (2009) found

that the odds of passing the math achievement tests improved at a greater rate than

passing the english portion when number of fitness tests passed increase. Tremarche et

al. (2007) found the opposite in that students who had more pe scored higher on english

and Language art tests, but not math tests. Wittberg et al. (2009) associated different

fitness tests with each type of achievement tests. Math scores were found to be linked

specifically to aerobic fitness, abdominal strength, upper body strength, and flexibility,

while science was significantly related to aerobic fitness, abdominal strength, and

flexibility. Reading scores were only linked to aerobic and abdominal strength fitness tests.

Researchers have yet to offer any substantial explanation for variability among

academic subjects.

IMpLICaTIoNs FoR pHysICaL eduCaTIoN pRoFessIoNaLs

What does this mean to the physical educator?

The positive results shown in the current literature may well lead to a greater

accountability for the physical educator. The data reported in this study demonstrate

that when students are assessed and adequate physical activity is implemented, positive

results are the outcome. education has become a data driven field where outcomes are

paramount in determining effectiveness. an example of this is the Fitness Integrated

with Teaching (FIT) Kids act (H.R.1057/s.576) which was re-introduced into congress on

March 14, 2011. as part of the rationale for the bill, supporters tout “physically active and

educated children are more likely to thrive academically and socially” (american Heart

association, 2011). Furthermore, the act calls for schools to report on the quality and

quantity of physical education being provided. This would lead to greater accountability

for the physical educator. Currently, the bill is in subcommittee. It is of interest for


members of the physical education field to closely follow the outcome of this bill.

Can this help physical education be regarded more as an academic field?

There has always been a feeling among physical educators of being excluded from the

core academic courses, partially due to a lack of understanding among colleagues in other

fields as well as administrators regarding exactly what it is a physical educator is supposed

to teach. unfortunately, the field has not done much as a whole to be part of that team

as well. Thus, at a time when test scores are how school performance is measured,

administrators often feel the need to cut physical education and increase desk time to try

to get an edge. Certainly, from the aspect of the origins of the field of physical education

and the importance of the information imparted to students during a quality physical

education class, passionate physical educators often feel disregarded. The exclusion of

physical education in No Child Left Behind did not help to improve the standing of the

physical educator status as an academic discipline. Recent research reporting the positive

effects of physical fitness on performance should open the eyes of policy makers as to the

importance of the role physical education plays in educating the whole student.

This is all interesting but now what? Will all of the recent buzz lead to anything?

physical education has been given a great opportunity. The profession is at a crossroads:

it can continue down the path that leads to its loss of status and possible demise, or it can

use the current positive media coverage to change how it is perceived. each individual

physical education professional has to be part of the change. First, we recommend that

physical education professionals take an active role in embracing the change. This can be

done through reading and staying current on the trends, standards, and recommended

assessments, in addition to attending professional development activities like workshops


and conferences. To make a direct change, physical educators can update their lesson

plans and share with colleagues the passion that physical educators have and how they

are also working to improve student performance. another recommendation is for

physical education professionals to share the outcomes of the research about physical

activity. additionally, they can offer ideas and options to help classroom teachers

integrate physical activity into the classroom. Finally, physical educators can advocate to

policymakers the importance of physical education through the discussion of benefits

to administrators or speaking to local parent teacher organizations about what happens

in physical education classes. For examples pe teachers can have students demonstrate

activities from class or lead parents in a sample of activities that their children are

receiving explaining how it is benefiting their child. Furthermore, all physical education

professionals can spend time educating community members about the importance of

physical education and how this is specifically important for young children as they

grow and develop.

pRaCTICaL suggesTIoNs FoR INCReasINg FITNess oppoRTuNITIes

as previously mentioned, one of the implications of the research on the fitness-academic

link is that some physical educators will need to update or modify their daily lesson

plans. The overall goal is to focus on fitness within the overall mission of the class, not

just individual activities. Here are some practical suggestions for increasing the fitness

opportunities within the classroom.

1. Incorporate Fitness into the Overall Lesson. Lessons can be done during class that can focus on the components of fitness and help

the student learn the concept of the component. This is a concept of the physical Best


curriculum. The focus does not need to be on the specific fitness test, rather emphasize

the fitness component by doing things that can help strengthen that targeted

area of the body.

2. Infuse Fitness into Other Daily Activities.

In other words, develop skills of sports through activities that involve fitness. By including

fitness in other activities, it will not be as obvious that the students are working on fitness

and will be more enjoyable for them.

3. Work on Fitness in the Warm-Up.

This is another way to include a little more fitness time in every class period, but can be

done in enjoyable and creative ways.

4. Increase Time Spent being Active.

Because physical education classes are often short or infrequent, teachers want to take

advantage of the time in class and keep students moving. This can be done by having

minimal down time, using small side games, and having enough equipment for each student

or pair of students. establishing classroom routines will also help to minimize time spent

giving directions and organizing the students and equipment.

5. Give Students Ways to Increase their Fitness Outside of PE.

Because fitness is the key, and most pe classes are not long or do not meet every day,

students need to be given activities that they can do outside of class to help attain the

appropriate fitness level. For example, teachers can give students a weekly calendar of

activities that they can do each day of the week. another idea would be to set goals and

log activity completed outside of the classroom.


CoNCLusIoNs

The recent consistent findings that students who are fit are less likely to miss school, get

in trouble at school, and do poorly on standardized tests (e.g., Blom et al., 2011) should

be a strong indication that an investment should be made in student fitness. as Blom et

al., suggest an, “Implementation of physical education curricula that allow for more time

spent on aerobic fitness development and improvement may be more effective tool

than merely requiring a certain number of minutes in physical education per week” (p.

33). While the fitness-academic link implies that fitness should be prioritized, physical

education professionals should also consider the need to help students embrace a lifetime

of physical activity, which comes from finding joy, meaning, and value in physical activity,

and not merely completing a fitness task (ennis, 2011; Newell, 2011). This is a complicated

balance, but can be achieved through careful lesson planning and following recommended

best practices. In summary, with the current primary and secondary students as the

upcoming generation of adult citizens, we need to continue to prioritize policy and

research in order to increase the current number of healthy, active and well educated

students, which begins in our schools.


ReFeReNCes

american Heart association. (2011). Teaching America’s kids about a healthy lifestyle.

Washington, dC: american Heart association. Retrieved from http://www.heart.

org/idc/groups/heart-public/@wcm/@adv/documents/downloadable/ucm_301728.pdf

Blom, L. C., alvarez, J., Zhang, L., & Kolbo, J. (2011). associations between health-related physical

fitness, academic achievement, and selected academic behaviors of elementary and

middle school students in the state of Mississippi. ICHPER-SD Journal of Research, 6(1),

28-34.

Castelli, d. M., Hillman, C. H., Buck, s. M., & erwin, H. e. (2007). physical fitness and academic

achievement in third- and fifth-grade students. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology,

29, 239-252.

Chomitz, v. R., slining, M. M., Mcgowan, R. J., Mitchell, s. e., dawson, g. F., & Hacker, K. a. (2009).

Is there a relationship between physical fitness & academic achievement? positive results

from public school children in the northeastern united states. Journal of School Health,

79, 30-37.

Coe, d. p., pivarnik, J. M., Womack, C. J., Reeves, M. J., & Malina, R. M. (2006). effect of physical

education and activity levels on academic achievement in children. Medicine and Science

in Sports and Exercise, 38, 1515-1519.


Cooper Institute for aerobic Research. (2007). Fitnessgram/Activitygram Test

Administration Manual (4th ed.). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

dwyer, T., sallis, J. F., Blizzard, L., Lazarus, R., & dean, K. (2001). Relation of academic performance

to physical activity and fitness in children. Pediatric Exercise Science, 13, 225-237.

ennis, C. d. (2011). physical education curriculum priorities: evidence for education and

skillfulness. Quest, 63, 5-18.

eveland-sayers, B. M., Farley, R. s., Fuller, d. K., Morgan, d. W., & Caputo, J. L. (2009).

physical fitness and academic achievement in elementary school children. Journal of

Physical Activity and Health, 6, 99-104.

Hervet, R. (1952). vanves, son experience, ses perspectives. Revue Institut Sports, 24, 4-6.

Hudson, g. M., alvarez, J., Blom, L. C., Zhang, L., & Kolbo, J. R. (august 2011). Benefits of

fitness: positive relationships between fitness and school attendance, discipline, and

test scores among Mississippi students. Unpublished Manuscript.

Kwak, L., Kremers, s., Bergman, p., Ruiz, J. R., Rizzo, N. s., & sjostrom, M. (2009).

associations between physical activity, fitness, and academic achievement. The

Journal of Pediatrics, 155, 914-918.

Newell, K. M. (2011). physical education of and through fitness and skill. Quest, 63, 46-54.


sallis, J. F., McKenzie, T. L., Kolody, B., Lewis, M., Marshall, s., & Rosengard, p. (1999). effects

of health-related physical education on academic achievement: project spaRK.

Research Quarterly of Exercise Sport, 70, 127-134.

sibley, B. a. & etnier, J. L. (2003). The relationship between physical activity and cognition

in children: a meta-analysis. Pediatric Exercise Science, 15, 243-256.

sigfusdóttir, I. d., Kristijansson, a. L., & allegrante, J. p. (2007). Health behavior and

academic achievement in Icelandic school children. Health Education Research, 22,

70-80.

stevens, T. a., T ., stevenson, s. J., & Lochbaum, M. R. (2008). The importance of physical

activity and physical education in the prediction of academic achievement. Journal

of Sport Behavior, 31, 368-388.

Trost, s. g., & van der Mars, H. (2009). Why we should not cut p.e. Educational Leadership,

67(4), 60-65.

Tremblay, M. s., Inman, J. W., & Willams, J. d. (2000). The relationship between physical activity,

self-esteem, and academic achievement in 12-year-old children. Pediatric Exercise

Science, 12, 312-323.

Wittberg, R. a., Northrup, K. L., & Cottrel, L. (2009). Children’s physical fitness and academic

performance. American Journal of Health Education, 40, 30-36.

16

Please send correspondence to:

Colleen Christie611 Hillside place, Moscow, Id 83843 oR

4629 Maurey Road, Jackson, Ms 39211

Colleen Christie, MEd.The University of Idaho

Grace Goc Karp, PhD.The University of Idaho

t e n n i s s t r e n gt h a n d

c o n d i t i o n i n g p r o g r a m

F o r h i g h s c h o o l s t u d e n t s

17Tennis sTrengTh and CondiTion Program

purpose of this paper is to design a program

to prepare high school tennis athletes

in pre-season tennis strength and

conditioning program. participants trained

three days a week for four weeks.

pre and post fitness test included

suicides, push-ups, sit-ups, standing long

jump, flexed arm hang or pull ups, and

a six lap run. participants included fifteen

athletes who completed both pre and

post tests. There were six males (40%)

and nine females (60%). The ages ranged

between fourteen and eighteen years old

in grades nine through twelve. The average

number of days of attendance out of 12 was

9 days (75%). 93.3% of athletes improved

their suicide time, one athlete making the

same time. 100% of athletes increased

the number of maximum push-ups.

93.3% of athletes increased the number of

sit-ups, and one athlete below the pre-

test score. 93.3% of athletes increased

their standing long jump, and one athlete

jumping the same distance. 83.3% of

males increased their max pull-up score,

and one athlete below the pre-test score.

66.6% of female’s increased flexed harm

hang time, one athlete made the same

score, and two athletes below the pre-

test score. 60% of athletes improved

their six lap run time, 33.3% of athlete’s

times were slower, and one (6.6%) was

unable to finish the run due an injury.

even though we were unable to show

significance because of the small number

of participants, overall, the majority of

athlete’s improved on pre and

post test scores.

Key words: Tennis, strength,

Conditioning, Fitness

18Tennis sTrengTh and CondiTion ProgramTennis sTrengTh and CondiTion Program

INTRoduCTIoN

The key to any athletic program is to have a good strength, fitness, and conditioning plan

set in place for pre-season, during the season, and in post-season. pre-season activities

will allow athletes to build up their strength and fitness before fully engaging in their sport.

Maintaining and building strength and fitness during the season will allow athletes to

remain at current levels with the possibility of increasing fitness as the season progresses.

Many coaches do not consider post-season fitness and conditioning in high school settings,

because some athletes participate in several other sports. Thus, when an athlete finishes

one sport, they will jump right into a different sport. However, some sports like football

and basketball are known to have post-season practices. High school tennis seasons start

in March and ends in May around the end of the school year thus, holding post-season

activities is not practical. This paper focuses on how to improve athlete’s strength,

fitness, and condition by the end of the preseason and provides an example of a

four week program.

BeNeFITs

a comprehensive program of physical training will help a player’s performance when on

the court. There are seven main benefits of physical training in tennis (Kriese, 1988).

a rigorous and consistent program of physical training increases confidence in match

situations , improves technique production and power, reduces the number and severity of

injuries (Riewald & gressner, 2004 a.) conditioning delays fatigue in competition,

promotes work at high intensities and for longer periods of time, promotes a fast recovery

after competition, improves athlete’s power, strength, speed, flexibility, agility and other

motor skills needed to play tennis (Kovacs, n.d.)

19

pRogRaM CoMpoNeNTs

athletics at any level require a certain level of physical fitness, strength and conditioning

in order to be competitive in any athletic program. strength and conditioning includes

working on muscular strength, muscular endurance, agility, power, flexibility, speed, and

balance. Training can be completed with or without weights which makes the process

economical and affordable when budgets are limited. Finally, strength and conditioning

can be used by the occasional exerciser, recreational athlete, or a competitive athlete to

improve fitness levels.

preparing athletes before the season starts also helps prevent injuries. It is recommended

that there should be six weeks preseason training that includes aerobic, strength, and

flexibility exercises at various intensities (Faigenbaum, 2001). Resistance training will help

improve muscular strength and endurance. It is recommended to use gradual progressions

at a low to moderate intensity two or three nonconsecutive times a week which includes

proper warm-ups, cool downs, dynamic and static stretching. athletic performance and

motor skills are improved when sport-specific training is incorporated into workouts. self-

esteem, confidence levels, and positive attitudes of athletes are enhanced during training

(Behm, Faigenbaum, Falk, & Klentrou, 2008).

Assessments. assessments provide information on the athlete for the teacher/coach.

assessments can be used for feedback, assessing the effectiveness of instruction,

examining the teacher’s effectiveness, and to verify the effectiveness of the program.

assessments that are meaningful and accurate are needed to show progress and student

outcomes related to the program is also an important factor (Zhu et al., 2011).

Training Methods. The united states Tennis association (usTa The progressive

development) provides suggestions on progressive development of a high performance

player for specific age groups. Tennis requires a solid foundation of flexibility, agility,

Tennis sTrengTh and CondiTion Program

20

balance, strength, power, and speed. each area needs to be addressed at some point

during the training week. Tennis training can take place between two to six days per week.

It should be noted that workouts need to vary to see improvements and that overtraining

could produce injuries. If a three-day a week program is chosen, then using a total body

workout which focuses on major muscles groups will be used. small muscle groups can be

trained outside of regular sessions (Kriese, 1988).

Having a wide variety of training methods will help an athlete to be successful (Chu,

n.d.). The first part of getting ready to do any training is to warm-up which includes

movement and stretching. Warm-ups should be around 3-5 minutes. There are two types

of stretching, static and dynamic. dynamic stretches should be done before the activity.

dynamic stretching is using body movements to help range of motion like doing butt kicks,

jogging in place, or performing tennis strokes using the racket only. an advantage to this

is that tennis-specific movements can be used to warm-up before starting to play. static

stretching is usually used now after an activity when the body is warm. It is also used to

help increase flexibility and is the most effective and safest way to support elongation of

skeletal muscle. This type of stretching is believed to decrease soreness, increase muscle

length, and speed recovery (ellenbecker, n.d.). once warm-up and stretching is complete

it is time to move to the physical part, i.e., strength training and conditioning.

The main goal of strength training for young players is to increase muscular endurance

(Riewald & gressner, 2004a) but muscular strength is also needed. This will help players

get faster and hit harder which is becoming more important in this sport. The terms

“strength training” and resistance training” mean the same thing. They are based on using

a progressive overload to make to body adapt in order to resist and produce greater

power. Lifting weights is not necessary and an athlete can use their body weight as a

resistance. stretch tubing can be used to help to provide this resistance as well. using

weight free strength training is inexpensive and easy to execute. also, this method helps

Tennis sTrengTh and CondiTion ProgramTennis sTrengTh and CondiTion Program

21

strengthen the core muscles like the abs, lower back, and hip musculature. The core is

important because it is how the body is stabilized. Core strength and endurance needs

to be well developed in order for the athlete to have a strong base for all of the physical

components of tennis as well as being able to perform more advanced exercises (Riewald

& gressner, 2004a). Crunches are one way to work out the core. other strength training

exercises include footwork and squats. These types of exercises each have a specific goal

of developing specific and isolated muscles (Chu, n.d.).

When strength training is first introduced, it is best to use “body-weight” exercises like

pull-ups, push-up, sit-up activities (e.g. crunches, superman’s, bicycles, elbow to knee),

air squats, mountain climbers, and lunges. This uses the athlete’s own body weight as the

resistance. These exercises will allow for better movement on the court and get used

game play. Muscles are taught how to work together without a connection in muscle mass

gain (Riewald & gressner, 2004a). one other type of strength training is balance strength

training. This improves leg strength, dynamic balance, and control of the core of the body

(usTa 3 Cone Balance). Finally, strength training is good to use with preadolescents and

adolescents because it can reduce sports related injuries (Riewald & gressner, 2004b).

exaMpLe oF a FouR WeeK pRogRaM

The purpose of this program was to prepare high school athletes in a pre-season tennis

strength and conditioning program. participants worked on building up speed, endurance,

footwork, and strength levels before matches started in March. The program took

place three days a week for four weeks. The facilities used at the local junior high school

included basketball courts, weight room, a multipurpose room, and hallways in the main

building. pre and post tests were used to determine starting and final fitness and strength

levels and to determine the effectiveness of the program. a wide variety of activities and

games were used to help develop fitness and strength in the athletes.


22

Description of the Program

The program included strength, fitness, and conditioning activities to improve speed,

endurance, footwork, core strength, upper body strength. The athletes recorded their

pre-test score, improvement goal, and post-test scores; daily attendance; selected the

number of participation commitment days for each week, and determined daily, weekly,

and full program goals. The program was delivered on each Tuesday, Wednesday, and

Thursday from 3:30pm until 5pm for four weeks in the gym, multipurpose room, weight

room, and hallways. The first and last days of the program consisted of physical fitness

tests which included a timed suicide, maximum push-ups, sixty second sit-ups, standing

long jump, timed six lap run, and flexed arm hang (girls) and maximum pull-up (boys). every

session included warm-ups, core, leg, and arm exercises, and a cool down. surveys were

taken on the first days of the program, and at the end of week two, three, and then a final

satisfaction survey was conducted at the end of week four.

Participants

a total of fifteen athletes (six males (40%) and nine females (60%) completed both pre-

tests and post-test. The athletes’ ages ranged between 14 and 18 years old and were in

grades 9 through 12. The average number of days of attendance was nine days (out of 12)

( 75%).

Pre and Post Fitness Testing.

Fitness testing was completed on the first and last days of the program. The order of

fitness test were as followed, timed suicides, push-ups, sit-ups, standing long jump, flexed

arm hang (girls), pull-ups (boys), and a timed six lap run. using one cone for a starting,

four cones were placed five yards apart in the timed suicide. push-ups were completed

as a maximum repetition set at a specific pace. For sit-ups, athletes were to do as many

as they could in sixty seconds. standing long jumps were completed in one single bout.

girls completed flexed arm hangs for as long as possible. The boys completed a maximum


23

pull up set at no pace. The timed six lap run was set in the main hallway of the junior high

school. athletes ran down the hallways completing a full circle. They started down one

hallway until they reached the stairs and repeated this six times.

Results.

descriptive statistics were used to compare performance on these tests. 93.3% (n=15) of

athletes improved their suicide time, and 100% (n=15) of athletes increased their number

of maximum push-ups. 93.3% (n=15) athletes increased their number of sit-ups. 93.3%

(n=15) athletes increased their standing long jump distance. 83.3% (n=15) males increased

their max pull-up score. 66.7% (n=15) females increased their flexed harm hang time. 60%

(n=15) of athlete’s improve six lap run time, 33.3% (n=15) athlete’s times were slower, and

one athlete was unable to finish the run due an injury.

For all the tests, athletes improved their scores from pre to post training (see Table 1). six

athletes (40%) improved on all six fitness components. six athletes (40%) improved on five

components. Two athletes (13.3%) improved on four components. one athlete (6.7%),

improved on three components (see Figure 1). Three athletes (20%) were neutral (same

test score) on one component. overall range of scores for push-ups, 17-41; sit-ups 27-56;

suicides 17-24 seconds; standing long jump, 6 feet, 0 inches – 9 feet, 1 inch; pull ups, 3-25

(boys only); and flexed arm hang, 1-20 seconds (girls only). (see Table 2)

overall, girls (25-41) outperformed boys (17-40) on push-ups. girls had the highest sit-

up at 56 and boys at 50 (see Table 1). The fewest sit-ups came from the girls at 27 and

boys at 36. The boy’s fastest suicide time was 16 seconds, and girls 17 seconds. The boy’s

slowest suicide time was 20 seconds, compared to girls at 24 seconds. Boys increased their

standing long jump distance at least 5 inches. Boys jumped from 8 feet, 0 inches to 9 feet,

1 inch. girls jumped from 6 feet, 0 inches to 6 feet, 11 inches.

according to the youth fitness test scores, all of the girls were ranked in the

“athletic” rating on push-ups. sit-ups ranged from the 95 percentile to lower than 25


24

percentile. on the standing long jumps, girls ranged between 75-100 percentiles. The

flexed arm hang was the weakest area for the girls. There range was between 5-74

percentiles. Five girls ran the six lap run faster than their original time, and four girls ran

slower.

according to the youth fitness tests scores, boys were rated from athletic to healthy on

push-ups. Boys largely underperformed on sit-ups by being between 25-75 percentiles.

The boys standing long jumps were all in the 95 percentile range. one boy exceeded the

95 percentile pull-up range (15), by completing 25 pull-ups. The lowest pull-up was 3,

which is located in the 25 percentile range. Four boys ran the six lap run faster than their

original time, and two boys ran slower.


25Tennis sTrengTh and CondiTion Program

!

!

Table&1&(&Tennis&Team&Performance&on&Pre&&&Post&Tests &&&&&&&&Student Suic. Push(Ups Sit(Ups Long&Jmp Pull Hang Run

Pre&&&Post(Tests&*&Boys&=&Pull(Ups&*Girls&=&Flexed&Arm&Hang 8 Pre 22&sec. 20 31 6ft,&3in 12&sec. 8:51

Student Suic. Push(Ups Sit(Ups Long&Jmp Pull(Ups Hang Run Goal 19&sec. 25(26 35(40 6ft,&8in 17&sec. 8:15(8:30

1 Pre 19&sec. 35 28 8ft,&5in 16 7:58 Post 19&sec. 31 35 6ft,&9in 16&sec. 8:32

Goal 17&sec. 40 35 9ft,&0in 20 7:30 Diff. (&3&sec. +&11 +&4 +&6in +&4&sec. (&19&sec.

Post 16&sec. 40 50 9ft,&0in 25 8:41

Diff. (3&sec. +&5 +&22 +&7in +9 +&43&sec. 9 Pre 22&sec. 20 28 6ft,&9in 10&sec. 9:02Goal 21&sec. 25 30 6ft,&9in 11&sec. 8:30

2 Pre 21&sec. 30 32 8ft,&2in 12 7:59 Post 19&sec. 25 33 6ft,&10in 13&sec 8:14

Goal 17&sec. 50 50 9ft,&0in 30 7:00 Diff. (&3&sec. +&5 +&5 +&1in +&3&sec. (&48&sec.

Post 16&sec. 36 40 9ft.&1in 15 8:28

Diff. (&5&sec. +&6 +&8 +&1ft,&1in +&3 +&34 10 Pre 23&sec. 33 34 5ft,&9in 8&sec. 9:10Goal 21&sec. 40 40 &6ft,&5in 16&sec. 8:30


Goal 20&sec. 20 50 8ft,&5in 16 8:00 Diff. (&2&sec. +&8 +&2 +&7in +&2&sec. +&22&sec.

Post 16&sec. 17 49 8ft,&5in 17 8:27

Diff. (&6&sec. +&6 +&18 +&9in +&6 (&12&sec. 11 Pre 22&sec. 25 42 6ft,&6in 8&sec. 8:01Goal 19&sec. 30 50 6ft,&10in 15&sec. 7:59


Goal 20&sec. 25 30 8ft,&0in 5 8:30 Diff. (&5&sec.& +&15& +&14 +&5in& +&1&sec.& (&38&sec.

Post 20&sec. 30 45 8ft,&0in 5 7:51

Diff. (&1&sec. +&8 +&20 +&5in +&3 (&56&sec. 12 Pre 23&sec. 20 30 6ft,&1&in 6&sec. 8:53Goal 21&sec. 25 35 6ft,&5in 10&sec. 8:45


Goal 20&sec. 20 43 8ft,&0in 5 6:00 Diff. (&2&sec. +&5 +8 +&3in& 0 (&22&sec.&

Post 20&sec. 20 46 8ft,&7in 3 6:56

Diff. (&2&sec. +&3 +&7 +&10in (&1 (&57&sec. 13 Pre 22&sec. 13 31 6ft,&3in 11&sec. 9:02Goal 18&sec. 20 41 6ft,&6in 15&sec. 7:02

6 Pre 21&sec.& 20 33 7ft,&0in 3 8:38 Post 20&sec. 30 37 6ft,&4in 12&sec. 3:56&(3&laps)

Goal17(19&sec. 25 35(40 7ft,&4in 4(5 8:25 Diff. (&2&sec. +&17 +&6 +&1in& +&1&sec.& (

Post 17&sec. 22 36 8ft,&0in 7 7:56

Diff. (&4&sec. +&2 +&3 +&1ft +&4 (&42&sec. 14 Pre 24&sec. 25 34 6ft,&4in 5&sec. 9:47Goal 20&sec. 30 40 6ft,&6in 10&sec. 8:00

7 Pre 22&sec. 25 39 6ft,&1in 16&sec. 8:40 Post 22&sec. 30 40 6ft,&10in 4&sec. 10:17

Goal 20&sec. 30 45 7ft,&0in 20&sec. 8:20 Diff. (&2&sec. +&5 +&6 +&6in (&1&sec. +&30&sec.

Post 21&sec. 30 35 6ft,&1in 20&sec. 8:39

Diff. (&1&sec. +&5 (4 0 +&4&sec. (&1&sec. 15 Pre 24&sec. 19 25 5ft,&9&in 2&sec. 5:50&(3&laps)Goal 23&sec. 20(25 25(30 5ft,&9in 2&sec. 5:50&(3&laps)

Post 24&sec. 25 27 6ft,&0in 1&sec. 7:26&(3&laps)

Diff. 0 +&6 +&2 +&3in (&1&sec. +&1:36

TaBLes


CoNCLusIoNs

overall, the majority of the athletes participating in the pre-season strength, fitness,

and conditioning program made improvements over the four week period. although a

few athletes scored lower on portions of their final fitness tests, I believe that this was

due to uncontrollable factors. The last Thursday, in the four week program, was final

fitness testing. several athletes missed the original final fitness day. This was made

up either on the next day (Friday), or the next Tuesday. on one day there were three

students who completed the test together, and the other day five. These athletes did

not see how the main group performed; therefore they could not see how others did.

This could have affected effort levels during the testing. prizes were given to athletes

who scored the highest in each test. Though some of these athletes exceeded their

previous times in some areas, others did worse.

athletes felt that they benefited from the pre-season training. The coach of the high

school tennis team mentioned that she could tell the difference between the athletes

who did and did not participate in the pre-season training sessions. This was also

evident in the athlete’s self-report, whereby 55% of the athletes reported that tennis

physical strength and conditioning was important to them. although 55.6% of the


athletes reported that they performed an average performance i.e., I am confident that I

am in shape, most of the athletes did better than they thought. To help increase motivation

to improve in these areas, there were daily challenges in the fitness testing areas where

the top three girls and top two boys would receive prizes from a bag. also, prizes were

awarded to the top boy and girl in each of the final fitness testing scores. I believe that

prizes and rewards are what drove students to push themselves each day, in hope that they

would be the one to get the reward.

Implementing a physical strength and conditioning program during the pre-season helped

athletes get their bodies into shape before the upcoming season starts. This will help them

be more competitive physically and be ready to play when the season starts. The overall

effectiveness of this program is shown with many athletes improving in the tested fitness

areas from the start of the program through to the end.

28Tennis sTrengTh and CondiTion ProgramTennis sTrengTh and CondiTion Program

ReFeReNCes

Behm, d. g., Faigenbaum, a. d., Falk, B., & Klentrou, p. (2008). Canadian society for exercise

physiology position paper: resistance training in children and adolescents. Applied

Physiology, Nutrition, and Metabolism, 33, 3, 547-561.

Chu, d. a. strength and conditioning: Circuit training for tennis. Retrieved from

http://www.usta.com/Improve-your-game/sport-science/114695_strength__Conditioning_

Circuit_Training_for_Tennis/

ellenbecker, T. s. strength & conditioning: Flexibility training. Retrieved from


Flexibility_Training/

exRx.net Fitness Testing: youth Fitness Test Norms Retrieved from

http://www.exrx.net/Testing/youthNorms.html

Faigenbaum, a. d. (2001). preseason conditioning for high school athletes. Strength and

Conditioning Journal, 23, 1.

Kovacs, M. ask the lab: Improving fitness for tennis. Retrieved from

http://www.usta.com/Improve-your-game/Health-Fitness/Feature/ask_the_Lab_

Improving_Fitness_for_Tennis/

Kriese, C. (1988). Total tennis training. grand Rapids, Michigan: Masters press.


Riewald, s., & gressner, N. (2004a). strength Training for young Tennis players, part 1.

USTA High Performance Coaching Newsletter, Vol. 6 (1). Retrieved from http://www.usta.

com/active/News/Health_Fitness/59151_strength_Training_for_young_Tennis_players/

Riewald, s., & gressner, N. (2004b). strength Training for young Tennis players, part 2.

USTA High Performance Coaching Newsletter, Vol. 6 (1). Retrieved from


strength_Training_for_young_Tennis_playerspart_II/

Roetert, p. e. strength & conditioning: Tennis specific drills to improve quickness on court

Retrieved from http://www.usta.com/Improve-your-game/sport-science/114705_

strength__Conditioning_Tennis_specific_drills_to_Improve_Quickness_on_Court/

Zhu, W., graber, K. C., Rink, J., placek, J. H., Fox, C., Fisette, J. L., dyson, B., park, y., avery,

M., & Raynes, d. (april 2011). pe metrics: Background, testing theory, and methods.

Measurement in Physical Education and Exercise Science, 15, 2, 87-99.

usTa 3 Cone Balance Touches – strength Training sT-10. Retrieved from

http://assets.usta.com/assets/1/usTa_Import/usTa/dps/doc_437_236.pdf

usTa The progressive development of a high performance player. Retrieved from

http://assets.usta.com/assets/1/usTa_Import/usTa/dps/doc_437_516.pdf

mahperd journal

Documents

physical education programs

physical education enrollment

physical education plays

o n p r o f e s s i

c p e r f o r

s i n g f i t n e s

s s u e

physical education pe