mackintosh environmental architecture research unit
TRANSCRIPT
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Dr. Filbert Musau [email protected]
Building Performance Evaluation
Building Fabric Testing
Findings from nine developments across Scotland
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Projects
Fabric Testing Methods
Findings
Impacts
Conclusions
Overview
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MEARU monitored 7 domestic & 2
non-domestic projects in Scotland
Glasgow
Morrison
Bowmore
Distillery
Lochgelly
Business
Centre
Nine Funded BPE Projects
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Projects: history & fabric design aims
Glasgow Lochgelly
Domestic projects
Non-domestic projects
Glasgow
Dunoon Livingston
3 Mainstream flats
3 Sheltered flats
5 are Passivhaus Standard
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BPE processes - Fabric tests
As-built construction audit
Thermography
Air-tightness (start and end)
Co-heating test (Whole House Fabric Heat Loss Testing)
In-situ U-value measurements – thermal transmittance
Smoke tests
Not tested - thermal mass
Aims
• To provide an indication of construction quality
• To identify whether specified design targets were met
• To identify opportunities for improvement
Relevance/importance
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BPE processes
Thermography
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BPE processes - Thermography
Applications in building and construction as a
diagnostic tool
• cold/warm bridging
• insulation continuity
• heat loss – fabric air leaks, missing insulation
• roof moisture ingress & traps – wet insulation
• Tracing heating elements and services - e.g. radiant
heat tubing in floors, ceilings and leaks in those systems
• Location of construction components
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BPE processes - Thermography
What are the limitations and sources of error
• Images give only surface temperatures
• Reflected heat from adjacent windows, shiny materials
• Strong winds artificially heat or cool surfaces
• Emissivity: radiated heat of building components
• Angle of reflectance: angles off 90 degrees
• Rain/Surface moisture reflections & cooling of surfaces to even levels
• High levels of dirt or mould change reflectance
• Low-end cameras, less accurate as distance increases
• Focus: improper settings can miss out small details
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Results: Thermographic surveys
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Results: Thermographic surveys
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BPE processes
Air Permeability testing
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BPE processes: Air Permeability testing
• Pre Test Requirements
• Liaison with client over time/disruption
• Check weather forecasts (wind speed, temp)
• Building Envelope Calculations
• Air Permeability Area (m2)
• Air Change Rate Volume (m3)
• Building Preparation
• Fully open and restrain internal doors
• Close: lift & internal doors, windows, smoke vents
• Fill with water all drainage traps.
• Seal: incoming service penetrations, trickle ventilators,
passive ventilators and permanently open uncontrolled
NV openings, MV & AC systems
• Turn off: Mech ventilation and AC systems
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BPE processes: Air Permeability testing
• Measure
• indoor/outdoor pressure difference
• indoor & outdoor temp before and after test
• barometric pressure before and after test
• Complete test procedure
• pressurisation
• de-pressurisation
• Results
• expressed as a rate of leakage per hour per
square metre of building envelope at a
reference pressure differential of 50 Pa
(m3.h-1.m-2 @ 50 Pa).
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Findings: Air Permeability
• Scottish Regulations: below 5m3/m2/hr@50Pa - ‘planned ventilation’ strategy required
• 9/25 have ‘overshot’ the regulation!
• Consensus among scientists - Build Tight, Ventilate Right - how is the IAQ in these?
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Findings: Air Permeability
• Challenges testing large buildings
• Differences in results
• between testers
• between pressurisation vs de-pressurisation tests
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Findings: Air permeability
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
GA1 GA2 GA3 GB1 GB2 GB3
Mean
Pre
ssu
re a
t 50P
a
(m3
/h/m
2)
Dwelling First Test Second Test
Comparison of first and second air permeability results
• Differences in results after passage of time
• Diversity of performance within the same development and similar construction
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Findings: Leakage routes
Leakage points GA1 GA2 GA3 GB1 GB2 GB3
Settlement cracks around windows/window sills √ √ √ √ √ √
Radiators pipes √
Beneath washing machine and kitchen units √ √ √ √
Around waste pipes/ pipe chase for toilet waste pipe √ √ √
Around bath panel √ √ √ √
Electricity services √ √ √ √ √
Heating pipe penetrations √ √ √
Under kitchen units √ √
Light fitting √
Floor to skirting junction/ window to floor junction √ √ √ √
Ventilation system cupboard in hall √ √ √
Around base of built in wardrobe √
Faulty trickle vent √
Air leakage points across the different flats for both 1st test and 2nd tests
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BPE processes
U-Value measurements
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Element Construction Measured values (W/m2K)
1st floor wall Walls type 2 = Close wall block 0.14 (20% error).
4th floor wall Wall type 1 = timber kit 0.24 (both 5% & 20% error)
Flat Roof Flat Roof 0.36 (both 5% & 20% error)
Comparison of the construction and design & measured U-values in W/(m²K) of various elements
Hukseflux TRSYS01 U-value measurement system
Eltek U-value measurement system
BPE processes: U-Value measurements
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BPE processes - U-Value measurements
What are the limitations and sources of error?
• Placing heat flux plates on non uniform elements
• Sol-air temperature – place heat flux plates & temp sensors away from direct solar
• Convection in cavities
• Desired outdoor air temperature for 3 consecutive days
HFP B - Approx. 2.5m
AFFL
HFP A - Approx. 1.2m
AFFL
HFPs mounted at 1.2m and
2.5m above finished floor level. Flux plate located at a cold
element of roof construction
HFP
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BPE processes: U-Value measurements
Hukseflux and Eltek air temperature
and Heat Flux sensors mounted on
internal wall surfaces
Air temperature sensors mounted
on external wall surfaces facing
away from the surfaces
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BPE processes: U-Value tests
Results:
• Overall most elements exceeded regulation requirements – 23 out of the 31
elements tested achieved building regulations requirement
• Masonry walls produced sometimes unexpected results which could be linked
with possible thermal dynamic effects of the blocks/cavities
Element U-value (W/m2K) - 2007 U-value (W/m2K) - 2010
Wall 0.30 0.27 area weighted av,
Floor 0.25
Roof 0.20
Windows, doors, roof lights 2.20 1.8
Maximum U-values for building elements: Scottish Building Standards, Domestic 2007 and 2010
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Results: U-Value tests
Element Design U-value (W/m2K) Actual U-value (W/m2K)
Roof 0.19
Floors 0.15/0.17
Glazing 1.2
Kalwall 0.3 (manufacturer) 0.56 (tested)
Thermalex 0.276 (manufacturer) 0.23 (tested)
Tiled wall 0.2 (Calculated) 0.36 (tested)
Rendered wall 0.2 (Calculated) 0.30 (tested)
Non -domestic Development
Element
Construction
Design values
(W/m2K)
Measured values (W/m2K)
1st floor wall Walls type 2 = Close wall block 0.25 0.14 (20% error).
4th floor wall Wall type 1 = timber kit 0.23 0.24 (both 5% & 20% error)
Flat Roof Flat Roof 0.18 0.36 (both 5% & 20% error)
Domestic Development
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Results: U-Value tests
Bldg regs.
Max. values
Design values
Measured values
Element TA1
W/(m2K)
TB1
W/(m2K)
TA1
W/(m2K)
TB1
W/(m2K)
Pitched roofs 0.2 0.13 (0.094) 0.15 0.16
External cavity walls 0.3 0.13/0.18 (0.095) 0.13 0.12
Domestic Development
Construction element Design U-value Measured U-value % Variation
BB1 external wall (block) 0.19W/m2k 0.26W/m2k 26.5
BC1 external wall (timber) 0.19W/m2k 0.198W/m2k 4%
BC1 Roof 0.12W/m2K 0.59W/m2K 491%
Domestic Development
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Results: U-Value tests
House type Construction
element
Maximum back
stop value
(W/m2k)
Design
U-value
(W/m2k)
Measured
U-value
(W/m2k)
House Type A External (W) Wall 0.30 0.18 0.14
House Type A
External (W) Roof 0.20 0.16 0.11
House Type B External (N) Wall
0.30 0.27 0.23
House Type B External (E) Roof
0.20 0.14 0.16
House Type C External (N) Wall
0.30 0.15 Circa 20% error
0.07
House Type C External (Flat) Roof
0.20 0.16 Not Passed
0.07
House Type D External (N) Wall
Circa 1.2m FFL
0.30 0.15 0.14
House Type D External (N) Wall
Circa 2.5m FFL
0.30 0.15 0.40
Domestic Development
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BPE processes
Whole House Fabric Heat Loss Testing
(Co-heating test)
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BPE processes: Co-heating test
• thermostatically controlled heaters and fans
located in the kitchen, living room and bedrooms
• heating systems connected to energy meter
• monitor electrical energy, room temps, external
temp, solar radiation and wind speed & direction
• measurements of the heat flux through the party
wall and the room temps in adjacent house
• Calculation of performance against 3 conditions:
external, adjacent unheated property, sunspace
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Co-heating Test: Analysis and Results
Plot 1 Plot 3
Energy Consumption 189.41kWh 155.57kWh
Varied analysis approaches for taking account of solar gains and adjacent temperature
zones - with each providing slightly differing results
1. Linear regression analysis of daily average data:
• Siviour analysis (Siviour, 1981; Everett et al, 1985)
• Leeds Metropolitan University (LMU) method (Wingfield, et al 2000)
2. Dynamic technique:
• LORD program (Gutschker, 2004)
Results - Dynamic analysis using LORD
• Whole house heat loss coefficient is 64.3 W/K
• The solar gain factor is 7.4 m2
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Results: Co-heating Test
Siviour analysis
Intercept on the Y-‐axis is the
whole house heat loss coefficient
(Ω-‐value) and the slope the solar
gain factor (gA).
1. Electrical heat input (H)
2. Incident solar radiation (Gsol)
3. Indoor-outdoor temp difference (ΔT).
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Results: Co-heating Test
Leeds Met University analysis
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Energy impact
What are the energy links?
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Building Lifetimes
1. Programming
2. Design
3. Construction
Key Energy Factors
1. Environmental Performance
2. User Comfort & Satisfaction
3. Energy Use
4. Utilisation
Energy impact
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Conclusions
• Varied performance in same development and similar construction suggests a
need for better quality assurance, particularly for large developments/buildings
• air permeability rates exceeded regulations requirements in 17/26 dwellings imply
minimised heat loss through exfiltration and cold air ingress through infiltration.
• several air permeability results remained close to stable over time suggesting
robust fabrics. Others varied, suggesting testing inconsistencies, weakening fabric
• The general quality of most of the construction appears to be thermally robust in
the context of U-values, with limited weaknesses identified
• Co-heating test: a single metric attractive, but time, cost and disruption required to
achieve it, and varied analysis approaches could be called in to question
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Conclusions
• The good U-value and air permeability imply good heat containment
• While the U-values were generally better standard than the then Regulations, the
current Regulations are tighter and fewer would meet current backstop values.
• backstop air permeability targets have also improved. Some dwellings achieved
much better than the current backstop value
• targeting higher than the minimum requirements does not need to cost significantly
more; and is a good approach to future proofing new developments
• ATTMA std should reduce ambiguity results under negative and positive pressures
• Fabric quality has long term energy impacts on performance
• Some remedial measures possible at minimal cost e.g. sealing leakage points
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References
1. All Final Reports of the nine projects
2. MEARU Infrared Measurement Protocols
3. ISO:9869:1994 – U-value Testing
4. TECHNICAL STANDARD L1 and L2. Measuring air permeability of building
envelopes, October 2010 by the Air Tightness Testing and Measurement
Association (ATTMA)
5. BS EN 13829:2001 Method B – Test of the Building Envelope
6. Siviour analysis (Siviour, 1981; Everett et al, 1985)
7. Leeds Metropolitan University (LMU) method (Wingfield, et al 2000)
8. LORD program (Gutschker, 2004)