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Finite element analysis and simulation of polymersan addendum: a bibliography

(19962002)

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2003 Modelling Simul. Mater. Sci. Eng. 11 195

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INSTITUTE OF PHYSICS PUBLISHING MODELLING AND SIMULATION IN MATERIALS SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING

Modelling Simul. Mater. Sci. Eng. 11 (2003) 195231 PII: S0965-0393(03)57879-2

Finite element analysis and simulation ofpolymersan addendum: a bibliography (19962002)

Jaroslav Mackerle

Department of Mechanical Engineering, Linkoping Institute of Technology, S-581 83 Linkoping,Sweden

Received 19 December 2002Published 30 January 2003Online at stacks.iop.org/MSMSE/11/195

AbstractThis paper gives a bibliographical review of the finite element methods (FEMs)applied to the analysis and simulation of polymers. The bibliography isan addendum to the Finite element analysis and simulation of polymers: abibliography (19761996) published in the Modelling Simul. Mater. Sci. Eng.5 (1997) 61550. The added bibliography at the end of this article contains880 references to papers and conference proceedings on the subject that werepublished between 1996 and 2002. These are classified in the followingcategories: polymer flow and mixing simulation; polymer processing; thermalanalysis of polymers; fracture mechanics of polymers; modelling polymerbehaviours and their mechanical properties; practical polymer applications inengineering; other topics.

1. Introduction

Polymers are a wide class of natural or synthetic substances composed of very large molecules,and having a wide range of mechanical, physical and chemical properties. They have goodthermal and electrical insulation properties, low density and high resistance to chemicals butare mechanically weaker and exhibit a lower elastic moduli than metals. The advantageof polymers is that they can be easily manufactured into complicated shapes. The basicmanufacturing processes are extrusion, moulding, casting and forming of sheets. Polymersare rheologically characterized as viscoelastic materials.

Plastics are composed of a mixture of polymeric materials and additives, and are usuallyclassified into thermoplastics and thermosets. A main difference between both categories isin their intermolecular bonding. Thermoplastics have little or no bonding between molecules,thermosets have a strong intermolecular bonding. Rubbers are similar to plastics, thedifferences are mainly in their large extensibility and stretching. Rubbers are not handledin this paper.

Recent progress in computer hardware and software enables us to numerically studyindustrial polymer forming processes. The most frequently used numerical method is the

0965-0393/03/020195+37$30.00 2003 IOP Publishing Ltd Printed in the UK 195

196 J Mackerle

finite element method (FEM) as can be seen from many papers published on the subject andlisted in the appendix. FEM can help us to understand the interplay of physical phenomena incomplicated material processing situations where many factors as the nonlinear interactionsbetween field and interfacial phenomena have to be taken into account. The accuracy andreliability of these studies depend first of all on the material properties used in the analysis.The most important is to obtain the flow stress of the material in the whole strain range whichappears in the process. Numerical studies are unsuccessful when the analysis is applied to aninappropriate geometry or when material data are not correct.

This paper gives a review of published papers dealing with FEMs applied to polymeranalysis and polymer process simulation. For a more efficient information retrieval, the listsof references of papers published between 1996 and 2002 are divided into the following topics:

Polymer processing in general: polymer flow and mixing simulation. Polymer processing. Thermal analysis of polymers. Fracture mechanics of polymers. Modelling polymer behaviours and their mechanical properties. Practical polymer applications in engineering. Other topics.

The paper is organized into two parts. In the first one each topic is handled and current trendsin application of FEM techniques are mentioned, usually as keywords. The second part, anappendix, lists papers published in the open literature for the period 19962002 on the subjectspresented above. References have been retrieved from the authors database, MAKEBASE[1, 2]. Readers interested in the FEM literature in general are referred to [3] or to the authorsInternet Finite Element Book Bibliography (http://www.solid.ikp.liu.se/fe/index.html). Basicinformation about manufacturing processes of polymers can be found in [4, 5]. Thebibliography is an addendum to the Finite element analysis and simulation of polymers: abibliography (19761996) [6].

2. Polymer processing in general: polymer flow and mixing simulation

This section handles the development and application of existing algorithms for the solution ofgeneral polymer processing problems, while the next section is devoted to specific industrialpolymer processing techniques.

The development of new polymers is time consuming and expensive. New materials withthe required properties may sometimes be simulated experimentally by the compounding,blending, reinforcing and reactive processing of existing polymers. A part of this process cannumerically be simulated by the FEM. Analyses of the mixing of polymer melts, where effectsof operational and geometrical variables can be studied, are helpful in determining the overallaverage progression of dispersion but they are not suitable for the study of the dispersionmechanism. To study the mixing process it is important to know how a fluid particle willexperience a deformation while it moves inside the extruder. As a result the distribution ofvelocity and stress components, temperature and pressure fields is obtained. The trackingof individual particles can also be done. There are different mixing measures; these can bestudied by the FEM, by two- or three-dimensional flow approximations.

To numerically simulate a viscoelastic flow at an entry is still a great challenge because ofthe high dependency of the flow on viscoelastic properties. The obtained results have a pooraccuracy and there is a problem with convergence.

Finite element analysis and simulation of polymers 197

Topics included in this section: two- and three-dimensional polymer melt flow; die flow;contraction flow; extensional flow; confined flow; creeping flow; transient flow; coatingflow; wire-coating flow; viscoelastic complex flow; pressure driven channel flow; isothermaland non-isothermal flow models; axisymmetric entrance flow; axisymmetric stagnationflow; spatiotemporal flow; free surface flow; micro/macro flow simulations; flow duringencapsulation; polymer melts in viscometric flow; meltmelt mixing; mixing in internalmixers; diffusion problems; moisture diffusion; diffusional release; crystallization in polymerblends.

Materials handled: polymers; low density polyethylene; polycarbonate films; polystyrenefilms; liquid-crystalline polymers; semicrystalline polymers; polymer composites; rubbercompounds; liquid crystals; Nylon.

3. Polymer processing

The basic manufacturing processes for polymers are moulding, extrusion, casting, and sheetforming. The references listed in the appendix are sorted according to these subheadings.

3.1. Moulding

The moulding process includes the following steps: plastics are heated above the softeningpoint and thereafter the molten material is forced into a mould determining the dimensions ofthe part. The final step is that the part is allowed to harden by freezing or curing. Some typicalmoulding processes are: compression moulding, transfer moulding, and injection moulding.

To simulate the moulding is not easy. With regard to the mould filling it is necessary totrack the molten material moving front in the time and space. In the FEM simulation severalmethods are known to solve such a problem, i.e. using an adaptive or fixed mesh. It is alsopossible to use the particle method within the FEM.

Injection moulding is one of the most important manufacturing processes for producingthermoplastic products. This process involves filling, packing and holding, and solidification.Most computer simulations have concentrated on the filling stage but some papers have dealtwith the post-filling stages. Some problems in connection to injection moulding can be causedby flow-induced and thermally induced residual stresses occurring during the filling stage. Theycan be predicted by numerical simulations as can the shrinkage, warpage and sink markstheother main problems in polymer injection moulding. The time- and temperature-dependentconstitutive equations of an amorphous polymer are needed for the FEM analysis so that thewarpage and residual stresses can be analysed.

During the filling of complicated cavities of moulding dies, extensional deformation occursas the melt is convected through the cavity and accelerates in the direction of its motion. Themain issue in the analysis of filling is the tracking of the free surface between the filling materialand the escaping gas (air) which was present in the initially empty mould. The simulation of thepacking stage is difficult due to the complexity of dealing with compressible fluid flows. Manyfactors play an important role such as thermodynamic properties, the rheology of the resin andeventually the kinetics of crystallization. Some multidimensional FEM models for the packingstage have been developed, based for example on an augmented Lagrangian approach.

Blow moulding, originally used for the production of small bottles, has been employedin the production of hollow plastic articles (i.e. containers) as used in automotive, medicaland electrical engineering. Several other techniques are known including extrusion blowmoulding and injection blow moulding. The FEM is capable of predicting the final wallthickness distributions. This thickness is influenced by the material behaviour, deformation

198 J Mackerle

history, melt temperature, inflation pressure, etc. The geometrical shapes of blow mouldedparts are often complicated, therefore the use of preforms help create blow-moulded parts withthe required thickness distribution.

Gas-assisted injection moulding is a novel manufacturing process where the mould cavityis partially filled with polymer melt followed by the injection of inert gas into the core of thepolymer melt. The required injection pressure is reduced and therefore warpage and residualstresses are minimized. An algorithm based on a control volume/FEM combined with aparticle-tracing scheme has been used to solve two-component flow-front advancements.

To realistically model resin flow through fibrous media is an important phenomenonin the polymer composite manufacturing process such as resin transfer moulding, autoclaveprocessing or press laminating. The particular features of each composite manufacturingprocess have to be taken into account when developing finite element models.

Topics and materials included: moulding; rotational moulding; compression moulding;closure moulds; resin transfer moulding; blow moulding; stretch blow moulding; extrusionblow moulding; injection moulding; gas assisted injection moulding; injection-compressionmoulding; micro-injection moulding; co-injection moulding; two- and three-dimensionalsimulations; sensitivity analysis and optimization; warpage problems; shrinkagewarpageprediction; sink marks; capillary effects; residual stresses; filling process; inflation process;cooling systems; die design; injection moulding tools; parameter estimation; polymers;thermoplastics; thermosets; plastics; epoxy; polymer composites; polyester, polycarbonate;vinylester; metal/polymer macro-composites.

3.2. Extrusion

Extrusion process produces continuous shapes from the raw material. The material is fed into ascrew chamber where it is preheated, compressed and forced through a heated die. A polymerunder processing passes through an extruder at least once in its path from the polymerizationreactor to the finished product. When leaving the die it has to be rapidly cooled to maintain theextruded shape. Extrusion produces sheets, films, tubes, pipes, rods, profiles, etc. Uniformmixtures produced in an extruder can be used in other manufacturing processes such as injectionmoulding, compression moulding and extrusion forming.

The transporting elements in the extrusion process are important when considering theaction of the pressure pushing the polymer through the kneading elements and the heatingof polymers. The metering section of a single-screw extruder controls the throughput andthe exit melt temperature of the extruder. There are many two- and three-dimensional FEMstudies dealing with transport phenomena under screw pumping. In the twin-screw extruderthe channel of the transporting elements is interrupted by the flights of the other screw. Thiszone is important in the mixing. We study the relationship between the screw speed, throughputand the pressure gradient along the down-channel direction. Screw extruders are often usedfor blending or compounding to produce uniform mixtures of polymers. Various FEM studiesof polymer flow in intermeshing co-rotating and counter-rotating twin-screw extruders can befound in the appendix.

In an extrusion die the cross section of the flow channel changes from the circular entrancecross section to the requested exit profile. The die swelling and cooling shrinkage in the extru-date are important factors in the design of extrusion dies. Determining the pressure distributionin the die for the specified flow rate is very important; studies of the pressure drop acrossextrusion dies have been done by, for example, univariant and multivariant finite elements.

Topics and materials included: single-screw extruders; twin-screw extruders; co-rotatingtwin-screw extruders; co-extrusion; multilayer co-extrusion; barrier screw extruders; rotational

Finite element analysis and simulation of polymers 199

extrusion; counter-rotating continuous mixers; mixing performance; extrudate swelling;reactive extrusion process; profile extrusion dies; two- and three-dimensional simulations;sensitivity analysis and optimization problems; polymers; plastics; thermoplastics.

3.3. Casting

Casting is used to form parts which are difficult to produce by the other named methods.Polymers can be cast under gravity in rigid or flexible moulds. This process is cheap but slow.Rotational casting permits the manufacture of completely enclosed hollow mouldings.

The casting is an important process in polymer film forming. The molten polymer isextruded through a die and then is taken up by a rotating chill roll. The velocity of the chillroll is greater than the extrusion velocity at the die, so the molten film is stretched. Thereare some problems in this type of manufacturing: the film width decreases relative to the diewidth (neck-in) and the film thickness is thicker at the edge than in the middle of the crosssection (edge bead). The operational conditions can minimize these phenomena. Numericalsimulations can provide a powerful tool for analysing the fluid flow and heat transfer in polymercasting and can be used to examine the process over a wide range of operational conditions.

Topics and materials collected in the appendix: simulations of casting processes; pressurecasting moulding; spin casting; film casting processes; cast resin devices; polymers; polymerfilms; epoxy resins.

3.4. Other manufacturing processes (incl. sheet forming)In this section is, for example, included thermoforming. It is the shaping process applied topreviously shaped plastics with the help of heat. This term is usually limited to sheet forming;thermoforming of tubes is called blow moulding.

Other processes included contain: cold drawing; deep drawing; sheet forming; meltprocessing; melt spinning; thermoforming; solid state forming; lamination manufacturing;tape winding process; tube sinking; impregnation process; encapsulation process; preforming;hot pressing; upsetting; inflation of polymer melts; vacuum forming; wall ironing process;polymeric membranes; microporous membranes; polystyrene; polycarbonate; PET films;thermoplastics; coated sheets.

4. Thermal analysis of polymers

FEM thermomechanical modelling as well as heat transfer problems are subject of this section.FEM studies provide insight into the effects of strain rate and temperature sensitivities andthermomechanical coupling on the deformation behaviour of polymers.

The deformation of glassy polymers in their processing (extrusion, blow moulding,stretching) involves large strain deformations at elevated temperatures and rapid strain rates,and produces anisotropically strengthened components. How these properties depend onprocessing parameters (temperature, pressure, strain rate) can be investigated by the helpof numerical methods.

Polymer composites exposed to extreme temperatures can undergo thermomechanicaldecomposition (charring). Numerical methods are available to predict the thermal response ofpolymeric composites during thermomechanical decomposition.

Topics included: two- and three-dimensional heat transfer in polymers; transientanalysis; thermal properties of polymers; behaviour of polymers subjected totemperature changes; heating of polymers; curing process simulation; thermomechanical

200 J Mackerle

analysis; thermoviscoelastic analysis; thermal conductivity; thermal expansion; thermalrelaxation; thermal infrared analysis; effects of temperature and environment on polymerperformance; thermo-electrical field distribution; hygrothermal effect.

Materials under consideration: polymers; polymer matrix composites; thermosets;thermoplastics; glassy polymers; textile composites; PET, semi-crystalline polymers; rubber-like polymers; polysilicon; epoxy resins; polyethylene; polyurethane.

5. Fracture mechanics of polymers

The compliance, strain-energy release rates, stress intensity factors, etc for polymers, arestudied in this section by fracture mechanics techniques and FEM. The study of the crack-tip plastic deformations in polymers is not easy because polymers exhibit a different andmore complicated plastic behaviour than metals. The plasticity in amorphous polymerstypically manifested by softening immediately after yield, is followed by progressive strainhardening at large deformations. Another well known phenomenon is the neck propagationin polymers. The coupling between the constitutive equations of polymers and the crack-tipplastic deformation also needs more attention.

A common problem in manufacturing polymer matrix composites is that finished partscontain voids. Their presence can reduce the interlaminar shear and flexural strength of thetransverse modulus of polymer unidirectional composites. FEM can be used to analyse theeffect of the gap closure rate on the void formation mechanism.

Transverse failure and interfacial debonding in polymer composites can also be studiedby FEM parametric studies where the effects of constituent properties, interphase propertiesand thickness are included.

Topics of this section: two- and three-dimensional linear and nonlinear analysis ofpolymers; analysis of dynamic fracture events; macromechanical, mesomechanical andmicromechanical studies; energy absorption; impact damage; low-velocity impact; damagemechanics; damage detection; failure analysis; mixed-mode failure; delamination process;strength and rupture modelling; crack-tip field studies; crack initiation; crack growth; crackclosure; crack propagation; transverse cracking; interlaminar fracture; progressive fracture;fatigue life prediction; tensioncompression fatigue; thermal fatigue; crush response; rate-dependent fracture properties; time-dependent failure; fracture toughness; dynamic fracturetoughness; cohesive zone modelling; effect of geometric parameters; biaxial fragmentation;void growth; neck propagation; material testing.

Materials under consideration: polymers; amorphous polymers; plastics; Nylon;glassy polymers; glass fibre-reinforced plastics; semi-crystalline polymers; rubber-modifiedepoxies; elastomeric polymers; polymer matrix composites; polymer particle composites;polymermetal interfaces; polymeric foams; fibre-reinforced-polymer strengthened RC;thermoplastic and thermoset composites; polycarbonate; polyethylene; polypropylene;polyamide; polystyrene; PMC; PVC; PMMA; HAPEX; PET; silica films on polymers.

6. Modelling polymer behaviours and their mechanical properties

Polymers subjected to large strains undergo an evolution in molecular orientation and thecorresponding strengthening is highly dependent on the state of strain. Linear and nonlinearviscoelastic and viscoplastic FEM models have been used to study the time-dependentdeformation or failure of polymers, as well as the thermomechanical behaviour of anisotropicpolymers under large deformations. Constitutive models with properties corresponding to the

Finite element analysis and simulation of polymers 201

necking and strain-hardening behaviour of polymers have been derived and the relevant papersare listed in the appendix.

Topics included: constitutive modelling; material parameter identification; stress anddeformation analysis; micro-, meso- and macromechanical two- and three-dimensionalstudies; mechanical properties; residual stresses; stiffness analysis; stressstrain behaviour;large deformation modelling; large strain mechanical response; size-dependent mechanicalproperties; warpage parameter; rheological characterization; creep behaviour; dielectricresponse; piezoelectric properties; pore nucleation and growth; friction and wear behaviour;electrical potential modelling; nanoscale properties; strain-rate-dependent behaviour; strainsoftening and localization; dynamic behaviour of polymers; vibration analysis; predictingdamping; material design under impact; effects of fibre orientation and fibre shape; effectsof crystallinity on elastic properties; free edge and time effects; effects of moisture; interfaceproperty determination.

Materials: polymers; plastics; fibre-reinforced plastics; polymer composites; filledpolymers; rubber-toughened polymers; glassy polymers; amorphous glassy polymers; porouspolymers; auxetic polymers; thermoplastics; polymeric biomaterials; polymer gels; polymerfilms; liquid crystal polymers; semicrystalline polymers; cellular polymer foams; epoxyresins; polycarbonate; polystyrene; polypropylene; polyacrylamide; polymethyl methacrylate;polyimide films; polyethylene films; polyester films; semicrystalline polyethylene;polyurethane foams; foamed polyolefin; glass-fibre/epoxy laminates; glass-fibre/vinyl-estercomposites; glass reinforced polyamides; ultra-high-molecular-weight polyethylene; glass-fibre reinforced polypropylene; Nylon; lead-titanate/polymer composites; plastic-metaljoints.

7. Practical polymer applications in engineering

The increasing use of polymers in different fields of engineering can be explained on thebasis of performance or economics. The performance advantage of polymers is light weight,corrosion resistance, low coefficient of friction, low thermal/electrical conductivity, opticalproperties, etc. The ease of manufacturing and no need for finishing further adds to theireconomic advantages.

Some application areas for polymer usage are: electronic products (insulators,waveguides, sensors, actuators, attenuators, membranes, transducers, coupler switches, waferjoints, polymer magnets, electronic packaging, etc); automotive engineering (honeycombs,gears, underhood components, side-view mirrors, instrument panels, hubs, seating foams, etc);biomechanics (hip joint prostheses, knee prostheses, inserts, stents, acetabular cups,heart valve prostheses, microcatheters, helmets, femoral stems, phantoms, etc); civil andbuilding engineering (anchorage, bridges, polymer concrete structures, pipes, tubes, pipelinings, beams, fittings, poles, etc); other fields (marine engineering, pressure vessels,containers, compressor valves, packaging materials, stereolitography products, surface reliefgratings, polyethylene plants, etc).

8. Other topics

In this section the following topics are included: fastening and joining; contact problems;indentation problems; resistance welding; ultrasonic welding; optimization problems;computational and solution strategies.

202 J Mackerle

Acknowledgments

The bibliography presented in appendix is by no means complete but it gives a comprehensiverepresentation of different finite element applications on the subjects. The author wishes toapologize for the unintentional exclusion of missing references and would appreciate receivingcomments and pointers to other relevant literature for a future update. This bibliography canassist researchers interested in described subjects but not having the access to large databasesor not willing to spend their time for own time-consuming information retrieval.

References

[1] Mackerle J 1989 MAKEBASE, an information retrieval system in structural mechanics for main-frames andpersonal computers Eng. Comput. 6 17885

[2] Mackerle J 1993 An information retrieval system for finite element and boundary element literature and softwareEng. Anal. Boundary Elem. 11 17787

[3] Mackerle J 1991 Finite Element Methods, A Guide to Information Sources (Amsterdam: Elsevier)[4] Farag M M 1989 Selection of Material and Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Design (New York:

Prentice-Hall)[5] Tadmor Z and Gogos C G 1979 Principles of Polymer Processing (New York: Wiley)[6] Mackerle J 1997 Finite-element analysis and simulation of polymers: a bibliography (19761996) Model. Simul.

Mater. Sci. Eng. 5 61550

Appendix A. Bibliography (19962002)

This addendum provides a list of references on finite element analysis and simulation ofpolymers. Presented listings contain papers published in scientific journals, conferenceproceedings and theses/dissertations retrospectively to 1996. References have been retrievedfrom the authors database, MAKEBASE. The COMPENDEX database and AppliedMechanics Reviews have also been checked. Presented references are grouped into the samesections as listed in the first part of this paper.

References are not arranged chronologically but sorted in each category alphabeticallyaccording to the first authors name. If a specific paper is relevant for several subject categories,the same reference can be listed under respective section headings.

A.1. Polymer processing in general: polymer flow and mixing simulationBogaerds A C B et al 1999 3D viscoelastic analysis of a polymer solution in a complex flow Comput. Methods. Appl.

Mech. Eng. 180 41330Bourry D et al 1997 Extensional flow of polymeric dispersions Int. Symp. Polym. Plast. Eng. (Boucherville) pp 31440Bourry D et al 1999 Extensional flow of polymeric dispersions Polym. Eng. Sci. 39 107286Chandio M S and Webster M F 2002 Numerical study of transient instabilities in reverse roller coating flows Int. J.

Numer. Methods Heat Fluid Flow 12 375403Esseghir M et al 1998 Comparative study on the performance of three single-screw elements in meltmelt mixing of

immiscible blends Adv. Polym. Technol. 17 117Fan P and Vlachopoulos J 1998 Computer simulation of melt flow in wave screws 56th Ann. Techn. Conf. (ANTEC,

Atlanta) pp 97101Fang J et al 1997 Numerical simulation of polymeric flow based on molecular models J. Chem. Ind. Eng. China 48

2649Feigl K and Ottinger H C 1996 Numerical study of the flow of a low-density-polyethylene melt in a planar contraction

and comparison to experiments J. Rheol. 40 2135Feng J and Leal L G 1997 Simulating complex flows of liquid-crystalline polymers using the Doi theory J. Rheol. 41

131735Feng J and Leal L G 1999 Pressure-driven channel flows of a model liquid-crystalline polymer Phys. Fluids 11

282135

Finite element analysis and simulation of polymers 203

Freese C E and Walsh S M 1998 An a priori grid permutation for isothermal flow models Polym. Compos. 19 75967Funatsu K et al 2002 3-D numerical analysis on the mixing performance for assemblies with filled zone of right-handed

and left-handed double-flighted screws Polym. Eng. Sci. 42 70723Ghoreishy M H R and Nassehi V 1997 Modeling the transient flow of rubber compounds in the dispersive section of

an internal mixer with slip-stick boundary conditions Adv. Polym. Technol. 16 4568Grillet A M et al 2002 Stability analysis of constitutive equations for polymer melts in viscometric flows J. Non-Newton

Fluid Mech. 103 22150Gupta M 2000 Effect of elongational viscosity on axisymmetric entrance flow of polymers Polym. Eng. Sci. 40 2335Gupta M 2001 Simulation of planar entrance flow using strain-rate-dependent shear and elongational viscosities

J. Reinf. Plast. Compos. 20 34155Han R 2001 Three-dimensional simulation of reactive polymeric flow during microchip encapsulation PhD Thesis

Michigan Technological UniversityHartt W H and Baird D G 1996 The confined flow of polyethylene melts past a cylinder in a planar channel J. Non-

Newton Fluid Mech. 65 24768Hooper R W 2001 Drop dynamics in polymer processing flows PhD Thesis University of MinnesotaHua C C and Schieber J D 1996 Application of kinetic theory models in spatiotemporal flows for polymer solutions,

liquid crystals and polymer melts using the CONNFFESSIT approach Chem. Eng. Sci. 51 147385Huang L M et al 1996 Numerical simulation of non-Newtonian jets emanating from a converging cone J. Polym. Res.

3 3948Huang X and Zhou C 1999 Simulation of the packing stage of viscoelastic polymer melt under non-isothermal

conditions J. Shanghai Jiaotong Univ. 33 2148Ishikawa T et al 2000 Numerical simulation and experimental verification of nonisothermal flow in counter-rotating

nonintermeshing continuous mixers Polym. Eng. Sci. 40 36575Jourdain B et al 2002 Numerical analysis of micromacro simulations of polymeric fluid flows: a simple case Math.

Models Meth. Appl. Sci. 12 120543Kit K M and Schultz J M 1997 A spacetime element model to study the influence of interfacial kinetics and diffusion

on crystallization kinetics Int. J. Numer. Methods Eng. 40 267992Kit K M and Schultz J M 1998 Study of bundle formation during crystallization in polymer blends J. Polym. Sci. 36

(part B) 87388Lawal A et al 2000 Mathematical modeling of three-dimensional die flows of viscoplastic fluids with wall slip J. Reinf.

Plast. Compos. 19 148392Lee K and Mackley M R 2000 The significance of slip in matching polyethylene processing data with numerical

simulation J. Non-Newton Fluid Mech. 94 15977Li J M et al 1998 Flow birefringence and computational studies of a shear thinning polymer solution in axisymmetric

stagnation flow J. Non-Newton Fluid Mech. 74 15193Liu A W et al 1998 Viscoelastic flow of polymer solutions around a periodic, linear array of cylinders: comparisons

of predictions for microstructure and flow fields J. Non-Newton Fluid Mech. 77 15390Loh K W L et al 1996 Effect of constitutive models on the numerical simulation of viscoelastic flow at an entry region

Polym. Eng. Sci. 36 19902000Luo X L 1996 Control volume approach for integral viscoelastic models and its application to contraction flow of

polymer melts J. Non-Newton Fluid Mech. 64 17389Masunaga T et al 1997 Analysis of polymer flow due to capillary forces for flip-chip package designs Adv. Electron.

Packaging, INTERpack 97 pp 105964Matallah H et al 2002 Viscoelastic computations of polymeric wire-coating flows Int. J. Numer. Methods Heat Fluid

Flow 12 40433Mutlu I et al 1998 Simulation of cable-coating viscoelastic flows with coupled and decoupled schemes J. Non-Newton

Fluid Mech. 74 123Nassehi V and Ghoreishy M H R 2001 Modeling of mixing in internal mixers with long blade tips Adv. Polym. Technol.

20 13245Ngamaramvaranggul V and Webster M F 2002 Simulation of pressure-tooling wire-coating flow with Phan-

Thien/Tanner models Int. J. Numer. Methods Fluids 38 677710Ogawa T and Masuichi M 1997 Diffusion of organic solvents into polycarbonate film J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 63 94349Pardo E et al 2000 Finite element model of interdiffusion and reaction in polydisperse polymer blends Int. J. Numer.

Methods Eng. 49 128194Petera J and Nassehi V 1996 Finite element modelling of free surface viscoelastic flows with particular application to

rubber mixing Int. J. Numer. Methods Fluids 23 111732Poitou A and Ammar A 2002 A molecular model for flow induced crystallization of polymers Flow-Induced Crystall.

Polym. (New York: Wiley) pp 24355

204 J Mackerle

Prabhu N et al 2001 Role of coupling microscopic and macroscopic phenomena during the crystallization ofsemicrystalline polymers Polym. Eng. Sci. 41 187185

Roy S 1999 Modeling of anomalous moisture diffusion in polymer composites: a finite element approach J. Compos.Mater. 33 131843

Roy S et al 2000 Anomalous moisture diffusion in viscoelastic polymers: modeling and testing J. Appl. Mech. 67(ASME) 3916

Strzhemechny Y et al 2000 Spatial and temporal dependence of diffusion in polystyrene thin films on silicon andcarbon surfaces High Perf. Polym. 12 6119

Takase M et al 2002 Numerical analysis of polymer melt flow in the nipping region Polym. Eng. Sci. 42 83645Testa C et al 2001 Morphology evolution of immiscible polymer blends in complex flow fields Polymer 42 56519Versluis A et al 1996 Does an incremental filling technique reduce polymerization shrinkage stresses? J. Dent. Res.

75 8718Wise G M et al 1998 Near surface dynamics of sheared polymer melts using ATR/FTIR AIChE J. 44 70110Wu G H and Lin Y M 2002 Creeping flow of a polymeric liquid passing over a transverse slot with viscous dissipation

Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer 45 470311Wu G H et al 1999 Numerical prediction of non-isothermal flow of nylon-6 past a cylinder between plates J. Polym.

Eng. 19 2738Wu G H et al 1999 On the flow of a polymer melt passing over a transverse slot J. Polym. Eng. 19 17596Wu X Y and Zhou Y 1999 Studies of diffusional release of a dispersed solute from polymeric matrixes by finite

element method J. Pharmaceut. Sci. 88 10507Yamamoto S and Matsuoka T 1996 Dynamic simulation of microstructure and rheology of fiber suspensions Polym.

Eng. Sci. 36 2396403Yao C H and Manas-Zloczower I 1996 Study of mixing efficiency in roll-mills Polym. Eng. Sci. 36 30510Yao C H and Manas-Zloczower I 1998 Influence of design on mixing performance in an axial discharge continuous

mixer-LCMAX 40 56th Ann. Tech. Conf. (ANTEC, Atlanta) pp 17882Youcefi A et al 1997 On the influence of liquid elasticity on mixing in a vessel agitated by a two-bladed impeller

J. Fluids Eng. 119 (ASME) 61622

A.2. Polymer processing

A.2.1. Moulding

Akay M et al 1996 Prediction of process-induced warpage in injection molded thermoplastics Polym. Eng. Sci. 36183946

Battey D J and Gupta M 1997 Finite element prediction of sink marks in injection molded plastic parts ASME Int.Mech. Eng. Cong. Expo. MD 79 (ASME) pp 33550

Bernhardt A and Vettor D 1998 Advanced cooling system for closure molds 56th Ann. Tech. Conf. (ANTEC, Atlanta)pp 8526

Bonten C et al 2000 Designing injection moulded parts with FEM: practical help and experience Kunstoffe Plast.Europe 90 358

Brickley J and Johnson T 1996 Quick mold analysis for the designer 54th Ann. Tech. Conf. (ANTEC, Indianapolis)pp 320812

Chang C Y et al 1997 Numerical study on the capillary effect of resin transfer molding J. Reinf. Plast. Compos. 1656686

Chen M et al 2002 Finite element analysis of forming of sheet metal blank in manufacturing metal/polymer macro-composite components via injection moulding Int. J. Mach. Tools Manuf. 42 37583

Chen S C et al 1996 Simulation of polymer melt and gas flow during gas assisted injection moulding of uniform thickpart Plast. Rubber Compos. Process. Appl. 25 238

Chen S C et al 1996 Polymer melt flow and gas penetration in gas-assisted injection molding of a thin part with gaschannel design Int. J. Heat Mass Transf. 39 295768

Chen S C et al 1996 Study of polymer melt flow in sequential injection molding process AIChE J. 42 170614Chen S C et al 1996 Characteristic study of polymer melt flow and gas penetration in gas-assisted injection molding

Proc. Natl. Sci. Counc. China 20 (part A) 14857Chen S C et al 1997 Integrated simulations of structural performance, molding process and warpage for gas-assisted

injection molded parts ASME Int. Mech. Eng. Cong. Expo. MD 69 (ASME) pp 1532Chen S C et al 1998 Simulations of primary and secondary gas penetration for a gas-assisted injection-molded thin

part with gas channel J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 67 155364

Finite element analysis and simulation of polymers 205

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Chen S C et al 1999 Integrated simulations of structural performance, molding process, and warpage for gas-assistedinjection-molded parts, III J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 71 33951

Chen S C et al 2000 Simulation of injectioncompression molding process2: Influence of process characteristicson part shrinkage J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 75 164054

Chen S C et al 2001 Integrated simulations of gas injection molding process and part structural performance under aunified CAE model J. Reinf. Plast. Compos. 20 1221

Chen S C et al 2002 Simulation of injectioncompression molding process3: Effect of process conditions on partbirefringence Adv. Polym. Technol. 21 17787

Cheon J S et al 1999 Determination of short glass-fiber volume fractions in compression molded thermosetcompositesnumerical J. Compos. Mater. 33 54766

Chiu H T et al 1996 Flow modeling of thermoset injection molding 54th Ann. Tech. Conf. (ANTEC, Indianapolis)pp 9106

Choi M A et al 1999 Three-dimensional simulations of the curing step in the resin transfer molding process Polym.Compos. 20 54352

Chung S T and Kwon T H 1996 Coupled analysis of injection molding filling and fiber orientation, including in-planevelocity gradient effect Polym. Compos. 17 85972

Codina R and Soto O 1999 Finite element simulation of the filling of thin moulds Int. J. Numer. Methods Eng. 46155973

Courbebaisse G and Garcia D 2002 Shape analysis and injection molding optimization Comput. Mater. Sci. 25 54753Davis B A et al 1997 Optimization of the compression (injection/compression) molding process using numerical

simulation ASME Int. Mech. Eng. Cong. Expo. MD 79 (ASME) pp 12538Deb M K et al 1998 Finite element analysis of three-dimensional RTM process 56th Ann. Tech. Conf. (ANTEC,

Atlanta) pp 23226Debbaut B 1997 Prediction of extensions in 3-D blow moulding simulation. J. Reinf. Plast. Compos. 16 125562Dortmans A et al 2002 Prediction and improvement of the lifetime of polymer pressure casting moulds CFI- Ceramic

Forum Int. 79 D3248Gao D M 2001 Three dimensional filling analysis of gas-assisted injection molding J. Reinf. Plast. Compos. 20 10909Gokce A et al 2002 Branch and bound search to optimize injection gate locations in liquid composite molding processes

Composites 33 (part A) 126372Grillet A M et al 2002 Numerical analysis of flow mark surface defects in injection molding flow J. Rheol. 46 65169Guo Z et al 2002 Warpage of injection-molded thermoplastics parts: numerical simulation and experimental validation

J. Mater. Eng. Perform. 11 13844Gust P and Schmitt W 1999 Product development in extrusion blow moulding Kunstoffe Plast. Europe 89 113Haagh G A A V and Van de Vosse F N 1998 Simulation of three-dimensional polymer mould filling processes using

a pseudo-concentration method Int. J. Numer. Methods Fluids 28 135569Han R and Gupta M 1998 Three-dimensional simulation of plastic molding processes: application to microchip

encapsulation 56th Ann. Tech. Conf. (ANTEC, Atlanta) pp 12115Hetu J F et al 1996 3D finite element method for the simulation of the filling stage in injection moulding 54th Ann.

Tech. Conf. (ANTEC, Indianapolis) pp 7037Holm E J and Langtangen H P 1999 A unified finite element model for the injection molding process Comput. Methods

Appl. Mech. Eng. 178 41329Hu S Y et al 1997 Investigations of structural performance of gas assisted injection moulded parts reinforced by gas

channels Plast. Rubber Compos. Process. Appl. 26 1727Hu S Y et al 1997 Simulation of cyclic transient variations in mould temperatures during epoxy moulding compound

curing stage of transfer moulding process Plast. Rubber Compos. Process. Appl. 26 25663Ikegawa N et al 1996 Effect of compression process on void behavior in structural resin transfer molding Polym. Eng.

Sci. 36 95362Ilinca F and Hetu J F 2002 Three-dimensional finite element solution of gas-assisted injection moulding Int. J. Numer.

Methods Eng. 53 200317Jin X and Zhao Z 1998 Shrinkagewarpage prediction method for injection-molded fiber-filled polymer composite

parts 56th Ann. Tech. Conf. (ANTEC, Atlanta) pp 6148Johnson L et al 2000 Gas assisted injection moulding finite element modelling and experimental validation Plast.

Rubber Compos. 29 317Jovanovic V et al 2001 Parameter estimation for resin transfer molding Eng. Comput. 18 1091107Kang M K and Lee W I 1999 Analysis of resin transfer/compression molding process Polym. Compos. 20

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Kansal G et al 2001 Study: temperature and residual stress in an injection moulded gear J. Mater. Process. Technol.108 32837

Kiasat M S et al 2001 Creep behaviour of a molding compound and its effect on packaging process stresses 51stElectron. Compon. Tech. Conf. pp 9318

Kikuchi H and Koyama K 1996 Generalized warpage parameter Polym. Eng. Sci. 36 130916Kikuchi H and Koyama K 1996 The relation between thickness and warpage in a disk injection molded from fiber

reinforced PA66 Polym. Eng. Sci. 36 131725Kikuchi H and Koyama K 1996 Warpage, anisotropy, and part thickness Polym. Eng. Sci. 36 132635Kim S W et al 1997 Process analysis of resin transfer, molding with autoclave-assisted laminate consolidation Adv.

Polym. Technol. 16 18597Kunc P E 1997 Computer simulation of the injection molding process for thin wall parts 3rd Ann. Conf. Plast. Portab.

Wireless Electr. (Philadelphia) pp 1925Lai C L and Young W B 1999 Effects of preforming induced variable permeabilities on the RTM molding flow Polym.

Compos. 20 22539Lai-Fook R A et al 2002 Residual thermal stresses in injection moldings of thermoplastics: a theoretical and

experimental study Polym. Eng. Sci. 42 1098114Lam Y C et al 2000 Numerical simulation of the mould-filling process in resin-transfer moulding Compos. Sci.

Technol. 60 84555Lee D K and Soh S K 1996 Prediction of optimal preform thickness distribution in blow molding Polym. Eng. Sci. 36

151320Lee H S 1997 Finite element analysis for the flow characteristics along the thickness direction in injection molding

Polym. Eng. Sci. 37 55967Li Q et al 1996 Three-dimensional transient mold cooling analysis based on Galerkin finite element formulation with

a matrix-free conjugate gradient technique Int. J. Numer. Methods Eng. 39 304964Liu S J 1996 Modeling and simulation of thermally induced stress and warpage in injection molded thermoplastics

Polym. Eng. Sci. 36 80718Liu S J 1999 Computer simulation of the inflation process in blow molding J. Reinf. Plast. Compos. 18 75974Maier R S et al 1996 A fast numerical method for isothermal resin transfer mold filling Int. J. Numer. Methods Eng.

39 140517Mattis J et al 1996 Framework for analyzing energy efficient injection molding die design 1996 IEEE Int. Symp.

Electron. Environ. (Dallas) pp 20712McEvoy J P et al 1998 Simulation of the stretch blow molding process of PET bottles Adv. Polym. Technol. 17

33952Menary G H 2001 Modelling injection stretch blow moulding and the resulting in service performance of PET bottles

PhD Thesis Queens University of BelfastMiller K and Ramani K 1998 Analysis of an inductively heated compression molding process Adv. Polym. Technol.

17 2517Mohan R V et al 1999 On a pure finite element based methodology for resin transfer mold filling simulations Polym.

Eng. Sci. 39 2643Moritzer E and Potente H 1996 Theoretical and practical results for the gas injection molding process variant: melt

displacement into an overflow cavity 54th Ann. Tech. Conf. (ANTEC, Indianapolis) pp 6748Neves N M et al 1998 On the effect of the fiber orientation on the flexural stiffness of injection molded short fiber

reinforced polycarbonate plates Polym. Compos. 19 64051Olson L G et al 1997 Numerical modeling for rotational molding of thermoplastics ASME Int. Mech. Eng. Cong.

Expo. vol HTD 351 (ASME) pp 1139Onalir B et al 1998 Application of computer-aided injection moulding simulation for thermoplastic materials Int. J.

Mater. Product. Technol. 13 282300Park C H et al 2001 A study on fiber orientation in the compression molding of fiber reinforced polymer composite

material J. Mater. Process. Technol. 111 2339Pham G T and Colton J S 2002 Ejection force modeling for stereolithography injection molding tools Polym. Eng.

Sci. 42 68193Pichelin E and Coupez T 1998 Finite element solution of the 3D mold filling problem for viscous incompressible fluid

Comput. Methods Appl. Mech. Eng. 163 35971Prystay M and Garcia-Rejon A 1996 Using tomography to optimize the blow-molding process Plast. Eng. 52 413Reddy A M K and Gupta M 1996 Beyond HeleShaw flow for simulation of plastic molding processes: application

to encapsulation of microchips J. Eng. Appl. Sci. 2 14537Sander R and Pittman J F T 1996 Simulation of slit dies in operation including the interaction between melt pressure

and die deflection Polym. Eng. Sci. 36 197289

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Schlatter G et al 1997 Unsteady flow of two viscous fluids in a tubular cavity-application to co-injection molding ofthermoplastic polymers Eur. J. Mech. B/Fluids 16 693704

Shen Y K et al 2002 Three-dimensional non-Newtonian computations of micro-injection molding with the finiteelement method Int. Commun. Heat Mass Transf. 29 64352

Shi L and Gupta M 1998 Prediction of sink marks in injection-molded plastic parts using a localized shrinkage analysisnear a rib 56th Ann. Tech. Conf. (ANTEC, Atlanta) pp 60913

Shin D K and Lee J J 1998 Effective material properties and thermal stress analysis of epoxy molding compound inelectronic packaging IEEE Trans. Compon. Pack. Manuf. Tech. 21 41321

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Smith D E 1996 Optimal design and analysis for polymer extrusion and molding PhD Thesis University of Illinois,Urbana

Smith D E 1999 A gate parametrization scheme for sensitivity analysis and optimization of the polymer injectionmolding process 5th US Natl. Cong. Comput. Mech. (Boulder) p 468

Smith D E et al 1998 Analysis and sensitivity analysis for polymer injection and compression molding Comput.Methods Appl. Mech. Eng. 167 32544

Song Y et al 1997 Finite element prediction of backlite molding squeak noise SAE Spec. Publ. 1233 16771Song Y H et al 1999 Study on the warpage of plastics vacuum-forming process J. Reinf. Plast. Compos. 18 93141Stojek M and Michaeli W 1998 Automatic application of ribs in product design to increase the stiffness of injection-

moulded parts 56th Ann. Tech. Conf. (ANTEC, Atlanta) pp 305862Tang L Q et al 1996 Optimal design of cooling system for injection molding 54th Ann. Tech. Conf. (ANTEC,

Indianapolis) pp 7148Tang L Q et al 1997 Optimal cooling system design for multi-cavity injection molding Finite Elem. Anal. Des. 26

22951Tanoue S et al 1996 Numerical simulation of blow moldingprediction of parison diameter and thickness distributions

in the parison formation process Polym. Eng. Sci. 36 200817Tham N C and Mennig G 2001 Non-isothermal transient flow and molecular orientation during injection mold filling

Rheol. Acta 40 6773Viana J C et al 1999 Prediction of the tensile impact behavior of injection molded samples from quasistatic data

Polym. Eng. Sci. 39 146372Walsh S M and Freese C E 1996 Resin flow front reconstruction with applications to resin transfer molding 41st

SAMPE Symp. Exhib. (Anaheim) pp 148695Wang J et al 1999 Investigation of viscoelastic effect of molding compound on the warpage and stresses of a power

plastic package Int. J. Vehicle Des. 21 37294Wang S et al 1998 Three-dimensional viscoplastic FEM simulation of a stretch blow molding process Adv. Polym.

Technol. 17 189202Wilhelm T W 1996 Evaluation of molding process impact on finite element structural analysis 54th Ann. Tech. Conf.

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Exhib. 42 143949Yousefi A et al 1997 Numerical analysis of promoted polyester and vinylester reinforced composites in RTM molds

Polym. Eng. Sci. 37 75771Zheng R et al 1996 Predicting warpage of injection molded fiber-reinforced plastics J. Thermoplast. Compos. Mater.

9 90106Zhou H and Li D 2001 A numerical simulation of the filling stage in injection molding based on a surface model Adv.

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A.2.2. Extrusion

Bohme G and Broszeit J 1997 Numerical flow simulation for Bingham plastics in a single-screw extruder Theor.Comput. Fluid Dyn. 9 6574

Bohme G and Wunsch O 1997 Analysis of shear-thinning fluid flow in intermeshing twin-screw extruders Arch. Appl.Mech. 67 16778

Broszeit J 1997 Finite element simulation of circulating steady flow for fluids of the memory-integral type: flow in asingle-screw extruder J. Non-Newton Fluid Mech. 70 3558

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Cheng H and Manas-Zloczower I 1997 Study of mixing efficiency in kneading disc of co-rotating twin-screw extrudersPolym. Eng. Sci. 37 108290

Chiew L M and Gupta M 2002 Simultaneous simulation of solid conveying, melting and melt flow between parallelplates: an approximation to the flow in a screw extruder J. Reinf. Plast. Compos. 21 105578

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and left-handed double-flighted screws Polym. Eng. Sci. 42 70723Ghoreishy M H R and Rafizadeh M 1996 Numerical simulation of thermoplastic melt flow in single screw extruder

using finite element method Plast. Rubber Process. Appl. 25 1205Gifford W A 1996 A three-dimensional finite element analysis of the effect of Reynolds number on extrudate swell

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transporting section Polym. Eng. Sci. 36 90111Goffart D et al 1996 Three-dimensional flow modeling of a self-wiping corotating twin-screw extruder. Part II: The

kneading section Polym. Eng. Sci. 36 91224Gust P and Schmitt W 1999 Product development in extrusion blow moulding Kunstoffe Plast. Eur. 89 113Huneault M 1997 Residence time distribution, mixing and pumping in co-rotating twin screw extruders Int. Symp.

Polymer Blends Alloys Fill. Syst. (Boucherville) pp 16587Hurez P et al 1996 A new design procedure for profile extrusion dies Polym. Eng. Sci. 36 62635Ishikawa T et al 2000 Numerical simulation and experimental verification of nonisothermal flow in counter-rotating

nonintermeshing continuous mixers Polym. Eng. Sci. 40 36575Ishikawa T et al 2002 Flow patterns and mixing mechanisms in the screw mixing element of a co-rotating twin-screw

extruder Polym. Eng. Sci. 42 92539Kajiwara T et al 1996 Numerical study of twin-screw extruders by 3-D flow analysis-development of analysis technique

and evaluation of mixing performance for screws Polym. Eng. Sci. 36 214252.Kalyon D M et al 1997 Mathematical modeling and experimental studies of twin screw extrusion processing of filled

polymers Int. Symp. Polym. Blends Alloys Fill. Syst. (Boucherville) pp 188234Kalyon D M et al 1999 Mathematical modeling and experimental studies of twin-screw extrusion of filled polymers

Polym. Eng. Sci. 39 113951Kim S J and Kwon T H 1996 Measures of mixing for extrusion by averaging concepts Polym. Eng. Sci. 36 146676Kim S J and Kwon T H 1996 Enhancement of mixing performance of single-screw extrusion processes via chaotic

flows: Part IINumerical study Adv. Polym. Technol. 15 5569Lawal A et al 1996 Twin screw extrusion processing of filled polymers 54th Ann. Tech. Conf. (ANTEC, Indianapolis)

pp 3815Lawal A et al 1996 Coupled simulation of die and extrusion flows using three-dimensional finite element method 54th

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Asia 97 (Seoul) pp 6014Ngamaramvaranggul V and Webster M F 2002 Simulation of pressure-tooling wire-coating flow with Phan-

Thien/Tanner models Int. J. Numer. Methods Fluids 38 677710Otsuki Y et al 1997 Numerical simulations of annular extrudate swell of polymer melts Polym. Eng. Sci. 37 117181Peng J and Chen J N 2002 Numerical simulations of polymer melt conveying in co-rotating twin screw extruder

J. Beijing Inst. Technol. 11 18992Rubin Y et al 1998 Die design improvements through numerical simulation for the extrusion of EPDM compounds

Kautschuk Gummi Kunst. 51 6028Sienz J et al 1998 Optimisation of PVC window profile extrusion dies 4th World Cong. Comput. Mech. (Buenos Aires),

p 805Sienz J et al 1999 Computer aided design of profile extrusion dies Innov. Comput. Meth. Struct. Mech. (Saxe-Coburg,

Edinburgh) ed M Papadrakakis, pp 271303Smith D E 1996 Optimal design and analysis for polymer extrusion and molding PhD Thesis University of Illinois,

UrbanaSmith D E et al 1998 Optimal design for polymer extrusion. Part I: Sensitivity analysis for nonlinear steady-state

systems Comput. Methods Appl. Mech. Eng. 167 283302

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Strutt D et al 1998 Modeling of a reactive extrusion process in a single-screw extruder 56th Ann. Tech. Conf. (ANTEC,Atlanta) pp 22731

Strutt D et al 2000 Mixing analysis of reactive polymer flow in conveying elements of a co-rotating twin screw extruderAdv. Polym. Technol. 19 2233

Sweeney J et al 2002 The modelling of large deformations of pre-oriented polyethylene Polymer 43 899907Takase M et al 2002 Numerical analysis of polymer melt flow in the nipping region Polym. Eng. Sci. 42 83645Tzoganakis C and Karagiannis A 1996 Three-dimensional finite element analysis of polymer rotational extrusion

Polym. Eng. Sci. 36 1796806Wolff T and Michaeli W 1998 Modeling of the thermal homogenizing effect of cross-hole mixing element for single

stage extrusion 56th Ann. Tech. Conf. (ANTEC, Atlanta) pp 23740Yao W G et al 2001 Mixing efficiency in a pin mixing section for single-screw extruders Polym. Eng. Sci. 41 90817Yu Y W and Liu T J 1998 Simple numerical approach for the optimal design of an extrusion die J. Polym. Res. 5 17Zatloukal M et al 2002 Viscoelastic stress calculation in multi-layer coextrusion dies: die design and extensional

viscosity effects on the onset of wave interfacial instabilities Polym. Eng. Sci. 42 152033Zerafati S et al 1996 Design of sinusoidal barrier mixing element for single screw extrusion 54th Ann. Tech. Conf.

(ANTEC, Indianapolis) pp 1437Zheng Z 2002 Computational/experimental characterization of recycled plastic extrusions with reinforcement

PhD Thesis Florida Institute of Technology

A.2.3. Casting

Codina R and Soto O 1999 Finite element simulation of the filling of thin moulds Int. J. Numer. Methods Eng. 46155973

Dortmans A et al 2002 Prediction and improvement of the lifetime of polymer pressure casting moulds CFI- CeramicForum Int. 79 D3248

Gunasegaram D R et al 2000 Modelling the casting process of plastic opthalmic lenses Int. J. Mach. Tools Manuf. 4062339

Hossain N M and Jenkins C 2001 Spin casting modeling of polymer films Int. SAMPE Tech. Conf. 33 16375Kaindl A et al 1998 Simulation of the curing process upon epoxy-resin casting of electrical apparatusesa flexible

way to do this Int. Symp. Electr. Insul. Mater. (Toyohashi Univ. of Tech., IEEE) pp 27780Mazauric V G and Segarceanu G N 1998 Electrical potential modeling on cast resin devices EPJ Appl Phys. 2 5762Sakaki K et al 1996 Three-dimensional flow simulation of a film-casting process Polym. Eng. Sci. 36 182131Satoh N et al 2001 Viscoelastic simulation of film casting process for a polymer melt Polym. Eng. Sci. 41 156479Smith S et al 1998 Nonisothermal film casting of a viscous polymer 56th Ann. Tech. Conf. (ANTEC, Atlanta) pp 35126Weinberg S A et al 1996 In-plane permittivity of spin-cast polymer films 1995 MRS Fall Meet. 411 (MRS) pp 22934

A.2.4. Other manufacturing processes (incl. sheet forming)Ahn D G et al 2002 Investigation into thermal characteristics of linear hotwire cutting system for variable lamination

manufacturing (VLM) by using polystyrene foam Int. J. Mach. Tools Manuf. 42 42739Ajji A et al 1996 High performance materials obtained by solid state forming of polymers J. Reinf. Plast. Compos.

15 65262Chandavasu C 2001 Microporous polymeric membranes via melt processing PhD Thesis (New Jersey Institute of

Technology)Chandavasu C et al 2002 Polypropylene blends with potential as materials for microporous membranes formed by

melt processing Polymer 43 78195Choi D J 2001 Finite element modeling of photoplastic process in the cold drawing of polycarbonate bars PhD Thesis

University of Alaska, FairbanksChristopherson R et al 2001 Simulation of pharmaceutical blister pack thermoforming using a non-isothermal integral

model J. Plast. Film Sheet. 17 23951Dai S C and Ye L 2002 Characteristics of CF/PEI tape winding process with on-line consolidation Composites 33

(part A) 122738Dumont T 2000 Numerical simulation of frontal polymerization Comp. Assist. Mech. Eng. Sci. 7 36376Ekici B and Altintas S 1999 Surface modification for improving the formability of SPA laminated composite Adv.

Eng. Software 30 4518

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Fisher W P and Day A J 1997 Study on the factors controlling the tube-sinking process for polymer materials J. Mater.Process. Technol. 68 15662

Gerlach C F G et al 1996 Modeling the influence of filler particles on surface geometry in drawn PET film J. StrainAnal. Eng. Des. 31 6573

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Haffner S M et al 1998 Finite element assisted modelling of the microscopic impregnation process in thermoplasticpreforms Appl. Compos. Mater. 5 23755

Han I S et al 1996 Dynamic simulation of the tire curing process Tire Sci. Technol. 24 5076Han R et al 2000 Three-dimensional simulation of microchip encapsulation process Polym. Eng. Sci. 40 77685Harder C 2001 Finite element analysis of melt spun yarn J. Mater. Process. Technol. 118 4549Hsiao S W and Kikuchi N 1997 Numerical analysis of deep drawing process for thermoplastic composite laminates

J. Eng. Mater. Technol. 119 (ASME) 3148Huang C H 2001 Tribology of polymer films in manufacturing PhD Thesis University of Notre DameHubert P and Poursartip A 2001 A method for the direct measurement of the fibre bed compaction curve of composite

prepregs Composites 32 (part A) 17987Joo Y L et al 2002 Two-dimensional numerical analysis of non-isothermal melt spinning with and without phase

transition J. Non-Newton Fluid Mech. 102 3770Joshi S C and Lam Y C 2001 Three-dimensional finite-element/nodal control volume simulation of the pultrusion

process with temperature-dependent material properties Compos. Sci. Technol. 61 153947Juang Y J 2001 Polymer processing and rheological analysis near the glass transition temperature PhD Thesis The

Ohio State UniversityLai C L and Young W B 1999 Modeling fiber slippage during the preforming process Polym. Compos. 20 594603Laroche D and Erchiqui F 1998 Experimental and theoretical study of the thermoformability of industrial polymers

56th Ann. Tech. Conf. (ANTEC, Atlanta) pp 67680Laroche D and Erchiqui F 2000 Experimental and theoretical study of the thermoformability of industrial polymers

J. Reinf. Plast. Compos. 19 2309Li Y et al 2001 Membrane inflation of polymeric materials: experiments and finite element simulations Polym. Eng.

Sci. 41 1399412Limper A and Stieglitz H 1998 Recent research on mathematical design of spiral mandrel dies 56th Ann. Tech. Conf.

(ANTEC, Atlanta) pp 30913Lin C R et al 2002 The characterisation and finite element analysis of a polymer under hot pressing Int. J. Adv. Manuf.

Technol. 20 2305Makradi A et al 2001 Effect of non-isothermal oriented crystallization on the velocity and elongational viscosity

profiles during the melt spinning Polym. Eng. Sci. 41 110714Masud A and Chudnovsky A 1999 A constitutive model of cold drawing in polycarbonates Int. J. Plasticity 15 113957Mimaroglu A et al 1996 A numerical study of geometric and material instability in uniaxial drawn polymers Mater.

Design 17 6973Nam G J and Lee J W 2001 Numerical and experimental studies of 3-dimensional thermoforming process J. Reinf.

Plast. Compos. 20 118290Nam G J et al 1998 Finite element analysis of the effect of processing conditions on thermoforming 56th Ann. Tech.

Conf. (ANTEC, Atlanta) pp 6904Norris V A et al 2000 Finite element and experimental solutions for the upsetting of pastes Eng. Comput. 17 66979Oh T H et al 1998 Studies on melt-spinning process of hollow fibers J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 68 120917Papanastasiou T C et al 1996 On the inlet stress condition and admissibility of solution of fiber spinning Adv. Polym.

Technol. 15 23744Pittman J F T and Farah I A 1996 Comprehensive simulation of cooling process in plastic pipe manufacture Plast.

Rubber Process. Appl. 25 30512Rasmussen H K et al 2000 Inflation of polymer melts into elliptic and circular cylinders J. Non-Newton Fluid Mech.

93 24563Sala G et al 2002 A numerical and experimental approach to optimise sheet stamping technologies: polymers

thermoforming Mater. Design 23 2139Sato K et al 1999 Fabrication and pressure testing of a gas-turbine component manufactured by a preceramic-polymer-

impregnation method Compos. Sci. Technol. 59 8539Senchenkov I K et al 1999 Finite element analysis and optimization of the process of reconditioning hollow cylinders

by thermoplastic deformation Strength Mater. 31 27581Song Y H et al 1999 Study on the warpage of plastics vacuum-forming process J. Reinf. Plast. Compos. 18

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Song Y H et al 2000 3-D FEM analysis of the temperature field and the thermal stress for plastics thermalformingJ. Mater. Process. Technol. 97 3543

Van der Aa H C E et al 2000 An experimental and numerical study of the wall ironing process of polymer coatedsheet metal Mech. Mater. 32 42343

Van der Aa M 1999 Wall ironing of polymer coated sheet metal PhD Thesis Eindhoven University of TechnologyVan der Aa M A H et al 1997 Numerical analysis of the wall-ironing process of coated sheet metal 5th Int. Conf.

Comput. Plast. (CIMNE) ed D R J Owen, pp 143944Van der Aa M A H et al 2001 Modelling of the wall ironing process of polymer coated sheet metal Mech. Mater. 33

55572Verros G D and Malamataris N A 2001 Finite element analysis of polymeric membrane and coating formation by

solvent evaporation Comp. Mech. 27 33240Wang J et al 1999 Draping of woven fabric preforms and prepregs for production of polymer composite components

Composites 30 (part A) 75765Wang W and Manas-Zloczower I 2001 Temporal distributions: the basis for the development of mixing indexes for

scale-up of polymer processing equipment Polym. Eng. Sci. 41 106877Wiersma H W et al 1998 Prediction of springforward in continuous-fibre/polymer L-shaped parts Composites 29

(part A) 133342Xanthos M et al 2002 Melt processed microporous films from compatibilized immiscible blends with potential as

membranes Polym. Eng. Sci. 42 81025Yu Y W et al 1999 Hybrid 3D/2D finite element technique for polymer processing operations Polym. Eng. Sci. 39

4454

A.3. Thermal analysis of polymers

Abatan A O et al 1996 Modeling of the thermal characteristics of high performance piezoelectric composites 1996ACS New Orleans Meet. (Polymer Prep.) 37, pp 4634

Adolf D B et al 1998 Stresses during thermoset cure J. Mater. Res. 13 53050Asp L E and Berglund L A 1997 A biaxial thermomechanical disk test for glassy polymers Exp. Mech. 37 96101Bailey K J et al 1998 Cure behavior of thick-section thermoset composites 56th Ann. Tech. Conf. (ANTEC, Atlanta)

pp 7259Christiaens F et al 1997 Thermal modeling of polymer stud grid array (PSGA) packages Int. J. Microcirc. Electron.

Pack. 20 52131Driessens E et al 2000 Transient thermal characterization of the polymer stud grid array TM 6th Int. Worksh. Thermal

Invest. ICs Syst. (Grenoble) pp 2259Driessens E et al 2001 Transient thermal characterization of the polymer stud grid array IEEE Trans. Compon. Pack.

Manuf. Tech. 24 5548Dumitrescu M et al 1998 Thermal simulation of surface micromachined polysilicon hot plates of low power

consumption CAS98 (Sinaia, Romania) (Institute of Physics Publishing) pp 12025Dumitrescu M et al 1999 Thermal simulation of surface micromachined polysilicon hot plates of low power

consumption Sensors Actuators A 76 516Dunn M L et al 2000 Linear and geometrically nonlinear behavior of metal/polysilicon plate microstructures subjected

to temperature changes, MEMS ASME Int. Mech. Eng. Congr. Expo. (Orlando, ASME) pp 20713Giaretto V and Torchio M F 1999 Estimation of the thermal conductivity of an epoxy resin by the use of an internal

parallelepiped heat source. II: Experimental analysis High Temp.High Press 31 64351Gowayed Y et al 2000 An analytical approach to evaluate the coefficients of thermal expansion of textile composite

materials Polym. Compos. 21 81420Guglielmino E et al 1996 Thermal infrared analysis of plastics under monoaxial loads Exp. Technol. 20 913Ha L et al 1998 Thermal study of additive multilayer circuitry on polymer and metal substrates 14th Ann. Semiconduct.

Thermal Meas. Manag. Symp. (IEEE: San Diego) pp 10410Haggblad B and Paulsson G 2000 Modeling large strain thermo-mechanical behavior of semi-crystalline polymers

13th Nordic Sem. Comput. Mech. (Oslo) pp 1058Hancox N L 1998 Overview of effects of temperature and environment on performance of polymer matrix composite

properties Plast. Rubber Compos. Process. Appl. 27 97106He J L et al 1998 Thermal properties of whole-solid-insulated polymeric ZNO surge arrester Conf. Electr. Insul.

Dielectr. Phenom. (Atlanta: IEEE) pp 56871Hubert H et al 2000 Thermal effect on polyethyleneterephtalate (PET) from the impingement of a plasma-sprayed

aluminum particle Rev. Metall. 97 151924

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