ma soc - dissertation - ana cuevas romo
TRANSCRIPT
-
8/7/2019 MA Soc - Dissertation - Ana Cuevas Romo
1/81
Discourse, Advertising and Representations of Overseas HelpIn Irish Non-Profit Organisations
Author: Ana Cuevas Romo
ID: 0320897
MA in Sociology (Applied Social Research)
University of Limerick
Supervisor:Dr Carmen Khling
Submitted to the University of Limerick, September 2004.
-
8/7/2019 MA Soc - Dissertation - Ana Cuevas Romo
2/81
ii
TABLE OF CONTENTS:Table of Contents iList of Figures, List of Tables . iiAcknowledgements . iiiAbstract.. iv
Introduction 1Overview .. Research Questions ..
Chapter 1 : Non-profit Organisation... 1.1 Non-profit Organisations 1.2 Organisations Profiles
1.2.1 Bthar
1.2.2 Trcaire... .. Chapter 2: Literature Review...
2.1 Discourse and Social Change . 2.1.1 Discourse as a social practice .. 2.1.2 Discourse as socially constructedand socially constructing .. 2.1.3 Fairclough: discourse and social change .
-Discourse, power and ideology . -Democratization of discourse .. -Commodification and marketization of discourse .
-The marketization of public discourse: an example .. 2.2 Media and Development . 2.2.1 Media influence 2.2.2 Media representations.. 2.2.3 Charity Appeals and the Debate around Them..
Chapter 3: Methodology 3.1 Methodology .. 3.2 Research Process
3.2.1 Dissertation Proposal and Literature Review . 3.2.2 Discourse Analysis . 3.2.3 Interviews 3.2.4 Presentation and Discussion of Findings 3.2.5 Ethical Issues ..
3.3 Reflections on the Research Process . 3.3.1 The Researchers Role 3.3.2 Pitfalls of Discourse Analysis 3.3.3 Reliability and Validity ..
Chapter 4: Presentation of Findings 4.1 Discourse Analysis
4.1.1 Bthar . 4.1.2 Trcaire ..
-
8/7/2019 MA Soc - Dissertation - Ana Cuevas Romo
3/81
iii
4.2 Interviews . 4.2.1 The Strategies Used .. 4.2.2 The Media Used 4.2.3 Discourse and Imagery . 4.2.4 Development Issues ..
4.2.5 The Organisations . 4.2.6 The Audience 4.2.7 The Role of Advertising 4.2.8 The Website ..
Chapter 5: Discussion of Findings.. 5.1 Overseas Help Discourse..
5.1.1.1 NPOs Representation of the Organisations,the Donors, Donating and the Projects . 5.1.2 NPOs Representation of Recipient Countries 5.1.3 Overseas Development Discourse .
5. 2 The Role of Advertising 5.2.1 The Role of Advertising in NPOs 5.2.2 Tendencies of Discursive Change
- Democratisation of NPOs Discourse .. - Marketisation and Commodificationof NPOs Discourse ...
Conclusion.
Bibliography..
Appendices 1Appendix I: Tables of wording in the websites.1 Appendix II: Tables of ima ges in the websites..3 Appendix III: Transcripts of the websites..5
-
8/7/2019 MA Soc - Dissertation - Ana Cuevas Romo
4/81
iv
LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE 3.1:Three-dimensional framework for discourse analysisFIGURE 3.2:Coding scheme
LIST OF TABLES
TABLE 4.1:Images in Bt hars website TABLE 4.2: Representations of recipients in Bthars website TABLE 4.3 :Social actors in development aidTABLE 4.4: Problems in RCs and times mentioned in Trcaires website
-
8/7/2019 MA Soc - Dissertation - Ana Cuevas Romo
5/81
v
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
To everyone who during this year guided me in this learning process by
sharing their knowledge and their very interesting world views.
To my classmates and lecturers in the MA in Sociology from whom I learnt
so much.
To my supervisor, Carmen Kuhling, without whose guidance and valuable
advice I would not have been able to complete this project.
To the participants of the study - the people of Trcaire, Bthar and Spark-
for their crucial participation and kindness. I sincerely admire and respect
your work.
And finally to the people who supported and encouraged me during this
year: my dear family, boyfriend, friends, and flatmates.
THANK YOU
Gratitude is one of the least articulate of the emotions, especially when it is deep.
Felix Frankfurter
-
8/7/2019 MA Soc - Dissertation - Ana Cuevas Romo
6/81
vi
ABSTRACT
This dissertation explores the overseas help discourse of and the role of
advertising in Irish Non Profit Organisations (NPOs). It starts by defining key
concepts and the Irish non-profit sector. The first chapters of the dissertation are
concerned with reviewing the relevant literature on media and development,
discourse and society.
The mainly qualitative methodology used was based on the discourse analysis
approach suggested by Fairclough (1992, 1993, 2003) and Gill (2000) together
with semi-structured interviews with those involved in the production of the
organisations advertising.
Finally, the discourse analysis, interviews and theoretical framework are linked
together in order to discuss how overseas help is constructed, what does it tell us
about society and what is the role of advertising in NPOs. Two major tendencies
of discursive change are also discussed: marketisation and democratisation and
used to argue that overseas help discourse has acquired some features of the
market and commodity orders of discourse, and that democratisation is a tendency
in the organisations discourse.
This project concludes with some recommendations about discourse and
development, and suggestions for further research.
-
8/7/2019 MA Soc - Dissertation - Ana Cuevas Romo
7/81
vii
INTRODUCTION
Development is about creating an environment in which people can develop their full potential
and lead productive, creative lives in accord with their needs and interests United Nations Development Programme
This study was conducted in order to gain an in-depth perspective of the
representation of overseas development by Non Profit Organisations (hereafter
NPOs) and the role of advertising in them. The following questions were asked:
RESEARCH QUESTIONS
How is the overseas help-discourse constructed by NPOs?o How are the organisations defined?
o How are the recipient countries represented by the organisations?
o How are donors depicted?
o What do the organisations say about the participation of the donorsand donating? What do they suggest/invite the donors to do?
o How is the work of the organisations constructed? How are the
results presented?
o What do they say about their finances and administration?
o How is the relationship between the organisations and the donors
presented?
o What do the organisations say about the key issues surroundingdevelopment?
What does it tell us about society?o Does it construct a certain image of overseas development help and
the subjects involved in it?
What is the role of advertising in NPOs?o What tendencies of change are reflected in NPOs advertising?
-
8/7/2019 MA Soc - Dissertation - Ana Cuevas Romo
8/81
viii
In an attempt to find answers to these questions, this dissertation will analyse
NPOs advertising discourse and link the discourse with its social context. The
methodology was comprised of discourse analysis (Fairclough 1992, 1993, Gill
2000, Fairclough 2003) and semi-structured interviews which functioned as a
secondary resource to compliment the discourse analysis.
The dissertation will explore the role of advertising in NPOs and try to find
whether overseas help-discourse is going through a process of change, thereby
adding to the knowledge about NPOs and linking it to discursive change.
Exploration of tendencies of change within orders of discourse can make a significantcontribution to current debates on social change. Processes of marketization, theextension of market models to new spheres, can, for example, be investigated through therecent extensive colonization of orders of discourse by advertising and other discoursetypes (Fairclough, 1992: 99).
DEFINITION OF CONCEPTS
Discourse
The use of the term discourse in this dissertation is about language use conceived
as a social practice, which is socially constructed and socially constructing.
Discourse is an element of social life which is closely interconnected with other
elements (Fairclough 1992, 2003).
DevelopmentThere is an ongoing debate around development , development discourse and
development theory . The concept of development means different things to
different people (Crush 1995) . For the purposes of this dissertation, the concept of
development devised by Crush (1995) will be used in its general form, where
development is about the improvement of human kind through relief from poverty
and realisation of human potential.
-
8/7/2019 MA Soc - Dissertation - Ana Cuevas Romo
9/81
ix
Third World or Developing Countries
To label poor nations with the same term is a complex and debatable task, due to
the fact that there can be many criteria applied in each definition. Criteria such as
ideology, poverty, geography, economic performance, industrialisation, social
indicators, aid or trade are often used to define a group of countries as Third
World, South, developing, under -developed, or non -industrialised. All of
these labels are very problematic and raise political sensitivities (Holland 2002).
Even so me authors use the labels Third World and developing countries
indistinctively, as synonyms (Hulme and Turner 1990) 1. There is an ongoing
debate around these terms because they all imply a certain kind of hierarchy and
power; and because there is a danger when using one single term to name such
different nations that an image of such nations as a homogeneous group with
similar circumstances and problems is created. Therefore, regardless of the chosen
label, we should also remember the considerable economic, social and political
diversity that exists both among and within such nations, and that there are a
number of which cannot be defined by a single term.
In this dissertation, when referring to other authors ideas I will use the terms
employed by the authors themselves. For example: Benthall (1993) uses the label
Third World, Smillie (1995) uses the concepts of North and South and
Devereux (2003) refers to the West and the Third World.
Recipient Countries and Communities
Therefore, in an attempt to use more accurate terminology, I will use the words
recipient countries or recipient communities (hereafter RCs) in this dissertation
to label these countries. By utilising recipient it is implied that these countries or communities receive the final outcome of what the NPOs have collected through
fundraising. It does not however imply any kind of power issues that could
possibly arise as these go beyond the scope of this dissertation.
1 When searching the literature abou t this debate, I found that many authors use the terms Third
World and developing countries indistinctively. And when they choose one over the other, eachone gives their own definition of the term accordingly to the purposes of their texts.
-
8/7/2019 MA Soc - Dissertation - Ana Cuevas Romo
10/81
-
8/7/2019 MA Soc - Dissertation - Ana Cuevas Romo
11/81
xi
1. NON PROFIT ORGANISATIONS
1.1 NON-PROFIT ORGANISATIONS
The definition of the non-profit sector used in this study will be that proposed by
the Johns Hopkins Comparative Non-profit Sector Project (Ruddle and Mulvihill
1999). This definition proposes that if an organisation is organised, private, non-
profit distributing, self-governing and embodies some degree of meaningful
voluntary participation then it is considered to be part of the non-profit sector.
The International Classification of Non-profit Organisations (Ruddle and
Mulvihill, 1999) categorises NPOs according to the different fields of activity
with which they are concerned: Culture and Arts, Sports and Recreation,
Education and Research, Health, Social Services, Environment, Community
Development, Civil Advocacy, Philanthropy and Voluntarism Promotion,
Religion Related, International Activities and Other.
The Irish organisations studied here -Trcaire and Bthar- are those Non-Profit
Organisations (NPOs) whose main concern is overseas development programmes.
1.2 ORGANISATIONS PROFILES
1.2.1 Bthar: Helping People Help Themselves
Bthar had its origins in 1989 in the city of Limerick. It started with the objective
of sending dairy cows to Africa in 1991 as part of the Treaty of Limerick
tercentenary celebrations. A Board of Directors of a new Third
World Development Agency (specialised in the use of livestock in developing
countries) was subsequently formed. Now Bthar is part of a community of NGOs
using livestock in development aid and works closely with Heifer International
-
8/7/2019 MA Soc - Dissertation - Ana Cuevas Romo
12/81
xii
(USA), Send-a-Cow (UK), and Heifer France in particular. Bthar also works in
partnership with Heifer International in some countries while in others the projects
are supported by indigenous NGOs.
Bthar raises funds from the Irish public by appealing for different kinds of
donations: once-off donations, monthly donations and legacies. The funds
received go towards micro-farming projects, while administration costs are
sponsored by specific organisations. Bthar also works closely with Irish schools.
Bthars work consists of establishing families in micro -farming units by giving
them a live farm animal. This gift is given as the last stage of a process. This
process starts with villages and communities forming a committee, which decides
which families will receive the animals first and the subsequent pass -on
families. They then continue by training the families about caring for the animal
they are to be given- its housing, healthcare, nutrition, etc. The family must
prepare the housing facilities for each animal, and the necessary crops with which
to feed it. When all these are ready, Bthar donates the animals, and each family
that participates in Bthar projects must formally agree to pass -on to another
selected family the first female offspring born to their animal. The families are
also provided with veterinary assistance for their animals.
Bthar implements several strategies to invite the Irish public to donate. They use
direct mail personalised and not personalised-, TV ads, radio ads, loose inserts in
newspapers, website, e-mail appeals, newsletter and on-the-street fundraising. In
addition to these mass media appeals, they also organise talks in schools or groups
of people.
1.2.2 Trcaire: Working for a Just World
Trcaire is the official overseas development agency of the Irish Catholic Church.
Founded in 1973, with two main objectives, its name comes from the Irish word
for compassion. Its foreign objective is to support long -term development
-
8/7/2019 MA Soc - Dissertation - Ana Cuevas Romo
13/81
xiii
projects and to provide relief during emergencies and its domestic objective is to
inform the Irish public about the root causes of poverty and injustice and mobilise
the public to bring about global change.
From its current headquarters in Maynooth, Trcaire espouses two main kinds of
activities -campaigning and fundraising. At the present time, Trcaire is
campaigning to raise awareness amongst the Irish public about issues such as the
millennium development goals, debt relief, child soldiers, the toy workers
campaign and trade matters. Part of the work involves lobbying to draw attention
to the underlying socio-economic and political factors that exacerbate the impact
of disasters (natural or otherwise) on the poorest sections of society. Particular
attention has been given to organisational advocacy projects such as EU
Development Policy, trade and institutional reform at the World Trade
Organisation (WTO), poverty reduction strategy processes and debt. As regards
fundraising, the most salient activities are the Trcaire Lenten campaign, the 24-
Hour Fast, the Global Gift, as well as appeals for regular or once-off donations
throughout the year and legacies.
With the donations received, Trcaire funds projects in Africa, Asia, Latin
America, Europe and the Middle East. The organisation largely relies on local
partner agencies including local church structures and missionary orders- to
implement the projects and thus takes a partnership approach to development. In
the 30 years it has been in existence, Trcaire has funded nearly 8,000
development projects in over 60 countries.
-
8/7/2019 MA Soc - Dissertation - Ana Cuevas Romo
14/81
xiv
2. LITERATURE REVIEW
This chapter will first look at past research and theoretical frameworks concerned
with discourse analysis and society; exploring the concepts of discourse; discourse
as social practice; discourse as socially constructed and socially constructing; and
discourse and social change. It will then move on to a review of the related
literature on the relationship between media and development.
2.1 DISCOURSE AND SOCIETY
Discourse is a category used to refer primarily to spoken or written language use,
conceived as a social practice (Fairclough 1993).
2.1.1 Discourse as a social practice
Some social scientists (Fairclough 1992, 1993, van Dijk 1997, Gill 2000) have
emphasised discourse as a form of action. If it is a form of action then it does not
occur in a social vacuum (Gill 2000). Text and talk are important elements of
social life. Text and talk are a vital source of social interaction, and a way of
representing the social world.
Fairclough (1992) proposes that language use is a form of social practice , ratherthan a purely individual activity or a reflex of situational variables. Social practice
has various orientations (economic, political, cultural, ideological), and discourse
may be implicated in all of these without any of them being reducible to
discourse. There are many implications to seeing discourse as a form of social
practice. Firstly, discourse is seen as a mode of action as well as a mode of
representation and secondly a dialectical relationship between discourse and social
structure is implied. Social structure is a condition for discourse, but it also is an
-
8/7/2019 MA Soc - Dissertation - Ana Cuevas Romo
15/81
xv
effect of discourse. This dialectical relationship will be developed later on in this
chapter, as part of the discussion of discourse as socially constructed and
constructive.
Van Dijk (1997) discusses that language users, while engaging in text and talk,
perform the role of speakers, listeners, writers or readers. In addition to these
roles, they also engage in discourse as members of social categories. That is to say
that they interact in a complex combination of their social and cultural roles and
identities in addition to their roles as speakers and listeners. They also actively
construct and display such roles and identities at the same time as this interaction
is taking place.
Discourse emerges from a particular context , and it is directed to a specific group
within a specific context. Therefore, discourse analysis which views discourse as a
social practice, goes back and forth comparing the text and its social context
where context is the socio-cultural situation surrounding the discourse. Discourse
as part of social life expresses and at the same time shapes- the relevant
properties of its context (van Dijk 1997).
Van Dijk (1997) also suggests that people do many social and political things with
discourse. Discourse as a political practice establishes, sustains and changes
power relations. And Fairclough (1992) states that discourse as an ideological
practice constitutes, naturalizes, sustains and changes significations of the world
from diverse positions in power relations. Different types of discourse in different
social domains or institutional settings may come to be politically or ideologically
invested in particular ways .
2.1.2 Discourse as socially constructed and socially constructing
In the previous section it was argued that describing discourse as a social practice
implies a two-way relationship between discourse and society. Fairclough and
Wodak (1997) state that there is a dialectical relationship between a particular
-
8/7/2019 MA Soc - Dissertation - Ana Cuevas Romo
16/81
xvi
discursive event and the situations, institutions and social structures that frame it.
A discursive event is an instance of language use, analysed as text, discursive
practice and social practice (Fairclough 1993). Hence the discursive event is
shaped by situations, institutions and social structures and vice versa. In other
words: discourse is socially constructed as well as socially constructive. Discourse
is socially constructed because it is shaped by situations, objects of knowledge,
the social identities of and relationships between people and groups of people who
participate in text and talk and it is constructing, or constructive (socially
shaping), in the sense that it helps to sustain and reproduce the social status quo,
and in the sense that it contributes to transforming same (Fairclough and Wodak
1997).
A view of language as being socially constructed implies firstly that language
originates from pre-existing linguistic resources. Secondly, it implies that building
a discourse involves a selection from different possibilities -included and
exclude d. Finally, it implies that we deal with the world in terms of
constructions, not in a someh ow direct or unmediated way t exts of various
kinds construct our world (Gill 2000 : 175). In the widest sense, discourse is
shaped and constrained by social structures at all levels (Fairclough 1993).
On the other hand, discourse is socially constructing. Discourse contributes to the
constitution of all those dimensions of social structure which, at the same time,
directly or indirectly shape and constrain it. Discourse is a practice not just of
representing the world, but of signifying the world. There are three aspects of the
constructive effects of discourse; each one corresponding to one of the three
metafunctions of language that interact in all discourse. The first aspect is theconstruction of social identities and subject positions for social subjects, which
corresponds to the identity function of language which is in turn related to the
ways in which social identities are set up in discourse. The second aspect is that
discourse helps to construct social relationships between people, corresponding to
the relational function of language i.e.how social relationships between discourse
participants are played and negotiated. The last aspect of the constructive effects
of discourse is that it contributes to the construction of systems of knowledge and
-
8/7/2019 MA Soc - Dissertation - Ana Cuevas Romo
17/81
xvii
belief, which corresponds to the ideational function of language which is in turn
related to ways in which texts signify the world and its processes, entities and
relations (Fairclough 1992).
Gill (2000) also discusses the importance of discourse in constructing social life.
She states that discourse analysts reject the notion that language is simply a
neutral means of reflecting or describing the world, and that there is a conviction
among them that knowledge is and socially constructing and socially constructed
i.e. determined not by the nature of the world itself, but by social processes.
Language use is constitutive in two ways: conventionally and creatively. It is
constitutive in a conventional way because it contributes to reproduce society and
in a creative way because it contributes to transform society. Much depends on
social circumstances which can contribute to making one stronger than the other
(Fairclough 1993).
Here it is important to add that discourse is socially shaping only to some extent,
because many other factors construct the social world as well, and sometimes
more directly than discourse (Fairclough 2003). The constitutive effects of
discourse work together with those of other practices, and it takes place within the
limits determined by the dialectical relationship with social structures (Fairclough
1992).
2.1.3 Fairclough: discourse and social change
Discourse, power and ideologyIf we take into account the rhetorical organisation of discourse, it is clear that
much discourse is involved in establishing one version of the world over
competing versions (Gill 2000). Besides, since discourse is so socially influential,
it gives rise to important power-related issues. Discursive practices may have
major ideological effects in that they can help produce and reproduce unequal
power relations between different groups through the ways in which they
-
8/7/2019 MA Soc - Dissertation - Ana Cuevas Romo
18/81
xviii
represent the world. Racist discourse and sexist discourse, for instance, are two
such practices (Fairclough and Wodak 1997). Ideologies are understood as being
constructions of reality, which are build into various dimensions of the forms and
meanings of discursive practices, and which contribute to the production,
reproduction or transformation of relations of domination. The ideologies
integrated in discursive practices are more effective if they become naturalized as
a form of common sense. However, according to Fairclough (1992) this property
of ideologies should not be overstated
Furthermore, Fairclough (1992) makes three important claims about ideology.
First of all, it has a material existence in the practices of institutions and this opens
the way to investigate discursive practices as material forms of ideology.
Secondly, ideology interrelates subjects and this leads to the view that one of the
more significant ideological effects is the constitution of subjects. Finally,
ideological state apparatuses (institutions such as education or th e media), are
both sites of and stakes in the class struggle, which points to struggle in and over
discourse as a focus for ideologically-oriented discourse analysis.
If we go back to the concept of struggles to reshape discursive practices,
Fairclough (1992) states that where contrasting discursive practices are in use in
an institution, it is probable that part of the contrast is ideological. This poses a
further question, namely: what features or levels of text and discourse may be
ideologically invested? A common claim is that word meanings are those which
are invested by ideology. Fairclough (1992) also states that word meanings are
important, but so too are other aspects such as presuppositions, metaphors and
coherence. Meanings of texts are closely related to the forms of texts, and formalfeatures of texts such as style aspects may be ideologically invested. Discursive
practices are to an extent ideologically invested as they incorporate significations
that contribute to sustain or restructure power relations. Nevertheless, this should
not be overemphasised. The fact that all types of discourse are open in principle,
and no doubt to some extent in fact, in our society to ideological investment, does
not mean that all types of discourse are ideologic ally invested to the same degree
(Fairclough, 1992: 91).
-
8/7/2019 MA Soc - Dissertation - Ana Cuevas Romo
19/81
xix
Neither should it be assumed that people are aware of the ideological dimensions
of their discourse. This is given the fact that ideologies may be more or less
naturalized, depending on the social conditions and power relations involved. It is
important to also adopt the dialectical position on this, because apart from being
ideologically positioned, subjects are also capable of acting creatively and
restructuring discursive practices (Fairclough 1992).
To summarise then, we could see ideology as the key means through which social
relations of power and domination are sustained or restructured; the common -
sense normalcy of ordinary practices used as the basis for the continuity and
reproduction of power relations (Fairclough 1993).
Having dealt with the relationship between discourse and ideology, we now move
on to a potential effect of ideologically invested discourse and its role in power
relations: discursive change. Fairclough (1992) argues that producers and
interpreters of discourse combine elements in new ways in innovatory discursive
events - they cumulatively produce structural changes in orders of discourse .
These structural changes may affect either the local order of discourse of an
institution, or they may transcend institutions and affect a wider societal order of
discourse.
The origins of change in a discursive event lie in the problematisation of
conventions which have their bases in contradictions. When problematisations
arise, people are faced with dilemmas. Producers and interpreters of discourse
often try to solve these dilemmas by being innovative and creative, adaptingexisting conventions in new ways, thereby contributing to discursive change.
However, the way the contradictions aroused are reflected is determined by the
relationship of these with the struggles around them. Change in discourse involves
forms of going beyond the limits such as putting together existing conventions in
new combinations, or drawing upon conventions in situations which usually
preclude them (Fairclough 1992).
-
8/7/2019 MA Soc - Dissertation - Ana Cuevas Romo
20/81
xx
Fairclough (1992, 1993, 2003) identifies certain broad tendencies in discursive
change that affect the social order of discourse, and relate these tendencies to
more general directions of social and cultural change. The tendencies highlighted
by Fairclough of relevance to this dissertation are the democratisation and the
commodification (marketisation) of discourse.
Democratisation of discourseDemocratisation of discourse is the remo val of inequalities and asymmetries in
the discursive and linguistic rights, obligations and prestige of groups of people
(Fairclough 1992: 201). Democratisation in discourse, like democratisation in
general, has been an important factor of change in recent decades, but in both
cases the process has been very uneven, changes have not been very constant or
equal, and there are questions about the extent to which changes have been real or
somewhat cosmetic.
Fairclough (1992) distinguishes five areas of discursive democratisation i)
relations between languages and social dialects, related to the extent to what
languages other than standard English have become more accepted; ii) access to
prestigious discourse types and prestigious and powerful subject positions within
them; iii) elimination of overt power markers in institutional discourse types with
unequal power relations; iv) a tendency towards informality of language; v) and
changes in gender-related practices in language the most publicly salient case of
struggle over discursive practices in recent years. In the present study areas iii)
and iv) of discursive democratisation will be drawn upon.
The elimination of overt power markers of power asymmetry and hierarchy is the
first area of discursive democratisation we will deal with. Among the types of
markers which tend to be eliminated are asymmetrical terms of address,
imperative directives (in favour of more indirect and sensitive forms),
asymmetries in rights to make certain contribution (to introduce topics in the
conversation, or ask questions, for example) and the use of specialized vocabulary
that is inaccessible to others (jargon, scientific terms etc).
-
8/7/2019 MA Soc - Dissertation - Ana Cuevas Romo
21/81
xxi
Furthermore, it is also arguable that at the same time that overt markers have been
eliminated, or are becoming less evident, the covert markers of power have
become stronger. Hence, power asymmetries do not disappear but instead become
more subtle. This means that the elimination of power markers in discourse may
be only cosmetic, and that the power-holders are simply substituting overt power
markers with covert ones. Even so, where it can be a cosmetic change in some
cases, it can be a substantive change in others.
Moving on to the second area of discursive democratisation i.e. the tendency
towards informality of language. While power asymmetries are sharpest in the
more formal types of situation, informality gives a sense of a more equal
relationship. A very strong manifestation of the increasing informality in
discourse is the way in which conversational discourse has been brought from the
private sphere into the public domain, in other words, conversationalisation is the
tendency towards a simulation of conversation in public interactions and texts. For
example, a conversational style is being increasingly used in media, professional
or educational discourse, amongst others.
Another dimension of this informalisation is the shift in the division between
spoken and written discourse, this division is blurring, because there is a shift
towards f orms in writing that are very similar to speech. In addition, synthetic
personalisation (the simulation of private, face-to-face discourse in public
discourse) is one more dimension of the informalisation of discourse. The
informalisation of discourse poses a question about the extent to which
informality is simulated for strategic reasons (Fairclough 1992, 2003). Just as thetendency is to democratise, it is not clear yet the extent to which these changes in
discourse are cosmetic or real.
-
8/7/2019 MA Soc - Dissertation - Ana Cuevas Romo
22/81
xxii
Commodification and marketisation of discourse
At the present time language has become more important in a range of social
processes which has also lead to an increase in the economic importance of
language. Economic life has shifted from production to consumption and from
manufacturing industries to service, culture and leisure industries. In these service
industries, there is special attention given to the design of spoken and written
language, because the nature of the language used in the delivery of the service
has become a key factor (Fairclough 1993).
Commodification is not a new process, but its domain is becoming wider. It is
the process whereby social domains and institutions, whose concern is not
producing commodities in the narrower economic sense of goods for sale, come
nevertheless to be organized and conceptualized in terms of commodity
production, distribution and consumption (Fairclough, 1992: 207).
Commodification of discourse is the colonisation of orders of discourse by
discourse types associated with commodity production. It is no longer surprising
that sectors such as the culture and education industry are being referred to as
industries concerned with producing, marketing and selling commodities to their
clients or consumers. A fea ture of the commodification of discourse is that
concepts are worded as commodities or products which are to be marketed to
customers.
The process of marketisation follows the same line as the commodification
process. Marketisation of discourse is the restructuring of the order of discourse
on the model of more central market organizations. According to Fairclough(1993) the marketisation and commodification of discourse in institutions such as
the education industry, is a reflection of the marketisation of public services and
of the way they are required to operate on a market basis.
Present day living conditions require that numbers of organisations market quite
similar products or services. Consequently, in order to establish one product or
service as being different, its identity has to be constructed, together with the
-
8/7/2019 MA Soc - Dissertation - Ana Cuevas Romo
23/81
xxiii
producers identity and that has to harmonise with the image of the product or
service. At the same time the identities of potential buyers also have to be
constructed in the discour se. Producer, product and consumer are brought
together as co-participants in a life style, a community of consumption, which the
advertisement constructs and simulates (Faiclough 1993 : 14 ). And for NPOs the
situation is similar, there are several NPOs that are trying to convince the Irish
public to make donations. Thus the organisations identities have to be
constructed and advertising could be an important factor in this construction.
According to Fairclough (1992), orders of discourse are being colonised by the
advertising genre . The use of language associated with a particular social activity
is what is called genre , and the advertising genre is the use of language associated
with promoting a product, service or organisation. In some orders of discourse,
there is no longer a clear division between information and promotion. He states
that there is nothing new about strategic calculation in information. Even so, the
real novelty is that information can be evidently strategic and persuasive without
that being regarded as an issue. Under the influence of advertising as a prestigious
model, the blending of information and persuasion is becoming naturalised. A
consequence of this is that the nature of what is regarded as information is being
radically changed.
We now move on to Faircloughs (1993) next concept - promotional culture. It
can be understood in discursive terms as the generalization of promotion as a
communicative function across orders of discourse, that is, discourse as a way of
selling or promoting products, services, organisations, ideas or people.
Promotional culture is a view of contemporary cultural phenomena as virtuallyalways serving promotional functions in addition to whatever other functions they
may have, as simultaneously representing, advocating and anticipating whatever is
referred to (Fairclough, 2003: 221).
-
8/7/2019 MA Soc - Dissertation - Ana Cuevas Romo
24/81
xxiv
There are three major consequences to the widespread of promotional culture. The
first is that as a result of promotional culture, there is an extensive restructuring of
boundaries between orders of discourse and between discursive practices.
Secondly there is a widespread instrumentalization of discursive practices,
involving the subordination of meaning to, and the manipulation of meaning for,
instrumental effect ( Fairclough, 1993: 141). And thirdly there is a change in the
mode of signification i.e.the relationship between signifier, signified and
referent. One aspect of this is, for instance, the shift from signification-with-
reference to signification-without-reference. The question thus arises: Does
meaning have primacy, or is it subordinated to effect?
As so often in contemporary society, the giving of information takes place in a
context where there is an intention to convince people to see things in a particular
way. The influence of promotional culture in discourse besides the major ethical
implications may have negative effects amongst members of society. Due to the
fact that members of society are constantly exposed to promotional discourse,
there is now a serious problem of trust. The division between information and
promotion is blurring in many orders of discourse.
Having dealt with democratisation and commodification of discourse separately,
now we move on to linking them together and to wider instances of social change.
Even though democratisation and commodification may appear to be opposites,
their relationship is more complex. On the one hand commodification implies
democratisation - commodified texts very often are democratised texts as they
tend to be informal, conversational, eliminate overt power markers etc. On the
other hand, democratisation can occur without commodification. What is more,democratisation and commodification in broader terms are properties of the
contemporary social order of discourse. Their impact in different local or
institutional orders of discourse is variable as some orders of discourse are
becoming very democratised and/or commodified while others less so (Fairclough
1992).
-
8/7/2019 MA Soc - Dissertation - Ana Cuevas Romo
25/81
xxv
The marketisation of public discourse: an example
Fairclough (1993) in his study Critical Discourse Analysis and the Marketization
of Public Discourse: the Universities argued that education in Britain is one of a
number of domains whose orders of discourse are being colonised by the
advertising genre. As a result there is a proliferation of text types which combine
features of advertising with features of other genres. Fairclough argues that the
marketisation of the discursive practice of universities is one dimension of the
marketisation of higher education in a more general sense. This, he argues, is a
good example of the processes of marketisation and commodification in the more
general public sector.
Fairclough (1993) suggests that the discursive practices of higher education are in
the process of being transformed through the increasing importance of promotion
as a communicative function in higher education. In the texts analysed, he found
that students are constructed as customers, and the universities prospectuses
are designed in such a way that they sell the educational programmes.
There are many ways in which universities are unlike real businesses.
Nevertheless, institutions are making major organisational changes in accord with
a market mode of operation, such as using managerial approaches in staff
appraisal and training, introducing institutional planning, and giving much more
attention to marketing. All of these changes are reflected in the universities
discursive practices.
For this paper Faircloughs study was taken as a starting point from which the
concept of public discourse marketisation could be understood.
-
8/7/2019 MA Soc - Dissertation - Ana Cuevas Romo
26/81
xxvi
2.2 MEDIA AND DEVELOPMENT
2.2.1 Media influence
Does the media influence the public? If so, to what extent? These are questions
that several theorists and approaches have tried to answer. Some of the most
current approaches which focus on the audience include agenda setting, uses and
gratifications, the cultivation process and reception analysis . The issue of whether
the media influences people is a complex one that does not have a single
straightforward answer. Therefore in this dissertation I will work under the
assumptions made by each of these four approaches.
Agenda setting works under the assumption that the emphasis the mass media
apply to certain topics influences how people think. The mass media, as well as
other institutions, participate in the setting of the agenda of public discussion
topics that citizens eventually make their own to different degrees (Rendn 1997).
Uses and gratifications theory states that the audiences choose the media they
consume according to the use they are going to make of it and the extent to which
these messages satisfy their needs.
Cultivation process theories argue that the audience is not a homogeneous group
that just receives and accepts every message delivered by the mass media but is
formed of different groups of individuals with different characteristics that can be
influenced in the long run, in different ways, and to different extents by the media.Despite the fact that audiences are active subjects, the media can plausibly have
some influence indirectly and over time on their socialization process and culture.
Reception analysis : this approach insists on an empirical compared analysis of
media discourses and audiences, interpreting these on the grounds of the socio-
cultural system surrounding them (Rendn 1997).
-
8/7/2019 MA Soc - Dissertation - Ana Cuevas Romo
27/81
xxvii
This dissertation will also be based on Devereuxs (2003) suggestion of balance
being needed between the view of the power of the audience to deconstruct and
resist media content, and the power of media content to shape public perceptions
about the world.
2.2.2 Media Representations
In most countries television is the most important source of information on theThird World and development issues. There is almost no doubt, however, thattelevision in particular and the media in general are doing an inadequate job of consciousness-raising. That the media concentrate on disaster and bad news is not
news (Smillie, 1995: 133).
Media coverage of Third World countries is questionable because it tends to
present a negative image. Disasters, Relief and the Media (Benthall 1993) is a
study of the construction of texts about Third World disasters and relief in the
media, and about the use of children as sources of imagery (Devereux 2003).
Benthall proposes that the image of the Third World is exaggerated and
misunderstood, while fundamental factors of poverty such as colonialism and
capitalism are absent (Devereux 2003). Furthermore, Smillie (1995) argues that
studies of Third World coverage found the same kinds of results, which were that
the Third World countries in the media were mainly
portrayed as a largely abstract and almost singular society, prone to war, famine,disease and natural disaster. The most common stories, derived almostexclusively from Northern observers, dealt with the incompetence of [theSouths] governments, the misery and submission of its peoples, the assistanceneeded by its children, the corruption of its administration (Smil lie, 1995: 133).
Another example is Sorensons Mass Media Discourse on Famine in the Horn of
Africa (quoted in Devereux 2003). Sorenson states that media discourse presents
famine as a crisis, and a result of natural causes or the fault of the inhabitants.
This type of discourse can be seen as ideologically motivated given the fact that it
does not challenge or question power relationships. According to Devereux
(2003), it is not surprising to find stories about poverty narrated in an individual
manner, rather than explaining the issue in structural terms because individual
stories do not threaten the status quo.
-
8/7/2019 MA Soc - Dissertation - Ana Cuevas Romo
28/81
xxviii
2.2.3 Charity Appeals and the Debate around Them
The ever -increasing number of NGOs has made fundraising more difficult
(Smillie, 1995: 129). Non Profit Organisations have several different methods to
approach potential donators and make themselves and their projects known. Even
though their strongest method is fundraising, the organisations also use
campaigning, development education, and public relations (PR). In the media,
stories about NPOs can be generated as documentaries, magazine stories,
television and newspaper news. Nevertheless, fundraising is the greatest
investment in public communication (Smillie 1995) and fundraising strategies
have been through a process of change that has sometimes had questionable
outcomes.
Images communicate messages that have responses and messages can leave
lasting impressions. Images are very powerful not to mention damaging. Rough
images can be successful in raising funds, but they reinforce stereotypes and
distort peoples perceptions (Oxfam, in Benthall 1993). In his study Benthall
states that the incidence of disasters, fund -raising pressures and the growing
influence of advertising experts produced in 1981 perhaps the most blatant of
images, the helpless hand of a dying African child clasped by a fat and healthy
adult white hand (Benthall, 1993: 179). The imagery used for fundraising appeals
is the topic of much debate, a topic which has become known as the pornography
of poverty. This topic is used to debate questions about and criticism of the
images used in charity appeals. It is also used to debate the use of images of
starving babies, for example, and other emotive images to persuade people to
donate out of guilt and pity, rather than as a result of an understanding of theissues. The argument is that this kind of imagery, when it is repeated several
times, creates a stereotype of horror and helplessness that outbalances reality. And
most of the NGOs acknowledge that using these images has negative effects,
instead of doing what they should be, such as creating an understanding and
awareness of the need for longer-term development assistance (Benthall 1993,
Smillie 1995). Smillie (1995) exemplifies this argument with an Oxfam study
which showed that negative images had contributed to a stereotype of a doomed
-
8/7/2019 MA Soc - Dissertation - Ana Cuevas Romo
29/81
xxix
and helpless continent, whose own people were unable to help themselves
(Smillie, 1995: 136). Furthermore, some anti-racists claim that charity appeals
representing starving Africans represent a racist and colonialist motivation to save
the unfortunate in distant lands. A very illustrative example of this debate is a
photograph by Wendy Wallace of news photographers lining up to photograph the
same starving child (Benthall, 1993).
As a result of the debate, some organisations have developed codes of ethics
regarding images used in their appeals, the main points being that human and
material needs should not be in minimized or overstated, that images should
challenge rather than reinforce prejudices and that communications should respect
the dignity and culture of the communities (Benthall 1993, Smillie 1995). To
follow these guidelines however is not an easy task and the choice of images
remains a difficult issue for the organisations.
Another issue surrounding fundraising is the different responses of the audience to
emergency appeals or to long- term development appeals. Donors to international
NGOs (and NGOs themselves) are being drawn more and more towards
emergencies. Hence the obvious and sometimes remarkable growth of
organisations with emergency appeals. This may well lead to a decline for those
working only in longer- term development (Smillie, 1995: 129). Emergencies are
more likely to appear in the media news and to appeal wider audiences than
development. People in general have an extremely low knowledge of development
issues, and prefer to support emergencies rather than long-term development
(Smillie, 1995).
The greatest tensi on for the thoughtful Northern NGO today lies in the attemptto balance fundraising messages for a public most easily moved by short-termdisaster appeals with the recognition that longer-term development depends onthe willingness of that same public to support difficult and costly structuralchange. This is a tension between the appeal of helplessness and antipathytowards empowerment; between the concern for children and indifferencetowards parents; between the provision of food and the creation of jobs; betweenaid and trade; between charity, as some NGOs say quite clearly, and justice(Smillie, 1995: 137).
-
8/7/2019 MA Soc - Dissertation - Ana Cuevas Romo
30/81
xxx
Smillie (1995) goes to the core of the issue, to the more structural causes, which
are not always apparent in NPOs messages, but should be, in order to
communicate the complexity of the situation. Here is where development
education becomes very important. Because NPOs not only relate to the public
through fundraising, they also relate to the public through campaigning and
development education which although being very different from each other are
really just two sides of the same coin (Smillie 1995).
Development education began in many countries in the 1950s and 1960s initially
as basic information about the South and about development assistance; and has
been going through various transitions since. In the 1970s and 1980s it started
encouraging a more critical analysis of the kind of information that was being
provided and some organisations moved ahead to campaigning and advocacy
activities (Smillie 1995).
The balance however continues to be almost always in favour of fundraising.
Some agencies have concentrated their efforts on their educational activities in
order to challenge stereotypes, but the merchandizing of a brand image depen ds
precisely on maximizing their diffusion, with the help of bold and self-standing
graphics which impart a mystique and encourage brand loyalty (Benthall, 1993:
177).
-
8/7/2019 MA Soc - Dissertation - Ana Cuevas Romo
31/81
xxxi
3. METHODOLOGY
3.1 METHODOLOGY
The methodological approach of this dissertation is mainly qualitative which is
used in order to gain an in-depth understanding of the role of advertising in NPOs
and their representations of overseas development aid. Under the qualitative
paradigm in this study I researched the NPOs accounts and re presentations of
reality, rather than reality itself. This dissertation is thus mainly interpretative, due
to the nature of the methodology which is used. The two methods used to try and
answer the research questions are, as mentioned in the introduction, discourse
analysis and semi-structured interviews with the first being the main methodology
and the latter used to enhance reliability and to understand the context of the
discourse analysed.
According to Devereux (2003), it is important to analyse media content because itis a powerful source of meaning about the social world; and because although
media content is not the same as social reality, it is necessary to examine how
media content represent the reality.
Discourse analysis cannot be used to address the same sorts of questions as
traditional approaches. Instead it suggests new questions or ways of reformulating
old ones. A discourse analysis is a careful, close reading that moves between textand context to examine the content, organization and fu nctions of discoursea
discourse analysis is an interpretation, warranted by detailed argument and
attention to the material being studied (Gill, R. 2000: 188). Discourse analysis is
a multidisciplinary activity (Fairclough 1992, van Dijk 1997). It has many
variants and the type of discourse analysis used in this dissertation is that
suggested by critical discourse analysts such as Fairclough, van Dijk and Gill.
Critical approaches to discourse analysis make the assumption that signs are
-
8/7/2019 MA Soc - Dissertation - Ana Cuevas Romo
32/81
xxxii
socially motivated (Fairclough 1992). Critical discourse analysis might contribute
to more broadly conceived social research into processes of social and cultural
change affecting contemporary organizations. Discourse analysis is, I believe, an
important though hitherto r elatively neglected resource for such research
(Fraiclough, 1993: 158).
3.2 RESEARCH PROCESS
3.2.1 Dissertation Proposal and Literature Review
This study has been a learning experience since the beginning and will be even
after it is finished. I first started working on the dissertation proposal. After
brainstorming, reading and consulting; I chose the topic, the research questions,
and the methodological approach. The dissertation proposal was redesigned
several times, in order to refine it as much as possible. The next step was then the
gathering and reading of the relevant literature about NPOs and discourse.
3.2.2 Discourse Analysis
The stages of analysis were those suggested by Gill (2000): gathering of the
material, classification, reading and re-reading, coding, analysing (searching for
patterns, variability, consistency, what is not said, context) and then the taking
into account of issues such as reliability and validity. Therefore, the discourse
analysis started with the gathering of the data for analysis. The main corpus of discourse was made of the organisations websites but I also included some
samples of direct mail, posters, radio ad, and television advertisements to enhance
the main corpus (as suggested by van Dijk 1997). Transcripts were made when
required of, for example, radio and television advertisements 2. Then after reading
2 During the time I was conducting the analysis, the website of Trcaire were redesigned. It waschanged only as regards the layout of the main menu which had more pictures added to the upper
frame. The content was not changed at all. Consequently, I did not change the analysis I hadalready done before that website was redesigned.
-
8/7/2019 MA Soc - Dissertation - Ana Cuevas Romo
33/81
xxxiii
and re-reading the data collected in order to acquire a deeper understanding and
familiarity with it, I continued to the coding stage.
Here, an exhaustive analysis was done . I used as a basis Faircloughs (1992, 1993,
2003) three-dimensional framework for discourse analysis, where the discourse is
analysised as a text, as a discursive practice and as a social practice .
FIGURE 3.1:Three-dimensional framework for discourse analysis
Using this three-dimensional framework, and the literature review, the final
coding scheme was done (see Figure 3.2).The codification of the texts was done,
and then checked again, every time looking for patterns and differences, rather
than for individual accounts.
-
8/7/2019 MA Soc - Dissertation - Ana Cuevas Romo
34/81
xxxiv
FIGURE 3.2:Coding scheme
3.2.3 Interviews
Interviews were carried out in order to illuminate certain issues that emerged from
the discourse analysis and as a means of collecting data from the organisations
themselves. The two organisations analysed were contacted to invite them to
participate in the study by contributing via interview. The PublicCommunications Centre (a national non-profit communications agency) was also
contacted. From those three organisations, two - Trcaire and Bthar - agreed to
participate in the study. Bthar was the first to agree to participate and contacted
me via their advertising agency. I interviewed two people there who worked
closely with Bthar in all of their campaigns. Trcaire then agreed to participate,
and I interviewed a person from the Fundraising and Marketing department.
-
8/7/2019 MA Soc - Dissertation - Ana Cuevas Romo
35/81
xxxv
Both interviews were recorded previsously been agreed in a consent form signed
by the participants before the interviews started. Some questions were added after
the first interview and some were taken out, for example, but given the semi-
structured nature of the interviews, this arguably improved the quality of the data
collected and the coding scheme.
Both interviews were transcribed. I read the transcripts several times until I gained
a more in-depth understanding of them and when I was completely familiar with
the transcripts I started the analysis proper. Some informal analysis, however, it
must be noted was done simultaneously with data collection and interview
transcription. The process of categorization was started by signposting the
following categories: marketing/advertising strategies, media used, differentiation,
discourse/images used, and development/emergency. These categories emerged
from the literature review, the issues found in the discourse analysis and from the
informal analysis done simultaneously during interviews and transcription. Then,
after filling each category, everything was re-read again to search for patterns and
differences, rather than individual accounts.
3.2.4 Presentation and Discussion of Findings
Findings of the discourse analysis and the interviews are presented separately due
to the fact that the former are the findings of my own analysis and the latter are
the spokespersons interpretations of their own message. The discourse analysis
findings are presented in a thematic structure for each organisation while the
findings of both o rganisations interviews are presented jointly to avoid anyidentification of them taking place.
The discussion of findings links together the key concepts and issues found in the
existing literature, the main findings of the discourse analysis and the interviews.
-
8/7/2019 MA Soc - Dissertation - Ana Cuevas Romo
36/81
xxxvi
3.2.5 Ethical Issues
A few ethical issues emerged in the course of the study, namely the use of the
results and confidentiality. The first ethical issue, was the use of the results: the
research is intended to be for academic purposes only, and not to be used in any
other type of activity such as the benchmarking of other organisations, for
example.
From this the second ethical issue emerged: confidentiality of the interviews. The
participants were assured that all they said would be in the strictest of confidence
and I spoke openly about it to them before the interviews. I explained what the
study was about, how it was going to be reported and who was going to have
access to the findings. It was the participants decision whether the information
was to be included in the final report or not, given the fact that other organisations
could potentially read the final report, and also given the fact that even though the
participants are not identified, the organisations are.
Consequently, transcripts of the interviews will not be included in the final report,
as requested by the organisations themselves. 3. The agreement was that they
would answer all the questions, but at the end of the interview they highlighted
the answers that they did not wanted t o be quoted on (off -the- record comments).
Then I was authorized by them to include the rest of the answers and the identity
of the organisation in the report. Whenever I was doubtful about including
something in the report, I contacted the participants directly and asked them about
it. At all times I made sure that I fulfilled the agreement to ensure confidentiality
throughout the entire study.
3 The interviews were about the organisations themselves and the answers are full of facts withvaluable information that could act as possible identifiers. Thus, the elimination of identifierswould mean that the interviews would lack relevant data.
-
8/7/2019 MA Soc - Dissertation - Ana Cuevas Romo
37/81
xxxvii
3.3 REFLECTIONS ON THE RESEARCH PROCESS
3.3.1 The Researchers Role
Before starting the analysis I acknowledged my own biases and assumptions in
order to bracket them:
The selection of the topic was the result of a long process of brainstorming
and decisions. I chose this topic because of the amount of advertising
material there is for many different NPOs in everyday Irish life such as
television and radio advertisements, direct mail publicity, newspapers,
street signs, street fundraisers, the church, the bank, etc. And I also chose
this topic because I am interested in the role of the media in representing
these issues.
I believe that organisations such as the ones studied in this dissertation
play a very important yet (to some extent) controversial role.
I acknowledge that NPOs work and the issues around it can be
problematic and subject to criticism and deeper analyses. Nonetheless, the
analysis of the existence of this kind of organisation is outside the scope of
the present dissertation. The objective of this dissertation is not to
evaluate the organisations performance, nor to judge their work. It is
rather to analyse the role of advertising in NPOs and the overseas
development discourse it constructs.
Besides acknowledging my biases and assumptions around the unit of analysis, I
also acknowledge my limitations and the delimitations of the present study:
The present dissertation was a learning process in many ways. I researched
literature around the specific methodology needed for this study and
-
8/7/2019 MA Soc - Dissertation - Ana Cuevas Romo
38/81
xxxviii
around its theoretical background, and a significant amount of time was
invested in this task.
Only two of th e three elements of the NPOs discursive practice were
analysed. That is to say that only the production of the message and the
message itself were analysed - not the interpretation. In order to analyse
the interpretation of the message it would have been necessary to study the
responses of audiences to the NPOs message. However, this study does
not include an analysis of the reception of the message because of the lack
of sufficient time. To analyse the audiences responses is an option for
further research.
3.3.2 Pitfalls of Discourse Analysis
In discourse analysis it is important not to assume that the context can be
described in a neutral and unproblematic way because of the fact that the analysts
are also producing their own version. Nevertheless, what discourse analysts do is
produce readings of texts and contexts that are warranted by careful attention to
detail and that lend coherence to the discourse being studied (Gill 2000).
Discourse analysis is basically interpretative; it works under the assumption that
all if language is constructive, discourse analysts language is constructive and
their analyses are also constructions (Gill 2000) and should be taken as such.
3.3.3 Reliability and Validity
Having dealt with the acknowledgement of my own biases and the methodologys
pitfalls, it was essential to look for ways of enhancing the reliability and validity
of the study.
Regarding my biases and assumptions I bracketed as much as possible during the
research process. And regarding the methods pitfalls, I followed Gills (2000)
-
8/7/2019 MA Soc - Dissertation - Ana Cuevas Romo
39/81
xxxix
suggestions that discourse analysts should pay careful attention to detail, examine
closely deviant cases, turn to the participants and take into account their
understandings, and finally be open to the readers evaluation.
The discourse analysis was done as inclusively as possible, paying attention to
every detail, and searching for coherence between the analysis and the text. I then
turned to the participants and compared my analysis with their own
understandings as conveyed through the interview process. In addition, in order to
give the reader the chance to make their own evaluation of the discourse analysis,
transcripts of the texts analysed are included as appendices in the present report.
-
8/7/2019 MA Soc - Dissertation - Ana Cuevas Romo
40/81
xl
4. PRESENTATION OF FINDINGS
4.1 DISCOURSE ANALYSIS
The discourse analysis findings are presented separately according to
organisation. The overall features of the discourse are first to be analysed,
followed by the findings in each topic.
4.1.1 BTHAR
The website layout is simple which makes it easy to navigate. Every
individual page is also linked to the home page and to the Donate page.
The text on almost every page has an accompanying picture which mainly
shows smiling children or families with their animals (see table 4.1)
Bthars discourse tends to be mainly conversational and informal. Using
simple and clear language, the writers address the readers using a
conversational style: The list is endless! You may well have some novel
idea yourself, in which case please share it with us, the Government
refunds us the tax on your donation! or You will be happy to know
that
Moreover, the authors use adjectives that enhance the representations
made:
- the most important gift catalogue in the world,
- integral and essential part of all Bthar projects
- an important milestone in Irish history
- three months of very hard work
- excellent working relationship
- many generous supporters
- a brilliant achievement
- we will be happy
-
8/7/2019 MA Soc - Dissertation - Ana Cuevas Romo
41/81
xli
- we will be delighted
- press coverage is invaluable
- a legacy is also an amazing way
- long -lasting and beneficial gifts
- very straightforward and not as expensive as many people think
- the fantastic work that Bthar does
- experience of a lifetime and a real eye opener
- to have such successful projects
It is possible however that adjectives are used so frequently due to the
writing style of the authors and not to any strategic plan.
The authors voice is sometimes in the third person (it) and sometimes in
the first person plural (we).
childrengrownups babies animals smiling Irish
HOME 2 x xHOME 2 1 1 x yesHOME 3 1 x xHOME 4 2 x xHOME 5 2 x
About us 1 1About us 2 2 1 xAbout us 3 1 x yesShort History 10 x foundersShort History 2 2 oneAdministration costs 2 xBthar Team team x teamSuper Supporters family xsuper Supporters 2 1 x yesSuper Supporters 3 groupSuper Supporters 4 1 x
Super Supporters 5 2 x oneSuper Supporters 6 1 xSchools Primary 2 x x yesSchools Primary 2 5 xSchools Primary 3 1 x x yesSchools Secondary xContact Us 1Get Involved 3 x yesLegacies 3 x
TABLE 4.1: Images in Bthars website
-
8/7/2019 MA Soc - Dissertation - Ana Cuevas Romo
42/81
xlii
Marketisation and commodification are visible tendencies in Bthars
discourse. They are most apparent in the description of Tax -efficient
giving. The organisation is clearly trying to persuade the public to donate
in this way by stating the advantages, and reinforcing them with the idea
that to doing so is simple and costless: Is a way of maximising your
donation at no extra cost for yourself, greatly increasing their value.
The text is also discernibly persuasive in the section entitled Legacies. The
writers explain the importance of legacies in general, then move on to state
the importance of leaving a legacy to them A legacy gift is one of the
most long-lasting and beneficial gifts that many people will ever be able to
give. Leaving a legacy gives us the power to help those who need it most.
They then state that even though it is so important, few people actually do
it, and then they ask the public to consider leaving a legacy to Bthar in
their will. The approach to legacies is thus somewhat overemotional.
The organisation Bthar is first described as a subject through use of the third person (it)
but gradually, and perhaps unwittingly, the organisation comes to be
described with first person plural (we).
The organisations description is clear, concise yet detailed, in that it
meticulously describes every stage in Bthars projects.
The history of the organisation takes a narrative form, starting in the third
person (it) then chang ing to the first p erson plural (we). The narrative
uses informal language, names some names, but also acknowledges the
work of anonymous people who have participated in some way, no matter
how small. In order to recount the history of Bthar, the authors also make
use of metaphor, which serves to make the text more emotive. For
example the dark cloud of the BSE crisis had one small silver lining
and we look to the future with hope and a confidence that what we are
enabled to do through our many generous supporters will make a
difference to the world.
-
8/7/2019 MA Soc - Dissertation - Ana Cuevas Romo
43/81
xliii
Recipient Countries The recipients are constructed either as groups of people or as countries
(see Table 4.2). The most commonly-used term used to describe them is
families (x23), which is sometimes qualified by adject ives such as
recipient, poor, struggling and needy.
Overusing phrases such as they are taught the knowledge and skills to
manage the animals, they are given the gift, they are given training,
they receive veterinary back -up can give the imp ression that the
communities are nothing but passive receivers.
families (23) project countries (9)communities/villages (7) contries (7)
recipient families (3) developing countries/world (4)poor families (3) third world (2)
pass-on families (3) african countries (2)farmers (3) receiving countries (1)
those who need it most (2)struggling families (2)poor communities (1)
needy families (1)TABLE 4.2: Representations of recipients in Bthars website
The donors The donors are describe d by phrases such as generous supporters,
without your generosity which depict them as generous supporters who
enable the organisation to do its work. Bthar acknowledges the support it
receives from donors.
Donors are also depicted as having the power to help struggling families
with a chance to change their lives forever.
Participation of the donors and donating
Bthar invites members of the public to participate on a voluntary basis in
its various sponsorship schemes. It encourages the public to donate
through comments such as: all donations are important to us. Without
your generosity we could not do our work, or every donation, big or
-
8/7/2019 MA Soc - Dissertation - Ana Cuevas Romo
44/81
xliv
small, enables us to make the vital difference for poor communities in our
project countries. All of these represent the act of donating as crucial.
The authors also make use of the imperative mode to prompt people e.g.
Donate.
They invite the general public to participate by going on field trips to visit
the families involved in the projects to give you an idea of the level of
poverty in which they live, give you the chance to see what Bthar does
on the ground to really get a feel for the true meaning of the phrase a
living gift
The work Bthars work is entitled the Bthar project and the micro -farming
project. This nominalization is also sometimes qualified -as for example
in the statement: the beauty of Bothars project is in its simplicity.
A typical project is clearly described on the website in order to explain the
process in a systematic way.
The idea that the community has ownership of the programme is
reinforced several times throughout the website.
We can also find evidence of interdiscursive mixing in, for example, the
use of the old adage give a man a fish and you feed him for a d ay, but
teach a man how to fish and he will feed himself for the rest of his days to
validate the discourse.
The result The impact of the implementation of the projects is overwhelmingly
constructed as being positive through the use of such phrases as not only
improve a familys diet, but the surplus can be sold this giving the family
possibly their first opportunity to earn an income. This income allows
them to feed, clothe and educate their children, and the families have
control over their farms and futures, and, over time, can lift themselves up
to a position of relative comfort with dignity and pride, or Irish boys and
-
8/7/2019 MA Soc - Dissertation - Ana Cuevas Romo
45/81
xlv
girls are lifting thousands of people out of poverty and giving them a
secure future by taking part in it.
Interdiscourse is used when the writers compare current crisis situations
with the Irish famine in Ireland in a probable effort to make their work
more understandable and related to the Irish public.
The power given to the donors is obvious in phrases such as Make a
differen ce to the world which, while clearly an exaggeration of the real
effect, is useful for convincement purposes.
In other statements, difference (x7) is incorporated into phrases such as:
the impact that one good quality farm animal has on an impoverished
family in the Developing World can mean the difference between
destitution and security, or its an opportunity to make a lasting
difference to a live all over the world.
Likewise in this definition: difference between a life of subsistence and
one of sustainable growth and self-help, between a continuation of bad
agricultural and animal husbandry practices that devastate the environment
and environmentally friendly ones that conserve and improve it, and lastly
the difference between a future without hope and one filled with prospects
of a better life, especially for children. In this kind of statement, there are
implications to constructing a negative image of recipient communities
before they participate in the project. This can imply that they are talking
about the difference between bad practices and a negative situation and
how the organisation changes it for the better which can in turn lead to the
reinforcement of the negative stereotyping of recipient countries.
A feature of Bthars project tha t is mentioned several times and in
different sections of the website is the fact that the gift grows/continues/is
lasting (x 6). The authors state that when the families pass -on the gift,
the gift is multiplied and over time many families and even wh ole
communities benefit.
The living gift will go on helping people to lift themselves out of poverty
for generations to come. The Bthar projects are truly gifts that never stop
giving.
-
8/7/2019 MA Soc - Dissertation - Ana Cuevas Romo
46/81
xlvi
Finances and administration
The readers are assured that 100% of the funds raised go towards the
projects, and that the administrative costs and other expenses are financed
from other sources.
Relationship between the donors and the organisation
Bthar acknowledges all support it receives and provides further
information whenever possible.
Key issues around development
Bthar almost never addresses the core social causes of the problems. The
website only refers to natural causes such as soil erosion and refers to it
only once.
The only other mention the organisation makes about these kind of issues
is the statement poverty remains a serious and extensive problem
Development education
On the website there is an education section targeted mainly at students.
Consequently it has a simpler narrative and is much more informal than
the rest of the text.
The section also adopts a much more conversational tone: so far you have
sent almost 1,000 dairy goats to poor families in Africa a brilliant
achievement, and one you can be very proud of.
-
8/7/2019 MA Soc - Dissertation - Ana Cuevas Romo
47/81
xlvii
4.1.2 TRCAIRE
Trcaires w ebsite is used mainly to provide the readers with information about
the organisation, the way it works and ways in which the public can participate.
The information provided on the website is very extensive and there is the option
to read more in-depth information about the different themes and issues covered.
The text in the website is full of definitions and descriptions such as poverty
means lack of choice, which, in turn means vulnerability which aim to educate
the reader about Trcaires perspective of world issues. But within these
descriptions there are evaluations and judgements if we take the following
definition included in the website as an example: Trcaire envisages a just world
where peoples dignity is ensured, rights are respected and basi c needs are met;where there is equity in the sharing of resources and people are free to be the
authors of their own development.
In general, the website is very outspoken. The text includes extensive information
about the structural causes of the problems the organisation tackles, as well as the
organisations stances and critiques. The criticism is explicit throughout the
website. Despite the fact that Trcaires identity is sometimes constructed aseither it or the first person plural (we) when th e authors state their critical point
of view, they always use the third person, for example: Trcaire believes that this
initiative. The first person is never used when controversial stances are being
taken.
In some parts of the text, the authors emplo y the strategy of interdiscourse,
articulating together a variety of other discourses to validate the stances they take.Sometimes they use direct quotations that illustrate or add to an idea previously
made, and other times they paraphrase other discourses such as documents and
speeches.
The text in Trcaires website seems to be intended to raise public awareness and
to educate, rather than convince the Irish public to donate. However, there is still a
donation page on the website that explicitly inv ites the public to donate.
-
8/7/2019 MA Soc - Dissertation - Ana Cuevas Romo
48/81
xlviii
Marketisation is a very subtle tendency in Trcaires website. Not only do the
authors play on the organisations prestige - the result of 30 years work - it seems
that they intend to educate the public and make them agree with the organisations
stances, rather than evidently and openly trying to persuade the public to donate.
This could be seen as prestige advertising. Marketisation is more evident in the
Make a Donation part of the website, where they do try to persuade and sell
the idea of donating.
The imperative form is used by the authors repeatedly, but in a polite and subtle
way: click here, donate now, return your box, send your donation, make
a difference today, take action now, join Trcaires campaign, be part of,
and more often in relation to campaigning, rather than donating.
Compared to Bthars website, the language used by Trcaire is more formal, and
the style of the author is not as evident, possibly because the texts were written by
different authors. In addition to these differences, Trcaire uses what could be
called more objective language due to the presence of fewer adjectives on its
web pages than on Bthars.
The organisation The organisations identity is constructed using two grammatical persons:
it, and the first person plural (we)
In the text the religious aspect of the organisation is highlighted by making
it clear that Trcaire is the official overseas development agency of the
Catholic Church in Ireland, and that has its basis in the Gospel and thesocial teaching of the Church.
The authors define the organisations role as an advocate for the poor,
which makes assumptions about the social identities of the actors involved
and relationships between them.
Trcaire d efines its rationale with phrases such as: Trcaire is working
towards a just world where peoples dignity is ensured, the rights of
individuals are respected, and where basic needs are met or: the mission
-
8/7/2019 MA Soc - Dissertation - Ana Cuevas Romo
49/81
xlix
of Trcaire, and indeed all human striving after a just world, is more than
bandaging the wounds The positive connotations of these statements
make it difficult for the reader to disagree.
In addition, Trcaire constructs itself as an ideal workplace with self-
promotional statements such as: Trcaire is the agency of choice among
development professionals who are attracted to us because of our approach
to development, the quality of our services in Ireland and overseas and our
commitment to the development of staff skills or: Trcaire has put
increased resources into enhancing the quality of our programmes and
ensuring that our work is of the highest standard. Even phrases as:
follow international standards of best practice substantiate this claim.
Using managerial concepts such as quality, service, training, standards,
accountability, etc, the authors mix the informational genre with the genre
of prestige advertising.
Recipient Countries Recipient Countries (RCs) and donors countries are named differently
from each other in Trcaires discourse (see Table ). Antonyms such as
developing/developed, poor/rich, third world/west, south/north are
also used to differentiate between the countries.
The most commonly used term is developing countries (x26), followed
by poor countries (x24), overseas (x18) and third world (x10). (see
Table ).
People living in RCs are nominalised as: people (x79), communities
(x30), children (x29), families (x12), our brothers and sisters (x3),
and beneficiaries (x1).
o Here it is worth noting tha t the word people is the