FEMINISM & FEMINIST CRITICISM

M.A SEM. IV

PAPER: LITERARY THEORY

FEMINISM & THE FOUR WAVES

Feminism implies the ideology/theory/movement to define and achieve equality between sexes in social, economic and political fields of life; ensure equal opportunities to all irrespective of their sex or gender; fight gender stereotypes.

The history of the modern western feminist movement is divided into four waves or time periods aimed at elevating women’s status in society and giving them equal rights

The first wave comprised women's suffrage movements of the 19th and early-20th centuries promoting women's right to vote.

The second wave, the women's liberation movement, began in the 1960s and campaigned for legal and social equality for women.

In or around 1992, a third wave was identified, characterized by a focus on individuality and diversity.

The fourth wave, from around 2012, used social media to combat sexual harassment, violence against women and rape culture; it is best known for the Me Too movement.

FIRST WAVE FEMINISM

Term coined in March 1968 by Martha Lear writing in The New York Times Magazine who also used

the term second wave feminism

Often demarcated as officially beginning with the signing of the Declaration of Sentiments at the

Seneca Falls Convention, the first ever women’s rights convention

Focused primarily on gaining basic legal rights for women

Suffrage, the right of women to vote in elections was the major goal

Led to the formation of American Equal Rights Association in 1866, the collapse was this was

followed by the National Women Suffrage Association (NWSA) in early 1869, after this the American

Women Suffrage Association (AWSA) was formed later in 1869

In 1916, the National Woman’s Party (NWP) was formed breaking away from NAWSA. It aimed to

achieve suffrage by working towards a constitutional amendment

Connected with the abolitionist movement of USA that aimed at social reformation and liberation from

oppression

The fist wave ends with the Nineteenth Amendment in 1919 that declared, “The right of citizens of

the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on

account of sex”.

SECOND-WAVE FEMINISM

Second-wave feminism is a feminist movement beginning in the early 1960s and continuing to the present; as such, it coexists with third-wave feminism.

Second-wave feminism is largely concerned with issues of equality beyond suffrage such as ending gender discrimination.

Second-wave feminism was a period of feminist activity and thought that began in the United States in the early 1960s and lasted roughly two decades. It quickly spread across the Western world, with an aim to increase equality for women by gaining more than just enfranchisement.

(Continued…)

The phase began with protests against Miss

America pageant in Atlantic City in 1968-

69….called it “cattle parade” that reduced women

to objects of beauty.

Redstockings, a radical New York Group staged a

counter pageant crowning a sheep as Miss

America and threw feminine artificats such as

make up, bras, high heels into the trash can.

(continued…)

Sex and gender were differentiated – sex is biological and gender is a social construct

First wave propelled by middle class, Western and cisgender and white women, second wave by women of colour and developing nations who claimed “women’s struggle is class struggle” and coined the phrase “personal is political”

The term eco-feminism was coined that stated that because of their biological connection to earth and lunar cycles, women are natural advocates of environmentalism.

GYNOCRITICISM

Elaine Showalter pioneered gynocriticism with her book A Literature of Their Own (1977). Gynocriticism involves three major aspects:

The first is the examination of female writers and their place in literary history.

The second is the consideration of the treatment of female characters in books by both male and female writers.

The third and most important aspect of gynocriticism is the discovery and exploration of a canon of literature written by women; gynocriticism seeks to appropriate a female literary tradition. (Continued…)

IN A LITERATURE OF THEIR OWN, SHOWALTER

PROPOSES THE FOLLOWING THREE PHASES

OF WOMEN'S WRITING:

The 'Feminine' Phase - In the feminine phase, female writers tried to adhere to male values, writing as men, and usually did not enter into debate regarding women's place in society. Female writers often employed male pseudonyms during this period.

The 'Feminist' Phase - In the feminist phase, the central theme of works by female writers was the criticism of the role of women in society and the oppression of women.

The 'Female' Phase - During the 'female' phase, women writers were no longer trying to prove the legitimacy of a woman's perspective. Rather, it was assumed that the works of a women writer were authentic and valid. The female phase lacked the anger and combative consciousness of the feminist phase.

THIRD-WAVE FEMINISM

Third-wave feminism is an iteration of the feminist movement that began in the early 1990s United States and continued until the rise of the fourth wave in the 2010s.

The term third wave is credited to Rebecca Walker, who responded to Thomas's appointment to the Supreme Court with an article in Ms. magazine, "Becoming the Third Wave" (1992). (continued…)

Many constructs were destabilized such as universal motherhood, body, gender, sexuality and heteronormativity. Reality is conceived not so much in terms of fixed structures and power relations but in terms of performance within contingencies.

Readoption of the very lipstick, high heels and cleavage proudly exposed by low cut necklines that the first two phases of the movement identified with male oppression. It was believed now that that it is possible to have a push up bra and a brain at the same time.

(continued…)

The ‘grrls’ of the third wave stepped onto the

stage as strong and empowered eschewing

victimization and defining feminine beauty for

themselves as subjects, not as objects of a

sexist patriarchy.

Most third wavers refused to identify as

‘feminist’ and rejected the words that they

found limiting and exclusionary.

TYPES OF FEMINISM

LIBERAL FEMINISM:

• Equal rights feminism

• Existed into the 1950s and 1960s

• Reinvigorated as a consequence of second wave feminism

• Main thrust is on inequality between men and women in areas of education, employment and politics

• Challenges any idea or practice that treats women as subordinates

• Does not oppose patriarchal structure of society or capitalism

• The primary aim is to erase every such impediment that prevents women from participating in public sphere on equal terms with men

RADICAL FEMINISM:

Cause of women’s oppression is patriarchy

Patriarchy is also the root cause of different types of oppression – class oppression, colour oppression, imperialist oppression, etc

Women’s role in reproduction is one of the major factors contributing towards their subjugation and subordination

Men exploit women’s sexual availability

Aim is to overthrow patriarchal hegemony ; alter gender roles and relations; eliminate male power and male values

SOCIALIST FEMINISM:

Challenged the male supremacy/patriarchy as well as capitalism

Stressed that though women are divided by class, colour or political belief, they are united in their common oppression

Close relationship between role and position or status of women and changes in economic system is traced

More concentration on issues such as employment, domestic labourand state policy

Advocates an autonomous women’s movement and also inclusion of women concerns in socialist parties and trade unions

“There can be no women’s liberation without socialism, no socialism without women’s liberation”.

BLACK FEMINSIM:

o Emerged 1980s onwards

o Challenged the marginalization and exclusion of Black women by the white feminist

o Major concern is to make experiences and perspectives of Black women visible and central

o Recognition of impact of racism on Black women’s lives is vital and to pose a challenge to it

o Opposition of the notion of common sisterhood among women

o Does not view men as the cause of women’s oppression; emphasizes the coordinated efforts of black men and women in the fight against racism

ECO FEMINISM:

Came into prominence in 1980s and 1990s

Draws a connection between oppression and exploitation of nature and of women

Attributes a pivotal role to women in environmental concerns

Points out a close connection between women and nature from the fact that women, in general, have been associated with nature and emotion and body while men are defined in context of culture, reason and mind

Women’s reproductive and nurturing capacities links them further to the all giving and protective role of nature

Women’s social roles makes them more aware and sensitive towards threats to the environment such as degradation of fertile land, unmindful dumping of waste, etc.

SOME MAJOR FEMINISTS

FEMINIST CRITICISM

Feminist criticism is concerned with "...the ways in which literature (and other cultural productions) reinforce or undermine the economic, political, social, and psychological oppression of women". This school of theory looks at how aspects of our culture are inherently patriarchal (male dominated) and aims to expose misogyny in writing about women, which can take explicit and implicit forms. This misogyny can extend into diverse areas of our culture: "Perhaps the most chilling example...is found in the world of modern medicine, where drugs prescribed for both sexes often have been tested on male subjects only".

Feminist criticism is also concerned with less obvious forms of marginalization such as the exclusion of women writers from the traditional literary canon: "...unless the critical or historical point of view is feminist, there is a tendency to under represent the contribution of women writers".

COMMON SPACE IN FEMINIST THEORIES

Though a number of different approaches exist in feminist criticism, there exist some areas of commonality:

Women are oppressed by patriarchy economically, politically, socially, and psychologically; patriarchal ideology is the primary means by which women are oppressed.

In every domain where patriarchy reigns, woman is other: she is marginalized, defined only by her difference from male norms and values.

All of Western (Anglo-European) civilization is deeply rooted in patriarchal ideology, for example, in the Biblical portrayal of Eve as the origin of sin and death in the world.

While biology determines our sex (male or female), culture determines our gender (scales of masculine and feminine).

All feminist activity, including feminist theory and literary criticism, has as its ultimate goal to change the world by prompting gender equality.

Gender issues play a part in every aspect of human production and experience, including the production and experience of literature, whether we are consciously aware of these issues or not.

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References

Walters, Margaret. Feminism: A very Short Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005.

Bowden, Peter & Jane Mummery. Understanding Feminism. London: Routledge, 2014.

https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/subject_specific_writing/writing_in_literature/literary_theory_and_schools_of_criticism/feminist_criticism.html

THANK YOU

Dr. Bulbul Gupta

Assistant Professor

Department of English

M.M. College

Modinagar - 201204