m y.* ;=) · 2018-11-08 · ing certain characteristics of the varactor diode and the partial...

,EEE TRANSACTIONS ON CIRCUIT THEORY, VOL. CT-18, NO. 5, SEPTEMBER 1971 507

Memristor-The Missing Circuit Element LEON 0. CHUA, SENIOR MEMBER, IEEE

Abstract-A new two-terminal circuit element-called the memrirtor-

characterized by a relationship between the charge q(t) s St% i(7J d7 and the flux-linkage (p(t) = J-‘-m vfrj d T is introduced os the fourth boric

circuit element. An electromagnetic field interpretation of this relationship

in terms of a quasi-static expansion of Maxwell’s equations is presented.

Many circuit~theoretic properties of memdstorr are derived. It is shown

that this element exhibiis some peculiar behavior different from that

exhibited by resistors, inductors, or capacitors. These properties lead to a

number of unique applications which cannot be realized with RLC net-

works alone.

I + ” -3

nl

Although a physical memristor device without internal power supply

has not yet been discovered, operational laboratory models have been

built with the help of active circuits. Experimental results ore presented to

demonstrate the properties and potential applications of memristors.

(a)

I. 1NTR00~cnoN

I + Y -3

T

HIS PAPER presents the logical and scientific basis for the existence of a new two-terminal circuit element called the memristor (a contraction for memory

(b)

resistor) which has every right to be as basic as the three classical circuit elements already in existence, namely, the resistor, inductor, and capacitor. Although the existence of a memristor in the form of a physical device without internal power supply has not yet been discovered, its laboratory realization in the form of active circuits will be presented in Section II.’ Many interesting circuit-theoretic properties possessed by the memristor, the most important of which is perhaps the passivity property which provides the circuit-theoretic basis for its physical realizability, will be derived in Section III. An electromagnetic field interpretation of the memristor characterization will be presented in Section IV with the help of a quasi-static expansion of Maxwell’s equations. Finally, some novel applications of memristors will be presented in Section V.

1 + ” -3

I + -3 ”

-

-

(cl

Cd)

II. MEMRISTOR-THE FOURTH BASIC CIRCUIT ELEMENT

From the circuit-theoretic point of view, the three basic two-terminal circuit elements are defined in terms of a relationship between two of the four fundamental circuit variables, namely;the current i, the voltage v, the charge q,

Fig. 1. Proposed symbol for memristor and its three basic realizations. (a) Memristor and its q-q curve. (b) Memristor basic realization 1: M-R mutator terminated by nonlinear resistor &t. (c) Memristor basic realization 2: M-L mutator terminated by nonlinear inductor C. (d) Memristor basic realization 3: M-C mutator terminated by nonlinear capacitor e.

Manuscript received November 25, 1970; revised February 12,197l. This research was supported in part by the National Science Foundation under Grant GK 2988.

The author was with the School of Electrical Engineering, Purdue University, Lafayette, Ind. He is now with the Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Sciences, University of California, Berke- ley, Calif. 94720.

r In a private communication shortly before this paper went into press, the author learned from Professor P. Penfield, Jr., that he and his colleagues at M.I.T. have also been using the memristor for modeling certain characteristics of the varactor diode and the partial superconductor. However, a physical device which corresponds exactly to a memristor has yet to be discovered.

and theflux-linkage cp. Out of the six possible combinations of these four variables, five have led to well-known relationships [l]. Two of these relationships are already given by q(t)=JL w i(T) d 7 and cp(t)=sf. m D(T) d7. Three other relationships are given, respectively,. by the axiomatic definition of the three classical circuit elements, namely, the resistor (defined by a relationship between v and i), the inductor (defined by a relationship between cp and i), and the capacitor (defined by a relationship between q and v). Only one relationship remains undefined, the relationship between 9 and q. From the logical as well as axiomatic points of view, it is necessary for the sake of completeness to postulate the existence of a fourth basic two-terminal circuit element which

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IEEE TRANSAcrlONS ON CIRCUIT THEORY, VOL. cr-18, No.5, SEPTEMBER 1971 507

Memristor-The Missing Circuit ElementLEON O. CHUA, SENIOR MEMBER, IEEE

(

I.

R

;.*y.*

-----:>I~------:"

I

;=)m(a)

i

;=)(b)

I i

J +

(c)

I i

J +

(d)

Fig. 1. Proposed symbol for memristor and its three basic realizations.(a) Memristor and its qrq curve. (b) Memristor basic realization I:M-R mutator terminated by nonlinear resistor CR. (c) Memristorbasic realization 2: M-L mutator terminated by nonlinear inductor.c. (d) Memristor basic realization 3: M-C mutator terminated bynonlinear capacitor e.

and the flux-linkage 'P. Out of the six possible combinationsof these four variables, five have led to well-known relationships [I]. Two of these relationships are already givenby q(t)=J~ .. i(T) dT and «J(t)=J~ .. v(T) dT. Three other relationships are given, respectively,. by the axiomatic definitionof the three classical circuit elements, namely, the resistor(defined by a relationship between v and i), the inductor(defined by a relationship between 'P and i), and the capacitor(defined by a relationship between q and v). Only one relationship remains undefined, the relationship between 'P

and q. From the logical as well as axiomatic points of view,it is necessary for the sake of completeness to postulate theexistence of a fourth basic two-terminal circuit element which

II. MEMRISTOR-THE FOURTH BASIC

CIRCUIT ELEMENT

From the circuit-theoretic point of view, the three basictwo-terminal circuit elements are defined in terms of arelationship between two of the four fundamental circuitvariables, namely,.the current i, the voltage v, the charge q,

Manuscript received November 25, 1970; revised February 12, 1971.This research was supported in part by the National Science Foundationunder Grant GK. 2988.

The author was with the School of Electrical Engineering, PurdueUniversity, Lafayette, Ind. He is now with the Department of ElectricalEngineering and Computer Sciences, University of California, Berkeley, Calif. 94720.

1 In a private communication shortly before this paper went intopress, the author learned from Professor P. Penfield, Jr., that he andhis colleagues at M.I.T. have also been using the memristor for modeling certain characteristics of the varactor diode and the partial superconductor. However, a physical device which corresp0nds exactly to amemristor has yet to be discovered.

I. INTRODUCTION

T HIS PAPER presents the logical and scientific basisfor the existence of a new two-terminal circuit element

. called the memristor (a contraction for memoryresistor) which has every right to be as basic as the threeclassical circuit elements already in existence, namely, theresistor, inductor, and capacitor. Although the existenceof a memristor in the form of a physical device withoutinternal power supply has not yet been discovered, itslaboratory realization in the form of active circuits will bepresented in Section 11.1 Many interesting circuit-theoreticproperties possessed by the memristor, the most importantof which is perhaps the passivity property which providesthe circuit-theoretic basis for its physical realizability, willbe derived in Section III. An electromagnetic field interpretation of the memristor characterization will be presented in Section IV with the help of a quasi-static expansionof Maxwell's equations. Finally, some novel applicationsof memristors will be presented in Section V.

Abstract-A new two-terminal circuit element-called the memrislorcharacterized by a relationship between the charge q(I} == f' -'" i(r} drand the flux-linkage <p(I} == f'-", vir} dr is introduced as the fourth basiccircuit element. An electromagnetic field interpr'!tation of this relationshipin terms of a quasi-static expansion of Maxwell's equations is presented.Many circuit· theoretic properties of memristors are derived. It is shownthat this element exhibiis some peculiar behavior different from thatexhibited by resistors, inductors, or capacitors. These properties lead to anumber of unique applications which cannot be realized with RLC networks alone.

Although a physical memristor device without internal power supplyhas not yet been discovered, operational laboratory models have beenbuilt with the help of active circuits. Experimental results are presented todemonstrate the properties and potential applications of memristors.

508 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON CIRCUIT THEORY, SEPTEMBER 1971

TABLE I CHARACTERIZATION AND REALIZATION OF M-R, M-L, AND M-C MUTATORS

=

‘PE

I

I

-

2

I

I

-

2

I

I

2

-

RANSMISSION MATRIX

::I = [T(P’][J

BASH: REALIZATIONS

USING CONTROLLED SOURCES

SYMBOL AND

CHARACTERIZATION

’ : v

i

:

Y

!I

.I

,

'1

f)

REALIZATION 2 REALIZATION I

‘2 w+gf

+ R “2

il D---a + I c

(2) + i2+

“2 (li,dt)

il

F--a- +(!%) -i2+

+ “2

Uqdt) -

P 0 ~R,b) = [ 1 0 P

dVp “I= dt

dip iI = -7

(q.Vl -RvR,iR) Y-R

MUTATOR REALIZATION I REALIZATION 2

di2 VI’ -7

REALIZATION 2 REALIZATION I

gq-:

Identical to TcR,(p)

f c Type I C-R MUTATOR 1

REALIZATtON 4 REALIZATION 3

REALIZATION I

“I = “2

di2 iI=- !TDq-y

I +(!!k) i2+ + (VI)- “!

M-L MUTATOR

L 1

REALIZATION 2 (q,# -WL, iL)

m

di, v, = - dt

i, =v2

0 P

TML2fP” ) o [ 1 (Identical to TLR2(p)

mf c Type 2 L-R MUTATOA

REALIZATION 2

:f-pq*

REALIZATlON I

i, = - i2

P 0

k,(P) o ( [ 1 (I&tical 10 TLRltp)

d a Type I L-R MUTATOR

l I ;

REALlZATlON 3 REALIZATlON 4

M-C

MUTATOR

REALIZATION I

v, =-i 2

d”2 il =r(t

REALIZATION 2

r. ,- il i2 + (ipI -D---a “I ;

+ x

t/ildt)- I

+ 3pq “2

blcp= p o 1 (Idtmticdl t0 TCR2 ( p)

,f a Type 2 C-R WTATOF



TABLE I

CHARACTERIZATION AND REALIZATION OF M-R, M-L, AND M-C MUTATORS

TRANSMISSION MATRIXSYMBOL

[~:] [ T(P)] ~::]BASIC REALIZATIONS

TYPE AND"CHARACTERIZATION USING CONTROLLED SOURCES

d£teREALIZATION I REALIZATION 2

'..",{. :] I;i-[J'~'),f~ ;i-@,:,').f~I

~ ~;~ t ! ~ VI : t v2

- 1·-

dV2I 0

I~ (/vldt) ~ ~ (/ildtl 1----4VI' dT

di2M·R i l " -dT

MUTATOR

~REALIZATION I REALIZATION 2

:] l;i-~~).t \ ;i-[J~~;),{~' .. ",{ 02

~ ~;v, :;: ! v2 VI ~ t v2

- 2 -

di2 2 P 1';.- (/ildtl ~ ~ (/vldt) f.--4v =--I dt

i I • ~dt

REALIZATION I REALIZATION 2

II i 2 i l 12+ + +

~1'/lldt)+

(q,9?)"""'" (IL,cPLl VI ~~ di2)v2 v, v2

LW '.C ",{ , :]- 12 -"'jjf - - .-

~ ~ V; I 0I - I -

REALIZATION 3 REALIZATION 4

VI" V2(Identical to TCR,( p)

i l 12

;i-@*),,~i 2

. di 2of a Type , CoR MUTATOR)

~[l',{~+

M-L II'-dlv, : t v2 VI t : v2MUTATOR

, "-- (/lldtl ~ .0-- (vI) -

(q,~)-(jPL.iL) REALIZATION I REALIZATION 2i, i2

:]'~R>' ,~i 2 i, i2

.~ '.C ",{ 0 (v2'+ ~~~)§""2 2 I

v, ~ t v2 ~ + ! ~- 2 -

di 2 (Identical to TLR2 (p)_ lIvldt) - (il)_

VI' - dTi l • v2

of a Type 2 L-R MUTATOR)

REALIZATION I REALIZATION 2

I,~

i 2 i,~

12+ + + +

(q,tp) - (qc'vc )v, (~- ) v2 VI lIvldt-v, ) v2

~ :] dt "2

'Me ",{ ,- - - -

~ ~ v~ I 0I - I -

REALIZATION 3 REALIZATION 4

VI• dV2 (Identical to TLR

I( p)

~@~).,lEi 2

~@", ..f i2dt of a Type I L-R MUTATOR)~ ~

M-C i," - 12v, : t v

2 v t + v2MUTATOR

~ (i,) ~ (/Vldt)-~

(q .'!') -(vc,qc) REALIZATION I REALIZATION 2il i2

'.c,"'{ : ~ ]~'I '2 II

[Jr.)"t12r+-

~" ,,;t r-"+ ~ ~2 - 2 - v,

+: (/lldt):v2 VI v2

v, • - i 2 (Identical to TCR2 (p)- r---4 ~

(VI)I----i

. dV2 of a Type 2 CoR MUTATOR)II : Cit

CHUA: MEMRISTOR-MISSING CIRCUIT ELEMENT 509

+Ecc

014 l?&l50)

R4( IOOK) RJ9lO)

(2~4236) L

I f I 1 1 h-b--& 4-

1 AR, 1 SO-IOA JRLq-

I I I ’ *-kc

k - +

1 “2 - -

Port 2

Fig. 2. Practical active circuit realization of type-l M-R mutator based on realization 1 of Table I.

is characterized by a cp-q curve.2 This element will henceforth be called the memristor because, as will be shown later, it behaves somewhat like a nonlinear resistor with memory.

The proposed symbol of a memristor and a hypothetical cp-q curve are shown in Fig. l(a). Using a ,mutator [3], a memristor with any prescribed p-q curve can be realized by connecting an appropriate nonlinear resistor, inductor, or capacitor across port 2 of an M-R mutator, an M-L mutator, and an M-C mutator, as shown in Fig. l(b), (c), and (d), respectively. These mutators, of which there are two types of each, are defined and characterized in Table I.3 Hence, a type-l M-R mutator would transform the uR-if< curve of the nonlinear resistor f(u,+ iR)=O into the corresponding p-q curvef(cp, q)=O of a memristor. In contrast to this, a type-2 M-R mutator would transform the iR-vR curve of the nonlinear resistor f(iR, uR)=O into the corresponding p-q curvef(9, q) = 0 of a memristor. An analogous transformation is realized with an M-L mutator (M-C mutator) with respect to the ((PL, iL) or (iL, cp~) [(UC, qc) or (qc, UC)] curve of a nonlinear inductor (capacitor).

Each of the mutators shown in Table I can be realized by a two-port active network containing either one or two controlled sources, as shown by the various realizations in Table 1. Since it is easier to synthesize a nonlinear resistor with a prescribed u-i curve [l], only operational models of k-R mutators have been built. A typical active circuit realizatian based on realization 1 (Table I) of a type-l M-R mutator is given in Fig. 2. In order to verify that a memristor is indeed realized across port 1 of an M-R mutator when a nonlinear resistor is connected across port 2, it

2 The postulation of new elements for the purpose of completeness of a physical system is not without scientific precedent. Indeed, the celebrated discovery of the periodic table for chemical elements by Mendeleeff in 1869 is a case in point [2].

3 Observe that a type-l (type-2)‘M-L mutator is identical to a type-l (type-2) C-R mutator (L- R’mutator). Similarly, a type-l (type-2) M-C mutaror is identical to a type-l (type-2) L-R mutator (C-R mutator).

would be necessary to design a p-q curL;e tracer. The complete schematic diagram of a practical p-q curve tracer is shown in Fig. 3.4 Using this tracer, the p-q curves of three memristors realized by the type-l M-R mutator circuit of Fig. 2 are shown in Fig. 4(b), (d), and (f) corresponding to the nonlinear resistor V-Z curve shown in Fig. 4(c), (e), and (g), respectively. To demonstrate the rather “peculiar” voltage and current waveforms generated by the simple memristor circuit shown in Fig. 5(a), three representative memristors were synthesized with q--q curves as shown in Fig. 5(b), (d), and (f), respectively. The oscilloscope tracings of the voltage u(t) and current i(t) of each memristor are shown in Fig. 5(c), (e), and (g), respectively. The waveforms in Fig. 5(c) and (e) are measured with a 63-Hz sinusoidal input signal, while the waveforms shown in Fig. 5(g) are measured with a 63-Hz triangular input signal. It is interesting to observe that these waveforms are rather peculiar in spite of the fact that the cp-q curve of the three memristors are relatively smooth. It should not be surprising, therefore, for us to find that the memristor possesses certain unique signal- processing properties not shared by any of the three existing classical elements. In fact, it is precisely these properties that have led us to believe that memristors will play an important role in circuit theory, especially in the area of device modeling and unconventional signal-processing applications. Some of these applications will be presented in Section V.

III. CIRCUIT-THEORETIC PROPERTIES OF MEMRISTORS

By definition a memristor is characterized by a relufiorz of the type g(;p, q)=O. It is said to be charge-controlled (flux-controlled) if this relation can be expressed as a singlevalued function of the charge rZ (flux-linkage a). The voltage

4 For additional details concerning the design and operational characteristics of the circuits shown in Figs. 2 and 3, as well as that for a type-2 M-R mutator, see [4].



r-------------,....----~--~---o+Ecc

'------------------........---.4---Ecc

QI4

(2N4236)

iZ ++

~j= l~ZPort I Port 2

Fig. 2. Practical active circuit realization of type-! M-R mutator based on realization! of Table I.

is characterized by a <P-q curve.2 This element will henceforth be called the mernristor because, as will be shown later,it behaves somewhat like a nonlinear resistor with memory.

The proposed symbol of a memristor and a hypothetical<P-q curve are shown in Fig. lea). Using a mutator [3], amemristor with any prescribed <P-q curve can be realizedby connecting an appropriate nonlinear resistor, inductor, orcapacitor across port 2 of an M-R mutator, anM-Lmutator, and an M-C mutator, as shown in Fig. l(b), (c),and (d), respectively. These mutators, of which there aretwo types of each, are defined and characterized in Table J.3Hence, a type-l M-R mutator would transform the vR-ilicurve of the nonlinear resistor f( vIi, iii) = 0 into the corresponding <p-q curvef(<p, q)=O of a memristor. In contrastto this, a type-2 M-R mutator would transform the ili-VR

curve of the nonlinear resistor fUIi, VIi)=O into the corresponding <P-q curvef(<p, q) = 0 of a memristor. An analogoustransformation is realized with an M-L mutator (M-Cmutator) with respect to the (<PL' iL) or (iL, <pd [(vc, qc) or(qc, vc)] curve of a nonlinear inductor (capacitor).

Each of the mutators shown in Table I can be realizedby a two-port qctive network containing either one or twocontrolled sour~es, as shown by the various realizations inTable I. Since it is easier to synthesize a nonlinear resistorwith a prescribed v-i curve [I], only op~rational models ofM-R mutators have been built. A typical active circuitrealization based on realization I (Table I) of a type-lM-R mutator is given in Fig. 2. In order to verify that amemristor is indeed realized across port I of an M-R mutator when q nonline'ar resistor is connected across port 2, it

2 The postulation of new elements for the purpose of completenessof a physical system is not without scientific precedent. Indeed, thecelebrated discovery of the periodic table for chemical elements byMendeleeff in 1869 is a ca'se. in point [2].

S Observe that a type-I (type-2) M-L mutator is identical to a type-!(type-2) C-R mutator (L-Rmutator). Similarly, a type-! (type-2) M-Cmutator is identical to a type-! (type-2) L-R mutator (C-R mutator).

would be necessary to design a <P-q curve tracer. The complete schematic diagram of a practical <p-q curve tracer isshown in Fig. 3. 4 Using this tracer, the <p-q curves of threememristors realized by the type-l M-R mutator circuit ofFig. 2 are shown in Fig. 4(b), (d), and (f) corresponding tothe nonlinear resistor V-I curve shown in Fig. 4(c), (e), and(g), respectively. To demonstrate the rather "peculiar"voltage and current waveforms generated by the simplememristor circuit shown in Fig. 5(a), three representativememristors were synthesized with <p'-q curves as shown in Fig.S(b), (d), and (0, respectively. The oscilloscope tracings ofthe voltage v(t) and current i(t) of each memristor are shownin Fig. S(c), (e), and (g), respectively. The waveforms inFig. S(c) and (e) are measured with a 63-Hz sinusoidal inputsignal, while the waveforms shown in Fig. S(g) are measuredwith a 63-Hz triangular input signal. It is interesting to observe that these waveforms are rather peculiar in spite of thefact that the <P-q curve of the three memristors are relativelysmooth. It should not be surprising, therefore, for us tofind that the memristor possesses certain unique signalprocessing properties not shared by any of the three existingclassical elements. In fact, it is precisely these properties thathave led us to believe that memristors will play an importantrole in circuit theory, especially in the area of device modeling and unconventional signal-processing applications. Someof these applications will be presented in Section V.

Ql. CIRCUIT-THEORETIC PROPERTIES OF MEMRISTORS

By definition a memristor is characterized by a relationof the type g(<p, q)=O. It is said to be charge-controlled(flux-controlled) if this relation can be expressed as a singlevalued function of the charge q (flux-linkage <p). The voltage

4 For additional details concerning the design and operational characteristics of the circuits shown in Figs. 2 and 3, as well as that for atype-2 M-R mutator, see [41.

IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON CIRCUIT THEORY, SEPTEMBER 1971

IAMETER SPECIFICAT0NS

(current sensing ruustor. i;p~cal value: I, I), loo, or ooon ).

qgbca* factor for mtegmtof, should be ot b+t 5K).

R12 . R,s (I K wtenttomelsr for offset adjustment for LM202 OP AMP I.

R~s ,R22 (trmwnmg ieststor for NEXUS SO-IOA OP AMP, typtool voluo: 20K).

cp .c3.cg (nsutrollzotlon capocltors. sea te*t 1

CT ( scale factor for Integrator, see tmt1.

( power supply voltag.e. * I5 Yolts rtth respect to qound).

I =

to l hwlZOontol twmiml Of ouilloscop*

+ t v,( t I= k, jvbldr

--(D

I to ground terminal d

oscilbscom

-. + to

‘sine v,(t) *IO”8

VoltogI gonratot

to + vwtlcd r terminal of

L

oscillo*copr

t vi{ t )*k, ]ilr)dr

--o

k ze!?-s X

%C5

I to ground twmiml of

oscilloscope

Fig. 3. Complete schematic diagram of memristor tracer for tracing the pq curve of a memristor.


510 IEEE TRANSACfIONS ON CIRCUIT THEORY, SEPTEMBER 1971

L...--. ta groundlerminal atole i1I0icope

..---- 10 + horizontallerminal ofalcilloscope

-ER24

(20KPat) +E-E

RI7 (IOK.I~)

R

'

5(IOK.I~)

L

__.......-i{,ijR

I8

+ERI4

(IOK.I~)

NEXUS

l?r+

IO-A '>--+~-~P----R-ll---"""'-'----lf---+--+ I

22+E v.(II=k.!v(TldT_ -CD

...---''--1- 1R~ -E NEXUSOOK.I~) SOIO-A -=

-==- ...

RI2

(IK Pot)

+E

to-E

'- ~M202 >-.......--,

~E -E

'--

LM202 ~--~--

~+

r-----I+

+ER23 (22 Meg.l

R2/(IOOKl R201300Kl

R4

SerielCli ±C3Resillance

RI R2TI (Sla;;cor A-3801l

,>OOO!WindillQ

500SlR2

CenlerRI Tap Winding'

R33.300nWindillQ

~ c4tl C2

+10

lin.vI(I) wave

voltogege_alar

PARAMETER SPECIFICATIONS

RIO (22Meg.)

Re(100K) Rg(300K)

R, .R2(l/Oltage-divider resillorl.see le.11.

(currenl .....ing resislor. iyPicalvolue' 1.10. 100, or 1OO0n ),

( series resiSlor. ta be chosenby user as il depends on theIIOllage amplitude of Ihesine-wave Qenerator),

~. Rglscale foelar for inlegralor,Ihould be at least 5K),

~, RI2 • RI3 (I K polentiomeler foroffsel adjuslment forlM 202 OP AMP I.

R7' RIB •R22 (trimming relislor forNEXUS SO-lOA OP AMP,Iypical value, 20 Kl.

CI ,C2 ,C 3 ,C4 (neulrallzalloncapacitors, , .. text)

C5 , C7 (scale foclor for inlegralor,see 1..1),

RS

OK Pol,)

+E

-E

NEXUSSQIO-A+

-EAll

(20K Pot) +E

1

ta + verlicalterminal ofoaci1I0icope

'-- 10 grOOMlerminalof

oscillalcope

%E ( power supply vollage, % 15volll wilh reopec! 10 ground),

Fig. 3. Complete schematic diagram of memristor tracer for tracing the CP-q curve of a memristor.

. CHUA: MEMRISTOR-MISSING CIRCUIT ELEMENT 511

( bLH0nz0ntol Scole:lO-lweber per division. Vertical Scale: 2 ,L coul per division.

(C l.Horizontol &ok: 2 volts per dwision. Vertlcol Scale: 2 ma per division.

Vertical Scale: 5 c coul per ‘division. (e).Horizontol Scale: 2 volts per divsion.

Vertical Scale: 4 ma per diviaan.

across a charge-controlled memristor is given by

I I

where

Similarly, the current of a flux-controlled memristor is given by

where

(4)

Since M(q) has the unit of resistance, it will henceforth be called the incremental memristance. In contrast to this, the function W(q) will henceforth be called the incremental menductance because it has the unit of a conductance.

Observe that the, value of the incremental memristance (memductance) at any time to depends upon the time integral of the memristor current (voltage) from t = - co to t= to. Hence, while the memristor behaves like an ordinary resistor at a given instant of time to, its resistance (conductance) depends on the complete past history of the memristor current (voltage). This observation justifies our choice of the name memory resistor, or memristor. It is interesting to observe that once the memristor voltage u(t) or current i(t) is specified, the memristor behaves like a linear time-varying re@stor. Tn the very special case where the memristor vq curve is a straight line, we obtain M(q) = R, or W(p)= G, and the memristor reduces to a linear timeinvariant resistor. Hence, there is no point introducing a linear memristor in linear network theory.5

We have already shown that memristors with almost any cp-q curve can be synthesized in practice by active networks. The following passivity criterion shows what class of memristors might be discovered in a pure “device form” without internal power supplies.

Theorem I: Passivity Criterion

A memristor characterized by a differentiable charge- controlled p-q curve is passive if, and only if, its incremental memristance M(q) is nonnegative; i.e., M(q)>O.

Proof: The instantaneous power dissipated by a memristor is given by

PO) = W(Q = fifMO)b(O12. (5)

Hence, if the incremental memristance M(q)>O, then p(t)>0 and the memristor is obviously passive. To prove the converse, suppose that there exists a point q. such that M(qo)<O. Then the differentiability of the p-q curve implies that there exists an e> 0 such that M(qo+ Aq)<O, 1Aq ( <e. Now let us drive the memristor with a current i(t) which is zero for t<f and such that q(t)=qO+Aq(t) for t>_ to>? where 1 Aq( t) I< e ; then J! (o P(T) & < 0 for sufficiently large t, and hence the memristor is active. Q.E.D.

We remark that the above criterion remains valid if the “differentiability” condition is replaced by a “continuity” condition, provided that the left- and right-hand derivative at each point on the cp-q curve exists. This criterion shows that only memristors characterized by a monotonically increasing p-q curve can exist in a device form without internal power supplies. We also remark that except possibly for some pathological p-q curves,6 a passive memristor does not seem to violate any known physical laws.

5 Since research in circuit theory in the past has been dominated by linear networks, it is not surprising that the concept of a memristor never arose there. Neither is it surprising that this element is not even yet discovered in a device form because it is somewhat Yunnatural” to associate charge with flux-linkage. Moreover, the necessity to design a qq curve tracer all but eliminates the slim possibility of an accidental discovery.

6 It is possible for a passive circuit element to violate the second law of thermodynamics. For a thought-provoking exposition on this topic, see [5].



(btHorizonfOl Scole:lO-aweber per division. (c J.Horizontol SCale: 2 volts per division.Vertical Scale: 2 f' coul per division. Vertical Scale: 2 ma per division.

Observe that the, value of the incremental memristance(memductance) at any. time to depends upon the timeintegral of the memristor current (voltage) from t= - 00

to t= to. Hence, while the memristor behaves like an ordinary resistor at a given instant of time to, its resistance(conductance) depends on the complete past history of thememristor current (voltage). This observation justifies ourchoice of the name memory resistor, or memristor. It isinteresting to observe that once the memristor voltage vet)or current i(t) is specified, the memristor behaves like alinear time-varying resistor. In the very special case where thememristor cp-q curve is a straight line, we obtain M(q)=R,or W(ip) = G, and the memristor reduces to a linear timeinvariant resistor. Hence, there is no point introducing alinear memristor in linear network theory.'

We have already shown that memristors with almost anyip-q curve can be synthesized in practice by active networks.The following passivity criterion shows what class of memristors might be discovered in a pure "device form" withoutinternal power supplies.

97,weber V,volts

qt.milli- V.~~ ~ts

~(0).

Iq ( I) • J i( T) dT

-CI)

I<pCtI • !vlTldT

-CI)

(dl.Horizontoi Scoie,2.66miUi-weber per division. (el.Horizontal Scale, 2 volls per division. Theorem 1: Passivity CriterionVertical Scale: 5,.,. coul per division. Vertical Scale: 4 ma per division.

(5)pet) = v(t)i(t) = M(q(t)) ri(t) ]2.

Hence, if the incremental memristance M(q),?:O, thenp(t)?:.O and the memristor is obviously passive. To prove theconverse, suppose that there exists a point qo such thatM(qo)<O. Then the differentiability of the ip-q curve impliesthat there exists an f>O such that M(qo+.6.q)<O, l.6.q I<f.Now let us drive the memristor with a current i(t) whichis zero for t~l and such that q(t)=qo+.6.q(t) for t?:.to?:.twhere !.6.q(t) I<f; then J~ '" per) dr<O for sufficiently larget, and hence the memristor is active. Q.E.D.

A memristor characterized by a differentiable chargecontrolled ip-q curve is passive if, and only if, its incrementalmemristance M(q) is nonnegative; i.e., M(q)?:.O.

Proof: The instantaneous power dissipated by a memristor9',milli- v, .is given by

weber voils

Fig. 4. <P-q curves of three typical memristors.

vet) = M (q(t) )i(t) (1)

( f ),Horizontal Scole: 2.66 milli-weber per division. (0 ).Horizonal Scole: 2 volts per division.Vertical Scale: 5 f' coul per division. Vertical Scale: 5 ma per division.

where

across a charge-controlled memristor is given by

Similarly, the current of a flux-controlled memristor isgiven by

I M(q) == dip(q)/dq I·

I i(t) = W(ip(t))v(t) I

(2)

(3)

We remark that the above criterion remains valid if the"differentiability" condition is replaced by a "continuity"condition, provided that the left- and right-hand derivativeat each point on the ip-q curve exists. This criterion showsthat only memristors characterized by a monotonically increasing ip-q curve can exist in a device form without internal power supplies. We also remark that except possiblyfor some pathological ip-q curves,6 a passive memristor doesnot seem to violate any known physical laws.

where

Since M(q) has the unit of resistance, it will henceforth becalled the incremental memristance. In contrast to this, thefunction W(ip) will henceforth be called the incrementalmenductance because it has the unit of a conductance.

I W(ip) == dq(ip)/dip \. (4)

6 Since research in circuit theory in the past has been dominated bylinear networks, it is not surprising that the concept of a memristornever arose there. Neither is it surprising that this element is not evenyet discovered in a device form because it is somewhat '~unnatural" toassociate charge with flux-linkage. Moreover, the necessity to designa qrq curve tracer an but eliminates the slim possibility of an accidentaldiscovery.

6 It is possible for a passive circuit element to violate the second lawof thermodynamics. For a thought-provoking exposition on this topic,see [51.


t q.(t) =ii(r)dr

-m

(a ). Simple Memristor Voltage- Divider Circuit

Q, milli- weber

1, msec.

t , msec.

( c hlorizontol Scale: 2 msec. per division. Vertical Scale:5 mo per division (upper trace).

lOvolts per division (lower trace).

( b 1 Horuontal Scole:2.66 milli-weber per division, Vertical Stole: 5 p coul per division.

t , msec.

p. milli- weber

t, msec.

(e LHorizontol Scale: 5 msec. per divisioo. Vertical Scale:2 mo per division (upper tmce).

5 volte per division (lower trace).

(d Mlorizontol Scala: 2.66 milli-weber per division. Vertical Scale: 5 p coul per division.

p, milli- weber

( f Mlorizontol Scale: 2.66 milli-weber per division, Vertical Scale: 5 p coul per division.

(g ).Horizontol Scale:5 msec. per division. Vertical Scale:5 mo per division (upper trace).

5 wits per division (lower trace).

Fig. 5. Voltage and current waveforms associated with simple memristor circuit corresponding to a sinusoidal input signal [(c) and (e)] and a triangular input signal r(g)], respectively.

Theorem 2: Closure Theorem

A one-port containing only memristors is equivalent to a memristor.

Proof: If we let ii, vj, qj, and vj denote the current, voltage, charge, and flux-linkage of the jth memristor, where j= 1, 2;.., b, and if we let i and v denote the port current and port voltage of the one-port, then we can write (n- 1) independent KCL (Kirchhoff current law) equations (assuming the network is connected); namely,

CvjOi + 2 ajkik = 0, j=l,2,.*.,n-1 (6) k=l

where ajk is either 1, - 1, or 0, b is the total number of memristors, and n is the total number of nodes. Similarly, we can write a system of (b-n+2) independent KVL

(Kirchhoff voltage law) equations:

@j&J + 5 PjkVk = 0, j=l,2,..., b - n + 2 (7) k=l

where @jk is either 1, - 1, or 0. If we integrate each equation in (6) and (7) with respect to time and then substitute ‘pk = (pk(qk) for pk in the resulting expressions,7 we obtain

& ffjk@ = Qj - ffjoPt j=l,2,***,n-1 (8)

PjOCp + f: pjk(pk(qk) = *j, j = 1, 27 ’ ’ . , b - n + 2 (9) kzl

7 We have assumed for simplicity that the mernristors are charge- controlled. The proof can be easily modified to allow memristors characterized by arbitrary e curves.



tq(tl -ji(TldT

-CD

t9I(tl -jv(TldT

-CD

(0). Simple Memristor Voltage-Divider Circuit

(d ).Horizontol Scale' 2.66 milli-weber per division.Vertical Scale: 5 ,. coul per division.

( f I.Horizontal Scale' 2.66 milli-weber per division.Vertical Scale' 5,. coul per division.

'''~'~l!,,''''''':'''':'''':'-i -t -+-J - 1

_+.~ ~ -+- I J-

. . . . ,:) . .

J=~A·.····.····.·

rp, milliweber

'P, milJiweber

(jJ, milliweber

v( t I, volts

i(t), mo

t, msec.

t,msec.

(c I.Horizontol Scale' 2 msec. per division.Vertical Scale' 5 mo per division (upper trocel.

101lOits per division (lower trocel.

v( t I. volts

i(t), mo

t, msec.

t, msec.

(e I.Horizontol Scale' 5 msec. per division.Vertical Scale: 2 m a per division (upper tracel.

5 volts per division (lower tracel.

V( t I, volts

i(t I,mo

t,msec.

t,msec.

( g I.Horizontal Scale, 5 msec. per division.Vertical Scole'5 mo per division (upper trocel.

5 volts .per division (lower trocel.

Fig. 5. Voltage and current waveforms associated with simple memristor circuit corresponding to a sinusoidal inputsignal [(c) and (e)] and a triangular input signal [(g)], respectively.

Theorem 2: Closure Theorem (Kirchhoff voltage law) equations:

where (3jk is either I, -I, or 0. If we integrate each equationin (6) and (7) with respect to time and then substitute'Pk = 'Pk(qk) for 'Pk in the resulting expressions,? we obtain

j = 1, 2, ... , b - n + 2 (7)A one-port containing only memristors is equivalent to amemristor.

Proof: If we let ij, Vj, qj, and 'Pj denote the current, voltage,charge, and flux-linkage of the jth memristor, where j= I,2, ... , b, and if we let i and v denote the port current andport voltage of the one-port, then we can write (n-I) independent KCL (Kirchhoff current law) equations (assumingthe network is connected); namely,

b

{3jOV + L {3jkVk = 0,k~l

b

L CXjkqk = Qj - CXjoq,k=l

j = 1, 2, ... , n - 1 (8)

b

cxjoi + L cxjkik = 0,k~l

j = 1, 2, ... , n - 1b

(6) {3jO'P + L (3jk'Pk(qk) = <l>j, j = 1,2, ... , b - n + 2 (9)k=l

where CXjk is either I, -I, or 0, b is the total number ofmemristors, and n is the total number of nodes. Similarly,we can write a system of (b-n+2) independent KVL

7 We have assumed for simplicity that the mernristors are chargecontrolled. The proof can be easily modified to allow mernristors characterized by arbitrary qr-q curves.

CHUA: MEMRISTOR-MISSING CIRCUIT ELEMENT

where Qj and @j are arbitrary constants of integration. Equa- tions (8) and (9) together constitute a system of (b+ 1) independent nonlinear functional equations in (b+ 1) unknowns. Hence, solving for cp, we obtain a relation f(q, cp) = 0.

Q.E.D.

Theorem 3: Existence and Uniqueness Theorems

Any network containing only memristors with positive incremental memristances has one, and only one, solution.

Proof: Since the governing equations of a network containing only memristors are identical in form to the governing equations of a network containing only nonlinear resistors, the proof follows mututis mutandis the well-known proof given in [6], [7]. Q.E.D.

It is sometimes easier and more instructive to analyze a single-element-type nonlinear network by finding the @a- tionary points of an associated scalar poteiltial function [8], [9]. We will now present an analogous development of this concept for a pure memristor network.9

Dejnition 1

We define the action (coaction) associated with a charge- controlled (flux-controlled) memristor to be the integral

Consider now a pure memristor network N containing n nodes and b branches. Let 3 be a tree of N and d: its associated cotree. Let us label the branches consecutively starting with the tree elements and define v=(cpl, cpZ, . . . ¶+a¶ )” 4 =(ql, q2, . . . , q#, qa=(‘pl, CPZ, + a, . ,, ‘P~-#, and g, = (qn, qn+1, . . . , q#. It is well known that either ea or qe coristi- tutes a complete set of variables in the sense that (e=O& and q = Btq,, where D and B are the fundamental cut-set matrix and the fundamental loop matrix, respectively [IO].

Dejnition 2

We define the ,total actitin a(qJ [total coaction &(&I associated with a network N containing charge-controlled (flux-controlled) memristors to be the scalar function

/a(s,)= /I (10)

where

A = A(q) = 5 Aj(qj> = f: J ” pj(qj) &j j=l j=l 0

j=l j=lJ 0

and where o denotes the “composition” operation.

*To simplify the hypothesis, we assume that all memristors are characterized by differentiable onto functiotls.

9 Several useful potential functions have been defined for the three classical circuit elements. They are the content and cocontent of a resistor [8], the magnetic energy and magnetic coenergy of an inductor [9], and the electric energy and electric coenergy of a capacitor 191.

Theorem 4: Principle bf Stationary Action (Coaction)

A vector qJ: = Qd: (ea =$) is a solution of a network N containing only charge-controlled (flux-controlled) memristors if, and only if, it is a stationary point of the total action a(qJ [total coaction a(&] associated with N; i.e., the gradient of a(qa) (&(I&) evaluated at Q6: (@J is zero:

a@(d/aq, (Q=Q~ = 0 ab?pee, lo,=*, = 0. (12)

Proof: It suffices to prove the charge-controlled case since the flux-controlled case will then follow by duality. Taking the gradient of a(qe) afid applying the chain rule for differentiating composite functions, we obtain

513

= BaA(q)/dq IGB’s, = By? o (BW. (13)

But the expression BP o (Btq,)=O since this is simply the set of KVL equations written in terms of C. Consequently, any vector 9, is a solution of N if, arid only if, it is a stationary point of Ct(qJ. Q.E.D.

Since the action and coaction of a memristor is a: potential function, they can be used to derive frequency power formulas for memristors operating. ris frequency converters. We assume the memristor is operating in the steady state so that we can write the following variables in multiply-periodic Fourier series:

v(t) = Re c [V&at] i(t) = Re c [I,eQal]

v(t) = Re 5 [&ej@] q(t) = Re 5 [Qaej@] LI -2

and

A(t)=Rez [A,ehJ] OL

where V,>_jw,@, and ‘lol>_joUQo. Following identical procedure and notation as given in [ll, ch. 31, we let wa denote the set of independent frequencies and make a small change in 6~$,=Li(~,t). This perturbation induces a change in the action A(t) :

(14)

But sintie A(q) = J&(q) dq, we have

6A = ((p)(Sq) = [

Re F TY @at WC2 1

.[Re c 5 (ao,/aw,)ej~‘hM, 1 1 (15) ’ LI al

Equating (14) and (15) and taking their time averages, we obtain the following Manley-Rowe-like formula relating the reactive powers P,=+ Im (V,Z,*):

~[ac&/awa] [P&a = 0 . (16) P



Definition 1

We define the action (coaction) associated with a chargecontrolled (flux-controlled) memristor to be the integral

where Qi and <Ili are arbitrary constants of integration, Equations (8) and (9) together constitute a system of (b+ 1) independent nonlinear functional equations in (b+ 1) unknowns.Hence, solving for cp, we obtain a relationf(q, cp)=O.

Q.E.D.

a

a

A(t)=l{eL: [Aae iwat ]a

a

a

and

aa(q.c)/aq.c = aA 0 (Btq.c)jaq.c

= BaA(q)/aq !q=Btq.c = B'G' 0 (Btq.c). (13)

But the expression B'G' 0 (Btq.c) = 0 since this is simply theset of KVL equations written in terms of £. Consequently,any vector Q.c is a solution of N if, arid only if, it is a stationary point of a(q.c)' Q.E.D.

Since the action and coaction of a memristor is a potential function, they can be used to derive frequency powerformulas for memristors operating as frequency converters.We assume the memristor is operating in the steady state sothat we can write the following variables in multiply-periodicFourier series:

where Va~jwaif>a and la~jwaQa' Following identical procedure and notation as given in [11, ch. 3], we let W a denotethe set of independent frequencies and make a small changein ocf>a=o(wat). This perturbation induces a change in theaction A(t):

Theorem 4: Principle of Stationary Action (Coaction)

A vector q.c = Q.c ('G':J = «I»:J) is a solution of a network Ncontaining only charge-controlled (flux-controlled) memristors if, and only if, it is a stationary point of the totalaction a(q.c) [total coaction a('G':J)] associated with N; i.e.,the gradient of a(q.c)(G,('G':J» evaluated at Q.c (<<I»:J) is zero:

aa(q.c)/aq.c Iq.c~Q.c = 0 afl,('G':J)/a'G':J 1<g:J~"':J = O. (12)

Proof: It suffices to prove the charge-controlled case sincethe flux-controlled case will then follow by duality. Takingthe gradient of a(q.c) and applying the chain rule for differentiating composite functions, we obtain

(A(cp)=f'Cq(cp) dcp).A(q)= fgcp(q) dq

It is sometimes easier and more instructive to analyze asingle-element-type nonlinear network by finding the ~ta

tionary points of an associated scalar potential function [8],[9]. We will now present an analogous development of thisconcept for a pure memristor network. 9

Consider now a pure memristor network N containing nnodes and b branches. Let ::I be a tree of Nand £ its associated cotree. Let us label the branches consecutively startingwith the tree elements and define 'G' = (cph CP2, ... , 'Pb)t,q=(ql, q2, ... , qb)t, 'G':J=(CP1, CP2, . ',.'.' CPn_l)t, and q.c= (qn,qn+l, ... , qb)t. It is well known that either 'G':J or q.c constitutes a complete set of variables in the sense that 'G' = Dt'G':J

and q =Btq.c' where D and B are the fundamental cut-setmatrix and the fundamental loop matrix, respectively [10].

Definition 2

We define the 'total action a(q.c) [total coaction d('G':J)]associated with a network N containing charge-controlled(flux-controlled) memristors to be the scalar function

Theorem 3: Existence and Uniqueness Theorem 8

Any network containing only memristors with positiveincremental memristances has one, and only one, solution.

Proof: Since the governing equations of a network containing only memristors are identical in form to the governingequations of a network containing only nonlinear resistors,the proof follows mutatis mutandis the well-known proofgiven in [6], [7]. Q.E.D.

where

and where 0 denotes the "composition" operation.

(16)

(15)

(14)

But since A(q) = fgcp(q) dq, we have

oA = (cp)(oq) = [Re L: ~~ ciwat ]a JWa

.[Re L: I a (awajawa)Ciwatocf>a].a Wa

Equating (14) and (15) and taking their time averages, weobtain the following Manley-Rowe-like formula relating the

. ~ _1 I (V 1*)'reactwe powers Pa=2" m a a .

(11)

8 To simplify the hypothesis, we assume that all memristors arecharacterized by differentiable onto functions.

9 Several useful potential functions have been defined for the threeclassical circuit elements. They are the content and cocontent of a resistor [81, the magnetic energy and magnetic coenergy of an inductor[91, and the electric energy and electric coenergy of a capacitor [9].


It is possible to derive a Page-Pantell-like inequality relating the realpowers of a passive memristor by making use of the passivity criterion (&)(64)>0 (Theorem 1); namely,

L I

where Pa=3 Re ( VaZz) is the real power at frequency w,. Since the procedure for deriving (17) follows again mutatis mutandis that given by Penfield [ 111, it will not be given here to conserve space. An examination of (17) shows that gain proportional to the frequency squared is likely in a memristor upconverter, but that severe loss is to be expected in a memristor mixer. It is also easy to show that converting efficiencies approaching 100 percent may be possible in a memristor harmonic generator.

So far we have considered only pure memristor networks. Let us now consider the general case of a network containing resistors, inductors, capacitors, and memristors. The equations of motion for this class of networks now take the form of a system of m first-order nonlinear differential equations in the normal form $=f(x, t) [l], where x is an mX 1 vector whose components are the state variables. The number m is called the “order of complexity” of the network and is equal to the maximum number of independent initial conditions that can be arbitrarily specified [I]. The following theorem shows how the order of complexity can be determined by inspection.

Theorem 5: Order of Complexity

Let N be a network containing resistors, inductors, capacitors, memristors, independent voltage sources, and independent current sources. Then the order of complexity m of N is given by

-1 (18)

where br. is the total number of inductors; bc is the total number of capacitors; b,ll is the total number of memristors; nnl is the number of independent loops containing only memristors; /?CE is the number of independent loops containing only capacitors and voltage sources; nL.ll is the number of independent loops containing only inductors and memristors; h,,r is the number of independent cut sets containing only memristors; fiLJ is the number of independent cut sets containing only inductors and current sources; ric.nr is the number of independent cut sets containing only capacitors and memristors.

ProCf: It is well known that the order of complexity of an RLC network is given by m=(bL+bc)-IzCE-YiLJ [l]. It follows, therefore, from (l)-(4) that for an RLC-memristor network with n, = nLlll = i?,,, = i2c.1, =O, each niemristor introduces a new state variable and we have m=(b,,+bc

state variables occurs whenever an independent loop consisting of elements corresponding to those specified in the definition of IZ.&~ and nLw is present in the network. [We assume the algebraic sum of charges around any loop (fluxlinkages in any cut set) is zero.] Similarly, a constraint among the state variables occms whenever an independent cut set consisting of elements corresponding to those specified in the definition of fiM and &CM is present in the network. Since each constraint removes one degree of freedom each time this situation occurs, the maximum order of complexity (bL+bc+bM) must be reduced by one. Q.E.D.

IV. AN ELECTROMAGNETIC INTERPRETATION OF MEMRISTOR CHARACTERIZATION

It is well known that circuit theory is a limiting special casg of electromagnetic field theory. In particular, the characterization of the three classical circuit elements can be given an elegant electromagnetic interpretation in terms of the quasi-static expansion of Maxwell’s equations [12]. Our objective in this section is to give an analogous interpretation for the characterization of memristors. While this interpretation does not prove the physical realizability of a “memristor device” without internal power supply, it does suggest the strong plausiblity that such a device might someday be discovqred. Let us begin by writing down Maxwell’s equations in differential form:

09)

curl H = J + f8f

where E and H are the electric and magnetic field intensity, D and B are the electric and magnetic flux density, and J is the current density. We will follow the approach presented in [ 121 by defining a “family time” r=at, where a is called the “time-rate parameter.” In terms of the new variable T, Maxwell’s equations become

dB curl E = - Ly --

a7

curl H = J + a! $

(21)

(?a

where E, H, D, B, and J are functions of not only the position (x, y, z), but also of (Y and 7. If we were to expand these vector quantities as a formal power series in cy and substitute them into (21) and (22), we would obtain upon equating the coeficients of CP, the nth-order Maxwell’s equaiions, where n=O, 1, 2, ’ . . .

Many electromagnetic phenomena and systems can be satisfactorily analyzed by using only the zero-order and first- order Maxwell’s equations; the corresponding solutions are called quasi-staticfields. It has been shown that circuit theory belongs to the realm of quasi-static fields and can be studied with the help of the following Maxwell’s equations in quasi- r .

+b,+i)--ncg-CiLJ. Observe next that a constraint among the static form 1121.



It is possible to derive a Page-Pantell-like inequality relating the real powers of a passive memristor by making useof the passivity criterion (ocp)(oq)'?°(Theorem 1); namely,

Theorem 5: Order of Complexity

Let N be a network containing resistors, inductors, capacitors, memristors, independent voltage sources, and independent current sources. Then the order of complexity m ofN is given by

where bL is the total number of inductors; bc is the totalnumber of capacitors; bM is the total number of memristors;nM is the number of independent loops containing onlymemristors; liCE is the number of independent loops containing only capacitors and voltage sources; 11 LM is thenumber of independent loops containing only inductorsand memristors ;nM is the number of independent cut setscontaining only memristors;nLJ is the number of independent cut sets containing only inductors and currentsources; flCM is the number of independent cut sets containing only capacitors arid memristors. .

Proof: It is well known that the order of complexity of anRLC network is given by m~(bL+bc)-l1cE-fzLJ [IJ. Itfollows, therefore, from (1)-(4) that for an RLC-memristornetwork with I1 m =nLM=ii,l/=fi cJ1 =0, each nlemristorintroduces a new state variable and we have m=(bl.+bc+bM)-ncE-nLJ. Observe next that a constraint among the

(22)

(19)

(21)

(20)

curl E =aBat

aDcurl H = J +-

at

aBcurl E = - a-

aTaD

curl H = J + a -aT

where E, H, D, B, and J are functions of not only the position (x, y, z), but also of a and T. If we were to expand thesevector quantities as aformal power series in a and substitutethem into (21) and (22), we would obtain upon equating thecoefficients of an, the nth-order Maxwell's equatiol1s, wheren=O, 1,2, ....

Many electromagnetic phenomena and systems can besatisfactorily analyzed by using only the zero-order and firstorder Maxwell's equations; the corresponding solutions arecalled quasi-static fields. It has been shown that circuit theorybelongs to the realm of quasi-static fields and can be studiedwith the help of the following Maxwell's equations in quasistatic form [12].

where E and H are the electric and magnetic field intensity,D and B are the electric and magnetic flux density, and Jis the current density. We will follow the approach presentedin [12] by defining a "family time" T=cd, where a is calledthe "time-rate parameter." In terms of the new variable T,

Maxwell's equations become

IV. AN ELECTROMAGNETIC INTERPRETATION

OF MEMRISTOR CHARACTERIZATION

It is well known that circuit theory is ;llimiting specialcas~ of electromagnetic field theory. In particular, the characterization of the three classical circuit elements can begiven an elegant ekctromagnetic interpretation in terms ofthe quasi-static expansion of Maxwell's equations [12]. Ourobjective in this section is to give an analogous interpretation for the characterization of memristors. While thisinterpretation does not prove the physical realizability of a"memristor device" without internal power supply, it doessuggest the strong plausiblity that such a device might someday be discovered. Let us begin by writing down Maxwell'sequations in differential form:

state variables occurs whenever an independent loop consisting of elements corresponding to those specified in thedefinition of nM and nLM is present in the network. [We assume the algebraic sum of charges around any loop (fluxlinkages in any cut set) is zero.] Similarly, a constraintamong the state variables occ\:lrs whenever an independentcut set consisting of elements corresponding to those specified in the definition of nM and nCM is present in the network.Since each constraint removes one degree of freedom eachtime this situation occurs, the maximum order of complexity(bL+bc+bM) must be reduced by one. Q.E.D.

(17)

where Pa== t Re (Val:) is the real power at frequency wa.Since the procedure for deriving (17) follows again mutatismutandis that given by Penfield [11], it will not be given hereto conserve space. An examination of (17) shows that gainproportional to the frequency squared is likely in a memristor upconverter, but that severe loss is to be expected ina memristor mixer. It is also easy to show that convertingefficiencies approaching 100 percent may be possible in amemristor harmonic generator.

So far we have considered only pure memristor networks.Let us now consider the general case of a network containingresistors, inductors, capacitors, and memristors. The equations of motion for this class of networks now take the formof a system of m first-order nonlinear differential equationsin the normal form x=f(x, t) [I], where x is an mX 1 vectorwhose components are the state variables. The number m iscalled the "order of complexity" of the network and is equalto the maximum number of independent initial conditionsthat can be arbitrarily specified [1]. The following theoremshows how the order of complexity can be determined byinspection.


Zero-Order Maxwell’s Equations

curl EIJ = 0

curl Ho = Jo.

First-Order Maxwell’s Equations

where 3( .), (R( .), and a)( .) are one-to-one continuous functions from R3 onto R3. Under these assumptions, (26) and

(23) (27) can be combined to give (24)

curl HI = d(E1). (30)

aBo cur1 E1 = - a,

Observe that (30) does not contain any time derivative. (25) hence, under any specified boundary con,dition appropriate

for the device, the first-order electric field E1 is related to

aoo curl HI = J1 -I- -.

a7

the first-order magnetic field HI dy a functional relation ; cw namely

The total quasi-static vector quantities are obtained by keeping oniy the first two terms of the formal pdwer series atid by setting CY= 1; namely, E-Eo+E1, H=H”+Hl, D=&+D1, B= Bo+ B1, J-Jo+ JI. The three classical circuit elements have been identified as electromagnetic systems whose solutions correspond to certain combinations of the zero-order and first-order solutions of (23)<26). For example, a resistor has been identified to be an electromagnetic system whose first-order fields are negligible compared to its zero- order fields, so that its characterization can be interpreted as an instantaneous (memoryless) relationship between the two zero-order fields Eo and HO. In contrast to this, an inductor has been identified to be an electromagnetic system where only the first-order magnetii: field is nedigible. In this case, the electromagnetic system can be interpreted as an inductor in series with a resistor. Similarly, a capacitor has been identified to be an electromagnetic system where only the first-order electric field is negligible. In this case, the electromagnetic system can be interpreted as a capacitor in parallel with a resistor. The remaining case where both first-order fields are not negligible has been dismissed as having no c&responding situation in circuit theory [ 121. We will now offer the suggestion that this missing combination is precisely that which gives rise to the characterization of a memristor.

In order to add more weight to the above interpretation, we will now show that under appropriate conditions the instantaneous value of the first-order electric flux density D1 [whose surface integral is proportional to the charge q(t)] is related to the instantaneous value of the first-order magnetic flux density B1 [whose surface integral is proportional to the flux-linkage p(t)]. This would be the case if we postulate the existence of a two-terminal device with the following two properties. 1) Both zero-order fields are negligible compared to the first-order fields; namely, E= E1, H=H1, D-D], B= BI, and J- JI. 2) The material from which the device is made is nonlinear. To be completely general, we will denote the nonlinear relationships bylo

JI = dE1) (27)

Bl = 63(Hd (28)

Dl = LD(&) (29)

EI = f(H,). (31)

If we substitute (31) for E1 in (29) and then substitute the inverse function of CR( .) from (28) into the resulting expression, we obtain

D1 = a, o f o [W(B1)] = g(B1). (32)

Equation (32) specified the instantaneous (memoryless) relationship between DI and BI; it can be interpreted as the quasi-static representation of the electromagnetic field quantities of the memristor.

To summarize, we offer the interpretation that the physical mechanism characterizing a memristor device must come from the instantineous (memoryless) interaction between the first-order electric field and the first-order magnetic field of some appropriately fabricated device so that it possesses the two properties prescribed above. This interpretation implies that a physical memristor device is essentially an ac device, for otherwise, its associated dc electromagnetic fields will give rise to nonnegligible zero-order fields. This requirement is consistent with the circuit-theoretic properties of the memristor, for a dc current source would give rise to an infinite charge [q(t) --+oo as t+w ] and a dc voltage source would give rise to an infinite flux-linkage [cp(t)+w as t-w ]. This requirement is, of course, intuitively reasonable. After all, we do not connect a dc voltage source across an inductor. Nor do we connect a dc current source across a capacitor!

V. SOME NOVEL APPLICATIONS OF MEMRISTORS

The voltage and current waveforms of the simple memristor circuit shown in Fig. 5 are rather peculiar and are certainly not typical of those normally observed in RLC circuits. This observation suggests that memristors might give rise to some novel applications outside those for RLC circuits. Our objective in this section is to present a number of interesting examples which might indicate the potential usefulness of memristors.

A. Applications of Memristors to Device Modeling”

Although many unconventional devices have been invented in the last few years, the physical operating principles of most of these devices have not yet been fully understood. In order to analyze circuits containing these devices, a

lo In the case of isotropic material. (27)-(29) reduce to J, = u(&)&, B1=~(NI)HI, and DI=@~)E,, where the coefficients u(.), p(.), and *I The author is grateful to one of the reviewers who pointed out 4’ ) are the nonlinear conductivity, nonlinear magnetic permeability, and that a charge-controlled memristor has been used in the modeling of nor&new dielectric permittioity of the material. varactar diodes [13], [14].



Zero-Order Maxwell's Equations

curl Eo = 0

curl H o = Jo.

First-Order Maxwell's Equations

aBo

aTaDo

curl HI = II + --.aT

(23)

(24)

(25)

(26)

where .§J('), (B( .), and D(-) are one-to-one continuous functions from R3 onto R3. Under these assumptions, (26) and(27) can be combined to give

(30)

Observe that (30) does not contain any time derivative.Hence, under any specified boundary condition appropriatefor the device, the first-order electric field E 1 is related tothe first-order magnetic field HI by a functional relation;namely

The total quasi-static vector quantities are obtained by keeping only the first two terms of the formal power series and Oysetting a= I; namely, E~Eo+EI, H~Ho+HI, D~bo+DI'B~Bo+BI, J~Jo+lI. The three classical circuit elementshave been identified as electromagnetic systems whose solutions correspond to certain combinations of the zero-orderand first-order solutions of (23)--(26). For example, a resistor has been identified to be an electromagnetic systemwhose first-order fields are negligible compared to its zeroorder fields, so that its characterization can be interpretedas an instantaneous (memoryless) relationship between thetwo zero-order fields Eo and Ho. In contrast to this, an inductor has been identified to be an electromagnetic systemwhere only the first-order magnetic field is negligible. Inthis case, the electromagnetic system can be interpreted asan inductor in series with a resistor. Similarly, a capacitorhas been identified to be an electromagnetic system whereonly the first-order electric field is negligible. In this case,the electromagnetic system can be interpreted as a capacitorin parallel with a resistor. The remaining case where bothfirst-order fields are not negligible has been dismissed ashaving no corresponding situation in circuit theory [12]. Wewill now offer the suggestion that this missing combinationis precisely that which gives rise to the characterization of amemristor.

In order to add more weight to the above interpretation,we will now show that under appropriate conditions theinstantaneous value of the first-order electric flux density D 1

[whose surface integral is proportional to the charge q(t)]is related to the instantaneous value of the first-order magnetic flux density B I [whose surface integral is proportionalto the flux-linkage «J(t)]. This would be the case if we postulate the existence of a two-terminal device with the followingtwo properties. 1) Both zero-order fields are negligible compared to the first-order fields; namely, E~ E1, H ~HI,D~DI, B~BI, and J~JI. 2) The material from which thedevice is made is nonlinear. To be completely general, wewill denote the nonlinear relationships bylo

If we substitute (31) for E 1 in (29) and then substitute the inverse function of (B( .) from (28) into the resulting expression, we obtain

A. Applications of Memristors to Device Modeling ll

Although many unconventional devices have been invented in the last few years, the physical operating principlesof most of these devices have not yet been fully understood.In order to analyze circuits containing these devices, a

(31)

V. SOME NOVEL ApPLICATIONS OF MEMRISTORS

The voltage and current waveforms of the simple memristor circuit shown in Fig. 5 are rather peculiar and arecertainly not typical of those normally observed in RLCcircuits. This observation suggests that memristors mightgive rise to some novel applications outside those for RLCcircuits. Our objective in this section is to present a numberof interesting examples which might indicate the potentialusefulness of memristors.

Equation (32) specified the instantaneous (memoryless)relationship between D 1 and B I; it can be interpreted as thequasi-static representation of the electromagnetic field quantities of the memristor.

To surnmarize, we offer the interpretation that the physical mechanism characterizing a memristor device must comefrom the instantaneous. (memoryless) interaction betweenthe first-order electric field and the first-order magnetic fieldof some appropriately fabricated device so that it possessesthe two properties prescribed above. This interpretationimplies that a physical memristor device is essentially an acdevice, for otherwise, its associated dc electromagnetic fieldswill give rise to nonnegligible zero-order fields. This requirement is consistent with the circuit-theoretic properties of thememristor, for a dc current source would give rise to an infinite charge [q(t)-too as t-too] and a dc voltage sourcewould give rise to an infinite flux-lInkage [<p(t)-too as t-too ].This requirement is, of course, intuitively reasonable. Afterall, we do not connect a dc voltage source across an inductor.Nor do we connect a dc current source across a capacitor!

(27)

(28)

(29)

II = .§J(EI)

B 1 = (B(H1)

D 1 = D(E1)

10 In the case of isotropic material, (27)-(29) reduce to Jr = a{Er)Eh

B 1 = Jl-(Hr)Hh and Dr = «Er)Eh where the coefficients u('), 1'('), and«. )are the nonlinear conductivity, nonlinear magnetic permeability, andnonlinear dielectric permittivity of the material.

11 The author is grateful to one of the reviewers who pointed outthat a charge-controlled memristor has been used in the modeling ofvaractar diodes [13], [14].

516 1EEETRANSACTIONSON CIRCUITTHEORY,SEPTEMBER 1971

RI i +

+ ”

i

T v*( t 1 i “0

Rz l-

IO).

I v*( t )

I----'1 v,(t) I E, ---_ T ------_______ -l

(e).

Fig. 6. Output voltage waveform I;, of simple memristor circuit shown in (a) corresponding to a stepwise input voltage u,(t) of different amplitudes bears a striking resemblance to corresponding waveforms of the same circuit but with the memristor replaced by typical amorphous ovonic threshold switch.

realistic “circuit model” must first be fpund. We will now show that the memristor can be used to yodel the properties of two recently discovered, but unrelated, devices.

Example 1: Modeling an Amorphous “Ovonic” Threshold Switch

An amorphous “ovonic” threshold switch is a two-terminal device which uses’an amdrphous glass rather than the more common crystalline semiconductqr material used in most solid-state devices [ 15]-[17]. This device lias already attracted much international attention because of its potential usefulness [18], [19]. To show that the memristor provides a reasonable model for at least one type of the amorphous devices, let us consider the memrjstor circuit shown in Fig. 6(a), where the 9-q curve of the memristor is shown in Fig. 6(b).12 From Theorem 5 we know the order of complexity of this circuit is equal to one. The state equation is given

12 This circuit is identical to the switching circuit described in [15], [16], but with an ovonic threshold device connected in place of the memristor. As explained in [HI, [16], this circliit operates like a switch in the sense that prior to the applicatidn of a square-wave pulse, thk ovonic switch behaves like a high resistance and is said to be operating in the OFF state. After the pulse is applied, the ovonic switch remains in its OFF state until after some rime delay Td; thereupon it switches to a low resistance state. Since the circuit is essentially a voltage divider, the output voltage u,(f) will be high when the ovonic switch is operating in its OFF state, and will be low when it is operating in its ON state.

by dq/dt = u&V[RI + Rz + M(q)].

Since the variables are separable, the solution is readily found to be

where

I h(q) = 6% + R& + u?(q) I and cp = cp(q) represents the cp-q curve of the memristor shown in Fig. 6(b). Observe that h(q) is a strictly monotonically increasing function of q; hence, its inverse h-‘( .) always exists. The output voltage uo(t) is readily found to be given by

v,(t) = v,(t) - R,[dq(t)/dt]. (36)

If we let us(t) be a square-wave pulse, as shown in Fig. 6(c), and let q(Q=O, where lo is the initial time, then the output waveforms uo(t) and i(t), corresponding to the memristor Fq curve shown in Fig. 6(b), can be derived from (34)-(36); they are shown in Fig. 6(d) and (e). These output waveforms are completely characterized’by the following parameters:

El = [(Kz + &)/CM, + RI + Rd]E (37)

Ez = [(MS + Rz)/(M, + RI + Rd]E (3%

II = E/(Mz + RI + Rd (39)

Iz = E/CM, + RI + Rz) (40)

Td = [$ + (RI + RNo]/E (41)

where MZ and M, represent the memristance corresponding to segments 2 bnd 3 of the memristor cp-q curve and where (R,, QO) is the coordinate of the breakpoint between these two segments. An examination of (4 1) shows that for a given p-q curve, the time delay Td decreases as the amplitude E pf the square-wave pulse in Fig. 6(c) increases. Hence, corresponding to the three square-wave pulses with amplitude E, E’, and E’! (E’<E<E”) shown in ‘Fig. 6(c) and (f), we obtain the waveforms for the output voltage uo(t) as shown in Fig. 6(d), (g), and (h), respectively. A comparison between these waveforms with the corresponding published waveforms for the ovonic threshold switch reveals a striking resemblince [15], [16]. The memristor with the (p-9 curve shown in Fig. 6(b) seems to simulate not only the exact shape of the stepwise waveforms, but also the attendant decrease of the time delay with increasing values of E.13

I3 Since the author has been unable to obtain a sample of an ovonic threshold switch, the comparisons were made only with published waveforms. It is not clear how well our present memristor model will simulate the rate of decrease of the time delay with increasing values of E. In any event, the qualitative agreement with published waveforms is quite remarkable.


516 IEEE TRANsACnONS ON CIRCUIT THEORY, SEPTEMBER 1971

(36)

(35)

If we let v8(t) be a square-wave pulse, as shown in Fig. 6(c),and let q(to)=O, where to is the initial time, then the outputwaveforms vo(t) and i(t), corresponding to the memristorqr-q curve shown in Fig. 6(b), can be derived from (34)---(36);they are shown in Fig. 6(d) and (e). These output waveformsare completely characterized"by the following parameters:

E 1 = [(M z + R z)/(M2 + R I + R 2)]E (37)

E 2 = [(M 3 + R 2)/(M3 + RI +R 2)JE (38)

II = E/(Mz + R I + R 2) (39)

1 2 = E/(M3 + R I + R 2) (40)

T d = [cI>0 + (R I + Rz)QoJ!E (41)

and <(' = ip(q) represents the cp-q curve of the memristor shownin Fig. 6(b). Observe that h(q) is a strictly monotonically increasing function ofq; hence, its inverse h-1(.) always exists.The output volt~ge vo(t) is readily found to be given by

where

q(t) = h- l0 (Jot v.(r) dr + «'(q(to») (34)

dq/dt = v.(t)/[RI + R 2 + M(q)]. (33)

by

Since the variables are separable, the solution is readily foundto be

E ---..,..-------:

Fig. 6. Output voltage waveform v.(t) of simple memristor circuitshown in (a) corresponding to a stepwise input voltage v,(t) ofdifferent amplitudes bears a striking resemblanc\l to correspondingwaveforms of the same circuit but with the memristor n;placed bytypical amorphous ovonic threshold switch. . . .

realistic "circuit model" must first be fpu!1d. We will nowshow that the memristor C~lO be used to plodel the properties

of two recently discovered, but unrelated, devices.

Example 1: Modeling an Amorphous "Ovonic" ThresholdSwitch

An amorphous "ovonic" threshold switch is a two-terminal device which uses·an amorphous glass rather than themore common crystalline semiconductqr material used inmost solid-state'devices [15J-[17]. This device has alreadyattracted much international attention because of its potential usefulness [18], [19]. To show that the memristor provides a reasonable model for at least one type of the amorphous devices, let us consider the memristor circuit shown inFig. 6(a), where the <('-q curve of the memristor is shown inFig. 6(b).12 From Theorem 5 we know the order of complexity of this circuit is equal to one. The state equation is given

12 This circuit is iden~ical to the ~witching circuit described in [15],[16], but with an ovonic threshold device connected in place of thememristor. As explained in [15], [16], this circuit operates like a switchin the sense that prior to the application of a square-wave pulse, theovonic switch behaves like a high resistance and is said to be operatingin the OFF state. After the pulse is applied, the ovonic switch remains inits OFF state until after some. time delay Td ; thereupon it switches to alow resistance state. Since the circuit is essentially a voltage divider, theoutput voltage vo(t) will be high when the ovonic switch is operating inits OFF state, and will be low when it is operating in its ON state.

where M 2 and M a represent the memristance correspondingto segments 2 and 3 of the memristor cp-q curve and where(cI>o, Qo) is the coordinate of the breakpoint between thesetwo segments. An examination of (4 I) shows that for a givenCP-q curve, the time delay Td decreases as the amplitude E 91the square-wave pulse in Fig. 6(c) increases. Hence, corresponding to the three square-wave pulses with amplitude E,E', and E" (E' <E<E") shown in 'Fig. 6(c) and (f), weobtain the waveforms for the output voltage vo(t) as shownin Fig. 6(d), (g), and (h), respectively. A comparison between these waveforms with the corresponding publishedwaveforms fqr the ovonic threshold switch reveals a strikingresemblance [15], [16J. The memristor with the qr-q curveshown in Fig. 6(b) seems to simulate not only the exactshape of the stepwise waveforms, but also the attendant decrease of the time delay with increasing values of E.13

13 Since the author has been unable to obtain a sample of an ovonicthreshold switch, the comparisons were made only with publishedwaveforms. It is not clear how well our present memristor model willsimulate the rate of decrease of the time delay with increasing valuesof E. In any event, the qualitative agreement with published waveformsis quite remarkable.


A V,(l) E . . - _ - - - - -

ä l 0 : to (cl I

4 vow 1 Td * E* _ - _ ..- _ _ - . __- - _ _ _ - _ _ _ -- - - -

E, .--w-w--.

0 ‘0

b. @o+QoRI E

*I ( to+T,-o (dl

Fig. 7. Output waveform u,(f) for basic timing circuit in (a) demonstrates that the memristor with (0-4 curve shown in (b) provides an excellent circuit model for an E-Cell.

Example 2: Modeling an Electrolytic E-Cell

An E-Cell (also known as a Coul Cell) is an electrochemical two-terminal device [20] capable of producing time delays ranging from seconds to months. An E-Cell can be considered as a subminiature electrolytic plating tank consisting of three basic components, namely, an anode, a cathode, and an electrolyte. The anode, usually made of gold, is immersed in the electrolyte solution which in turn is housed within a silver can that also serves as the cathode. The time delay is controlled by the initial quantity of silver that has been previously plated from the cathode onto the anode and the operating current. During the specified timing interval silver ions will be transferred from the anode to the cathode, and the E-Cell behaves like a linear resistor with a low resistance. The end of the timing interval corresponds to the time in which all of the silver has been plated off the anode; thereupon the E-Cell behaves like a linear resistor with a high resistance. Hence, any reasonable model of an E-Cell must behave like a time-varying linear resistor which changes from a low resistance to a high resistance after a dc current is passed through it for a specified period of time equal to the timing interval. We will now show that this behavior can be precisely modeled by a memristor with the cp-q curve shown in Fig. 7(b). To demonstrate the validity of this model, let us analyze the simplest E-Cell timing circuit, shown in Fig. 7(a), but with the E-Cell replaced by a memristor. In practice, the exact amount of silver to be

R,‘IK i

Horizontal Scale: 0.1 ser. per division. Vertical Scale: IO volts per division (both tmces).

(0).

Fig. 8. Practical memristor circuit for generating staircase waveforms.

plated is specified by the manufacturer and from this information the circuit is designed so that the correct amount of current will pass through the E-Cell, thereby providing the desired timing interval. The effect of closing the switch S in Fig. 7(a) at t= to is equivalent to applying a step input voltage of E volts at to, as shown in Fig. 7(c).

Since the circuit in Fig. 7(a) can be obtained from the circuit in Fig. 6(a) upon setting Rz to zero, we immediately obtain the output voltage vO(t), as shown in Fig. 7(d). This output voltage waveform is almost identical to the corresponding waveform’measured from an E-Cell timing circuit. The timing interval in this model is equal to the time delay Td. The only discrepancy between this waveform and that actually measured with an E-Cell timing circuit is that, in practice, the rise time is not zero. It always takes a finite but small time interval for an E-Cell to switch completely from a low to a high resistance. The abrupt jump in Fig. 7(d) is, of course, due to the piecewise-linear nature of the assumed cp--q curve. Hence, even the finite switching time can be accurately modeled by replacing the cp-q curve with a curve having a continuous derivative that essentially approximates the piecewise-linear curve.

B. Application of Memristors to Signal Processing

The preceding examples demonstrated that certain types of memristors can be used for switching as well as for delaying signals. Memristors can also be used to process many types of signals and generate various waveforms of practical interest. Due to limitation of space, we will present only one typical application that uses a memristor to generate a staircase waveform [21]. This type of waveform has been



1

---=,...j.-':::::::=--v

(el.

''''f_R_~_.'K_..;..:_~~ +-vol I), lOe.

VI( t), lec.

IIOP.·W3·~3

IoP.·W2·~

0410 <f

E

q

( a)

o ta

t • sec.

t, see.

Horizontal Scale: 0.1 sec per division.Vertical Scale: 10 volt. per division (both trace.).

leI.

Fig. 8. Practical memristor circuit forgenerating staircase waveforms.

Fig. 7. Output waveform v.(l) for basic timing circuit in (a) demonstrates that the memristor with <P-q curve shown in (b) provides anexcellent circuit model for an E-Cell.

Example 2: Modeling an Electrolytic E-Cell

An E-Cell (also known as a Coul Cell) is an electrochemical two-terminal device [20] capable of producing timedelays ranging from seconds to months. An E-Cell can beconsidered as a subminiature electrolytic plating tank consisting of three basic components, namely, an anode, acathode, and an electrolyte. The anode, usually made ofgold, is immersed in the electrolyte solution which in turnis housed within a silver can that also serves as the cathode.The time delay is controlled by the initial quantity of silverthat has been previously plated from the cathode onto theanode and the operating current. During the specified timinginterval silver ions will be transferred from the anode to thecathode, and the E-Cell behaves like a linear resistor with alow resistance. The end of the timing interval correspondsto the time in which all of the silver has been plated off theanode; thereupon the E-Cell behaves like a linear resistorwith a high resistance. Hence, any reasonable model of anE-Cell must behave like a time-varying linear resistor whichchanges from a low resistance to a high resistance after a dccurrent is passed through it for a specified period of timeequal to the timing interval. We will now show that this behavior can be precisely modeled by a memristor with theip-q curve shown in Fig. 7(b). To demonstrate the validityof this model, let us analyze the simplest E-Cell timing circuit, shown in Fig. 7(a), but with the E-Cell replaced by amemristor. In practice, the exact amount of silver to be

plated is specified by the manufacturer and from this information the circuit is designed so that the correct amountof current will pass through the E-Cell, thereby providingthe desired timing interval. The effect of closing the switchS in Fig. 7(a) at t= to is equivalent to applying a step inputvoltage of E volts at to, as shown in Fig. 7(c).

Since the circuit in Fig. 7(a) can be obtained from thecircuit in Fig. 6(a) upon setting R 2 to zero, we immediatelyobtain the output voltage vo(t), as shown in Fig. 7(d). Thisoutput voltage waveform is almost identical to the corresponding waveform measured from an E-Cell timing circuit. The timing interval in this model is equal to the timedelay Ta. The only discrepancy between this waveform andthat actually measured with an E-Cell timing circuit is that,in practice, the rise time is not zero. It always takes a finitebut small time interval for an E-Cell to switch completelyfrom a low to a high resistance. The abrupt jump in Fig.7(d) is, of course, due to the piecewise-linear nature of theassumed ip-q curve. Hence, even the finite switching timecan be accurately modeled by replacing the cp--q curve witha curve having a continuous derivative that essentially approximates the piecewise-linear curve.

B. Application of Memristors to Signal Processing

The preceding examples demonstrated that certain typesof memristors can be used for switching as well as for delaying signals. Memristors can also be used to process manytypes of signals and generate various waveforms of practicalinterest. Due to limitation of space, we will present only onetypical application that uses a memristor to generate astaircase waveform [21]. This type of waveform has been


breakdown voltage : E, = + , E~=E,=E~=AE R, =R2 =R3 =R4 =R3 = +

(b).

0 -t

4 -._____ -----__

Cd).

Fig. 9. Nine-segment memristor can be used to generate ten-step staircase periodic waveform.

used in many instruments such as the sampling oscilloscope and the transistor curve tracer.

To simplify discussion, let us consider the design of a four- step staircase waveform generator. The output voltage waveform shown in Fig. 7(d) suggests that a four-step staircase waveform can be generated by driving the circuit in Fig. 7(a) with a symmetrical square wave, provided that a memristor with the cp-q curve shown in Fig. 7(b) is available. This memristor can be synthesized by the methods presented in Section II. In fact, a simple realization is shown in Fig. 8(a) with a nonlinear resistor @ connected across port 2 of a type-2 M-.R mutator. This nonlinear resistor is, in turn, realized by two back-to-back series Zener diodes in parallel with a linear resistor and has a V-I curve as shown in Fig. 8(b). To obtain the desired 9-q curve shown in Fig. 8(d), we connect CR across port 2 of the type-2 M--R mutator [4]. To verify our design, port 1 of the terminated M-R mutator is

connected in series with a square-wave generator vs(t) and a 1-O resistor as shown in Fig. 8(c). The oscilloscope tracings of both the input signal us(t) and the output signal v,(t) are shown in Fig. 8(e). Notice that vo(t) is indeed a staircase waveform. The finite rise time in going from one step to another is due to the finite resistance of the Zener diode voltage-current characteristic.

It is easy to generalize the above design for generating a staircase waveform with any number of steps. The nonlinear resistor required for generating a ten-step staircase waveform is shown in Fig. 9(a). This circuit consists of two Zener- diode ladder networks connected back to front in parallel [I]. The resulting V-I curve and the corresponding p-q curve are shown in Fig. 9(b) and (c), respectively. Corre- sponding to the square-wave input voltage us(t) shown in Fig. 9(d), we obtain the ten-step staircase waveform Do(t) as shown in Fig. 9(e).



I~-------------,+

0-- --'

Zener breakdown vallage: E, = l!.zE • EZ =E3 • E4 • t>.E

(01.

9

5G 8

------------.-::::>F-+*r-+--+----+-~ V

2

(b) (e).

v,(I Ir------,---------------i'=E~--...--------------r_--~

o

(d).

-----!--------------'-------l:--E:.-----------'--_~ L.--_.-- I 1-------------:-, ', ', :, ,, ,

---------:~~~! i-------------i---------- !------ ------------- ------ -~-~~~ -~==~~~~-~---~~~~~==------------ -------------i--

(el.

Fig. 9. Nine-segment memristor can be used to generate ten-step staircase periodic waveform.

used in many instruments such as the sampling oscilloscopeand the transistor curve tracer.

To simplify discussion, let us consider the design of a fourstep staircase waveform generator. The output voltage waveform shown in Fig. 7(d) suggests that a four-step staircasewaveform can be generated by driving the circuit in Fig.7(a) with a symmetrical square wave, provided that amemristor with the 'f'-q curve shown in Fig. 7(b) is available.This memristor can be synthesized by the methods presentedin Section U. In fact, a simple realization is shown in Fig.8(a) with a nonlinear resistor (R connected across port 2 ofa type-2 M-R mutator. This nonlinear resistor is, in turn,realized by two back-to-back series Zener diodes in parallelwith a linear resistor and has a V-I curve as shown in Fig.8(b). To obtain the desired <P-q curve shown in Fig. 8(d), weconnect (R across port 2 of the type-2 M--R mutator [4]. Toverify our design, port 1 of the terminated M-R mutator is

connected in series with a square-wave generator v8(t) anda I-Q resistor as shown in Fig. 8(c). The oscilloscope tracingsof both the input signal v.(t) and the output signal voCt) areshown in Fig. 8(e). Notice that voCt) is indeed a staircasewaveform. The finite rise time in going from one step toanother is due to the finite resistance of the Zener diodevoltage-current characteristic.

It is easy to generalize the above design for generating astaircase waveform with any number of steps. The nonlinearresistor required for generating a ten-step staircase waveformis shown in Fig. 9(a). This circuit consists of two Zenerdiode ladder networks connected back to front in parallel[1]. The resulting V-I curve and the corresponding <p-qcurve are shown in Fig. 9(b) and (c), respectively. Corresponding to the square-wave input voltage v.(t) shown inFig. 9(d), we obtain the ten-step staircase waveform voCt) asshown in Fig. 9(e).


VI. CONCLUDING REMARKS

The memristor has been introduced as the fourth basic circuit element. Three new types of mutators have been introduced for realizing memristors in the form of active circuits. An appropriate cascade connection of these mutators and those already introduced in [3] can be used to realize higher order elements characterized by a relationship between @j(t) and i@)(t), where rW(t) (P(t)) denotes the mth (nth) time derivative of u(t) (i(t)) if m>O (n>(j), or the mth iterated time integral of u(t) (i(t)) if m < 0 (n <O). Several operational laboratory models of memristors have been built to demonstrate some of the peculiar signal-processing properties of memristors. The application of memristors in modeling unconventional devices shows that memristors are useful even if they are used as a conceptual tool of analysis. While only resistor-memristor circuits have been presented, it is not unreasonable to expect that the most interesting applications will be found in circuits containing resistors, inductors, capacitors, and memristors.

Although no physical rnemristor has yet been discovered in the form of a physical device without internal power supply, the circuit-theoretic and quasi-static electromagnetic analyses presented in Sections III and IV make plausible the notion that a memristor device with a monotonically increasing cp-q curve could be invented, if not discovered accidentally. It is perhaps not unreasonable to suppose that such a device might already have been fabricated as a laboratory curiosity but was improperly identified! After all, a memristor with a’ simple p-q curve will give rise to a rather peculiar-if not complicated hysteretic-u-i curve when erroneously traced in the current-versus-voltage plane.14 Perhaps, our perennial habit of tracing the u-i curve of any new two-terminal device has already misled some of our device-oriented colleagues and prevented them from discovering the true essence of some new device, which could very well be the missing memristor.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

The author wishes to thank the reviewers for their very helpful comments and suggestions. He is also grateful to Prof. P. Penfield, Jr., for informing him of his research ac-

I4 Moreover, such a curve will change with frequency as well as with the tracing waveform.

519

tivities on memristors at M.I.T. over the last ten years and for giving several suggestions which are included in the present revision. The author also wishes to acknowledge the contribution of T. L. Field to the experimental work and to thank S. C. Bass for his suggestion that the memristor could be used to model the properties of an E-Cell.

REFERENCES [1] L. 0. Chua, Introduction to Nonlinear Network Theory. New

York: McGraw-Hill, 1969. [2] J. W. van Spronsen, The Periodic System of Chemical Elements.

New York: Elsevier, 1969. [3] L. 0. Chua, “Synthesis of new nonlinear network elements,” Proc.

IEEE, vol. 56, Aug. 1968, pp. 13251340. [4] -, “Memristor-The missing circuit element,” Sch. Elec. Eng.,

Purdue Univ., Lafayette, Ind.; Tech. Rep. TR-EE 70-39, Sept. 15, 1970.

[S] P. Penfield, Jr., “Thermodynamics of frequency conversion,” in Proc. Symp. Generalized Networks, 1966, pp: 607-619.

[6] R. J. Duffin, “Nonlinear network I,” Bull. Amer. Math. Sot., vol. 52,1946, pp. 836-838.

[7] C. A. Desoer and J. Katzenelson, “Nonlinear RLC networks,” Bell Syst. Tech. J., vol. 44, pp. 161-198, Jan: 1965.

[S] W. Millar, “Some general theorems for nonlmear systems possessing resistance,” Phil. Mug., ser. 7, vol. 42, Oct. 1951, pp. 1150- 1160.

[9] C. Cherry, “Some general theorems for nonlinear systems possess- ! ing reactance,” PhiI. Mug., ser. 7, vol. 42, Oct. 1951, pp. 1161-

1177. [IO] S. Seshu and M. B. Reed, Linear Graphs and Electrical Networks.

Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1961. [ll] P. Penfield, Jr., Frequency Power-Formulas. New York: Tech-

nology Press, 1960. [12] R. M. Fano, L. J. Chu, and R. B. Adler, Electromagnetic Fields,

Energy, and Forces. New York: Wiley, 1960, ch. 6. [13] P. Penfield, Jr., and R. P. Rafuse, Varactor Applications. Cam-

bridge, Mass.: M.I.T. Press, 1962. [14] R. A. Pucel, “Pumping conditions for parametric gain with a

nonlinear immittance element,” Proc. IEEE, vol. 52, Mar. 1964, oo. 269276: see also “Correction,” Proc. IEEE. vol. 52, Julv ii)64, p. 769.

<

[15] S. R. Ovshinsky, “Reversible electrical switching phenomena in disordered structures,” Phy. Rev. Lett., vol. 21, Nov. 11, 1968, pp. 1450-1453.

[16] H. K. Henisch, “Amorphous-semiconductor switching,“Sci. Amer., Nov. 1969, pp. 30-41.

[17] H. Fritzche, “Physics of instabilities in amorphous semiconductors,” IBM J. Res. Develop., Sept. 1969, pp. 515-521.

[18] “Symposium on semiconductor effects in amorphous solids,” 1969 Proc. in J. Non-Crystalline Solids (Special Issue), vol. 4. North- Holland Publishing Company, Apr. 1970.

1191 D. Adler, “Theorv aives shaoe to amoruhous materials,” Elec- . . tronics, Sept. 28, 197& pp. 61-72. L

[20] E-Cell-Timing and Integrating Components, The Bissett-Berman Corp. Los Angeles, Calif., Bissett-Berman Tech. Bull. 103B.

[21] J. Millman and H. Taub, Pulse, Digital, and Switching Waveforms. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1965.



VI. CONCLUDING REMARKS

The memristor has been introduced as the fourth basic.circuit element. Three new types of mutators have been introduced for realizing memristors in the form of active circuits.An appropriate cascade connection of these mutators andthose already introduced in [3] can be used to realize higherorder elements characterized by a relationship between v(m)(t)and i(n)(t), where v(m)(t) (i(n)(t» denotes the mth (nth) timederivative of v(t) (i(t» if m>O (n>O), or the mth iteratedtime integral of v(t) (i(t» if m<O (n<O). Several operationallaboratory models of memristors have been built to demonstrate some of the peculiar signal-processing properties ofmemristors. The application of memristors in modelingunconventional devices shows that memristors are usefuleven if they are used as a conceptual tool of analysis. Whileonly resistor-memristor circuits have been presented, it isnot unreasonable to expect that the most interesting applications will be found in circuits containing resistors, inductors, capacitors, and memristors.

Although no physical memristor has yet been discoveredin the form of a physical device without internal powersupply, the circuit-theoretic and quasi-static electromagnetic analyses presented in Sections III and IV make plausible the notion that a memristor device with a monotonically increasing cp-q curve could be invented, if not discovered accidentally. It is perhaps not tmreasonable to suppose that such a device might already have been fabricatedas a laboratory curiosity but was improperly identified!After all, a memristor with a simple cp-q curve will give riseto a rather peculiar-if not complicated hysteretic-v-icurve when erroneously traced in the current-versus-voltageplane.14 Perhaps, our perennial habit of tracing the v-i curveof any new two-terminal device has already misled some ofour device-oriented colleagues and prevented them fromdiscovering the true essence of some new device, which couldvery well be the missing memristor.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

The author wishes to thank the reviewers for their veryhelpful comments and suggestions. He is also grateful toProf. P. Penfield, Jr., for informing him of his research ac-

14 Moreover, such a curve will change with frequency as well as withthe tracing waveform.

519

tivities on memristors at M.LT. over the last ten years andfor giving several suggestions which are included in thepresent revision. The author also wishes to acknowledge thecontribution of T. L. Field to the experimental work and tothank S. C. Bass for his suggestion that the memristor couldbe used to model the properties of an E-Cell.

REFERENCES

[1] L. O. Chua, Introduction to Nonlinear Network Theory. NewYork: McGraw-HilI, 1969.

[2] J. W; van Spronsen, The Periodic System of Chemical Elements.. New York: Elsevier, 1969.

[3] L. O. Chua, "Synthesis of new nonlinear network elements," Proc.IEEE, vol. 56, Aug. 1968, pp. 1325-1340.

[4] --, "Memristor~Themissing circuit element," Sch. Elec. Eng.,Purdue Vnlv., Lafayette, Ind.; Tech. Rep. TR-EE 70-39, Sept. 15,1970. .

[5] P. Penfield, Jr., "Thermodynamics of frequency conversion," inProc. Symp. Generalized Networks, 1966, pp: 607-619.

[6] R. J. Duffin, "Nonlinear network I," Bull. Amer. Math. Soc., vol.52, 1946, pp. 836-838.

['7] C. A. Desoer and J. Katzenelson, "Nonlinear RLC networks,"Bell Syst. Tech. J., vol. 44, pp. 161-198, Jan, 1965.

[8] W. Millar, "Some general theorems for nonlinear systems possessing resistance," Phil. Mag., ser. 7, vol. 42, Oct. 1951, pp. 11501160.

[9] C. Cherry, "Some general theorems for nonlinear systems possessI ing reactance," Phil. Mag., ser. 7, vol. 42, Oct. 1951, pp. 1161

1177.[10] S. Seshu and M. B. Reed, Linear Graphs and Electrical Networks.

Reading, Mass.: A(\dison-Wesley, 1961.[11] P. Penfield, Jr., Frequency Power-Formulas. New York: Tech

nology Press, 1960.[12] R~ M. Fano, L. J. Chu, and R. B. Adler, Electromagnetic Fields,

Energy, and Forces. New York: Wiley, 1960,ch. 6.fl3] P. Penfield, Jr., and R. P. Rafuse, Varactor Applications. Cam. bridge, Mass.: M.I.T. Press, 1962.

[14] R. A. Pucel, "Pumping conditions for parametric gain with anonlinear immittance element," Proc. IEEE, 'vol. 52, Mar. 1964,pp. 269-276; see also "Correction," proc. IEEE, vol. 52, July1964, p. 769. .

[15] S. R. Ovshinsky, "Reversible electrical switching pheoomena indisordered structures," Phy. Rev. Lett., vol. 21, Nov. 11, 1968, pp.1450-1453.

[16] H. K. Henisch, "Amorphous-semiconductor switching," Sci. Amer.,Nov. 1969, pp. 30-41.

[17] H. Fritzche, "Physics of instabilities in amorphous semiconductors," IBM J. Res. Develop., Sept. 1969, pp. 515-521.

[18] "Symposium on semiconductor effects in amorphous solids," 1969Proc. in J. Non-Crystalline Solids (Special Issue), vol. 4. NorthHolland Publishing Company, Apr. 1970.

[19] D. Adler, "Theory gives shape to amorphous materials," Electronics, Sept. 28, 1970, pp. 61-72.

[20] E-Cell-Timing and Integrating Components, The Bissett-BermanCorp. Los Angeles, C!ilif., Bissett-Berman Tech. Bull. 103B.

[21] J. Millman and H. Taub, Pulse, Digital, and Switching Waveforms.New York: McGraw-Hill, 1965. .

m y.* ;=) · 2018-11-08 · ing certain characteristics of the varactor diode and the partial...

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