RED

CEDA

R

WHI

TE C

EDAR

HEM

LOCK

BALS

AM F

IR

LARC

H

WHI

TE P

INE

PITC

H PI

NE

VIRG

INIA

PIN

E

AUST

RIAN

PIN

E

WHI

TE C

EDAR

LARC

H

WHI

TE P

INE

VIRG

INIA

PIN

E

RED

PINE

CATA

LPA

DOGW

OOD

RED

CEDA

R

SPRU

CE

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AM F

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ASPE

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WIL

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OAK

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MAP

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BUCK

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BOXE

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ASH

ELM

18 U.S.C. 707

Adapted for use in Pennsylvania byRobert S. Hansen, extension forester in Bradford County, andJames C. Finley, assistant professor of forest resources.

Adapted with permission for use in Pennsylvania from Minnesota ExtensionService publication 4H-BU-3408, Trees + Me = Forestry, Copyright 1991, Minne-sota Extension Service, University of Minnesota.

Penn State College of Agricultural Sciences research, extension, and residenteducation programs are funded in part by Pennsylvania counties, theCommonwealth of Pennsylvania, and the U.S. Department of Agriculture.

Where trade names appear, no discrimination is intended, and no endorse-ment by Penn State Cooperative Extension is implied.

Issued in furtherance of Cooperative Extension Work, Acts of Congress May8 and June 30, 1914, in cooperation with the U.S. Department of Agricultureand the Pennsylvania Legislature. T. R. Alter, Interim Director of CooperativeExtension, The Pennsylvania State University.

This publication is available in alternative media on request.

The Pennsylvania State University is committed to the policy that allpersons shall have equal access to programs, facilities, admission, andemployment without regard to personal characteristics not related to ability,performance, or qualifications as determined by University policy or by stateor federal authorities. The Pennsylvania State University does not discrimi-nate against any person because of age, ancestry, color, disability orhandicap, national origin, race, religious creed, sex, sexual orientation, orveteran status. Direct all inquiries regarding the nondiscrimination policy tothe Affirmative Action Director, The Pennsylvania State University, 201Willard Building, University Park, PA 16802-2801: Tel. (814) 865-4700/V,(814) 863-1150/TTY.

R3MPS497

© The Pennsylvania State University 1996

18

Chapter 3

THE LIFE OF A TREESeeds and Tree Growth

A NEW BEGINNING

In the woods called “Hearts Content” inthe Allegheny National Forest, a grove of

Eastern hemlock stands silent, embracing theendless blue sky of an August day. They are oldand grand now. But once, years ago, these giantswere tiny seeds.

A tree seed contains an embryo (baby) tree. Thisembryo already has tiny leaves, a stem, and apoint that will become a root. The embryo issurrounded by endosperm—the food supply forthe developing tree.

Once the seed falls from the tree to the ground,it is covered by leaves and soil. When the groundis warm enough and other conditions are justright, the seed begins to grow, using theendosperm for food.

Eventually, the endosperm is consumed. Theseed then must seek other sources of nutrientsBy sending out a root, the seed anchors itself tothe ground and draws water and nutrients fromthe soil.

Finally, the tiny tree emerges from the ground.The leaves appear. They enable the growing treeto produce its own food. The shell, or seed coat,of the embryo tree then falls off. Some seeds,such as acorns, have tough, protective seedcoats. Other seeds, such as maple, have lightcoverings.

19

Seeds are scattered inmany different ways.Animals eat seed-bearing fruit and thendeposit the seeds on thesoil in their scat. Windcarries winged and otherlight seeds. Sticky seedsoften cling to an animal’s fur(or your sweater!) and ride along toa new location. Lakes and streams give someseeds a “boat ride” to new areas. And, of course,gravity pulls seeds from the trees, giving them along ride downhill to a new home.

The shaggy, spreading silver maple drops seedsonto the soil in the early summer. These seedsare already mature. They start to germinate, orgrow, shortly after they hit the ground. The nut-bearing black walnut, on the other hand, drops itsseeds in the fall. These seeds are dormant, andwill not germinate until the spring. Dormantseeds must go through a cold spell before theygerminate. In nature, winter provides this cold

treatment.

Some seeds must be softenedbefore they will germi-nate. Their tough seedcoat can be softened bythe digestive systems ofanimals, such as birds orcattle that eat the seed.

For example, grouse eat juniper berries andthen disperse the seeds in their droppings.

Seeds from most tree species germinate best onbare mineral soil, which has the moisture thatthey need. Seeds germinating on leaf litter(leaves scattered on the forest floor) often die forlack of water. Their roots cannot penetrate drylitter to reach the moist soil.

SEED SHUFFLE

Seeds are useful not only for reproducing trees,but also as sources of food for people andanimals such as bears, squirrels, and songbirds.

Unscramble the letters below toidentify the seed products andwrite them on the lines.

wasltnu ______________

Popular for baking; unique flavor

bnecrierars _____________

Grows in bogs; used in holiday baking

carnos ___________________

Made into flour by American Indians

uconoct ___________________

Grows in the tropics; seed is big and edible

ureiserbelb _________________

Bears love these; they make great muffins!

zetushanl ___________________

Grows on shrubs; squirrels love them.

20

A NEW BEGINNING, PART II

Many trees get their start in life as seeds. But notall! Did you know there are other ways that treescan reproduce?

Stump sprouts develop from the stump of arecently cut tree. They commonly grow from thestumps of deciduous trees such as oak, bass-wood, red maple, and willow.

Root suckers are new shoots that develop fromspecial buds on the roots of a few species oftrees. Aspen trees grow from root suckers afterthe parent tree has been harvested. Root suckersgrow very fast.

Layering occurs when the branch of a living treetouches the ground, becomes covered by leaflitter or soil, and takes root. A new tree is createdat this junction. Northern white-cedar is one treethat can reproduce by layering.

21

The Forest Food FactoryA growing tree has four main parts: leaves,branches, stem or trunk, and roots. Leavesmake food through photosynthesis. In photo-synthesis, chlorophyll (say kloro fill), a greenmolecule found in the leaves, uses sunlightenergy to remove carbon dioxide from theair. The carbon dioxide is mixed with wa-ter from the soil to create sugar. Thetree uses this sugar as food. Theroots anchor the tree and absorbwater and minerals needed by theleaves. The stem and branches alsocarry water and minerals to theleaves. They also carry manufac-tured sugar from the leaves to theroots and other parts of the tree.

When a Tree Dies…A tree that dies but remains standingprovides birds and other animals with

shelter and food. Such trees, called snags,are an important part of the forest. Eventu-

ally, though, a snag will fall over, perhaps pushedby wind, or finally toppled by gravity alone. Then

decomposers such as fungi, bacteria, and earth-worms go to work. (Some decomposers start

breaking down live trees!) They decay the trunk andother tree parts into nutrients. These nutrients are

returned to the soil. In the soil other trees andplants can use these nutrients again.

Nature is the ultimate recycler.

ROOTS

LEAVES

BRANCHES

STEM OR TRUNK

22

Growing…Growing…Grown!We have looked at several ways in which a mighty treestarts its life. But how does a tree grow from a tinyshoot into a forest giant?

Trees undergo three different kinds of growth:

height

diameter

root

Wheredidthesigngo?

A tree is10 years old

and 10 feet tall when asign is attached to it 5feet above the ground.The tree grows 1 foottaller each year. Draw

the location of the signon the 30-and 40-year-old trees. How tall is the

tree when it is30 years old?

Diameter Growth

A tree grows not only up, but also out. Justbeneath the bark is a thin layer of living cellscalled the cambium. The cambium is likea factory that makes two kinds ofproducts. One, the wood, or xylem(zi-lem), is formed on the inside ofthe cambium layer. The other,called the inner bark, or ph-loem (flow-em), is added onthe outside of the tree.

If you hurt the cambium bybumping the tree with a lawnmower or carving yourinitials into the trunk, youdamage the tree’sfactory.

Height Growth

A tree expands in height from the growingpoints at the end of branches and stems. Thismeans that trees grow from the top up, notfrom the ground up.

23

Root Growth

Roots expand in diameter from a cambium layeralso. They grow longer from their tips, just likebranches and main stems do. The major differ-ence is that roots grow down instead of up.

THE HEART OF THE STORY

Outer bark is the “skin” of the tree. Outer barkdoes several things. It protects the tree frominjury. The bark is a barrier to insects and dis-eases. It also insulates the tree from winter coldand summer heat.

Inner bark (phloem) has tubes through whichfood travels from the leaves down to thebranches, stem, and roots. When phloem cellsdie, they become part of the outer bark.

New wood (xylem))))) carries minerals dissolved inwater upward from the roots.

A cambium cell layer is wrapped around thewood. It makes new bark (phloem) and newwood (xylem) every year.

Heartwood is the backbone of the tree. Heart-wood is not living wood. It supports the tree. Italso is the place where many waste productsfrom the tree collect.

OUTER BARKINNER BARK(PHLOEM)

NEW WOOD(XYLEM)

CAMBIUM

HEARTWOOD

24

DIARY OF A PAPER BIRCH

I am a paper birch. The drawing on the next pageshows a cross section of my trunk. Throughoutthe spring and summer, I add new layers of woodto my trunk. The wood I make in spring(springwood) grows very fast, and is lightercolored because the cells are large. The wood Imake in the summer (summerwood) growsmuch more slowly, and the wood is dark becausethe cells are small. Each year’s growth of light anddark wood is called an annual ring. Count mydark rings, and you will know my age. If youstudy my annual rings closely, you can learn mylife story.

At 16 years of age, I was growing fast. Thatyear I got lots of sunlight and plenty of rain. Thatyear, the trunk of another tree leaned against me,tilting me at an angle. In order to stand uprightagain, I made my rings wider on the lower side.This extra growth, called reaction wood, helpedme to balance myself.

When I was 30 years old, a terrible drought hitthis forest. It lasted four years. I grew very slowlyin those years, so my rings are very narrow. Ithought I would soon be food for the decompos-ers, but I managed to survive.

At age 40, the forest had thinned from the lastdrought, so I had room to grow again. I didn’thave to compete with so many other trees forsun, water, and nutrients.

Now I am 46, and quite naturally my growth isslowing a bit. I have enjoyed my life in the forest.I enjoy watching all the changes.

QUIZ FOR THE REAL WHIZZES

Fill in the blanks below using the words at theend. Whiz through this!

1. Seeds that go through a period of cold beforethey germinate are called _____________.

2. _____________________ is a thin layerof growing cells between the inner bark andnew wood.

3 _____________________ is the conver-sion of water and carbon dioxide into a sugar.

4. The ________________________support the tree’s crown and serve as a trans-port line for sugar and water.

5. When a seed ____________________,it starts growing.

6. The cambium produces _____________and ______________.

7. Dark, narrow rings of wood are called_____________________.

8. The _______________ anchor the treeand absorb water and minerals from the soil.

9. ___________________ are the foodfactories in a tree.

10. Light, wide rings of wood are called___________________.

11. __________________ is a green materialin leaves that is used to make sugar.

cambium photosynthesis

chlorophyll roots

dormant springwood

germinates stem and branches

leaves summerwood

phloem xylem

25

My scientific name is:Betula papyrifera

26

CAREER CONSIDERATIONS

A wood scientist develops useful products fromwood. These scientists may work in laboratoriesof private industries, universities, or governmentalagencies. To become a wood scientist, you maystart at a university or college in the departmentof wood products. Scientists are like sleuths. Theylook for clues that no one else can see!

LEAVE THE ANSWER TO ME

Trees’ annual rings show what their growingconditions were like. Pretend that you haveannual rings. Draw your own life story. Whichyears did you have wide rings (good growingconditions)? Did you have any narrow rings?Here’s an example for you?

TREE-VIAL PURSUIT

Do you know how leaves change color? Thebright, clear days of autumn trigger leaves toproduce large amounts of sugar. The cool nightsslow down the movement of the sugar, trappingit in the leaves.

Sugar kept in the leaves causes an increase inthe production of certain chemicals that causebright coloration. At the same time, the produc-tion of chlorophyll, which is green, drops.

YEARNING TO LEARN

Additional Activities

In the following activities, remember the basicrules of conservation. Do not damage or destroythe plants and animals you are studying. Leaveall animal homes unchanged. Have a positiveimpact on the forest.

Collect and germinate seeds from a tree inyour neighborhood. The kind of seed you shoulduse depends on the time of year.

In the spring you will have the best luck with elm,red maple, or silver maple seeds. Plant theseseeds in a pot of regular soil. Cover them withone-fourth of an inch of soil and keep the soilmoist. Keep track of how many days it takes forthe seeds to germinate. It may take a few weeksso be patient!

If you collect seeds in the fall, you will have thebest results with pine seeds. You can plant seedsfrom red pine as soon as you collect them. Whitepine seeds will need a pretreatment. To pretreatthese seeds, place a moist paper towel on a smallplate. Put the seeds on the paper towel andcover them with another moist paper towel.Place this seed “sandwich” on a dish in the

My little brotherwas bornI went to

summer camp

My parentsgot divorced

I participated in theNational 4-H ForestryInvitational

27

refrigerator. Keep the paper towel moist. Changethe paper about once a week. After about 60days, remove the seeds and plant them in a potone-fourth of an inch deep containing regularsoil. Keep the soil moist.

Hunt for seeds in the woods. Collect as manydifferent kinds of seeds as you can find. Wheredid you find these seeds? Were they on theground, hanging from a branch, or floating on alake? Are the seeds heavy? Are they big orsmall? How do you think they got to where youfound them? Which (if any) are seeds that ani-mals might eat?

MAKE A FAMILY TREE!

Obtain a cross section of wood at least2 inches in diameter, preferably from a

tree that is at least 40 years old. Start-ing from this year’s growth, count back

the rings and label the ring that grew theyear you were born. (Use a small label

and glue.) Do this for other members ofyour family, too. Draw your own family

ring history here:

28

ANSWERS

Seed Scramble

1. walnuts 4. coconut

2. cranberries 5. blueberries

3. acorns 6. hazelnuts

Growing...Growing...Grown!

When 30 years old, the tree is 30 feet tall. Thesign is always at 5 feet above the ground becausetrees grow in height from the top, not from thebottom.

Quiz for the Real Whizzes

1. dormant 7. summerwood

2. cambium 8. roots

3. photosynthesis 9. leaves

4. stem and branches 10. springwood

5. germinates 11. chlorophyll

6. xylem-phloem

ROUNDUP AND FAIR PROJECTS

Make a seed collection using at least eightdifferent species. Group them according to howthe seeds travel. For example, your groups mightinclude seeds distributed by animals, seeds eatenby birds, and seeds that float in the wind. Displayyour seeds in a box or glue them onto a three-sided display board. Also display each species’seed cut in half, to show the inside.

Prepare a display showingthe life and death of aparticular tree. Use draw-ings or models to showhow this tree beganlife as a seed orby suckering,stumpsprouting, orlayering. Drawor build amodel of thetree as ahealthy adult,and then asa log on theforest floor. Illustrate what is happening to thelog as it is decomposed. Use drawings, pieces ofmoss, leaves, and other forest matter to con-struct the display. Use either a three-sided dis-play board or a box for your project.

Make a display based on a cross section ofa tree stem. Your cross section should show atleast 20 years’ growth. Study the growth ringpatterns and figure out this tree’s “life story.”Note which years were good and which weretough. Label your cross section with dates, andprepare a short report explaining the annualring patterns.

29

Chapter 4

CHANGE IN THE FORESTFOREST SUCCESSIONThe Forces of Change

Centuries ago, Pennsylvania was covered withpine and hemlock forests. Then the settlers came,bringing saws and plows. One by one they cutthe towering hemlock and white pine trees untilonly stumps and hardwoods remained. Firesstarted by passing trains or by the settlersburned through these areas. As farms grew, thenumber of pines and hemlocks decreased.Change came to the forest.

Various hardwoods, an important part of theoriginal forest, now ruled the areas where pineand hemlock trees reigned. A new cycle ofsuccession, the gradual change in the type andamount of plants in an area, had been started bythe settlers.

Fire, logging, plowing, and other events some-times disturb an area of land. When formerlydominant plants and trees are removed, succes-sion begins. New plants take over the area wherethe old plants once lived.

Mark an “X” by the events that might start suc-cession in a forest

_____ tornado _____ logging

_____ hurricane _____ fire

_____ floods _____ large numbers ofinsects

_____ drought _____ plowing/landclearing

30

MADE IN THE SHADE

When you remove trees, you take away the shadefor new trees on the ground. The first new seed-lings to grow in this area often like sunlight, butnot shade. Aspen, paper birch, cherry, and ash aresome common shade intolerant plants, alsoknown as pioneers.

Once shade intolerant trees settle into an area,they make a bit of a problem for themselves.Younger pioneer trees can’t grow up in the shadeof their taller parents. The younger pioneer trees,remember, need lots of sunlight. This means thatdifferent tree species will start to take over be-neath the parents.

These other tree species are shade tolerant—theycan grow and reproduce in the shade. Shadetolerant tree species include sugar maple, Ameri-can basswood, American beech, and hemlock.When the pioneers die out, the shade toleranttrees dominate the area.

A climax forest is a forest in which the overstorytrees are the same species as the understorytrees. Climax trees remain until fire, harvesting, oranother force disturbs the area again.

In the drawings on the left, label the correct seriesof events in the succession. Use a “1” for the firststage, “2” for the second, and so on, until you reacha climax forest.

THERE’S NO PLACE LIKE HOME

Animals are very particular about their surround-ings. Every animal has a specific environment, orhabitat, that it likes the best. This preferred habi-tat meets that animal’s special needs for food,water, shelter, and space.

When a forest changes, the animal species thatlive there also change. Different stages of succes-sion are ideal habitat for different types of wildlife.

31

Some animals are generalists because they likemany types of habitats. The black bear likesberries found in the early successional stages ofa forest. Yet the bear also needs mature forestsfor shelter.

In the Pacific Northwest, the northern spottedowl needs old forests of Douglas-fir and westernhemlock. The northern spotted owl is a specialistbecause it survives best in one type of habitat.

When a habitat is changed, either by people orby nature, it can’t support the same animals.

SUCCESSION AND PRODUCTS

Forest succession also affects the types of prod-ucts a forest produces. A forest in the earlystages of succession has many shade intoleranttrees. These trees—ash, cherry, and oak—makegood wood products. Often foresters will try toslow or stop succession, so that these favoredtrees can grow.

Other products need a climax forest. Sugarmaple is needed to make maple syrup. Wood-land owners who want to produce syrup willoften try to make this successional stage last.

In this picture, which animals would you callspecialists. Why? Which animals would youcall generalists? Why?

pine marten: _________________________

small rodents: _________________________

ruffed grouse: _________________________

gray squirrel: _________________________

beaver: _________________________

wild turkey: _________________________

red squirrel: _________________________

red fox: _________________________

boreal owl: _________________________

snowshoe hare: _________________________

moose: _________________________

black bear: _________________________

white-tailed deer: _________________________

32

SHADE TOLERANCE

Intolerant

red pine

black cherry

black walnut

paper birch

quaking aspen

black willow

white ash

Intermediate

eastern white pine

red maple

oaks

American elm

Tolerant

eastern hemlock

sugar maple

ironwood

American basswood

American beech

FOREST TYPES

Each forest is a special blend of tree speciesgrowing together in one community. This collec-tion of tree species is not random. Certain treespecies occur together because they need similarsoils, water, and light. We call a collection ofspecies that occur together a forest type.

Forest types are named for their main treespecies. Quaking aspen and paper birch rule anaspen-birch forest type, although other treespecies also can be found there. Foresters oftenmap the location of forest types. The map helpsthem decide how to manage certain areas.

33

See if you can match each tree species belowwith the forest type where it would be found.More than one species can match each foresttype.

SPECIES NAME FOREST TYPE

bigtooth aspen maple-basswood

white oak

black cherry oak-hickory

white birch

eastern white pine black cherry-maple

red oak

sugar maple

shagbark hickory pine-hemlock

red pine

American basswood

eastern hemlock aspen-birch

CAREER CONSIDERATIONS

QUIZ FOR THE REAL WHIZZES

Fill in the blanks below using the words at theend. Whiz through this!

1. A ___________________ is an animalthat can use many different types of habitat.

2. A collection of tree species that occur to-gether is a __________________.

3. __________________ plants and treeslove shade.

4. A gradual change in the type and amount oftrees over a long period of time is called_____________________.

5. An animal that requires a certain type ofhabitat is a _________________.

6. Invading intolerant plants also are called_____________________.

7. Plants that do not like shade are called_____________________.

8. A _____________________ forest existswhen the tree species in the overstory are thesame species found in the understory.

Answers: forest type pioneers

climax intolerant

tolerant succession

specialist generalist

Wildlife managers conduct habitat improvementprograms, and monitor wildlife populations. Theyalso teach the public about game (hunted ani-mals, such as deer and moose) and nongame(animals that aren’t hunted, such as songbirds)wildlife. You’ll have to know a great deal aboutanimals to be a wildlife manager. A good placeto start is at a college or university.

34

LEAVE THE ANSWER TO ME

Are you a specialist or a generalist? What type ofhabitat do you prefer the most?

TREE-VIAL PURSUIT

The male ruffed grouse claims a territory in thespring by jumping up on logs and making a louddrumming sound. He does this by beating hiswings back and forth dozens of times everysecond. Can you move that fast?

YEARNING TO LEARN

Additional Activities

In the following activities, remember the basicrules of conservation. Do not damage or destroythe plants and animals you are studying. Leavethe animal homes unchanged. Have a positiveimpact on the forest.

Choose one animal that lives in the forestsaround you. Find out what habitat it requires forfood, shelter, and space. “Shelter” can includeareas for nesting, sleeping, hibernation, and alsoescaping from predators or bad weather. Give ashort presentation on which stages of forestsuccession your animal would need to meetthese requirements.

Stake out and study an area of forest ap-proximately as big as an average yard (40 feet by40 feet). This forest can be a community forestwithin a city park or a forest you see while on acamping trip. Count trees that make up theoverstory and identify each. Determine the foresttype from the list of forest types on page 33.

Remember, forest types are named after the treespecies that occur most often. If the species youfind do not fit into a given type, name your owntype using the two most common species in theplot you study.

Tree Species Number of Trees in Plot

Forest Type: ___________________

ROUNDUP AND FAIR PROJECTS

Observe succession in your own yard as along-term project. Isolate, with some type oftemporary fencing, a 4-foot by 4-foot area inyour yard. Clear all the plants from this square toexpose bare soil. Spade the area and removeany roots you find. Do not water, mow, or fertilize.Observe this area once a month. At each visit,

35

note the plants that are growing. Are they weeds,grasses, shrubs, or trees? If tree seedlings appear,try to identify them to the genus level (for ex-ample, oak, pine, or aspen).

Photograph or sketch your plot each time youvisit it, and record the date. Continue this activityfor at least two years. Don’t expect a climaxforest; that usually takes a few hundred years!

After at least two years, prepare a display usingphotographs or sketches and the informationyou gathered to illustrate the different plants thatinvaded the area over time.

You also could build a model to illustrate thesuccession you observed—use forest materials,twigs, and other materials that resemble theplants you observed. (This activity is adaptedfrom Project Learning Tree, Activity Guide for Grades 7-12, American Forest Institute, 1977.)

Prepare a display that illustrates wildlife foundin at least two different forest types. For eachforest type, do the following?

• Photograph or collect pictures of the foresttype.

• Identify the common tree species in the foresttype.

• Identify at least two wildlife species found inthat forest type.

• Include a picture or photograph of the animalsmentioned. Mount your photographs orpictures on a three-sided display board or in abox.

Expand on the forest typing activity from page34. Gather tree species data for at least threedistinct forest types in the area. Then map thearea. Mount the map on a three-sided display orposter board along with your forest data sheets.

ANSWERS

Succession Disturbances

All of these events are capable of startingsuccession.

Succession Series

top to bottom: 3; 4; 5; 2; 1

Specialist/Generalist Quiz

Specialists Generalistssmall rodents snowshoe hareruffed grouse red foxgray squirrel white-tailed deerwild turkey black bearred squirrel beaver

Forest/Species Match

maple-basswood: sugar maple, Americanbasswood

oak-hickory: white oak, red oak, shagbarkhickory

black cherry-maple: black cherry, sugar maple

pine-hemlock: eastern white pine, easternhemlock

aspen-birch: bigtooth aspen, white birch

Quiz for the Real Whizzes1. generalist5. specialist2. forest type6. pioneers3. tolerant7. intolerant4. succession8. climax

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5College of Agricultural SciencesCooperative Extension

Name _____________________________________________

Address ____________________________________________

_________________________________________________

Name of club ________________________________________

Leader’s name _______________________________________

4-H Club Motto“To make the best better”

4-H Club PledgeI pledge

my head to clearer thinking,my heart to greater loyalty,

my hands to larger service, andmy health to better living, for

my club,my community,my country, and

my world.

4-H Club ColorsGreen and White

18 U.S.C. 707