m implements274150/... · 2009. 10. 27. · 6.4 the tanganyika farmers' association (tfa) 194...

M IMPLEMENTS ERS

Bjiirn Mothander Finn Kjzrby Kjell Havnevik

Scandinavian Institute of African Studies

FARM IMPLEMENTS FOR SMALL-SCALE FARMERS IN TANZANIA

Bjorn Mothander Finn Kjzrby Kjell Havnevik

Scandinavian Institute of African Studies, Uppsala 1989

ISBN 91-7106-290-4

O The authors and Nordiska afi-ikainstitutet, 1989

Pi-inted in Sweden by Motala Grafiska, Motala 1989

TABLE OF CONTENTS

List of Abbreviations 7

Preface 9

Introduction 13

Chapter 1 TYPES OF FARM IMPLEMENTS USED IN TANZANIA 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Description of Common Factory-Made

Hand Implements Used in Tanzania 1.3 Description of Factory-Made Ox-Drawn

Implements Used in Tanzania 1.3.1 The Ox-Plough 1.3.2 The Ox-Drawn Ridger 1.3.3 The Ox-Drawn Cultivator 1.3.4 Harrows and Planters

1.4 Village Visits 1.4.1 Introduction and Methodology 1.4.2 Main Conclusions from Village Visits 1.4.3 The Impact of the Farm Implements

Shortage on Productivity 1.4.4 Summary of Household Tool Inventory

and Requirements and the General Supply Situation

1.5 Ox-Mechanization

Chapter 2 INTRODUCTION AND DEVELOPMENT OF NEW FARM IMPLEMENTS 7 3 2.1 Approaches to Technology Introduction 7 3 2.2 Selective Priorities for Implements and

Designs to Improve Likelihood of Adoption 7 7 2.3 New Hand Implements for Cultivation 7 9 2.4 Ox-Drawn Equipment 8 0 2.5 Simple Post-Harvesting Equipment 8 3 2.6 Research, Testing and Extension 8 6

2.6.1 Introduction 8 6 2,6.2 CAMERTEC, Arusha 8 8 2.6.3 CAMERTEC1s Potential Role in the

Introduction and Extention of the Improved Farm Implements 9 8

2.6.4 Uyole Agricultural Centre, Mbeya 101 2.6.5 The Regional Oxenization Project,

Iringa 103 2.6.6 Kilimo Extension Service, Ox-Training

Centres and the Shinyanga RIDEP Extension Approach 10 6

2.7 Conclusion

Chapter 3 DEMAND ESTIMATES 3.1 Hand Implements 3.2 The Demand for Ox-Ploughs 3.3 The Supply and Requirements for Plough

Spare Parts 3.4 The Potential for Ox-Ploughing in the

Next Decade 3.5 The Demand for Ridgers, Cultivators and

Harrows 3.6 The Demand for Ox-Carts

3.6.1 Background 3.6.2 The Present Demand for Ox-Carts 3.6.3 Some Notes on the Relationship

between Design and Demand for Ox-Carts

Chapter 4 LOCAL PRODUCTION AND REPAIR FACILITIES FOR FARM IMPLEMENTS AND OX-CARTS 4.1 Blacksmiths 4.2 Support Programmes 4.3 Conclusion 4.4 Outline of Raw Material Support Programme 4.5 Ox-Cart Manufacturing 4.6 Support for Local Manufacturing

of Ox-Carts

Chapter 5 INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTION OF FARM IMPLEMENTS 5.1 Small-Scale Industrial Production

5.1.1 Production Units within the SIDO Industrial Estates

5.1.2 MAFOTCO, Moshi 5.1.3 Themi Farm Implements and

Engineering CO Ltd 5.1.4 Other Small-Scale Industrial Units

5.2 Medium-Scale Production 5.2.1 The MEIDA "capacity-identifying"

Exercise 5.2.2 Cotex Metals and Machinery Ltd 5.2.3 Manufacture of Post-Harvesting

Equipment 5.3 Large-Scale Production

5.3.1 Ubungo Farm Implements Company (UFI) 5.3.2 Zana za Kilimo Ltd, Mbeya (ZZK) 5.3.3 Mwanza Farm Implements Factory 5.3.4 Mangula Mechanical and Machine Tools

Company (MMT)

Chapter 6 DISTRIBUTION OF FARM IMPLEMENTS IN TANZANIA 186 6.1 The Distribution System 18 6 6.2 Distortions in the RTC Distribution System 188 6.3 Stock Position in October 1983 191 6.4 The Tanganyika Farmers' Association (TFA) 194 6.5 Credit and Prices 196 6.6 Future Distribution System 198

List of References 201

Appendix 1 Agricultural Policy of Tanzania

Appendix 2 Rapid Rural Appraisal Survey Methodology 209

Appendix 3 Some Notes on the Costs of Importation

List of Tables

Table 1.1 Basic Rural Household Tool Inventory Table 1.2 List of Imported or Domestically Man-

ufactured Common Types of Factory- Made Farm Implements Used in Tanza- nia

Table 1.3 Overview of Farmers Interviews Table 3.1 NIDC demand figures, hand implements,

197 3 Table 3.2 TISCO demand figures, hand imple-

ments, 1980 Table 3.3 UFI supply, hand implements 1979.-

1983 Table 3.4 RTC requirements, hand implements

1983/84 Table 3.5 Annual demand estimate for hand im-

plement S 19 8 4 Table 3.6 The Regional Plough Population for

Different Periods, as Given by Dif- ferent Surveys and Estimates

Table 3.7 The Present Demand for Ox-Ploughs (1984/85)

Table 3.8 Regional Ox-Cart Population 1975-1983 and Estimated Demand for Ox-Carts 1984-1986

Table 4.1 UFI Regional Distribution of Raw Ma- terials for SIDO; June 1983-August 1983

Table 4.2 The Production of Ox-Carts, Wheel Barrows, Hand-Carts and Harrows from 8 Public and Private Manufacturers for the Years 1980-1983

Table 6.1 RTC Stock Position, Central Regional Godowns, October 1983

LISTOFABBREVIATIONS

AATP ACCO ADP AISCO

CAMARTEC

CCM CFW

D A D 0 D A N I D A DMO DPO DSM

EEC

FAO FRG FSC

I BRD

K i l imo

Maji M E I D A

NAC NBC NDC N I DC

NMC NORAD

Oxfam OTC

Arusha A p p r o p r i a t e Techno logy P r o j e c t Arusha C u t l e r y Company A g r i c u l t u r a l Development P r o j e c t , I r i n g a Region A g r i c u l t u r a l a n d I n d u s t r i a l S u p p l i e s Company

Board o f I n t e r n a l T r a d e

C e n t r e f o r A g r i c u l t u r a l M e c h a n i z a t i o n and R u r a l Techno logy , Arusha Chama c h a Mapinduzi Common F a c i l i t i e s Workshop a t SIDO es ta tes

D i s t r i c t A g r i c u l t u r a l Development O f f i c e r D a n i s h I n t e r n a t i o n a l Development A u t h o r i t y D i s t r i c t M e c h a n i z a t i o n O f f i c e r D i s t r i c t P l a n n i n g O f f i c e r Dar es Salaam

European Economic Community

U n i t e d N a t i o n s Food a n d A g r i c u l t u r e O r g a n i s a t i o n F e d e r a l R e p u b l i c o f Germany Farmer S e r v i c e C e n t e r s

I n t e r n a t i o n a l Bank f o r R e c o n s t r u c t i o n a n d Development (Wor ld Bank) I n t e r n a t i o n a l Development A s s o c i a t i o n I n t e r n a t i o n a l Fund f o r A g r i c u l t u r a l Development

M i n i s t r y o f A g r i c u l t u r e

M i n i s t r y o f Water Metal E n g i n e e r i n g I n d u s t r i e s Development A s s o c i a t i o n

N a t i o n a l A l l o c a t i o n Committee N a t i o n a l Bank o f Commerce N a t i o n a l Development C o r p o r a t i o n N a t i o n a l I n d u s t r i a l Development C o r p o r a t i o n ( a n I n d i a n c o n s u l t a n c y o r g a n i s a t i o n ) N a t i o n a l M i l l i n g C o r p o r a t i o n The Norwegian Aid Agency

A P r i v a t e B r i t i s h Aid O r g a n i s a t i o n Ox T r a i n i n g C e n t r e

P e o p l e s R e p u b l i c o f Ch ina

RADO RCW R and D KDD

R/ E RIDEP RMO R PO RTC

SAP SEK SIDA SIDO Shs

TAMTU TC A TDFL TFA TIB TISCO

TRDB TShs TWICO

UAC UF I UK U N I D O

URT USAID USD

R e g i o n a l A g r i c u l t u r a l Development O f f i c e r R u r a l . C r a f t Workshop R e s e a r c h and Development R e g i o n a l Development D i r e c t o r ( p r e s e n t l y R e g i o n a l E x e c u t i v e D i r e c t o r ) Round e y e d R e g i o n a l I n t e g r a t e d Development P l a n / P r o j e c t R e g i o n a l M e c h a n i z a t i o n O f f i c e r R e g i o n a l P l a n n i n g O f f i c e r R e g i o n a l T r a d i n g C o r p o r a t i o n

S t r u c t u r a l Ad jus tmen t Programme Swedish k r o n o r Swedish I n t e r n a t i o n a l Development A u t h o r i t y S m a l l I n d u s t r i e s Development O r g a n i s a t i o n T a n z a n i a n s h i l l i n g s

T a n z a n i a A g r i c u l t u r a l Machinery T e s t i n g U n i t T a n z a n i a C o t t o n A u t h o r i t y Tangany ika Development a n d F i n a n c e Company L t d Tangany ika F a r m e r s ' A s s o c i a t i o n T a n z a n i a I n v e s t m e n t Bank T a n z a n i a I n d u s t r i a l S t u d i e s and C o n s u l t i n g O r g a n i s a t i o n T a n z a n i a R u r a l Development Bank T a n z a n i a n s h i l l i n g s T a n z a n i a Wood I n d u s t r i e s Company

Uyole A g r i c u l t u r a l C o l l e g e (Mbeya) Ubungo Farm Implements U n i t e d Kingdom U n i t e d N a t i o n s I n d u s t r i a l Development O r g a n i s a t i o n U n i t e d R e p u b l i c o f T a n z a n i a U n i t e d S t a t e s Aid Agency U n i t e d S t a t e s D o l l a r s

Zana z a Ki l imo Ltd (Mbeya)

m i l l i o n t h o u s a n d pound

PREFACE

I n 1982, t h e T a n z a n i a n Government a p p r o a c h e d t h e Swe- d i s h Government w i t h a r e q u e s t f o r s u p p o r t t o t h e Tan- z a n i a n a g r i c u l t u r a l imp lemen t s i n d u s t r y . T h e r e was a g e n e r a l c o n s e n s u s t h a t t h i s was a n area where d o n o r s u p p o r t would b e u s e f u l .

Numerous s t u d i e s had b e e n u n d e r t a k e n on t h e a g r i c t u r a l imp lemen t s s i t u a t i o n i n t h e c o u n t r y . However, t h e s e s t u d i e s were e i t h e r t h e o r e t i c a l i n n a t u r e o r c o n c e r n e d w i t h s p e c i a l i z e d a s p e c t s . I n p a r t i c u l a r t h e r e w a s a l a c k o f knowledge o f t h e p e a s a n t s ' own p e r c e p t i o n o f r e q u i r e m e n t s o f imp lemen t s . With t h e a i m o f a s s i s t i n g t h e T a n z a n i a n Government t o o b t a i n more i n f o r m a t i o n on t h e a c t u a l s i t u a t i o n i n t h i s s u b- s e c t o r o f t h e economy, a n d as a b a s i s f o r Swedish s u p p o r t , SIDA d e c i d e d t o commiss ion a s t u d y t o l o o k i n t o t h e t y p e s o f imp lemen t s i n u s e , t h e i r u s a g e , t h e demand f o r d i f f e r e n t t y p e s , t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n s y s t e m a n d t h e p r o d u c t i o n and i m p o r t a- t i o n o f f a r m implemen t s .

During t h e e a r l y 1 9 8 0 ' s T a n z a n i a h a d unde rgone a com- p l e t e " r e- p l a n n i n g " e x e r c i s e , wh ich r e s u l t e d i n t h e S t r u c t u r a l Ad j u s t m e n t Programme o f J u n e , 1982. The renewed e m p h a s i s on t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l s e c t o r r e v e a l e d t h a t t h e r e were knowledge g a p s as t o t h e c o n s t r a i n t s and p o t e n t i a l i t i e s o f t h i s s e c t o r . I n p a r t i c u l a r it was found t h a t t h e l a c k o f e m p i r i c a l d a t a g a v e r i s e t o a number o f v e r y d i f f e r e n t o p i n i o n s , e . g . on t h e s i z e o f t h e n a t i o n a l demand f o r v a r i o u s f a r m implemen t s .

P a r t o f t h e work c a r r i e d o u t by t h e s t u d y g r o u p c o n s i s - t e d o f a c o m p i l a t i o n o f p r e v i o u s s t u d i e s and p l a n n i n g documen t s o f r e l e v a n c e . A l i s t o f t h e most i m p o r t a n t r e p o r t s i s g i v e n i n t h e l i s t o f r e f e r e n c e s . However, many o f t h e s e s t u d i e s c o m p l a i n a b o u t t h e s c a r c i t y o f a c t u a l f i e l d d a t a t o s u p p o r t a s s u m p t i o n s made. I t was t h e r e f o r e f e l t t h a t t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n , a l t h o u g h i t s b a s i c p u r p o s e was t o p r o p o s e a w o r k a b l e s t r a t e g y f o r SIDA s u p p o r t ( a n d n o t a s t u d y w i t h s c i e n t i f i c a s p i r a -

t i o n s ) , would have t o be based on a c t u a l f i e l d d a t a . One of t h e ways t o a c h i e v e t h i s was t o i n c l u d e i n t h e team p e o p l e w i t h a d e q u a t e e x p e r i e n c e of p e a s a n t condi- t i o n s i n Tanzan ia . The o t h e r way was t o i n c l u d e a f i e l d a s s e s s m e n t of m a t t e r s of impor tance . These f i e l d t r i p s , a l t h o u g h e x t e n s i v e , d i d n o t a l l o w t h e forming of any s c i e n t i f i c a l l y based c o n c l u s i o n s , b u t were r a t h e r a way of c o n t r a s t i n g s t u d y f i n d i n g s and p r e v i o u s e x p e r i e n c e s of t h e team members w i t h c o n d i t i o n s i n v a r i o u s p a r t s of t h e c o u n t r y . We would l i k e t o u s e t h e t e r m " r a p i d r u r a l a p p r a i s a l " methodology f o r t h e f i e l d work. More d e t a i l s on t h e methodology a r e found i n Appendix 2.

The r e s u l t of t h e work of t h e s t u d y g r o u p was a de- s c r i p t i o n of t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l implements s u b- s e c t o r , based on a g r a s s r o o t p e r s p e c t i v e b u t y e t a t t e m p t i n g t o g i v e a comprehensive p i c t u r e . The d a t a o b t a i n e d r e f e r t o t h e mid-1983 s i t u a t i o n .

I t was l a t e r acknowledged t h a t t h i s d e s c r i p t i v e mate- r i a l t u r n e d o u t t o be o f i n t e r e s t a l s o t o p e o p l e con- c e r n e d wi th a g r i c u l t u r a l and i n d u s t r i a l development i n g e n e r a l . For t h i s r e a s o n , and i n o r d e r t o make t h e m a t e r i a l more r e a d i l y a v a i l a b l e , t h e Scand inav ian I n s t i t u t e of A f r i c a n S t u d i e s d e c i d e d t o p u b l i s h t h e p a r t s o f t h e s t u d y a s a r e s e a r c h r e p o r t w i t h f i n a n c i a l s u p p o r t from SIDA.

One i m p o r t a n t p a r t of t h e o r i g i n a l r e p o r t was t h e re- commendations c o n c e r n i n g t h e s t r a t e g y t o f o l l o w i n s u p p o r t i n g t h e farm implements s u b- s e c t o r o f i n d u s t r y . T h i s p a r t h a s been d e l e t e d i n t h e p r e s e n t r e s e a r c h r e p o r t which main ly p r e s e n t s t h e d e s c r i p t i v e p a r t s of t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n .

I n e d i t i n g t h e m a t e r i a l f o r t h i s r e s e a r c h r e p o r t we have t r i e d t o emphasize t h r e e a s p e c t s . F i r s t l y , t o pro- v i d e i n s i g h t s i n t o t h e p r a c t i c a l f u n c t i o n i n g of a c e n t r a l p a r t , t h e farm implements s e c t o r , o f a r u r a l economy. Secondly, we hope t o d e m o n s t r a t e some e l e m e n t s of t h e b a s i c development p r o c e s s , v i z . t h e p r e r e q u i s i - t i e s f o r , and t h e c o n d i t i o n s under which, f a r m e r s w i l l be p r e p a r e d t o a d o p t changes i n t e c h n o l o g y . F i n a l l y , we t r y t o o f f e r an i l l u s t r a t i o n of t h e c h a r a c t e r of t h e

planning process in developing countries. The relevance

of planning which is not based on actual knowledge of

real conditions, but rather on assumptions and unrea-

listic hopes, we believe is an important impediment to

progress.

The material presented on farm implements in this report

may also be of interest from the perspective that it was

collected at a time, the second half of 1983, when

Tanzania was experiencing its peak crisis. Thus the report

may shed light on the issue of or relative importance of

problems related to production, distribution and suita-

bility of farm implements for the agricultural stagnation

in Tanzania during this period.

B jorn Mothander

Finn Kjaerby

Kjell Havnevik

INTRODUCTION

T o o l s f o r t i l l a g e

The hoe i s t h e most i m p o r t a n t t o o l i n p e a s a n t a g r i c u l - t u r e i n A f r i c a . I t i s , i n d e e d , s o c e n t r a l t h a t it is o f t e n used a s a symbol of a g r i c u l t u r e .

The c o n c e p t of t h e hoe, however, s i g n i f i e s a wide a r r a y o f t o o l s of d i f f e r e n t s i z e s and d e s i g n s , used f o r a v a r i e t y o f p u r p o s e s . But t h e i n d i v i d u a l p e a s a n t h a s a profound knowledge of which t y p e o f hoe i s t h e most s u i t a b l e f o r t h e c o n d i t i o n s of h i s o r h e r f i e l d , and w i l l be most r e l u c t a n t t o buy any o t h e r hoe. One o f t h e q u e s t i o n s asked i n t h i s s t u d y is whether m a n u f a c t u r e r s o f h o e s , and n a t i o n a l p l a n n e r s , have t h e means o r even t h e a m b i t i o n t o a l l o w t h i s b a s i c knowledge of t h e p e a s a n t t o i n f l u e n c e t h e i r p r o d u c t s and p l a n s . One fundamental i d e a of t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n i s t h a t i n o r d e r t o meet t h e p e a s a n t need f o r h o e s , knowledge of much more t h a n p r o d u c t i o n t e c h n i q u e s i s r e q u i r e d .

Hoe t i l l a g e , and t h e t r a d i t i o n s concerned w i t h t h i s form av c u l t i v a t i o n , s e t s v e r y d e f i n i t e l i m i t s t o t h e a r e a t h a t c a n be c u l t i v a t e d by one f a m i l y . The p r o g r e s- s i v e fa rmer may t h e r e f o r e be l o o k i n g f o r means of expanding h i s p r o d u c t i v e c a p a c i t y . H i s u l t i m a t e arnbi- t i o n i s sometimes t o become t h e owner of a t r a c t o r . Given t h e c o n s t r a i n t s of many A f r i c a n economies , t h i s a m b i t i o n c a n n o t be s a t i s f i e d f o r more t h a n a s m a l l num- b e r o f f a r m e r s .

The i n t e r m e d i a t e s o l u t i o n i s plough c u l t i v a t i o n . I n T a n z a n i a , which i s t h e f o c u s of t h i s book, t h e ox- plough r e p r e s e n t s an i m p o r t a n t s t e p i n development and t h e s p r e a d of ox-plough c u l t i v a t i o n c o u l d have a s i g n i - f i c a n t impact i n l a r g e a r e a s of t h e c o u n t r y . However, t h e r e a r e a l s o a r e a s where c a t t l e a r e n o t found f o r

v a r i o u s r e a s o n s , o r a t l e a s t a r e n o t used f o r t r a c t i o n , and i n t h o s e a r e a s o t h e r e f f o r t s t h a n s u p p l y i n g f a r m e r s w i t h p loughs w i l l be r e q u i r e d .

I n o r d e r t o s u s t a i n a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t i o n , t h e supp ly of h o e s t o t h e p e a s a n t i s c r u c i a l . To s t i m u l a t e a g r i - c u l t u r a l development , t h e s u p p l y of p loughs is j u s t a s i m p o r t a n t . The s u p p l y of improved implements ~ n u s t , how- e v e r , form p a r t o f a p r o c e s s of a d a p t i n g t o t e c h n o l o g i- c a l changes . One o t h e r concep t of t h i s s t u d y i s t h a t t h i s a d a p t a t i o n p r o c e s s must b e based on t h e p e a s a n t ' s e x i s t i n g , and i n most c a s e s r e l e v e n t , body of knowledge and t h e d e g r e e of h i s c o n t r o l o v e r p r o d u c t i o n resour- c e s .

The impact of farm implements

Although food p r o d u c t i o n p resupposes t h e a v a i l a b i l i t y o f farm implements , t h e s e a r e f a r from t h e o n l y o r t h e most c r i t i c a l , i n p u t s i n food p r o d u c t i o n . Unless t h e fa rmer h a s s e e d s , f e r t i l i z e r s f o r c e r t a i n c r o p s , and a r a b l e l a n d , h e w i l l n o t be a b l e t o produce. Nor w i l l h i s s u r p l u s p r o d u c t i o n r e a c h d e f i c i t a r e a s w i t h o u t a p r o p e r l y f u n c t i o n i n g d i s t r i b u t i o n and t r a n s p o r t a t i o n systeln. Improved farm implements is one , b u t c e r t a i n l y n o t t h e o n l y , c o n d i t i o n f o r i n c r e a s e d a g r i c u l t u r a l pro- d u c t i o n . S o i l and c l i m a t i c c o n d i t i o n s , s e e d s , t h e s e t t l e m e n t p a t t e r n , food p r e f e r e n c e s , p e s t i c i d e s and r e l a t i v e p roducer p r i c e s must a l s o be t a k e n i n t o a c c o u n t and a l l t h e s e t o g e t h e r w i l l d e t e r m i n e t h e com- p o s i t i o n of a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t i o n . Improving farm implements o f t e n means changing t h e farming t e c h n i q u e , which i n t u r n may c a l l f o r more t h a n j u s t an improved implement. A c a s e i n p o i n t is ox- ploughing, which w i l l be d i s c u s s e d i n d e t a i l f u r t h e r on i n t h i s r e p o r t . Ox- ploughing c e r t a i n l y makes c u l t i v a t i o n of a l a r g e r a r e a p o s s i b l e , compared t o hand c u l t i v a t i o n . But l a b o u r con- s t r a i n t s p l a c e a l i m i t on t h e a r e a which can be weeded, and i f weeding i s n o t mechanised, which r e q u i r e s a d i f f e r e n t implement, ox- ploughing w i l l n o t r e s u l t i n h i g h e r y i e l d s .

To t h e m a j o r i t y of f a r m e r s i n Tanzan ia t h e r e i s p r e- s e n t l y no a l t e r n a t i v e t o hand c u l t i v a t i o n . Hand t o o l s w i l l remain of c r i t i c a l importance f o r a long p e r i o d t o come. In t h i s r e p o r t we i n t e n d t o a n a l y s e t h e r e q u i r e- ments i n r e s p e c t o f such t o o l s , t h e demand f o r them and t h e s u p p l y t o f a r m e r s . We have a t t e m p t e d t o look a t t h e

t y p e s o f hand t o o l s a v a i l a b l e , t h e i r s u p p l y t o t h e f a r m e r s , t h e n a t i o n a l demand f o r t h e mos t i m p o r t a n t hand t o o l s , t h e i r p r o d u c t i o n i n t h e c o u n t r y and t h e a l t e r n a t i v e c o s t s f o r i m p o r t i n g them.

The u s e o f a n i m a l s i n c u l t i v a t i o n h a s t h e p o t e n t i a l o f i n c r e a s i n g t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f o n e f a r m e r s i g n i f i c a n t l y . Ox- ploughing d i d n o t s t a r t i n T a n z a n i a u n t i l t h e 1930s b u t i t s i m p o r t a n c e is i n c r e a s i n g . W e w i l l d i s c u s s be low t h i s form o f p r o d u c t i o n . We b e l i e v e r e l a t i v e l y s m a l l i n v e s t m e n t s c a n h a v e i m p o r t a n t e f f e c t s i n t h e medium t e r m .

The n e x t s t e p i n a g r o- m e c h a n i s a t i o n , t h e u s e o f t r a c - t o r- d r a w n i m p l e m e n t s , r e q u r i e s a complex p a t t e r n o f i n- p u t s , management a n d s e r v i c e i n f r a s t r u c t u r e , s e v e r a l o f wh ich p r e s u p p o s e t h e i r own d i s t r i b u t i o n s y s t e m s , T h i s t y p e o f implement i s e x c l u d e d f rom t h i s s t u d y . Our v i e w i s t h a t t h i s t y p e o f f a r m i n g w i l l o n l y b e a v i a b l e a l t e r n a t i v e i n some r e s t r i c t e d a r e a s i n T a n z a n i a f o r many y e a r s t o come g i v e n t h e weakness i n t h e p r e s e n t t r a n s p o r t a t i o n s y s t e m , t h e d i f f i c u l t y o f m a i n t e n a n c e and r e p a i r , and t h e u n r e l i a b l e s u p p l y o f f u e l . I n v e s t - m e n t s i n p r o d u c t i o n o f t r a c t o r - d r a w n imp lemen t s l o c a l l y wou ld , i n o u r v i e w , t h u s b e a m i s a l l o c a t i o n o f r e s o u r - ces.

N a t i o n a l p o l i c i e s

What a r e , t h e n , t h e n a t i o n a l T a n z a n i a n p o l i c i e s p e r - t a i n i n g t o t h e f a r m i m p l e m e n t s s u b- s e c t o r ? W e w i l l r e v i e w t h o s e p o l i c i e s a n d c o n t r a s t them t o t h e d i s c u s s i o n a b o v e .

The N a t i o n a l Food S t r a t e g y 1962 i n c l u d e s some o b j e c - t i v e s r e l e v a n t t o o u r s t u d y . The S t r a t e g y a n n o u n c e s t h a t s t e p s w i l l b e t a k e n t o improve s u p p l y m a i n l y t h r o u g h t h e p l a n n e d e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f Farm S e r v i c e C e n t r e s . The S t r a t e g y f u r t h e r e n v i s a g e s a b i g p u s h f o r o x e n i z a t i o n b o t h i n t h e s h o r t a n d l o n g r u n , s u b j e c t however t o c u l t u r a l a n d e n v i r o n m e n t a l c o n s t r a i n t s . A

more d i v e r s i f i e d u s e o f oxen i s s e e n t o b e t h e k e y s t r a t e g y t o r e v o l u t i o n i z e a g r i c u l t u r e .

The S t r u c t u r a l Ad jus tmen t Programme f o r T a n z a n i a (SAP) w a s f o r m u l a t e d i n J u n e , 1982. I n 1983 it was t h e mos t i m p o r t a n t document f o r deve lopmen t p l a n n i n g i n Tan- z a n i a , i n s p i t e o f t h e f a c t t h a t t h e f i n a n c i n g o f t h e Programme had n o t been a g r e e d w i t h t h e mos t i m p o r t a n t p r o s p e c t i v e f i n a n c i e r s t h e r e o f , t h e IMF a n d IBRD/IDA. The m e r i t o f t h e SAP, b u t a l s o i t s weakness i n t h e a b s e n c e o f f i n a n c i n g , w a s i t s c o m p r e h e n s i v e a p p r o a c h t o t h e n a t i o n a l deve lopmen t p r o c e s s .

The SAP d o e s n o t g i v e much g u i d a n c e i n t e r m s o f p o l i - cies f o r t h e s u p p l y o f f a r m implemen t s . I t s t a t e s :

"Only a few r e g i o n s a n d d i s t r i c t s a r e r e l a t i v e l y w e l l s e r v i c e d w i t h w e l l s t o c k e d s p e c i a l i s e d o r o t h e r sales o u t l e t s f o r a g r i c u l t u r a l i n p u t s , b u t t h e r e s t l a c k s u c h o u t l e t s . Thus , it is e s s e n t i a l t o e n s u r e t h a t a r a n g e o f i n p u t s ( p r i m a r i l y f e r t i l i z e r s , p e s t i c i d e s , t o o l s , s p r a y e r s and animal- drawn e q u i p m e n t ) a r e a v a i l a b l e t o f a r m e r s under o n e r o o f , whereeve r p o s s i b l e on a c a s h b a s i s , i n a l l a r e a s .

E x i s t i n g i n s t i t u t i o n s ( i n c l u d i n g t h e A g r i c u l t u r a l and I n d u s t r i a l S u p p l i e s Company, C o o p e r a t i v e s , Crop Autho- r i t i e s , T a n z a n i a Seed Company, T a n z a n i a F e r t i l i z e r Com- p a n y , Tangany ika F a r m e r s ' A s s o c i a t i o n , IRDB, Ubungo Farm Implemen t s and R e g i o n a l T r a d i n g Companies) w i l l b e a s s i s t e d t o widen t h e r a n g e o f i n p u t s on s a l e and expand t h e number o f sa les o u t l e t s . I n a d d i t i o n , a n e t - work o f Farm S e r v i c e C e n t e r s w i l l b e e s t a b l i s h e d g r a d u a l l y e x t e n d i n g t o e v e r y d i s t r i c t . The M i n i s t r y o f A g r i c u l t u r e i n c o l l a b o r a t i o n w i t h t h e i n s t i t u t i o n s i d e n t i f i e d above w i l l p r e p a r e a d e t a i l e d , f u l l y c o s t e d programme" . l

A s a f o l l o w- u p , t h e M i n i s t r y o f A g r i c u l t u r e f o r m u l a t e d t h e A g r i c u l t u r a l P o l i c y o f T a n z a n i a , which is d a t e d March 3 1 s t , 1983. The p o l i c y s ta tes t h a t t h e dominan t mode o f a g r i c u l t u r e i n T a n z a n i a is i n d i v i d u a l p e a s a n t p r o d u c t i o n . B u t ,

"Farming i n t h e v i l l a g e s n e e d s m o d e r n i z a t i o n ; i n t h e m a j o r i t y o f cases it i s s t i l l c a r r i e d on a c c o r d i n g t o t r a d i t i o n a l p r a c t i c e s , w i t h o u t t a k i n g a d v a n t a g e o f

1 . SAP, p a r a s 31 .13 a n d 31 .14

modern knowledg and t h e s h o k a - d u c t i o n me thods

e o r modern t o o l s . The jembe, t h e p a n g a , a l l h a n d s t o o l s - s t i l l d o m i n a t e p ro- now" . l

The p o l i c y g o e s on t o s t a t e :

" I n c r e a s i n g t h e o u t p u t and t h e e f f i c i e n c y o f a g r i c u l - t u r a l p r o d u c t i o n i n t h e v i l l a g e s is c e n t r a l t o i n c r e a s - e d n a t i o n a l o u t p u t M . 2

The p o l i c y is s t r o n g l y o r i e n t e d t o w a r d s t h e i n t r o d u c - t i o n o f mechan ized a g r i c u l t u r e . A s h i f t f rom hand t o o l s t o an imal- drawn i m p l e m e n t s , and f rom t h o s e t o t r a c t o r - drawn e q u i p m e n t i s f o r e s e e n . The immedia t e o b j e c t i v e is s a i d t o b e a c h i e v e m e n t o f n a t i o n a l f o o d

s e l f - s u f f i c i e n c y as w e l l a s a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t i o n f o r t h e i n d u s t r i a l s e c t o r and i n c r e a s e d e a r n i n g s f rom e x p o r t c r o p s . But t h e ma jo r t a s k i s " t o move t h e pea- s a n t f a r m e r s f rom r e l i a n c e on h a n d t o o l s t o t h e u s e o f a n i m a l and m e c h a n i c a l l y a s s i s t e d i m p l e m e n t s " .

The p o l i c y e x p r e s s e s s t r o n g s u p p o r t f o r r e s e a r c h , t e s t - i n g and e x t e n s i o n a c t i v i t i e s . I m p o r t s s h a l l o n l y b e made o f e v a l u a t e d and t e s t e d equ ipmen t and l o c a l p r o- d u c t i o n w i l l b e s t e p p e d up t o meet g rowing demand f o r improved hand t o o l s and animal- drawn implemen t s .

I t i s c l e a r l y s t a t e d t h a t ox- p lough ing s h a l l b e s p r e a d , t h a t new ox- implements s h a l l b e i n t r o d u c e d and t h e u s e o f ox and donkey c a r t s e n c o u r a g e d . R e p a i r f a c i l i t i e s i n v i l l a g e s s h a l l b e promoted .

An i m p o r t a n t p o i n t c o n c e r n s d i s t r i b u t i o n o f f a rm i n - p u t s . The M i n i s t r y o f A g r i c u l t u r e i s e n v i s a g e d t o h a v e a n i m p o r t a n t s u p e r v i s o r y and c o o r d i n a t i n g r o l e i n t h i s s y s t e m , On r e g i o n a l l e v e l C O - a p e r a t i v e u n i o n s w i l l p l a y a dominan t r o l e and w i l l s u p p l y t h e p r i m a r y co- opera- t i v e s o c i e t i e s and v i l l a g e s h o p s . We w i l l d e s c r i b e be low t h e f u n c t i o n i n g o f t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n s y s t e m i n

1. APT, p 8 2. APT, p l 1

1983, and what p l a n s a r e a f o o t t o change t h e sys tem. A l o t of u n c e r t a i n t y i s s t i l l a t t a c h e d t o t h e implementa- t i o n o f t h e s e p r i n c i p l e s .

We would l i k e t o end t h i s b r i e f summary of t h e Agricul- t u r a l P o l i c y w i t h a q u o t e , which we b e l i e v e p u t s t h e P o l i c y and t h e work under taken w i t h i n t h i s s t u d y , i n i t s proper p e r s p e c t i v e :

"But it i s s t i l l p o s s i b l e t o improve t h e q u a n t i t y and q u a l i t y of our o u t p u t , p rov ided t h a t a l l a c t i v i t y by t h e Government and by e v e r y p u b l i c employee is based on t h e r e c o g n i t i o n of one s i m p l e t r u t h : it is t h e f a r m e r s and e s p e c i a l l y t h e p e a s a n t s , of Tanzania who produce a g r i c u l t u r a l goods , and t h e women among them who do a v e r y l a r g e p r o p o r t i o n of t h e work".

I n Appendix 1 we have c o l l e c t e d t h e s t a t e m e n t s i n t h e A g r i c u l t u r a l P o l i c y which we c o n s i d e r a r e of importance t o t h i s s t u d y .

There i s a d i f f e r e n c e of emphasis between our c o n c e p t s and t h e A g r i c u l t u r a l P o l i c y . Whereas we want t o s t r e s s development on t h e b a s i s of a v a i l a b l e r e s o u r c e s and t e c h n i q u e s , t h e A g r i c u l t u r a l P o l i c y s e e s t h e s h i f t i n g t o more modern t e c h n i q u e s a s t h e p r i o r i t y . However, i f t h e t i m e e lement i s i n t r o d u c e d , t h e r e may n o t be such a g r e a t d i f f e r e n c e of approach . I t w i l l s u r e l y be a long t i m e b e f o r e comprehensive an imal t r a c t i o n o r ox-mecha- n i z a t i o n is i n t r o d u c e d on a l a r g e s c a l e , and even l o n g e r b e f o r e t r a c t o r mechan iza t ion i s implemented. We want t o emphasize our v iew, however, t h a t t r a c t o r mechan iza t ion s h o u l d be s e e n a s a p o l i c y f o r t h e f u t u r e , b u t it s h o u l d n o t be a l lowed t o draw r e s o u r c e s away from t h e immediate s t r e n g t h e n i n g of t h e s p r e a d and development of o t h e r a g r i c u l t u r a l t e c h n i q u e s , i n p a r t i - c u l a r o x - u t i l i z a t i o n .

The purpose of t h i s s t u d y

Cons ider ing t h e p r i o r i t i e s of t h e above p lann ing documents , t h e r e i s , i n our o p i n i o n , a need t o c o l l e c t f a c t u a l , d e s c r i p t i v e i n f o r m a t i o n , t o a s s e s s t h e p l a n s and t h e i r g o a l s , whether t h e y a r e r e a l i s t i c and under

w h a t c o n d i t i o n s a n d t i m e- f r a m e s t h e y c o u l d b e a c h i e v e d , T h e o b j e c t i v e o f t h i s s t u d y is t o c o n t r i b u t e t o t h i s i m p o r t a n t a n d c o n t i n u o u s e x e r c i s e .

S u b - s e c t o r O r g a n i s a t i o n a n d C o - o r d i n a t i o n

S e v e r a l m i n i s t r i e s i n t h e T a n z a n i a n g o v e r n m e n t s t r u c - t u r e a r e d i r e c t l y c o n c e r n e d w i t h m a t t e r s p e r t a i n i n g t o f a r m i m p l e m e n t s . The M i n i s t r y o f A g r i c u l t u r e ( K i l i m o ) i s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r p r o m o t i n g a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t i o n i n t h e c o u n t r y . P l a n n i n g m e a s u r e s u n d e r t a k e n i n K i l i m o w i l l h a v e c o n s e q u e n c e s o n m a t t e r s a f f e c t i n g c r o p p r o-

d u c t i o n a n d t h e c h o i c e b e t w e e n v a r i o u s c r o p s . ( E . g . , t h e i m p a c t o f p r o d u c e r p r i c e s . ) Above w e h a v e r e v i e w e d t h e A g r i c u l t u r a l P o l i c y f o r T a n z a n i a w h i c h p r o v i d e s a c o m p r e h e n s i v e p o l i c y f rame- work . A p a r t f r o m p l a n n i n g , e x t e n s i o n s e r v i c e s is a n i m p o r t a n t a r e a f o r K i l i m o i n v o l v e m e n t . T h e r e a r e p a r t i c u l a r l y t w o s e c t i o n s c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e f a r m i m p l e m e n t s d i s c u s s e d i n t h i s r e p o r t ; t h e M e c h a n i z a t i o n s e c t i o n ( t h e o x- m e c h n i z a t i o n u n i t ) a n d t h e Farm i n p u t s e c t i o n . I n t h e A g r i c u l t u r a l P o l i c y it i s a l s o m e n t i o n e d t h a t K i l i m o would h a v e a r o l e i n t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f f a r m i m p l e m e n t s .

D i s t r i b u t i o n is o t h e r w i s e a m a t t e r f o r t h e M i n i s t r y o f T r a d e . Under t h i s M i n i s t r y t h e Board o f I n t e r n a l T r a d e ( B I T ) i s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e n a t i o n a l d i s t r i b u t i o n s e t - u p , c o - o r d i n a t i n g t h e R e g i o n a l T r a d i n g Companies ( R T C s ) , w h i c h w e d i s c u s s i n C h a p t e r 6 . BIT i s a l s o r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e A g r i c u l t u r a l a n d I n d u s t r i a l S u p p l i e s Company (AISCO) .

I t h a s b e e n d e c i d e d t h a t t h e c o - o p e r a t i v e s w i l l h a v e a n i m p o r t a n t r o l e i n t h e v i l l a g e s i n t h e f u t u r e . C o - o p e r a t i v e s ( a n d v i l l a g e g o v e r n m e n t s ) a r e o r g a n i s e d by t h e P r i m e M i n i s t e r ' s O f f i c e (PM01 . PM0 i s a l s o c h a i r i n g t h e N a t i o n a l A l l o c a t i o n C o m m i t t e e (NAC), w h i c h d e c i d e s t h e r e g i o n a l a l l o c a t i o n s f o r f a r m i m p l e m e n t s , among o t h e r t h i n g s . T h e s e c r e t a r i a t is p r o v i d e d b y BIT,

T h e l e g i s l a t i o n o n c o n f i n e m e n t a n d p r i c e d e t e r m i n a t i o n h a s , as we show i n C h a p t e r 6 , a p r o f o u n d i m p a c t o n t h e

f a r m i m p l e m e n t s s u b - s e c t o r , b o t h i n t e r m s o f manu- f a c t u r i n g a n d d i s t r i b u t i o n . T h i s l e g i s l a t i o n i s h a n d l e d b y t h e M i n i s t r y o f T r a d e .

T h e M i n i s t r y o f I n d u s t r i e s ( V i w a n d a ) p l a n s i n d u s t r i a l d e v e l o p m e n t i n T a n z a n i a , a n d i s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r c o- o r d i n a t i n g m a n u f a c t u r i n g a c t i v i t i e s . Under Viwanda f a l l s , e . g . , NDC a n d SIDO, w h i c h a r e p a r a s t a t a l o r g a n i - z a t i o n s . MEIDA i s n o t a p a r a s t a t a l b u t a n a s s o c i a t i o n o f m e c h a n i c a l i n d u s t r i e s . MEIDA l i a i s e s , h o w e v e r , c l o - s e l y w i t h Viwanda .

A p a r t f r o m t h e s e m i n i s t r i e s w i t h a f u n c t i o n a l r e s p o n s i - b i l i t y i n t h e s e c t o r , t h e M i n i s t r y o f P l a n n i n g a n d Eco- n o m i c D e v e l o p m e n t i s o v e r - a l l r e s p o n s i b l e f o r p l a n n i n g o f new i n d u s t r i e s . The M i n i s t r y o f F i n a n c e a l s o h a s a n i m p o r t a n t r o l e , b o t h i n E i n a n c i n g g o v e r n m e n t a c t i v i - t i e s , as w e l l a s i n s u p e r v i s i n g a l l p a r a s t a t a l s ( t h r o u g h t h e C o m m i s s i o n e r f o r P u b l i c I n v e s t m e n t s ) . Under t h e M i n i s t r y o f F i n a n c e , t h e Bank o f T a n z a n i a h a s a c r u c i a l r o l e when it comes t o d e t e r m i n i n g how t o u s e f o r e i g n e x c h a n g e . The Bank o f T a n z a n i a p r o v i d e s t h e s e c r e t a r i a t f o r t h e F o r e i g n E x c h a n g e A l l o c a t i o n C o m m i t t e e . G i v e n t h e p r e s e n t s h o r t a g e o f f o r e i g n e x- c h a n g e , t h i s c o m t n i t t e e , i n w h i c h c o n c e r n e d m i n i s t r i e s a r e r e p r e s e n t e d , is v i r t u a l l y d e c i d i n g w h a t i n d u s t r i a l a c t i v i t y is t o b e a l l o w e d i n t h e c o u n t r y . Donor p r e f e - r e n c e s w i l l o f c o u r s e i n f l u e n c e t h o s e d e c i s i o n s by t h e C o m m i t t e e w h i c h c o n c e r n t h e u s e o f i m p o r t s u p p o r t f u n d s .

R e g i o n a l a u t h o r i t i e s ( w h i c h a r e u n d e r t h e PMO) a l s o h a v e a n i m p o r t a n t r o l e i n p l a n n i n g , s u p e r v i s i n g a n d c o o r d i n a t i n g a c t i v i t i e s i n t h e s u b - s e c t o r .

The r e s e a r c h i n s t i t u t i o n s b e l o n g t o s e v e r a l m i n i s t r i e s ; CAMARTEC r e p o r t s t o V i w a n d a , U y o l e A g r i c u l t u r a l C o l l e g e t o K i l i m o a n d t h e F a c u l t y o f A g r i c u l t u r e t o t h e M i n i s t r y o f E d u c a t i o n ,

T h e r e a r e a l s o a number o f o t h e r i n s t i t u t i o n s w i t h less d i r e c t i m p a c t i n t h e s u b - s e c t o r , e . g . , TIRDO ( T a n z a n i a

I n d u s t r i a l R e s e a r c h and Development O r g a n i s a t i o n ) , TEMDO ( T a n z a n i a E n g i n e e r i n g and Manucac tu r ing Des ign O r g a n i s a t i o n ) , TBS ( T a n z a n i a ~ u r e a u o f S t a n d a r d s , which h a s f a c i l i t i e s f o r m a t e r i a l s t e s t i n g , among o t h e r t h i n g s ) and TISCO ( T a n z a n i a I n d u s t r i a l S t u d i e s and Con- s u l t i n g O r g a n i s a t i o n which i s a c o m t n e r c i a l l y o p e r a t i n g c o n s u l t i n g company) a l l u n d e r Viwanda, TAR0 ( T a n z a n i a A g r i c u l t u r a l R e s e a r a c h O r g a n i s a t i o n ) and TALIRO (Tan- z a n i a L i v e s t o c k R e s e r a c h O r g a n i s a t i o n ) unde r K i l imo . Most o f t h e r e s e a r c h i n s t i t u t i o n s a r e d e s c r i b e d i n C h a p t e r 2 and i n P h i l l i p s a n d Z a c h a r i a h ( 1 9 8 0 ) . W e have r e s t r i c t e d o u r a n a l y s i s t o t h o s e o r g a n i z a t i o n s which w e b e l i e v e h a v e a s i g n i f i c a n t r o l e t o p l a y .

O b v i o u s l y , s u c h a l a r g e number o f i n s t i t u t i o n s may c r e a t e c o n f u s i o n and d u p l i c a t e e f f o r t s . For t h i s pu r- p o s e some c o - o r d i n a t i n g i n i t i a t i v e s a r e t a k e n .

W e h a v e m e n t i o n e d t h e N a t i o n a l A l l o c a t i o n Commit tee , i n which PMO, Viwanda, K i l imo and t h e M i n i s t r y o f T r a d e ( t h r o u g h BIT) a r e r e p r e s e n t e d . T h i s commi t t ee CO-ord i - n a t e s and a l l o c a t e s d i s t r i b u t i o n vo lumes . I t i s , how- e v e r , n o t t h e t a s k o f t h i s commi t t ee t o c o- o r d i n a t e t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n s e t - u p , t h i s i s h a n d l e d a t C a b i n e t l e v e l .

T h e r e is a l s o a t e c h n i c a l commi t t ee c h a i r e d by t h e M i n i s t e r f o r I n d u s t r i e s , which d e c i d e s on how t o a l l o - cate p r o d u c t i o n t o v a r i o u s u n i t s .

S m a l l - s c a l e i n d u s t r y m a t t e r s a r e d i s c u s s e d i n a s e p a r a - t e c o m m i t t e e i n which Viwanda, SIDO, TRDB a n d NBC p a r - t i c i p a t e .

I n r e s e a r c h and d e s i g n m a t t e r s t h e r e is a p r o l i f e r a t i o n o f i n s t i t u t i o n s , which i s d i f f i c u l t t o u n d e r s t a n d . T h i s d o e s n o t a p p e a r t o h a v e y i e l d e d a n y b e n e f i t s t o t h e s u b - s e c t o r . The v a r i o u s r e s e a r c h o r g a n i s a t i o n s s h o u l d k e e p t h e m s e l v e s b e t t e r i n fo rmed a b o u t t h e work o f t h e o t h e r s .

CHAPTERONE TYPES OF FARM IMPLEMENTS USED IN TANZANIA

1.1 I n t r o d u c t i o n

Manual c u l t i v a t i o n methods have been t h e t r a d i t i o n a l p r a c t i c e i n Tanzania and some 85% of t h e c o u n t r y ' s c u l - t i v a t e d a c r e a g e i s e s t i m a t e d by t h e M i n i s t r y o f Agri- c u l t u r e ( K i l i m o ) t o be c u l t i v a t e d w i t h hand t o o l s on s m a l l h o l d i n g s below 2 h e c t a r e s ( 5 a c r e s ) .

There i s a f a i r l y wide range of hand t o o l t y p e s used i n Tanzania and marked a r e a - s p e c i f i c i t y i n t h e use of d i f f e r e n t t y p e s . T h i s d i v e r s i t y i s r e l a t e d t o a number of f a c t o r s , i n c l u d i n g c u l t u r a l p r e f e r e n c e s , t h e need f o r c r o p- s p e c i f i c t o o l s , t h e n a t u r e of s o i l c o n d i t i o n s and farming s y s t e m s , and t h e a v a i l a b i l i t y o r s h o r t a g e over t i m e i n d i f f e r e n t a r e a s o f t h e range of l o c a l l y and imported factory- made t o o l s , on t h e one hand, and i n d i g e n o u s blacksmith-made t o o l s on t h e o t h e r .

The p r i n c i p a l farm implement used i n Tanzania i s t h e hoe. However, t h e s t u d y team was soon t o be c o n f r o n t e d w i t h t h e f i n d i n g , t h a t a hoe i s n o t j u s t a hoe. Q u i t e a p a r t from t h e numerous v a r i a t i o n s i n m a t e r i a l , s h a p e , c u r v a t u r e , q u a l i t y , s i z e and weight of d i f f e r e n t h o e s - be t h e y factory- made l o c a l o r imported o n e s , o r be t h e y i n d i g e n o u s blacksmith-made o n e s - a b a s i c d i s t i n c t i o n i s made between t h e Round Eyed (R/E) hoe and t h e t a n g e d hoes .

The t a n g e d hoe h a s a s p i k e p r o t r u d i n g s t r a i g h t up from t h e upper edge of t h e hoe b l a d e . Some s k i l l and t i m e i s r e q u i r e d f o r f i t t i n g t h i s t y p e o f hoe t o a h a n d l e which i s shaped t h i c k e r a t t h e lower f i t t i n g end . The t a n g h a s t o be h e a t e d and burned t h r o u g h t h e h a n d l e , some- t i m e s made e a s i e r by d r i l l i n g a h o l e i f a d r i l l i s

a v a i l a b l e . The t a n g e d h o e w a s t h e o r i g i n a l t y p e o f hoe u s e d a l l o v e r t h e c o u n t r y b e c a u s e r u r a l b l a c k s m i t h s o n l y p o s s e s s e d t o o l s a n d s k i l l s f o r p r o d u c i n g t a n g e d h o e s . 1 The a d v a n t a g e o f t h e t a n g e d h o e i s t h a t t h e a n g l e be tween t h e h o e b l a d e and h a n d l e c a n b e set t o s u i t i n d i v i d u a l p r e f e r e n c e s . T h i s a n g l e t e n d s t o be s h a r p e r o r less t h a n 9 0 d e g r e e s . The l a r g e t a n g e d hoe t e n d s t o b e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h u p l a n d f a r m i n g i n t h e h i l l y a r e a s o f t h e S o u t h e r n H i g h l a n d s .

The Round-Eyed (R/E) h o e h a s a f o r g e d e y e t h r o u g h which t h e h a n d l e i s f i t t e d , set a t r i g h t - a n g l e s t o t h e b l a d e . The h o e i s f o r g e d i n o n e p i e c e b u t i n some new d e s i g n s wh ich a r e n o t y e t u s e d i n T a n z a n i a t h e e y e is welded t o t h e b l a d e . Through g rowing i m p o r t s d u r i n g and a f t e r t h e c o l o n i a l p e r i o d t h e R/E h o e h a s s t e a d i l y been r e p l a c i n g t h e t a n g e d h o e i n mos t r e g i o n s o f T a n z a n i a , i n some r e g i o n s ( w i t h f l a t t o p o g r a p h y ) by p r e f e r e n c e , i n o t h e r s by i n s u f f i c i e n t s u p p l i e s o f t h e p r e f e r r e d t a n g e d h o e . The l a r g e 3 l b R/E h o e i s now b y f a r t h e mos t common f a r m implement u s e d i n T a n z a n i a .

On t h e whole t h e t o o l s commonly a v a i l a b l e t o t h e house- h o l d d o n o t d e t e r m i n e t h e c r o p s grown, whereas t h e c u l - t i v a t i o n o f c e r t a i n c r o p s o r t h e e x i s t e n c e o f p a r t i - c u l a r f a r m i n g s y s t e m s o f t e n t e n d s t o b e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h c e r t a i n s p e c i a l i z e d imp lemen t s o r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c t o o l i n v e n t o r i e s . Thus , small s p e c i a l i z e d weeding h o e s a r e o f t e n found i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h r i c e a n d f i n g e r m i l l e t g rowing o r i n a r e a s w i t h i n t e n s i v e , d e n s e mixed c r o p p- i n g p a t t e r n s . The c o f f e e- b a n a n a h i g h l a n d f a r m i n g s y s t e m s t e n d t o h a v e t o o l i n v e n t o r i e s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a v a r i e t y o f s p e c i a l i z e d t o o l s . Upland f a r m i n g s y s t e m s i n t h e h i l l y a r e a s o f t h e S o u t h e r n H i g h l a n d s t e n d t o be a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e u s e o f t a n g e d h o e s . Again , a r e a s w i t h a w e l l - e s t a b l i s h e d b l a c k s m i t h t r a d i t i o n , o r e x p o r t c r o p a r e a s which h a v e b e e n f a v o u r e d w i t h i n p u t c r e d i t , t e n d t o h a v e a v a r i e d h o u s e h o l d t o o l i n v e n t o r y .

1 . URT/Min o f C u l t u r e & Youth ( 1 9 7 6 ) : Jembe n i m a l i . Kuza u f u n d i w a j a d i , e n d e l e z a n c h i y e t u . T a n z a n i a P u b l i s h i n g House, Dar es Salaam.

I n some a r e a s , l i k e L i n d i and Mtwara, t h e r e i s a p p a r e n t l y a s t r o n g c u l t u r a l p r e f e r e n c e f o r s m a l l - s i z e d s h o r t - h a n d l e d h o e s . These a r e a s h a v e a w e l l e s t a b l i s h e d b l a c k s m i t h t r a d i t i o n and may a l s o h a v e r e t a i n e d t h e u s e o f s m a l l b l acksmi th- made h o e s d u e t o poor communica- t i o n s , a low l e v e l o f c o m m e r c i a l i z a t i o n o f a g r i c u l t u r e , and low o r i r r e g u l a r s u p p l i e s o f i m p o r t e d o r f a c t o r y - made l a r g e h o e s .

D e s p i t e t h e d i v e r s i t y o f t o o l s u s e d i n d i f f e r e n t a r e a s , some g e n e r a l o b s e r v a t i o n s c a n b e made w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e most b a s i c hand t o o l i n v e n t o r y f o r t h e a v e r a g e r u r a l h o u s e h o l d i n T a n z a n i a . A h o u s e h o l d would t e n d t o p o s s e s s a b o u t two l a r g e d i g g i n g h o e s , a n a x e ( i n d i - genous- o r f a c t o r y- m a d e ) and o n e o r two m a t c h e t s ( f a c - t o ry- made) o r b i l l - h o o k s ( i n d i g e n o u s ) . I n a d d i t i o n , t h e h o u s e h o l d would p o s s e s s a t l ea s t a c o u p l e o f small- s i z e d weeding h o e s , e i t h e r made by b l a c k s m i t h s o r more o f t e n worn down h o e s o f o r i g i n a l l y l a r g e r s i z e , u s e d e s p e c i a l l y by women and c h i l d r e n . H a r v e s t i n g k n i v e s ( i n d i g e n o u s ) o r s i c k l e s a r e g e n e r a l l y n o t common, p a r t - l y b e c a u s e b i l l - h o o k s o r i n d i g e n o u s k n i v e s a r e u s e d i n - s t e a d , p a r t l y b e c a u s e t h e y h a v e been " p h a s e d o u t " i n t h o s e a r e a s where t h e y a r e n e e d e d , d u e t o l a c k o f s u p p l y ( e . g . I r i n g a ) . T h e r e i s a l a c k o f g e n e r a l e v i d e n c e and c o u n t r y- w i d e s u r v e y s t o s u p p o r t t h e s e o b s e r v a t i o n s w i t h t h e excep- t i o n o f two s o u r c e s which o n l y r e c o r d e d h o e s , m a t c h e t s and a x e s . A r u r a l h o u s e h o l d s u r v e y made i n 1969 r e c o r d- e d a n a v e r a g e f i g u r e o f 3 .1 h o e s p e r r u r a l househo ld .1

The A g r i c u l t u r a l Census o f 1971/72 ( V o l . I ) p r o v i d e d t h e f o l l o w i n g f i g u r e s .

1 . L i v i n g s t o n e , I . ( 1 9 7 0 ) : " R e s u l t s o f a R u r a l Su rvey ; The Ownersh ip o f D u r a b l e Goods i n T a n z a n i a R u r a l Households a n d Some I m p l i c a t i o n s f o r R u r a l I n d u s t r y " , ERB P a p e r 7 0 . 1 , Univ o f DSM, q u o t e d i n M c l l e r , J . ( 1 9 7 7 ) : Promot ion o f R u r a l Implement M a n u f a c t u r e i n T a n z a n i a . U N I D O , V i e n n a .

T a b l e 1 . 1 . B a s i c R u r a l Household T o o l I n v e n t o r y

No o f % o f No. o f Items/ I t e m h o l d i n g s h o l d i n g s i t e m s h o u s e h o l d

Hoe S 2.36 m i l l 100 9.56 5 4 .0 /hh M a t c h e t s 1 .83 m i l l 7 7 2.798 1 .5 /hh Axes 1 .83 m i l l 7 7 2.369 1 .3/hh

S o u r c e : The A g r i c u l t u r a l Census 1971/72 , Vo l . I: P e a s a n t Fa rming .

The s o - c a l l e d R e g i o n a l Development D i r e c t o r ( R D D ) s u r - v e y , made i n 1976 b y t h e S t u d y Commit tee on Farm Imple- ment R e q u i r e m e n t s , l e s t i m a t e d t h e number o f b a s i c hand t o o l s p e r r u r a l f a m i l y t o b e 1 . 8 h o e s , 0 . 8 m a t c h e t s and 0 .6 a x e s . These f i g u r e s a r e t o o low and u n r e l i a b l e , s i n c e t h e d a t a were c o l l e c t e d b y s e n d i n g q u e s t i o n n a i r e s t o R e g i o n a l D i r e c t o r a t e s f o r c o m p l e t i o n a n d were n o t c o l l e c t e d t h r o u g h a n a c t u a l r u r a l h o u s e h o l d s u r v e y .

On t h e w h o l e , t h e A g r i c u l t u r a l Census f i g u r e s s u p p o r t o u r f i n d i n g s on t h e b a s i c i n v e n t o r y o f t o o l s i n a c t u a l u s e , b a s e d on s p o t- c h e c k r e c o r d i n g o f h o u s e h o l d t o o l i n v e n t o r i e s i n s e l e c t e d r e g i o n s .

I n a r e a s where o x - c u l t i v a t i o n i s common, t h e ma in i m p l e m e n t s u s e d a r e t h e s i n g l e - f u r r o w mou ldboa rd p l o u g h a n d l o c a l l y made s l e d g e s .

K i l i m o estimates t h a t t e n p e r c e n t o f T a n z a n i a ' s c u l t i - v a t e d a c r e a g e i s p l o u g h e d u s i n g o x e n , b a s e d on a n a n n u a l l y p l o u g h e d a c r e a g e o f 10 a c r e s p e r p l o u g h . Our s t u d y f o u n d t h a t t h e u t i l i z a t i o n o f p l o u g h s was v i r - t u a l l y u p t o c a p a c i t y , g i v i n g some 15-20 a c r e s p l o u g h e d twice. Thus , t h e t o t a l a c r e a g e r a t e p e r p l o u g h w a s 20- 25 a c r e s i n a l l p l a c e s v i s i t e d . I t c a n t h u s b e assumed t h a t some 15-20 p e r c e n t o f t h e c o u n t r y ' s c u l t i v a t e d

1 . R i p o t i y a k a m a t i y a u c h u n g u z i w a m a h i t a j i y a z a n a z a k i l i m o , J a n . 1 5 t h , 1976. Dar es Salaam

a c r e a g e i s ploughed by oxen u s i n g a b o u t 180,000 p l o u g h s ; and t h i s p e r c e n t a g e i s i n c r e a s i n g f a i r l y r a p i d l y a t p r e s e n t t h r o u g h i n c r e a s e d s u p p l y o f t h e p loughs from t h e Ubungo Farm Implements f a c t o r y (UFI ) and t h r o u g h more i n t e n s i v e use of p loughs .

Ox- car t s a r e s t i l l o n l y p o s s e s s e d by a few w e a l t h i e r househo lds b u t t h e r a t e of a d o p t i o n h a s i n c r e a s e d r a p i d l y s i n c e v i l l a g i z a t i o n , and t h e r e is now a h i g h unmet demand f o r g o o d- q u a l i t y c a r t s .

D e s p i t e l i m i t e d s t o c k s of imported har rows , c u l t i v a t o r s and r i d g e s a t c e n t r a l RTC s t o r e s o v e r r e c e n t y e a r s , t h e i r use i s r e s t r i c t e d t o v e r y few househo lds . How- e v e r , where such implements have been made a v a i l a b l e t o f a r m e r s and p r o p e r l y demons t ra ted ( I r i n g a , S h i n y a n g a ) , f a r m e r s have s t a r t e d u s i n g them. There i s v i r t u a l l y no use of animal-drawn p l a n t e r s and i r r i g a t i o n - r e l a t e d ox- equipment, and i n f a c t no such equipment i s a v a i l a b- l e . At tempts have r e c e n t l y been made t o i n t r o d u c e a n i - mal-drawn sugar- cane c r u s h e r s and o i l p r e s s e r s . A more d e t a i l e d d i s c u s s i o n of o x- c u l t i v a t i o n and animal-drawn equipment i s prov ided below.

1.2 Description of Common Factory-Made Hand Implements Used in Tanzania

Table 1.2 l i s ts t h e most common t y p e s o f factory- made farm implements ( i m p o r t e d o r d o m e s t i c a l l y manufactured by UFI) used i n Tanzania a t p r e s e n t . The implements a r e l i s t e d a c c o r d i n g t o t y p e , w e i g h t / s i z e , m a n u f a c t u r e r , c o u n t r y of o r i g i n and r e c e n t r e t a i l p r i c e s ( e x . RTC). The t a b l e shows t h a t UFI - which i s t h e s o l e i m p o r t e r and u n t i l l a t e 1982 t h e s o l e manufac tu re r of s imple farm implements - o n l y p roduces 3 , 2 1/2 and 2 l b s R/E hoes i n a d d i t i o n t o ox- ploughs, p lough s h a r e s and g r a s s s l a s h e r s . A l l o t h e r implements a r e imported from t h e U . K . , China and I n d i a .

Consignments o f R/E h o e s , ox- ploughs, c u l t i v a t o r s and r i d g e r s have a l s o been imported from Zambia and Zimbabwe. The 30,000 h o e s o r d e r e d from Zambia (Nor th- l a n d Engineer ing /Ndola ) were p r e s s - p l a t e welded hoes of poor q u a l i t y . Of t h e s e , 6 ,000 h o e s s e n t t o RTC's c o u l d

n o t b e s o l d and UFI i n 1983 remained w i t h a s t o c k o f 24,000 h o e s which t h e y were n o t p r e p a r e d t o s e l l i n t h e market due t o t h e i r poor q u a l i t y . Only 500 ploughs had been r e c e i v e d and d i s t r i b u t e d by December 1983.

Maximum r e t a i l p r i c e s , e s p e c i a l l y t h o s e of imported t o o l s , were r a i s e d d r a s t i c a l l y on 29 August 1983, an i n - c r e a s e w e l l above t h e o f f i c i a l ra te of i n f l a t i o n , which was a b o u t 35 p e r c e n t d u r i n g t h e e a r l y 1980s .

A d e s c r i p t i o n as w e l l a s i l l u s t r a t i o n s of t h e most common of t h e above l is t of factory- made farm implements i s g i v e n below ( i n d i g e n o u s- o r blacksmith-made t o o l s a r e d e a l t w i t h i n Chapter 4 ) . The d e s c r i p t i o n i n- c l u d e s b r i e f t e c h n i c a l i n f o r m a t i o n on p r o d u c t i o n t e c h- n i q u e s u s e d , m a t e r i a l and q u a l i t y o f implements , where t h e y a r e used i n Tanzania and f o r what t a s k s , consumer and c u l t u r a l p r e f e r e n c e s , and p a r a l l e l market p r i c e s where t h i s a p p l i e s . The usage p a t t e r n of farm implements , w i t h r e s p e c t t o how v a r i a t i o n s i n t o o l s use and household t o o l i n v e n t o r i e s a r e r e l a t e d t o t h e n a t u r e of farming s y s t e m s , household l a b o u r f o r c e c o m p o s i t i o n , s u p p l y of blacksmith-made t o o l s , e t c . , h a s been d e s c r i b e d i n o r i g i n a l r e p o r t t o S I D A and w i l l n o t b e i n c l u d e d i n t h i s r e s e a r c h r e p o r t .

Table 1.2 List of Imported or Domestically Manufactured Common Types of Factory-Made Farm Implements Used in Tanzania

R/E hoe - - R/E Moonshape

Tanged hce

Forked hoe

Matchet, curved Matchet, s t r a i g h t - , curved - , s t r a i g h t

WE axe - -

S i c k l e - Shovels -

Weight o r s i z e Lbs Kg

3 prongs 4 prongs

16 inches 16 inches 18 inches 18 inches

3 1/2 1.6 3 1.36

2 1/2 1.13

16 inches 20 inches square mouth round mouth

Suppl ier or country

UF'I; China; Chi l l ington/ U.K. o r B r a n 1 - UFI; China ZZK/c.Qeya Chi l l ington/ U.K.

Chi l l ington/ U.K. - - CNlington/ U.K.; Jay- hind/India Chi l l ington/ U.K.; C h ~ n a ; Ind ia

China -

China or U.! -

China l - I China -

Brand name o r C h a p

Kazl, Joqoc bmba - Kazl, Joqoc Mkulm Mamba ( ' scooter o r baloz1' )

-W= Uf lpa -

Mamba or Jayhlnd Mamba ; Joqoo Jayhlnd

Dlamond - - -

Diamond - -

l

I -

Maximum r e t a i l p r i c e shs before as of 29.8.1983 29.8.1983

Percentage p r i c e c- %

22/70 34/25 24/70 34/85 24/65 35/60

not quoted 27/95

53/90 76/65 54/60 76/25

not quoted i n p r i c e c i r c u l a r

11/85 1 6/75 14/85 20/60 71/95 104/55 74/00 107/70

51 41 44

42 40

4 1 39 45 46

S i n g l e F ox-plough - plough sha res

upse t - plough sha res

f l a t Trek chain

Ridger - Cul t iva to r - Harrows

-

Source: Government P r i c e Circular No. 94, contained i n W1 l e t t e r t o R E ' S , August 1983

about 35 - 5- tined - sp ike t o o l steel f r z lqzaq toothed

UFI; Cossul/ Ind ia

W 1

China

Ind ia Zambia Ind ia Zambia Ind ia

Zambia

Nganbe o r Cnssul

Cossul Northland Cossul Northland Cossul

Northland

965/60 1329/30

about 60/- 84/60

about 50/- 74/90 about 55/- about 85/-

about 850/- 2453/- - 2453/-

about 650,'- 2431,'- - 2431,'-

about 1100/- 3323/-

- 3323,'-

The Round-Eyed R/E h o e (see a l s o 3 . 1 . 1 , is a s t r a i g h t - e d g e d h o e , f o r g e d i n o n e p i e c e . I t is mos t e f f i c i e n t l y p roduced by l a r g e - s c a l e m a n u f a c t u r e r s due t o t h e r e q u i r e d f o r g i n g t e c h n i - q u e s and t h e need f o r t e m p e r i n g ( o i l h e a t t r e a t m e n t ) t o h a r d e n

=a t h e l o w e r c u t t i n g p a r t o f t h e

b l a d e .

The l a r g e 3 l b s R/E d i g g i n g hoe is by f a r t h e mos t common t y p e o f hoe u s e d i n T a n z a n i a and it is p a r t i c u l a r l y p r e f e r r e d i n t h e who le o f C e n t r a l and N o r t h e r n T a n z a n i a , a l t h o u g h it is found i n mos t r e g i o n s . The s m a l l e r t y p e s o f R/E h o e s a r e s o l d i n v e r y l i m i t e d q u a n t i t i e s m a i n l y t o t h e c o a s t l i n e r e g i o n s . I n

R/E Hoe (UFI) o t h e r r e g i o n s t h e y a r e m a i n l y (3 Ibs.)

s o l d when t h e r e a r e s h o r t a g e s o f t h e 3 l b s hoe o r b e c a u s e t h e

s m a l l e r h o e s a r e p r e f e r r e d by women and c h i l d r e n i n some a r e a s .

The 3 1/2 l b s R/E hoe f rom Zana Za Ki l imo ( Z Z K ) Mbeya has s o far o n l y been p roduced i n l i m i t e d q u a n t i t i e s and i s unpopu- l a r i n most p l a c e s , n o t l ea s t i n t h e S o u t h e r n H i g h l a n d s ( I r i n g a , Mbeya, Rukwa and Songea ) where t a n g e d h o e s a r e p r e f e r r e d . Some Mbyea h o e s h a v e been s o l d i n Morogoro, p r o b a b l y when a l t e r n a -

R/E Hoe (m) t i v e s u p p l i e s a r e u n a v a i l a b l e , (3 112 Ibs.) b u t t h e y a r e n e i t h e r s e l l i n g i n

n o r t h - c e n t r a l T a n z a n i a n o r i n I r i n g a where AISCO h a s a l a r g e non-moving s t o c k which a p p e a r s u n s a l e a b l e . The r e a s o n s f o r i t s l a c k o f p o p u l a r i t y a r e r e l a t e d t o i t s poor q u a l i t y and i t s u n u s u a l s h a p e and w e i g h t . F i r s t l y , it i s well- known t h a t a 3 l b s , n o t a 3 1/2 l b s , R/E hoe i s t h e o n e i n demand i n T a n z a n i a . S e c o n d l y , t h e e y e o f

t h e Z Z K h o e i s n o t a t t a c h e d t o t h e b l a d e w i t h a n e c k , which l e d t o c o m p l a i n t s i n , f o r example , Mwanza. The r e a s o n g i v e n was t h a t t h e b a l a n c e o f g r a v i t y o f t h e h o e , becomes p o o r e r a n d t h a t it i s i n a p p r o p r i a t e f o r r i dge- mak ing . T h i r d l y , on t h e f i r s t b a t c h e s o f h o e s s e n t o u t , t h e e y e s b r o k e o f f t h e b l a d e . F o u r t h l y , t h e b l a d e i s t o o b r o a d and h a s a n e x t r e m e l y poor rough f i n i s h owing t o worn f o r g i n g d i e s and b e c a u s e t h e edge i s n e i t h e r p r o p e r l y s h a r p e n e d n o r a l w a y s p r o p e r l y h a r d e n e d ( t e m p e r e d o r h e a t - t r e a t e d ) . F i f t h l y , t h e Mbeya h o e c o s t s o v e r 60/- s h s , more t h a n a n y o t h e r R/E d i g g i n g hoe i n t h e c o u n t r y . F i n a l l y , o n e h a s t o q u e s t i o n v e r y s t r o n g l y why Z Z K i n Mbeya d e c i d e d on p r o d u c t i o n o f R/E h o e s when t h e whole s o u t h- w e s t e r n zone demanded - and h a s been s t a r v e d o f t a n g e d h o e s .

The o t h e r R/E h o e s a r e s u p p l i e d by UFI ( i n s u f f i c i e n t s u p p l y f o r t h e c o u n t r y ' s r e q u i r e m e n t s ) ; China and t h e U . K . ( C h i l l i n g t o n ) . Throughou t t h e c o u n t r y t h e r e is v i r t u a l l y a p r e f e r e n c e f o r t h e C h i l l i n g t o n s ( c h a p a mamba o r c r o c o d i l e b r a n d ) and f o r good r e a s o n s . A l l ou r e v i d e n c e shows t h a t t h e C h i l l i n g t o n s - i m p o r t e d a l r e a d y d u r i n g t h e B r i t i s h C o l o n i a l p e r i o d , and now a l s o i m p o r t e d f rom a l i c e n c e d f a c t o r y i n B r a z i l - h a v e a l i f e s p a n much l o n g e r t h a n a n y o t h e r b r a n d o f d i g g i n g h o e s . The C h i n e s e h o e ( c h a p a jogoo o r c o c k b r a n d ) comes s e c o n d i n p r e f e r e n c e and U F I ' s hoe ( c h a p a k a z i o r work b r a n d ) comes t h i r d . UFI comes t h i r d b e c a u s e a good number o f t h e i r h o e s ( a n d p l o u g h s h a r e s ) h a v e n o t been p r o p e r l y h a r d e n e d o v e r r e c e n t y e a r s - some o f them n o t a t a l l - s o t h a t t h e y wear down f a s t o r c r a c k e a s i l y . S e c o n d l y , t h e q u a l i t y o f f o r g i n g o f some o f U F I ' s hoes h a s been p o o r : The f r o n t - b l a d e r e i n f o r c e m e n t r i d g e l e a d i n g t o t h e neck and e y e i s n o t a l w a y s f o r g e d i n t h e v e r t i c a l c e n t r e o f t h e b l a d e due t o p rob lems w i t h U F I ' s Duplex R o l l i n g Forge Machine. The b a l a n c e o f t h e hoe i s o f f s e t and s p e c i a l l y - m a d e c u r v e d h a n d l e s h a v e t o be f i t t e d by t h e p e a s a n t s t o t r y and r e c t i f y t h e b a l a n c e .

The l a r g e t a n g e d Digg ing Hoes ( j e m b e l e n y e u l i m i , msuka a u m k i a ) (see a l s o l , ? ) a r e s t i l l n o t m a n u f a c t u r e d by f a c t o r i e s i n T a n z a n i a a l t h o u g h d i e s were o r d e r e d i n 1983 f o r p r o d u c i n g t a n g e d h o e s a t ZZK/Mbeya w i t h s u p p o r t f rom SIDA.

The t a n g e d h o e is f o r g e d on o n e whole p i e c e l i k e t h e R/E h o e and t h u s l e n d s i t s e l f t o l a r g e - s c a l e mass manu- f a c t u r i n g . However, t h e r e a r e p l a n s f o r l o c a l small- s c a l e p r o d u c t i o n o f r i v e t e d h o e s where t h e t a n g is r i v e t e d t o t h e b l a d e . T r a d i t i o n a l r u r a l b l a c k s m i t h s k i l l s o n l y a l l o w e d f o r p r o d u c t i o n o f t a n y e d h o e s , f o r g e d i n o n e p i e c e o r r i v e t e d i n t h e case o f r e p a i r i n g h o e s where t h e t a n g o r e y e had b r o k e n o f f .

Tanged h o e s are i m p o r t e d , m a i n l y f rom C h i l l i n g t o n i n t h e U . K . Some t a n g e d h o e s w e i g h i n g 2 1/2 l b s h a v e a l s o been i m p o r t e d f r o m J a y h i n d , I n d i a . The l a t t e r a r e un- p o p u l a r and s e l l s l o w l y , m a i n l y b e c a u s e o f t h e i r poor q u a l i t y a n d p a r t l y b e c a u s e o f t h e l a r g e r t y p e s b e i n g p r e f e r r e d .

S i n c e t h e mid 1 9 7 0 ' s t h e r e h a s b e e n a d e c l i n i n g s u p p l y o f t a n g e d h o e s i n t h e c o u n t r y . I n 1980-82, t h e s h o r t a g e o f t a n g e d ( a n d R/E) h o e s became p a r t i c u l a r l y a c u t e . The u s e o f t h e t a n g e d hoe h a s t h u s been on t h e d e c l i n e . I n some a r e a s where it u s e d t o b e common ( e . g . Mbulu High- l a n d s , Songea D i s t r i c t ) it h a s l a r g e l y been r e p l a c e d by t h e R/E h o e . A s a l r e a d y n o t e d a b o v e , t h e t a n g e d d i g g i n g hoe t e n d s t o b e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h u p l a n d f a r m i n g s y s t e m s i n h i l l y a r e a s , p r i m a r i l y i n Mbeya, I r i n g a , Rukwa and Ruvuma R e g i o n s .

T h e r e a r e b a s i c a l l y two t y p e s o f t a n g e d d i g g i n g h o e s u s e d i n t h e S o u t h e r n H i g h l a n d s , w i t h marked a r e a s p e c i - f i c i t y i n t h e i r o c c c u r r e n c e :

1 . The l a r g e Rungwe Hoe ( 4 l b s ) h a s a p o i n t e d c u t t i n g e d g e and is c u r v e d a l o n g t h e h o r i z o n t a l a x i s . T h i s hoe i s p r e f e r r e d by t h e Wanyakyusa and i s found i n Rungwe,

Kye la and S o u t h e a s t e r n Mbozi d i s t r i c t s i n Mbeya, and i n Makete a n d S o u t h e r n I r i n g a (Dabaga H i l l s ) d i s t r i c t i n I r i n g a Region . I t i s f i t t e d w i t h a v e r y l o n g h a n d l e ( a b o u t 2 m e t r e s l o n g ) , o f t e n o f a p a r t i c u l a r t y p e o f wood. A l though

Rungwe Hoe b l a c k m a r k e t i n g o f hand t o o l s i s

now f a i r l y e f f e c t i v e l y r e s t r i c t e d t h r o u g h t h e r e c e n t RTC c o n f i n e m e n t s y s t e m , w e d i d h e a r

o f few c a s e s where Rungwe h o e s were s e l l i n g a t 200/- t o 250/- s h i l l i n g s i n Mbeya.

2. The U f i p a h o e s ( 3 1 /2 , 3 a n d 2 1/2 l b s ) h a v e a s l i g h t l y c u r v e d c u t t i n g e d g e , b u t w i t h a f l a t b l a d e

l i k e t h e R/E h o e s . The h o e d e r i v e s i t s name f rom U f i p a P l a t e a u i n Rukwa Region , where t h e l a r g e s i z e s are p r e f e r r e d b y t h e Wafipa who h a v e a h i g h l y s k i l l e d and w e l l - e s t a b l i s h e d b l a c k s m i t h t r a d i - t i o n . The h o e i s a l s o common i n

Ufipa Hoe Mbozi and I l e j e D i s t r i c t s i n Mbeya Region . Songea and Mbinga

d i s t r i c t s i n Ruvuma p r e f e r t h e 3 1/2 l b U f i p a h o e s , and s o d o Ludewa, p a r t s o f I r i n g a , Mufundi and t h e s o u t h e r n p a r t s o f Njombe d i s t r i c t i n I r i n g a Reg ion , b o r d e r i n g on Ruvurna Region . The r e s t o f Njombe a n d I r i n g a d i s t r i c s p r e f e r t h e 3 l b U f i p a hoe ( a n d R/E h o e s ) .

The p e a s a n t s i n t h e s e a r e a s e x p r e s s t h e i r p r e f e r e n c e f o r t h e l a r g e r h o e s i n t h e f o l l o w i n g way: ' I t i s a waste o f t i m e and e f f o r t t o u s e s m a l l e r h o e s ' . T h i s is u n d e r s t a n d a b l e when one o b s e r v e s t h e huge r i d g e s and s e e d b e d s b u i l t i n t h e S o u t h e r n H i g h l a n d s , which re- q u i r e c o n s i d e r a b l e movement and s c o o p i n g o f t h e l i g h t , f r i a b l e v o l c a n i c s o i l s , which a r e found i n most p l a c e s . I t is i n t e r e s t i n g t o n o t e t h a t t h e l a r g e Rungwe hoe i s used by t h e Wanyakyusa i n Kye la as w e l l f o r f l a t ( sesa) c u l t i v a t i o n o f r i c e on h e a v y c l a y s o i l s .

Here c u l t u r a l p r e f e r e n c e seems t o o v e r r i d e t h e i n f l u e n - c e o t h e r w i s e e x e r t e d by t h e t y p e o f c u l t i v a t i o n s y s t e m and s o i l on t h e t y p e o f t o o l s p r e f e r r e d . One would t h i n k t h a t s m a l l e r h o e s would b e more manageab le i n s u c h a f a r m i n g s y s t e m and i n s u c h heavy s o i l s .

I n Ruvuma Reg ion , t h e s e c o n d h a l f o f t h e 1970s h a s s e e n a c h a n g e f rom t h e c h e c k b o a r d p i t and mound c u l t i v a t i o n s y s t e m ( e . g . Matengo) w i t h m i l l e t s and r o o t c r o p s t o w a r d s f l a t c u l t i v a t i o n o f m a i z e . T h i s c h a n g e h a s been

a s s o c i a t e d wi th a g r a d u a l replacement of t h e 3 1/2 l b tanged hoe by t h e 3 l b R/E hoe. While t h i s seems t o be a f u n c t i o n a l change i n t h e t ype of t o o l used t o f i t a new farming system, t h e change is a l s o r epo r t ed t o be a r e s u l t of i r r e g u l a r s u p p l i e s of tanged hoes.

Digging hoes g e n e r a l l y become unusable a s l a r g e s i z e d dependable t o o l s f o r pr imary c u l t i v a t i o n , e i t h e r because of wear (most common) o r because of breakage. The a b r a s i v e n e s s of t h e s o i l - t o g e t h e r wi th t h e q u a l i t y of t h e b l a d e m a t e r i a l , h e a t t r ea tmen t and r a t e of u se - determines t h e r a t e of wear. For example i n a r e a s wi th sandy s o i l s and a h igh r a t e of u s e ( e . g . Mwanza, I r i n g a and p a r t s of Tabora ~ e g i o n ) , t h e l i f e span of a ~ h i n e s e o r U F I hoe a s a dependable and e f f i c i e n t d igg ing t o o l i s only one yea r . I n Singida and Dodoma, a l s o with sandy s o i l s , bu t with smal le r acreages c u l t i v a t e d p e r household because of a s h o r t c u l t i v a t i o n season, a hoe l a s t s between one and two y e a r s . In a r e a s wi th heavy c l a y s o i l s o r l i g h t vo l can i c s o i l s , e . g . Arusha, Kil imanjaro and Mbeya, a hoe t a k e s 3 t o 5 years t o wear down t o t h e e x t e n t where it can no longer be used f o r primary t i l l a g e (d igg ing and r i d g e b u i l d i n g ) .

In t h e l a t t e r a r e a s - and i n a r e a s with a l o t of g r a v e l , s t o n e s and stumps - breakage is n ~ r m a l l y t h e reason f o r hoes becoming u s e l e s s , due t o meta l f a t i g u e , h i t t i n g s t o n e s and stumps, o r t o breakage of t h e b l ade when working i n s t i c k y o r hard c l a y s o i l s . P a r t of t h e c u t t i n g edge b reaks o f f when h i t t i n g a stump o r s t o n e , o r a v e r t i c a l c r ack occu r s i n t h e b l a d e , n e i t h e r of which can be e a s i l y r e p a i r e d . The hoe b l ade may a l s o break h o r i z o n t a l l y above t h e hardened s e c t i o n , and can then be welded i f such facilities a r e a v a i l a b l e - which t h e y a r e no t i n most r u r a l a r e a s .

A s a r e s u l t of t o o low a supply of t h e r equ i r ed hoes over t h e l a s t f i v e y e a r s , t h e c o n d i t i o n of hoes i n most a r e a s i n 1983 i s very poor and f a r below t h e accep tab l e s t anda rd r equ i r ed f o r e f f i c i e n t work r a t e s and proper t i l l a g e of t h e s o i l , Thus, t h e drudgery of work and t h e t ime spen t per a c r e t i l l e d has i n c r e a s e d , whi le t h e

d e p t h o f t i l l a g e and t h e thorough working of t h e s o i l h a s d e c l i n e d , p o s s i b l y a f f e c t i n g y i e l d s n e g a t i v e l y . However, we d i d n o t f i n d t h a t t h e s h o r t a g e of t o o l s had been s u c h t h a t t h e r e hade been a n a c u t e t o o l s t a r v a t i o n t o t h e e x t e n t where t h e c u l t i v a t e d a c r e a g e had d e c l i n e d .

The Moon Shaped o r Half Moon R/E hoe ( 3 l b s ) is a C h i l l i n g t o n weeding hoe which o v e r t h e l a s t t e n y e a r s o r s o h a s become i n c r e a s i n g l y popula r i n Arusha and

K i l i m a n j a r o Regions where it i s c a l i e d " S c o o t e r ' o r Ambassador 's hoe ( jembe s c o o t e r o r jembe b a l o z i ) because of i t s h i g h r a t e of working e f f i c i e n c y . I t s broad s t r a i g h t edge and i t s t h i n b l a d e , which makes it f e e l l i g h t f o r i t s s i z e , make it an

Moon Shaped Hoe e x c e l l e n t weeding hoe when used f o r l i g h t , v o l c a n i c s o i l s w i t h broad- spaced p e r e n n i a l s l i k e c o f f e e ,

banana and c l u s t e r of fodder g r a s s . I t i s t h u s a s s o c i - a t e d wi th t h e coffee- banana systems of Arusha - Kiliman- j a r o , and i s l e s s common i n Mbeya and Kagera, p robab ly due t o l a c k of s u p p l y . I n t h e Moshi town market , Half Moon hoes were s e l l i n g a t 80-85/- s h s a s compared wi th t h e o f f i c i a l p r i c e of 63/52 s h s .

The Forked Hoe ( R a t o ) i s a R/E t h r e e o r f o u r pronged hoe of which t h e 3-pronged i s t h e most common, a l t h o u g h

n o t everywhere t h e most p o p u l a r . The f o r k e d hoe i s main ly imported from t h e U . K . ( C h i l l i n g t o n ) o r from China, a l t h o u g h a few have been imported from I n d i a , The l a t t e r a r e s low moving o r n o t s e l l i n g a t a l l

Forked Hoe (3-4 prongs) because t h e y b r e a k t o o e a s i l y , w h i l e

t h e C h i l l i n g t o n s a r e t h e most p o p u l a r .

The Forked Hoe (3- pronged) a l s o t e n d s t o b e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e c o f f e e- b a n a n a s y s t e m s o f K i l i m a n j a r o , Arusha ,

Kagera , Mbeya and Tanga Reg ions , i n some o f which it i s i n h i g h demand and f e t c h e s b l a c k marke t p r i c e s d u r i n g s u p p l y s h o r t a g e s . I t is used f o r weeding i n g r a s s - i n f e s t e d c o f f e e and o t h e r p e r e n n i a l t r e e c r o p s b e c a u s e it d o e s n o t c u t t h e i r r o o t s , and a l s o f o r b r e a k i n g g r a s s- c o v e r e d l a n d .

The Forked Hoe

The f o r k e d hoe is a l s o found t o a l e s s e r e x t e n t i n r e g i o n s l i k e I r i n g a , Mwanza and Morogoro where it is used f o r b r e a k i n g g r a s s- c o v e r e d v i r g i n l a n d o r o l d f a l l o w l a n d , o r b r e a k i n g heavy c l a y s o i l s o f i r r i g a t e d l a n d . I n I r i n g a t h e four- pronged hoe i s t h e most popu- l a r .

With r e s p e c t t o t h e f o r k e d h o e s , t h e r e h a s been a problem - a t l e a s t b e f o r e t h e crackdown on "economic s a b o t e u r s " - of misp lacement o f s u p p l i e s t o RTC's. Thus , w h i l e t h e r e was a s e r i o u s s h o r t a g e o f f o r k e d hoes i n Kagera - from where some o f t h e h o e s may have been smuggled o u t o f t h e c o u n t r y - t h e RTC s t o r e i n Hanang D i s t r i c t , where f o r k e d h o e s a r e n o t u s e d , found i t s e l f w i t h a s t o c k o f non-moving f o r k e d h o e s . To t r y and g e t r i d o f them, one c a s e ( 2 4 p c s ) o f f o r k e d h o e s was t i e d t o t h e sa le o f one dozen t r e k c h a i n s ( f o r ox- p loughs ) a s a l l o c a t e d t o v a r i o u s v i l l a g e s h o p s . Although t h e r e was a c r y i n g demand f o r c h a i n s i n t h e d i s t r i c t , t h e r e s u l t w a s t h a t n e i t h e r c h a i n s nor t h e f o r k e d h o e s were c o l l e c t e d by v i l l a g e s h o p s s i n c e t h e y c o u l d n o t a f f o r d t o s t o c k up w i t h f o r k e d h o e s which nobody wanted. And Kagera was p r o b a b l y t o o f a r away f o r t h e middlemen t o t a k e a c t i o n on r e d i s t r i b u t i n g t h i s m i s p l a c e d s t o c k .

The Curved and S t r a i g h t M a t c h e t s ( p a n g a l are i m p o r t e d f rom China i n two s i z e s e a c h : 1 6 a n d 1 8 i n c h e s ( 4 1 and

M a t c h e t s a re f a i r l y s i m p l e t o p r o d u c e by punch ing t h e b l a d e o u t o f p r e s s e d , t empered

Straight Matchet s h e e t metal , a n d t h e y l e n d t h e m s e l v e s t o b o t h l a r g e - a n d small-scale p r o d u c t i o n t e c h n i q u e s . According t o TISCO ( 1980: T a b l e 7 . 1 . 2 . b ) , t h e sales o f t h e f o u r v a r i e t i e s a r e

Curved Matchet f a i r l y e q u a l l y d i s t r i -

b u t e d , a l t h o u g h w i t h a somewhat l a r g e r sa les o f t h e c u r v e d m a t c h e t s .

Our f i n d i n g s conf i rmed t h a t t h e r e w a s g e n e r a l l y no p a r- t i c u l a r p r e f e r e n c e as r e g a r d s t h e l e n g t h o f m a t c h e t s , a l t h o u g h men might p r e f e r t h e l o n g o n e s w h i l e women might p r e f e r t h e s h o r t o n e s .

I n some a r e a s , l i k e t h e c o a s t l i n e r e g i o n s and areas w i t h u s e o f i n d i g e n o u s b i l l - h o o k s ( e . g . S i n g i d a ) t h e r e w a s a p r e f e r e n c e f o r c u r v e d m a t c h e t s . Here , t h e y a r e s h a r p e n e d a l o n g t h e uppe r i n c l i n e d c u r v e f o r u s e a s b i l l - h o o k s . I f a s u f f i c i e n t s u p p l y o f b o t h c u r v e d and s t r a i g h t m a t c h e t s were made a v a i l a b l e t o t h e consumer , t h e c u r v e d m a t c h e t s m i g h t w e l l t a k e a n even h i g h e r s h a r e o f sa les . I n many a r e a s t h e s h a r p p o i n t e d t i p o f t h e c u r v e d m a t c h e t i s b r o k e n o f f t o a v o i d i n j u r y t o t h e u s e r i n c a s e it h a p p e n s t o s l i p d u r i n g u s e .

A Panga (curved)

Matche t s a r e used f o r c u t t i n g f i r ewood and bush , f o r c l e a r i n g f i e l d s o f heavy g r a s s and heavy b r u s h wood, and a l s o f o r a v a r i e t y o f o t h e r household t a s k s . Matchets a r e a l s o used i n most town h o u s e h o l d s , i n c l u d- i n g i n b u t c h e r s s h o p s , and by t h e s o- c a l l e d "panga gangs" ( b u r g l a r s o r r o b b e r s ) a s a weapon. The f i r s t t h i n g t o b r e a k on a matche t t e n d s t o be t h e h a n d l e . A

c l o t h i s t h e n wrapped a round t h e i r o n h a n d l e p i e c e o r a new h a n d l e is f i t t e d made o u t o f wood, o l d t y r e s , e t c . Matchets have t o be sharpened ( o n s t o n e s ) r e g u l a r l y and t h e b l a d e c o n s e q u e n t l y narrows t h r o u g h wear and re- s h a r p e n i n g .

According t o TISCO (1980: 7 : 2 ) , " l i f e e x p e c t a n c y o f t h i s t o o l i s 9-12 months when i n c o n t i n u o u s u s e " . Un- l e s s c o n t i n u o u s u s e i s t a k e n t o i n f e r d a i l y e i g h t- h o u r u s e - which would be a r a t h e r unusua l usage p a t t e r n - t h i s s t a t e m e n t i s m i s l e a d i n g . I n a r e a s w i t h a h i g h r a t e o f u s e , p l e n t y of bush c l e a r i n g and l o t s of h a r d wood ( e . g . c o a s t l i n e and "Miombo" r e g i o n s and a r e a s w i t h s l a s h and burn c u l t i v a t i o n , t o b a c o o and c h a r c o a l pro- d u c t i o n ) a matche t would l as t around t h r e e y e a r s a s a l a r g e- s i z e d dependab le t o o l . In o t h e r a r e a s w i t h l e s s i n t e n s i v e u s e , a matche t w i l l l a s t 5 t o 8 y e a r s .

I n a number of a r e a s where i n d i g e n o u s b i l l - h o o k s a r e common ( e . g . Sou thern S i n g i d a Region, p a r t s of Mbeya, Ruvuma, e t c . ) f a r from a l l househo lds p o s s e s s m a t c h e t s , w h i l e i n some a r e a s ( l i k e I r i n g a ) a household s h o u l d i d e a l l y p o s s e s s two m a t c h e t s , one e a c h f o r t h e husband and w i f e . A l a r g e p r o p o r t i o n of t h e m a t c h e t s s e e n by t h e s t u d y team were i n a poor and worn down c o n d i t i o n , beyond t h e s t a t e n e c e s s a r y f o r t h e t o o l t o be depend- a b l e , d u e t o u n s u f f i c i e n t s u p p l i e s r e a c h i n g t h e r u r a l a r e a s .

Round-Eye Axes ( s h o k a ) of 3 1/2, 3 , 2 1 / 2 and 2 pounds were p r e v i o u s l y imported from t h e U . K . b u t now main ly

o r i g i n a t e from China (Diamond). The t h r e e l b axe i s g e n e r a l l y t h e most p r e f e r r e d weigh t . R / E a x e s a r e f o r g e d i n one p i e c e , r e q u i r e h e a t t r e a t m e n t and t h u s l e n d t h e m s e l v e s t o l a r g e- s c a l e mass p r o d u c t i o n t e c h n i q u e s .

Axes a r e u s e d f o r f e l l i n g t r ees , c l e a r i n g h e a v y b u s h , des tumping f i e l d s , c u t t i n g and c h o p p i n g f i r e - wood, c u t t i n g o f p o l e s f o r h o u s e c o n s t r u c t i o n , e t c . F o l l o w i n g h o e s

.; ...* \.-., . - 4 and m a t c h e t s , it i s t h e t h i r d most common fa rm implement i n T a n z a n i a , a l t h o u g h u s e o f indigenous- made t a n g e d a x e s is v e r y common i n a

Tanged number o f r e g i o n s ( e . g . t h e s o u t h-

Axe e a s t e r n r e g i o n s , S i n g i d a and Mbeya) .

The l i f e s p a n o f f a c t o r y- m a d e a x e s v a r i e s a g r e a t d e a l , d e p e n d i n g on i n t e n s i t y o f u s e and p r e v a l e n c e o f h a r d wood. A s w i t h m a t c h e t s , a x e s as a l a r g e - s i z e d depend- a b l e t o o l may o n l y l a s t 3-5 y e a r s i n "Miombo" areas w i t h v e r y i n t e n s i v e u s e - l i k e t h o s e o f s l a s h and b u r n c u l t i v a t i o n , t o b a c c o a n d / o r c h a r c o a l p r o d u c t i o n - w h i l e i n d e f o r e s t e d a r e a s l i k e e a s t e r n Sh inyanga , a n a x e would l a s t some 15 y e a r s ( - i n f a c t w e were t o l d t h a t a x e s were banned t h e r e ) . When u s e d f o r c l e a r i n g s tumps and c u t t i n g f i r e w o o o d , t h e a x e m i g h t h i t a s t o n e and b r e a k a g e o f t h e e d g e m i g h t o c c u r . On t h e who le , l i f e e x p e c t a n c y o f a n a x e i s l o n g e r t h a n t h a t o f m a t c h e t s and would t e n d on a v e r a g e t o r a n g e b e t w e e n 8-12 y e a r s . TISCO ( 7 : 6 ) m e n t i o n e d 5 y e a r s .

The team found a good number o f a x e s a b o v e 12 y e a r s o f a g e b u t t h e y were q u i t e worn down and used m a i n l y by women and c h i l d r e n f o r chopp ing f i r e w o o d . For t r e e f e l l i n g t h e husband would bo r row a l a r g e newer a x e i f a v a i l a b l e .

Some v i l l a g e s i n Tukuyu had n o t s e e n f a c t o r y- m a d e a x e s on s a l e f o r y e a r s and were l e f t t o r e l y on i n d i g e n o u s t a n g e d a x e s , mos t o f which t e n d t o b e o f l e s s e r w e i g h t and t h u s less a p p r o p r i a t e f o r t h e h e a v i e r t a s k s ,

S i c k l e s (mundu o r " sk rem") a r e i m - p o r t e d from C h i n a i n l e n g t h s o f 16 o r 20 i n c h e s . The c u t t i n g e d g e o f t h e C h i n e s e s i c k l e s i s s e r r a t e d , i . e , t o o t h e d o r n o t c h e d l i k e a saw

Sickle e d g e .

The i m p o r t e d s i c k l e is on t h e whole n o t a common f a r m t o o l i n T a n z a n i a , l a r g e l y b e c a u s e a v a r i e t y o f l o c a l l y indigenous- made h a r v e s t i n g k n i v e s , s i c k l e s and long- h a n d l e d b i l l - h o o k s , d e s i g n e d w i t h s h a r p e d g e s f o r more v e r s a t i l e u s e , a r e p r e f e r r e d . I m p o r t e d s i c k l e s a r e u sed f o r h a r v e s t i n g r i ce , s u b s i s t e n c e whea t (Mbulu , Njombe and U f i p a Dis t r ic t s ) and f i n g e r m i l l e t . They a r e f u r t h e r m o r e u s e d f o r c u t t i n g f o d d e r g r a s s a n d e s p e c i a l l y t h a t c h g r a s s f o r r o o f i n g m a t e r i a l . The i m- p o r t e d s i c k l e s a r e m a i n l y s u p p l i e d t o t h e s o u t h e r n , w e s t e r n a n d n o r t h e r n h i g h l a n d a r e a s and t o Sukumaland a n d Tabora . Depending on ra te o f u s e , a s i c k l e w i l l l a s t some 3-5 y e a r s .

S h o v e l s ( b e l e s h i ) , s q u a r e o r round mouth , a r e i m p o r t e d f rom Ch ina . The p r o d u c t i o n t e c h n i q u e i s f a i r l y s i m p l e

and i n v o l v e s punch- i n g and p r e s s i n g o f s h e e t metal and t h e f i t t i n g o f a l a t h e- W O r k e d wooden h a n d l e . A small- scale workshop i n Arusha (Hans P a u l S i n g h ) h a s r e c e n t l y s t a r t e d b a t c h p ro- d u c t i o n o f round- mouth s h o v e l s - a n

Round Mouth Shovel e x a c t copy o f t h e i m p o r t e d C h i n e s e

one - w i t h i n d i g e n o u s l y i n v e n t e d se l f- made m a c h i n e r y . ZKK/Mbeya a l s o h a s p l a n s t o p roduce s h o v e l s . Some s p a d e s have r e c e n t l y been i m p o r t e d from Y u g o s l a v i a . The s p a d e i s a s o i l d i g g i n g t o o l and i s n o t a f a r m implement b u t i s u s e d a s a g a r d e n a n d c o n s t r u c t i o n t o o l i n Tanzania

The s h o v e l is a n e a r t h - s c o o p i n g / l i f t i n g t o o l and i s s t i l l n o t a common fa rm implement on s m a l l h o l d i n g s a l- t h o u g h t h e y a r e b e i n g more w i d e l y u s e d . A p a r t f rom t h e i r u s e i n r o a d and b u i l d i n g c o n s t r u c t i o n and as a g a r d e n t o o l , s h o v e l s a r e o f t e n a s s o c i a t e d w i t h wheel b a r r o w s i n v i l l a g e s and a r e u sed f o r b u i l d i n g m a t e r i a l

work, l o a d i n g and s p r e a d i n g of manure, f o r d i g g i n g l a t r i n e s and f o r . o t h e r odd jobs . Borrowing and l e n d i n g is common.

TISCO ( 1 9 8 0 : 7 : 4 ) ment ions i n s t a n c e s o f b lackmarke t s h o v e l p r i c e s , d e s p i t e TISCO's demand e s t i m a t e showing a n e x c e s s s u p p l y . I n I r i n g a where wheelbarrows have become i n c r e a s i n g l y common i n a number o f v i l l a g e s , TFA r e p o r t s a h i g h demand f o r s h o v e l s , t h e round-mouth ones b e i n g p r e f e r r e d . The team was unab le t o e s t i m a t e t h e l i f e span of s h o v e l s , s i n c e it o n l y e n c o u n t e r e d two round-mouth s h o v e l s d u r i n g i t s m i s s i o n , and o m i t t e d t o e n q u i r e a b o u t t h e i r a g e and l i f e e x p e c t a n c y . Nonethe- l e s s , w e c o n s i d e r it p o s s i b l e t o o f f e r a g u e s s t i m a t e of a round 5-8 y e a r s l i f e e x p e c t a n c y - l o n g e r f o r manure a p p l i c a t i o n b u t s h o r t e r f o r e a r t h work and l a t r i n e d i g g i n g .

Wheel ba r rows a r e s t i l l p o s s e s s e d o n l y by a f a i r l y l i m i t e d number o f househo lds and a r e main ly used i n t h e l a r g e r semi- urban v i l l a g e s . But t h e use o f wheel ba r rows - most of them l o c a l d e s i g n s made o u t of wood w i t h some of t h e b e t t e r two-wheeled o n e s f i t t e d w i t h o l d c a r wheel b e a r i n g s - i s e v i d e n t l y becoming i n c r e a s - i n g l y common. They a r e used f o r t r a n s p o r t i n g b u i l d i n g m a t e r i a l , manure, c r o p s , f i r e w o o d , c h a r c o a l and wate r . Wheelbarrows a r e o f t e n h i r e d o r borrowed and t h e r e is a growing demand f o r them.

I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e above-mention- e d hand t o o l s , a number of o t h e r s a r e imported and which a r e gene- r a l l y o f l e s s impor tance f o r peasan t f a rming , p e r h a p s w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n of k n a p s a c k s p r a y e r s which a r e used --.p

i n c o f f e e , t o b a c c o , c o t t o n , and p r e v i o u s l y i n t h e wheat a r e a s of Arusha. TISCO e s t i m a t e d t h a t t h e a n n u a l demand f o r s p r a y e r s was

Knapsack Sprayer about 75 000.

Prun ing s h e a r s ( s e c a t e u r S) f o r t h e c o f f e e a r e a s are now be ing produced by Mocco a t t h e Moshi SIDO E s t a t e . The demand i s f a i r l y low. Both s p r a y e r s and p run ing s h e a r s a r e h i r e d o r borrowed a

Pruning Shears g r e a t d e a l .

C u t t e r m a t t o c k s ( jembe-shoka) a r e used i n some r u r a l a r e a s t o desturnp f i e l d s o r t o remove unwanted banana

s u c k e r s . For removing

-1 banana s u c k e r s , a more common implement used ,

Cutter Mattock (5 Ibs.) e s p e c i a l l y i n K i l i m a n j a r o , i s t h e i n d i g e n o u s 'chimbuo' , a l a r g e long- handled c h i s e l t y p e of

Chimbuo s t a b b i n g implement quo ted or by UFI a s a ' c o f f e e

Coffee Digger d i g g e r ' . Some RTC's, f o r example t h e one i n de- f o r e s t e d Shinyanga, now have l a r g e , slow-moving

Pick Mattock (4 1/2-5 Ibs.)

s t o c k s which were s e n t t h e r e by t h e UFI w i t h o u t f i r m o r d e r s from t h e RTC. T h i s a p p l i e s even more t o p ick- axes o r

p i c k- m a t t o c k s ( s u l u l u ) , be ing a t o o l f o r c o n s t r u c t i o n work and n o t a farm implement. The t eam, d u r i n g i t s r u r a l m i s s i o n , e n c o u n t e r e d o n l y one r i c h ox- farmer who, j u s t hav ing a c q u i r e d a n o x- c a r t , was i n t h e p r o c e s s of removing l a r g e s t o n e s from a r o a d s i d e c a t t l e t r a c k a l o n g which h e w a s go ing t o u s e h i s c a r t . Th i s fa rmer had two o r t h r e e c u t t e r m a t t o c k s which he used t o destump f i e l d s w i t h . Pick- axes a r e u s e f u l f o r d i g g i n g l a t r i n e s i n s t o n y ground.

G r a s s s l a s h e r s ( f y e k o ) and r a k e s a r e p r i m a r i l y used a s g a r d e n t o o l s , a l t h o u g h a few r a k e s have found t h e i r way t o r u r a l a r e a s where t h e y a r e used i n v e g e t a b l e g a r d e n s , and f o r c o l l e c t i n g d e b r i s t o be burned b e f o r e

t h e r a i n s . The g r a s s s l a s h e r is a r a r e farm implement. Cane k n i v e s ( f o r h a r v e s t i n g s u g a r c a n e ) and s i s a l

k n i v e s a r e o n l y used i n l a r g e - s c a l e e s t a t e fa rming . B i l l- h o o k s have n o t been imported by UFI f o r some y e a r s a l t h o u g h b i l l - h o o k s might s e l l w e l l because of t h e i r u s e f u l n e s s f o r c l e a r i n g bush . In- d igenous b i l l - h o o k s a r e v e r y common and a r e f i t t e d w i t h long

Bill-hooks (factory type)

h a n d l e s ( u p t o 1 m e t e r ) a s compar- e d t o t h e 15-20 cm h a n d l e s o f t h e imported t y p e .

The l i s t above l a r g e l y c o v e r s t h e factory- made hand t o o l s used by p e a s a n t f a r m e r s i n Tanzan ia , b u t f o r one o r two i m p o r t a n t e x c e p t i o n s , i . e . f i l e s f o r s h a r p e n i n g t o o l s ( e s p e c i a l l y m a t c h e t s ) and p e r h a p s a l s o hammers f o r house c o n s t r u c t i o n . We e n c o u n t e r e d q u i t e a few f i l e s p o s s e s s e d b o t h by p e a s a n t househo lds and by b l a c k s m i t h s . There were s t r o n g c o m p l a i n t s from b o t h q u a r t e r s on t h e u n a v a i l a b i l i t y o f f i l e s f o r a number of y e a r s now, and a l l t h e f i l e s s e e n were c o m p l e t e l y worn down and appa ren t ly o n l y k e p t as s o u v e n i r s of b e t t e r d a y s . F i l e s a r e i n demand by r u r a l househo lds and a r e u s e f u l and e f f i c i e n t f o r b o t h t o o l s h a r p e n i n g and t h e o c c a s i o n a l on- farm s t e e l r e p a i r work. Wood s p l i t t i n g wedges a r e a l s o popula r i n a few a r e a s f o r s p l i t t i n g l o g s and p o l e s . They a r e main ly used i n f o r e s t r y a c t i - v i t i e s by lumbere rs and p i t - s a w e r s .

F i n a l l y , b u c k e t s ( n d o o ) , t i n s ( d e b e ) ( b o t h 20 l i t r e s ) , and n o t l e a s t s t e e l drums ( p i p a o r dram) (200 l i t r e s ) a r e v e r y common household i t e m s . Metal b u c k e t s used f o r c a r r y i n g water on t h e head a r e now p o s s e s s e d by most r u r a l househo lds and a r e i n c r e a s i n g l y s u p p l i e d by in- d igenous r u r a l and urban t i n s m i t h s because t h e twenty l i t r e t i n s ( d e b e ) have become more d i f f i c u l t t o ob- t a i n . Factory-made drums o r b a r r e l s have become i n - c r e a s i n g l y p o p u l a r , b o t h f o r b e e r making and n o t l e a s t f o r wa te r s t o r a g e and f o r ox-drawn water h a u l a g e by means o f o x- c a r t s o r l o c a l l y made s l e d g e s . Comprehen-

s i v e o x- m e c h a n i z a t i o n must i n v o l v e a s u f f i c i e n t s u p p l y o f s t e e l drums. N e e d l e s s t o s a y , ox-drawn w a t e r h a u l a g e by means o f drums g r e a t l y r e l i e v e s women, c h i l d r e n - b u t q u i t e f r e q u e n t l y now - a l s o men, o f a r d u o u s and t ime- consuming h e a d p o r t e r a g e .

S i m p l e p o s t - h a r v e s t i n g equ ipmen t l i k e h a n d- o p e r a t e d m a i z e s h e l l e r s , g r i n d i n g m i l l s , g r o u n d n u t s h e l l e r s , w innowers , t h r e s h e r s and s e e d d r e s s e r s a r e h a r d l y b e i n g u s e d on p e a s a n t f a r m s s o f a r . OXFAM h a s r e c e n t l y s t a r t e d a p r o j e c t f o r i n t r o d u c i n g h a n d- o p e r a t e d g r i n d - i n g m i l l s and i n t e r e s t i n t h e s e i s r e p o r t e d t o b e good i n some areas, e s p e c i a l l y i n I r i n g a , w h i l e t h e i r adop- t i o n i s s l o w e r i n poor a r e a s l i k e Dodoma a n d S i n g i d a .

I n t h e p e r i o d 1978- 80, U F I ' s n a t i o n a l sales o f ma ize s h e l l e r s and g r o u n d n u t s h e l l e r s a v e r a g e d o n l y a b o u t 2 0 0 u n i t s and 50 u n i t s p e r y e a r r e s p e c t i v e l y and mos t o f t h e s h e l l e r s a p p a r e n t l y r ema in unused i n RTC s t o r e s .

1 . 3 D e s c r i p t i o n o f F a c t ory-Made Ox-Drawn Implemen t s Used i n T a n z a n i a

The f o l l o w i n g s e c t i o n p r o v i d e s a d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e mos t common ox-drawn fac to ry- made imp lemen t s found i n T a n z a n i a , mos t o f which h a v e been i m p o r t e d o r a s s e m b l e d by UFI f rom s e m i - f i n i s h e d i m p o r t e d k i t s . R e c e n t l y i n - t r o d u c e d d e s i g n s l i k e t h e Themi ' K a b a n y o l a ' t o o l b a r and t h e SIDO Wooden Beam P lough w i l l b e d e s c r i b e d i n Chap- t e r 2 . 4 .

1 .3 .1 The Ox-Plough ( p l a u a u jembe l a ngombe) most common i n T a n z a n i a is a l i g h t ( 3 1 k g ) s i n g l e - f u r r o w mouldboard p l o u g h w i t h c u r v e d r a i l beam and f u r r o w d e p t h wheel o r d r a g w h e e l . I t i s o f I n d i a n d e s i g n ( C o s s u l ) , and u n t i l r e c e n t l y most o f t h e p l o u g h s s o l d i n t h e c o u n t r y were i m p o r t e d f rom C o s s u l i n t h e form o f s e m i - f i n i s h e d k i t s wh ich UFI a s s e m b l e d .

UFl PLOUGH

Hitch- attachment

E*,....

Safety- hook

G1141C - - - 0 - -

drag wheel

Most of t h e plough p a r t s a r e e i t h e r forged ( t h e beam) o r c u t from steel b a r s o r s h e e t s and then ben t i n t o shape. The wheel i s made of c a s t i r o n , and t h e plough p a r t s a r e b o l t e d t o g e t h e r wi th a lmos t no welded p a r t s .

The removal of broken or worn p a r t s f o r rep lacement of new ones is t h u s e a s i l y done by plough owners i n t h e v i l l a g e -

upset Share i f t h e y can g e t t h e spa-

r e s - which t h e y nor- mally cannot . However, t h e r e a r e 9 d i f f e r e n t s i z e s o r t y p e s of nu t

straight and b o l t s t o hold t h i s Share plough t o g e t h e r and they

e a s i l y g e t l o o s e , wear, b reak o r g e t l o s t . Apart

from normal s t r a i n and meta l f a t i g u e , t h e n u t s a r e no t always t i g h t e n e d a f t e r each day of work, p a r t l y because t h e spanner , which comes a s an acces so ry wi th t h e plough, is of poor q u a l i t y and d i f f i c u l t t o use. There is an urgent need t o s t a n d a r d i s e t h e n u t s and b o l t s and t o use n u t s / b o l t s wi th a lock ing dev ice t o ensu re t h a t t h e y s t a y t i g h t . A l a r g e number of ploughs a r e i n a de- p l o r a b l e c o n d i t i o n s imply because of t h e n u t s and b o l t s problem.

The Cossul o r UFI plough h a s one v e r y i m p o r t a n t q u a l i - t y : it is l i g h t , weighing o n l y 31 k i l o s . T h i s makes it e x t r e m l y popula r among most p e a s a n t househo lds who g e n e r a l l y p o s s e s s s m a l l- s i z e d , l i g h t and t h u s weak oxen. I t h a s become i n c r e a s i n g l y common f o r young boys and even women ( i n Tarime and Njombe) t o o p e r a t e t h e p loughs , and t h e i r l i g h t weight f u r t h e r e a s e s t r a n s p o r t t o f i e l d s and i n some a r e a s l i f t i n g o f t h e p loughs when t u r n i n g .

Most o t h e r p a r t s of t h i s I n d i a n p lough a r e , however, of poor q u a l i t y . The a n g l e of t h e f r o g o f t e n v a r i e s from p lough t o plough and t h u s a l s o t h e approach a n g l e ( b e t - ween s h a r e and g r o u n d ) . The approach a n g l e i s v i t a l f o r e n s u r i n g p r o p e r e n t r y i n t o t h e s o i l and working s t a b i - l i t y of t h e plough. We saw a number of p loughs where t h e s h a r e f i t t e d v e r y p o o r l y i n t o t h e mouldboard. Some of t h e mouldboards do n o t even comply wi th t h e f u l l s t a n d a r d s i z e . Even t h e s i z e of t h e s t a n d a r d mouldboard i s a l r e a d y a t t h e lower end o f what i s r e q u i r e d f o r good t u r n i n g o f t h e t u r f , which r e s u l t s i n poor weed c o n t r o l .

The c a s t i r o n wheel b r e a k s e a s i l y , and t h e axel-bush- wheel f i t t i n g i s of poor d e s i g n and q u a l i t y . I t wears down a f t e r j u s t a c o u p l e of s e a s o n s ' work, s o t h a t t h e wheel wobbles and s t a r t s t o c u t t h r o u g h t h e wheel shanks o r h o l d e r s . The h i t c h p l a t e s a r e bound t o b r e a k v e r y soon and w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n of a few new p loughs s e e n , l o c a l m a k e s h i f t h i t c h i n g d e v i c e s had been f i t t e d , m o s t l y making t h e s a f e t y hook unusab le and t h u s in- c r e a s i n g t h e danger of damaging t h e plough when h i t t i n g a stump.

The l a n d s i d e wears down q u i c k l y ( a f t e r 2- 3 s e a s o n s ) , t h e wheel f a l l s o f f and t h e lower end of t h e beam con- s e q u e n t l y s t a r t s t o wear up t o t h e l o w e s t b o l t h o l e . When t h a t happens a new plough h a s t o be bought and t h i s wear may t a k e a s l i t t l e a s 5-6 y e a r s i n t h e sandy s o i l a r e a s of S i n g i d a , Nzega, Mwanza, and I r i n g a . Thus, t h e o f f i c i a l e s t i m a t e of an a v e r a g e l i f e - s p a n of t e n y e a r s of a plough no l o n g e r h o l d s , n o t even i n a r e a s w i t h l i g h t v o l c a n i c s o i l s .

The r e a s o n f o r t h i s i s t h a t t h e ploughs a r e o f poor q u a l i t y , t h a t t h e r e h a s been a v i r t u a l s p a r e p a r t (and p lough) s t a r v a t i o n , and t h a t t h e ploughs a r e everywhere used t o t h e i r f u l l c a p a c i t y , i . e . a t a r a t e of some 20-25 a c r e s p e r p lough p e r s e a s o n . Th is f u l l c a p a c i t y u t i l i z a t i o n - which i s o t h e r w i z e a r a r e f e a t u r e i n pre- s e n t d a y Tanzan ia - is main ly a c h i e v e d because it h a s become e x t r e m e l y common f o r two and even t h r e e o r f o u r p e a s a n t househo lds t o c o o p e r a t e i n t h e use of t h e p loughs t h r o u g h t h e p o o l i n g o f oxen (3- 4 oxen a r e re- q u i r e d ) and l a b o u r (2- 3 p e r s o n s ) t o form a whole team. H i r i n g o u t of p loughs and ox- teams is a l s o common b u t l e s s s o t h a n c o o p e r a t i v e p o o l i n g of ox / l abour work t eams .

A s no ted i n t h e f i r s t p a r t o f t h i s c h a p t e r , Ki l imo (Min. o f A g r i c u l t u r e ) c o n v e n t i o n a l l y e s t i m a t e s t h a t 85% of T a n z a n i a ' s c u l t i v a t e d a c r e a g e is c u l t i v a t e d by h o e s , 10% by ox- ploughs and 5% by t r a c t o r s . The t r a c t o r - ploughed a c r e a g e h a s most l i k e l y d e c l i n e d somewhat over r e c e n t y e a r s , due t o unusab le t r a c t o r s , l a c k o f s p a r e s , s h o r t a g e of d i e s e l and h i g h - b u t p r o b a b l y economic - c h a r g e s on h i r i n g t r a c t o r s , which have made p e a s a n t t u r n t o ox- ploughing. According t o t h e M i n i s t e r f o r A g r i c u l t u r e , P r o f e s s o r Machunda, it is now governlnent p o l i c y t o reduce dependency on t h e hoe from 90% of c u l - t i v a t e d a c r e a g e t o 70% by 1990 and down t o 50% by t h e y e a r 2000.

According t o our s u r v e y e v i d e n c e from e i g h t major p lough r e g i o n s ( o n l y Mara, Rukwa and Dodoma were n o t v i s i t e d ) , a r a t e of 20 a c r e s p e r p lough p e r s e a s o n f o r p r imary t i l l a g e i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e p e a s a n t s have a l - ready a c h i e v e d t h e 1990 t a r g e t by a p p l y i n g t h e i r own economies of s c a l e , and q u i t e unguided by government p o l i c i e s o r t a r g e t s . In f a c t , a f l o o d i n g of t h e market w i t h good q u a l i t y p loughs would most l i k e l y , a t l e a s t f o r t h e f i r s t 6-8 y e a r s , i n v o l v e a f u r t h e r expans ion of t h e ox-ploughed a c r e a g e , even w i t h o u t t h e government o r p a r t y hav ing t o ' e d u c a t e ' p e a s a n t s on p o l i c i e s o r t a r g e t s . To c o n c e n t r a t e e f f o r t s on s u p p l y i n g p loughs and o t h e r needed i n p u t s i s p r o b a b l y more p r o d u c t i v e t h a n e d u c a t i n g t h e p e a s a n t s on something t h e y a r e going t o do anyhow.

I n t h e m a j o r p l o u g h i n g r e g i o n s t h e r e is now a v i r t u a l s u r g e f o r p l o u g h s - s t i l l f e t c h i n g b l a c k m a r k e t p r i c e s i n some a r e a s , t h o u g h t h e r e is much more l i m i t e d b l a c k - m a r k e t d e a l i n g t h a n b e f o r e t h e crackdown i n March 1983. T h i s r e g i o n a l demand s h o u l d b e s a t i s f i e d b e f o r e a n y a t t e m p s are made t o i n t r o d u c e p l o u g h s i n t h e c o a s t a l , s o u t h e r n and w e s t e r n r e g i o n s where , on t h e who le , t h e r e are no c a t t l e and no c u l t u r e a n d s k i l l s i n c a t t l e - k e e p i n g . A c u l t u r e o f , and s k i l l s i n , ca t t le - k e e p i n g i s a p r e r e q u i s i t e f o r o x - c u l t i v a t i o n . I t h a s h i s t o r i c a l l y t a k e n t r a d i t i o n a l c a t t l e - k e e p i n g r e g i o n s d e c a d e s t o a d o p t ox- p lough ing . And t h e c u l t u r e and s k i l l s o f c a t t l e - k e e p i n g a r e a c q u i r e d by day- to- day g rowing up w i t h t h e c a t t l e .

T h i s h i s t o r i c a l and c u l t u r a l f a c t i s wor th k e e p i n g i n mind b e f o r e v e n t u r i n g i n t o new r e g i o n s w i t h a p o l i c y o f p r o m o t i n g o x- p l o u g h i n g . O t h e r w i s e , t h e r e i s a d a n g e r t h a t a n y d r a u g h t oxen i n t r o d u c e d w i l l d i e o f t r y p a n o s o - miasis ( t s e t s e ) o r o t h e r d i s e a s e s , o r w i l l b e s l a u g h t e - r e d f o r a p r e c i o u s b e e f f e a s t , and t h e p l o u g h s w i l l r u s t unused - as h a s h a p p e n e d , f o r example , i n L i n d i and Mtwara upon s i m i l a r a t t e m p t s i n t h e 1960s and e a r l y 1970s .

A t t e m p t s a t i n t r o d u c i n g ox- p lough ing s h o u l d n o t b e made i n Kage ra , Mtwara, L i n d i and C o a s t Reg ions . However, it i s p o s s i b l e t h a t Songea D i s t r i c t i n Ruvuma Region w i l l s t a r t t a k i n g t o ox- p lough ing w i t h i n t h e n e x t d e c a d e due t o c h a n g e s i n t h e f a r m i n g s y s t e m t o w a r d s f l a t c u l t i v a - t i o n o f m a i z e , c o m m e r c i a l i z a t i o n o f f o o d c r o p p roduc- t i o n ( m a i z e ) , t h e improved r o a d t o Njombe, more c l e a r - i n g o f b u s h and i n - m i g r a t i o n o f WaBena a n d , we h a v e h e a r d , WaSukuma and t h e i r c a t t l e h e r d s . Some o x- c a r t s f rom Mbeya h a v e a l r e a d y b e e n s o l d i n Songea .

1 .3 .2 The Ox-Drawn R i d g e r ( j e m b e l a m a t u t a ) i s i m p o r t e d b y UFI f rom C o s s u l i n I n d i a . A p a r t f rom t h e r i d g e r b o t t o m , i t s p r o d u c t i o n and d e s i g n is somewhat s i m i l a r t o t h a t o f t h e C o s s u l p l o u g h , w i t h a s h o r t c u r v e d i r o n r a i l beam and a f u r r o w d e p t h whee l , b u t w i t h a d i f f e - r e n t h a n d l e a s s e m b l y , The r i d g e r s h a r e i s a o n e- p i e c e u p s e t s h a r e and a d j u s t a b l e wings a r e f i t t e d t o t h e mou ldboa rds .

I n 1983, UFI o r d e r e d 1 500 r i d g e r s f rom N o r t h l a n d / Zambia under t h e Tan-Zam b a r t e r t r a d e a g r e e m e n t . Of t h e s e , o n l y 200 had b e e n r e c e i v e d and s e n t o u t t o t h e RTC by mid-December, 1983. The team d i d n o t g e t t h e c h a n c e t o i n s p e c t t h e s e r i d g e r s . D e s p i t e a d e l i v e r y a g r e e m e n t , Nor th l and /Ndo la is now u n a b l e t o f u l l f i l t h e s u p p l y s c h e d u l e and h a s a s k e d f o r pos tponemen t o f d e l i - v e r y u n t i l 1985. The company is s a i d t o b e s m a l l e r t h a n UFI.

The r i d g e r i s s t i l l se ldom found on p e a s a n t f a r m s and mos t o f t h o s e s o l d by RTC's o r TFA a r e f o u n d i n I r i n g a (Njombe) , Tabora (Nzega ) , Shinyanga and Mwanza (Kwimba) . The RDD s u r v e y a t t h e end o f 1975 f o u n d 343 r i d g e r s i n r u r a l v i 1 l a g e s . l The F ~ ~ / K i l i m o S u r v e y , con- d u c t e d be tween 1976 and 1978 (Dagg, 19781, r e c o r d e d a t o t a l o f 757 r i d g e r s i n t h e c o u n t r y , w i t h 340 i n i n S h i n y a n g a , 236 i n T a b o r a , 58 i n Mbeya and 23 i n S i n g i d a ( K j z r b y , 1983a: 8 2 ) - 2 I n 1982, UFI s u p p l i e d 375 r i d g e r s o f which 183 wen t t o I r i n g a (The EEC-funded

1 , R i p o t i ya Kamati ya uchunguz i w a m a h i t a j i ya z a n a z a k i l i m o , J a n . 1976 - h e n c e f o r t h r e f e r r e d t o as t h e R e g i o n a l S u r v e y o f 1976, o r t h e RDD S u r v e y .

2 . When t h e t e a m v i s i t e d I l o n g e r o Ox T r a i n i n g C e n t r e ( K i l i m o OTC) i n S i n g i d a i n O c t . 1983, it c o u n t e d 12 unused r i d g e r s r u s t i n g t h e r e .

O x e n i z a t i o n P r o j e c t ) and 96 t o Mwanza and Shinyanga each. ' TISCO (1980) e s t i m a t e d t h a t i n 1982 and 1986 t h e r e would b e a demand f o r 630 and 850 r i d g e r s respec- t i v e l y , based on t h e assumpt ion t h a t t h e r a t i o o f r i d g e r s t o p loughs found i n 1979 would p r e v a i l i n t h e f u t u r e . T h i s method i s n o t r e l i a b l e .

RTC s t o c k s of r i d g e r s where s e e n by t h e team i n Mwanza and Shinyanga and t h e y were a l s o r e p o r t e d a s slow- moving i t e m s o f s t o c k by o t h e r RTC's. Some of t h e s e r i d g e r s l a c k e d e s s e n t i a l p a r t s and most o f them had never been s e n t o u t of c e n t r a l RTC godowns t o r e t a i l o u t l e t s , l e t a l o n e t o v i l l a g e s . Thus t h e y c a n n o t b e s a i d t o have been made a v a i l a b l e t o t h e p e a s a n t s .

Thus, due t o low s u p p l y , l a c k of shop d i s p l a y , l a c k of p a r t s and l a c k o f d e m o n s t r a t i o n on p e a s a n t f a rms and t e s t i n g o f r i d g e r s , t h e ox- farmers i n most v i l l a g e s i n Tanzania have never s e e n r i d g e r s , nor have t h e y had a chance t o buy them. T h i s i s most u n f o r t u n a t e s i n c e t h e r i d g e r i s , w i t h o u t d o u b t , t h e s i n g l e most u s e f u l ox- implement a f t e r t h e plough. I t is a mul t i- purpose implement, p a r t i c u l a r l y u s e f u l f o r i n t e r- r o w c u l t i v a - t i o n ( b o t h f o r t h e f i r s t b u t even b e t t e r f o r t h e second weeding) f o r r i d g e b u i l d i n g and f o r p o t a t o and ground- n u t l i f t i n g . Where l i m i t e d , i n s u f f i c i e n t d e m o n s t r a t i o n h a s been done, p e a s a n t s have complained a b o u t t o o h i g h p r i c e s - a c r i t i c i s m which is h a r d l y j u s t i f i a b l e . U n t i l August 1983, t h e Cossul r i d g e r s have been s o l d a t around t h e same p r i c e a s t h e s i n g l e furrow- ploughs.

However, p e a s a n t s f e e l t h a t t h i s ( c h e a p ) r i d g e r i s t o o e x p e n s i v e , because i t s u s e f u l n e s s h a s n o t been s u f f i - c i e n t l y demons t ra ted t o them, because i t s i n t r o d u c t i o n and u s e i n v o l v e s a complex of new methods , i . e . , row p l a n t i n g w i t h e q u a l s p a c i n g , b e t t e r and more a rduous t r a i n i n g of oxen and u s e of h a l t e r s ( w i t h mouth s t r a p s o r b a s k e t s t o p r e v e n t t h e oxen from e a t i n g t h e s t a n d i n g

1 . UFI Marketing S t a t i s t i c s ,

c r o p , e t c . ) . S e c o n d l y , i n t e r - r o w c u l t i v a t i o n i n v o l v e s a r i s k o f oxen t r a m p l i n g t h e c r o p s , p a r t i c u l a r l y i f t h e y a r e n o t t r a i n e d and p r o p e r l y c o n t r o l l e d . T h i r d l y , f o r t h e p e a s a n t t h e i n v e s t m e n t i n a r i d g e r m i g h t b e more e x p e n s i v e t h a n h i r i n g wage l a b o u r t o d o t h e j o b r i s k - f r e e . F o u r t h l y , a c h e a p r i d g e r m i g h t n o t b e a b l e t o compe te w i t h t h e low c o s t o f h i s own f a m i l y l a b o u r . The r e l a t i v e economics o f t h e two l a t t e r p o i n t s a r e p r e s e n t l y u n d e r g o i n g d r a s t i c c h a n g e s w i t h h i g h u n o f f i - c i a l f o o d c r o p p r i c e s and r i s i n g r u r a l l a b o u r wages .

I n I r i n g a and p a r t i c u a r l y i n Njombe, where t h e r e h a v e b e e n good d e m o n s t r a t i o n s o f r i d g e r s s i n c e 1982, and where r i d g e r s a r e l e n t o u t t o f a r m e r s f r e e o f c h a r g e t o e n c o u r a g e t h e i r u s e , t h e p o p u l a r i t y o f r i d g e r s is r i s i n g r a p i d l y . For example , Mayale OTC (Ox T r a i n i n g C e n t r e ) east o f Makambako (Njombe D i s t r i c t ) h a s o n l y 5 r i d g e r s ( d u e t o l a c k o f s u p p l y f rom UFI) b u t g o t some 200 a d v a n c e b o o k i n g s f rom n e i g h b o u r i n g p e a s a n t s i n t h e 1 9 8 2 / 8 3 weeding s e a s o n , o n e y e a r a f t e r t h e i r i n t r o d u c- t i o n i n t h e a r e a . The I r i n g a P r o j e c t c o u l d s e l l a n i n- c r e a s i n g number o f r i d g e r s , were it n o t f o r l a c k o f s u p p l y . Use o f r i d g e r s i s a l s o p i c k i n g up i n S h i n y a n g a , where t h e World Bank f u n d e d RIDEP is u n d e r t a k i n g p e a s a n t f a rm d e m o n s t r a t i o n s o f equ ipmen t and f i e l d - v i s i t t r a i n i n g o f K i l imo e x t e n s i o n w o r k e r s . I t is u n f o r t u n a t e , and q u i t e a s t o n i s h i n g , t h a t t h e Government h a s d e c i d e d t o r a i s e t h e p r i c e o f r i d g e r s by a l m o s t 300 p e r c e n t t o S h s . 2 ,453/ - a t t h e same t i m e as t h e Government h a s a d o p t e d , and i s c l a i m i n g t o p romote , a p o l i c y o f c o m p r e h e n s i v e o x- m e c h a n i z a t i o n by s u c h s t a t e m e n t s a s : t h e p e a s a n t must a d o p t a f u l l package of e q u i p m e n t . The p r i c e s o f i n t e r - r o w c u l t i v a t o r s and h a r r o w s h a v e a l s o been r a i s e d by 300 p e r c e n t t o s i m i - l a r e x o r b i t a n t l e v e l s .

N e e d l e s s t o s a y , s u c h p r i c e i n c r e a s e s on new i n t e r - m e d i a t e equ ipmen t - which unde r t h e c u r r e n t c i r c u m s t a n- ces c o u l d p r o v i d e t h e n e x t i m p o r t a n t s t e p i n p e a s a n t f a rm m e c h a n i z a t i o n - amounts t o d i s c o u r a g e m e n t o f com- p r e h e n s i v e ox-mechani z a t i o n .

1 . 3 . 3 The Ox-Drawn c u l t i v a t o r ( j e m b e l a K u p a l i l i a ) i s a l s o i m p o r t e d b y UFI f rom C o s s u l / I n d i a . I t s d e s i g n is s imi la r t o t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l a n d outmoded c u l t i v a t o r d e s i g n u s e d by t h e European s e t t l e r f a r m e r s i n e a s t e r n and s o u t h e r n A f r i c a f rom t h e 1920s u n t i l t h e Second World War, when t r a c t o r s r e p l a c e d ox- powered equ ipmen t on t h e l a r g e es ta tes . A l l t h e v a r i o u s f l a t b a r s u s e d a r e steel r o l l e d ( f o r g e d ) . The whee l i s cast i r o n . A

l a r g e number o f d i f f e r e n t n u t s and b o l t s h o l d s t h e c u l t i v a t o r t o g e t h e r .

OX-DRA WN CUL TlVA TOR (COSSU~)

Lever for row width adjustment

Cast iron part for outer tines (breaking) Cast iron part for outer tines (breaking)

T h e r e a r e two m a j o r and u n n e c e s s a r y p r o b l e m s w i t h t h e C o s s u l c u l t i v a t o r . F i r s t o f a l l t h e row-width a d j u s t - ment mechanism, a c t i v a t e d b y p u l l i n g t h e l e v e r , i s an o v e r l y u s e l e s s and s o p h i s t i c a t e d mechanism, i n v o l v i n g f r a g i l e movable p a r t s and a whole r a n g e o f l o o s e l y f i t t e d n u t s and b o l t s - l o o s e enough t o e n a b l e movement o f t h e mechanism b u t a l s o l o o s e enough f o r t h e b o l t s t o wear down and g e t l o s t unde r p e a s a n t f a r m c o n d i t i o n s . S i n c e t h e a d j u s t m e n t mechanism c a n n o t b e o p e r a t e d when t h e c u l t i v a t o r i s work ing , it i s a n u n n e c e s s a r y s o p h i - s t i c a t i o n which l e n d s i t s e l f t o r u s t i n g and b r e a k a g e . S e r v i c i n g and m a i n t e n a n c e o f t h i s c u l t i v a t o r r e q u i r e s f r e q u e n t g r e a s i n g and g r e a s e i s j u s t n o t a v a i l a b l e i n t h e v i l l a g e s .

I n a l l t h e West A f r i c a n c o u n t r i e s ( S e n e g a l , The Gambia , S i e r r a L e o n e , Mali, Upper V o l t a , N i g e r i a , e t c ) w h e r e o x - c u l t i v a t i o n h a s p r o g r e s s e d w e l l b e y o n d t h e s t a g e o f T a n z a n i a , t h e d e s i g n s u s e d a n d m o s t w i d e l y a d o p t e d o n p e a s a n t f a r m s , i n v o l v e t i n e s f i x e d t o a n d a d j u s t a b l e f o r row w i d t h b y m e a n s o f c l a m p i n g s y s t e m s f i x e d t o T- f r a m e s o f r e c t a n g u l a r o r s q u a r e s t e e l beams ( o f t h e S i n e H O U ~ , t h e M u l t i - C u l t i v a t e u r , t h e P e c o t o o l , e t c ) . T h i s g i v e s s t r e n g t h , d u r a b i l i t y , s i m p l e n e s s a n d c h e a p- n e s s .

T h e o t h e r p r o b l e m , c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e f i r s t o n e , i s t h a t t h e t w o o u t e r r o w- s i d e t i n e s a r e f i t t e d t o t h e s t e e l b a r f r a m e b y m e a n s o f a cas t i r o n p i e c e w h i c h c a n b e t u r n e d a l o n g i t s v e r t i c a l a x i s t o e n a b l e p r o p e r r e - a d j u s t m e n t o f t h e t i n e c u t t i n g a n g l e , w h e n e v e r t h e c u l - t i v a t o r ' s row w i d t h i s a d j u s t e d . I n a l l p l a c e s v i s i t e d b y t h e t e a m t h i s cast i r o n p i e c e was r e p o r t e d t o b r e a k a n d n o s p a r e s a r e a v a i l a b l e . U n l e s s a w e l d i n g s e r v i c e i s w i t h i n r e a c h , t h e i m p l e m e n t h a s t o b e s c r a p p e d - s o m e t h i n g w h i c h is n o t p o p u l a r among t h e p e a s a n t s who h a v e made t h e i n v e s t m e n t . And a w e l d i n g s e r v i c e i s m o s t l y n o t w i t h i n r e a c h i n t h e r u r a l a r e a s .

L i k e t h e C o s s u l R i d g e r , t h e i n t e r - r o w c u l t i v a t o r i s a f a i r l y l i g h t i m p l e m e n t . L i g h t - w e i g h t o x- i m p l e m e n t s a r e h i g h l y v a l u e d among t h e p e a s a n t s , a n d o b j e c t i v e l y t h i s i s a l s o m o s t a p p r o p r i a t e , d u e t o t h e v e r y - a n d i n - c r e a s i n g l y s o - s m a l l s i z e o f d r a u g h t o x e n i n m o s t p a r t s o f T a n z a n i a , a n d a l s o b e c a u s e young b o y s a n d e v e n women a r e i n c r e a s i n g l y o p e r a t i n g t h e i m p l e m e n t s . The l i g h t w e i g h t i s a l s o a n a d v a n t a g e i n t r a n s p o r t s a n d when making t u r n s a t t h e h e a d l a n d s . B u t t h i s d o e s n o t c h a n g e t h e f a c t t h a t t h e i m p l e m e n t i s t o o f r a g i l e , o v e r l y s o p h i s t i c a t e d a n d t o o e x p e n s i v e f o r T a n z a n i a n p e a s a n t f a r m c o n d i t i o n s .

L i k e t h e r i d g e r , t h e c u l t i v a t o r i s s t i l l a r a r e i m p l e- ment o n p e a s a n t f a r m s , w i t h m o s t o f t h o s e s o l d b y RTC's a n d TFA i n N j o m b e / I r i n g a a n d i n S h i n y a n g a . The R e g i o n a l S u r v e y o f 1976 r e c o r d e d 2 0 4 c u l t i v a t o r s i n r u r a l a r e a s . The f i g u r e s f r o m t h e FAO/Kilimo S u r v e y ( 1 9 7 6 - 7 8 ) c a n n o t b e u s e d s i n c e t h e r e p o r t ( D a g g , 1 9 7 8 ) l u m p s

weeders ( c u l t i v a t o r s ) and harrows t o g e t h e r i n one c a t e - g o r y . Of t h e 5 999 i t e m s i n t h i s c a t e g o r y , 5 291 were r e c o r d e d t o be found i n Aru-Meru D i s t r i c t , a f i g u r e t o t a l l y o u t o f p r o p o r t i o n b o t h w i t h r e a l i t y and w i t h t h e f i g u r e s g i v e n i n t h e t a b l e f o r o t h e r p a r t s o f t h e c o u n t r y ( f o r f u r t h e r d e t a i l s , s e e Kjaerby, 1983 :82) .

1.3.4 Harrows and P l a n t e r s

The ox-drawn harrow ( ' h a r r o ' ) i s found i n two main t y p e s i n Tanzan ia . The f i r s t t y p e of harrow, produced m a i n l y by TAMTU and by t h e Mafinga Workshop i n I r i n g a i s a r e c t a n g u l a r o r a n g u l a r wooden beam s p i k e- t o o t h ha r row. The second t y p e is a factory- made s p i k e- t o o t h harrow w i t h a r e c t a n g u l a r s t e e l f r a m e imported by UFI from C o s s u l , I n d i a . L ike t h e Cossul c u l t i v a t o r , it is an o v e r l y s o p h i s t i c a t e d implement on which s p i k e d t i n e s ( f o r g e d ) can be l i f t e d i n h o r i z o n t a l p o s i t i o n by p u l l i n g a l e v e r s o a s t o a l l o w c o l l e c t e d weeds t o s l i d e o f f t h e s p i k e s and t o e a s e t r a n s p o r t t o t h e f i e l d s .

I n 1983, UFI o r d e r e d 5 000 z i g z a g s p i k e- t o o t h harrows from Nor th land Engineer ing i n Zambia under t h e Tan-Zam b a r t e r agreement . These harrows a r e of t h e more s i m p l e and c o n v e n t i o n a l z i g z a g d e s i g n w i t h f a i r l y smal l s e c- t i o n s of a p p r o p r i a t e s i z e , which can be a t t a c h e d t o e a c h o t h e r t o e x t e n d t h e width and l e n g t h o f c u l t i v a - t i o n . By December 1983, o n l y 7 5 ha r rows had been r e c e i v e d and s e n t t o RTC's. I t i s d o u b t f u l whether r e - c e i v i n g RTC's a c t u a l l y s e n t f i r m o r d e r s on harrows t o UFI s i n c e many of them have non-moving s t o c k s of Cossul harrows which a r e i m p o s s i b l e t o s e l l .

RECTANGULAR HARROW (Spike Tooth) The TAMTU harrow was d e s c r i b e d i n d e t a i l by Kjzerby (1983) . The main problems wi th t h e harrow a r e t h a t it i s t o o heavy, t o o d i f f i c u l t t o o p e r a t e and t o o expens ive f o r be ing a s ing le- purpose i m- plement of l i m i t e d

Price: (retail) (as at 1.5.80) Tsh 700.00 ($86.00) u t i l i t y .

The C o s s u l h a r r o w h a s many a d j u s t a b l e p a r t s , some o f which t e n d t o b r e a k . The ex-RTC p r i c e o f b o t h t h e C o s s u l and t h e Zambian h a r r o w s was r a i s e d f rom 1 ,000/ - t o 3 ,323/ - s h i l l i n g s i n August 1983.

T h e r e a r e e x t r e m e l y f ew h a r r o w s a c t u a l l y b e i n g u s e d on p e a s a n t f a r m s i n T a n z a n i a . Whatever t h e d e s i g n , t h e y h a v e n o t been a d o p t e d , d e s p i t e t h e i r a v a i l a b i l i t y . The s t a t i s t i c s t e n d t o h i d e t h i s f a c t . The RDD s u r v e y ( e n d o f 1975) r e c o r d e d a t o t a l o f 1 576 h a r r o w s i n r u r a l v i l l a g e s , o f wh ich 1 153 were s u p p o s e d t o b e i n Mbeya Region a n d 188 i n Arusha . These f i g u r e s a r e most l i k e l y o v e r e s t i m a t e s . Between 1971 a n d 1978 TAMTU p r o d u c e d o n l y 5 3 wooden beam h a r r o w s , and p r o b a b l y a s i m i l a r number were p r o d u c e d a t TAMTU1s R u r a l C r a f t Workshops (Kjaerby a : 1 0 6 ) . Most o f t h e s e h a r r o w s are found a t Ox T r a i n i n g C e n t r e s and a t d i s t r i c t a g r i c u l t u r a l o f f i c e s .

The f i g u r e s f rom t h e FAO/Kilimo S u r v e y (Dagg 1978) a r e a l s o e x a g g e r a t e d : 5 999 h a r r o w s i n t h e c o u n t r y , o f which 5 291 were s u p p o s e d t o b e i n Arusha and now o n l y 122 i n Mbeya. Between 1978 and 1980 , TFA i n Njombe s o l d 72 C o s s u l h a r r o w s a n d TFA i n I r i n g a s o l d 24 . Njombe i s a f a i r l y humid h i g h l a n d a r e a w i t h some wheat c u l t i v a - t i o n , a n d t h e u s e o f h a r r o w s h e r e i s p r o b a b l y j u s t i f i e d - a l t h o u g h t h e r e a r e no p r o p e r r e s e a r c h r e s u l t s t o con- f i r m t h i s .

The I r i n g a O x e n i z a t i o n P r o j e c t h a s s o l d v e r y f ew o f i t s p o o r l y d e s i g n e d t r i a n g u l a r h a r r o w s . Even i n t h e immedia t e v i c i n i t y o f OTC1s, v e r y f ew f a r m e r s a re i n t e - r e s t e d i n b o r r o w i n g h a r r o w s f r e e o f c h a r g e . I n 1982/83 h a r r o w s were d i s t r i b u t e d on c r e d i t f rom TRDB. A s n o t e d by t h e w e l l- i n f o r m e d R e g i o n a l O x e n i z a t i o n O f f i c e r , Mr Masunga, " I t is v e r y e a s y f o r p e a s a n t s t o a c c e p t imple- m e n t s on c r e d i t t e r m s " .

I t is f a r f rom e v e r y w h e r e t h a t t h e h a r r o w c a n b e con- s i d e r e d a n a p p r o p r i a t e and improved implement i n T a n z a n i a n p e a s a n t f a r m i n g s y s t e m s . C e r t a i n l y , t h e r e is a much g r e a t e r need f o r , and a l s o b e n e f i t i n i n t r o d u c - i n g , a p p r o p r i a t e m u l t i p u r p o s e r i d g e r s and c u l t i v a t o r s ,

p r e f e r a b l y a s t o o l b a r a t t a c h e m e n t s , b e f o r e u s i n g l i m i t e d man-power and s c a r c e r e s o u r c e s on i n t r o d u c i n g harrows.

Harrows may be a p p r o p r i a t e and have some j u s t i f i c a t i o n i n t h e w e t h i g h l a n d a r e a s , i n p a r t i c u l a r on non- sloping l a n d . On s l o p e s , harrowing may s imply i n c r e a s e e r o s i o n and wate r run- off b e c a u s e of t h e f i n e f l a t seedbed c r e a t e d . Again, harrowing b e f o r e p l a n t i n g may c o n t r i - b u t e t o b e t t e r and f a s t e r s e e d g e r m i n a t i o n of wheat , sorghum and f i n g e r m i l l e t , b u t n o t n e c e s s a r i l y f o r maize . Harrowing may improve weed c o n t r o l i f done d u r i n g a d r y s p e l l b u t it may a l s o i n c r e a s e weed germi- n a t i o n i f done d u r i n g a w e t s p e l l .

I n t h e d r y- l a n d a r e a s of Shinyanga, S i n g i d a , Arusha and Plbeya, ha r rowing may b e i n a p p r o p r i a t e . Weeds a r e c o l l e c t e d , i n s t e a d o f b e i n g l e f t on t h e ground as mulch f o r p r e v e n t i n g s u n b u r n i n g , s o i l capp ing by r a i n and e v a p o r a t i o n . Thus harrowing may c a u s e y i e l d s t o d e c l i n e i n t h e d r i e r a r e a s . Harrows s h o u l d n o t be promoted un- til l o c a l - s p e c i f i c a d a p t i v e e x p e r i m e n t a l r e s e a r c h on p e a s a n t f a rms i n d i f f e r e n t a r e a s shows t h a t harrowing i s a g r o n o m i c a l l y a p p r o p r i a t e and e c o n o m i c a l l y j u s t i f i e d .

Harrowing is a n e c e s s a r y p r e- c o n d i t i o n f o r us ing ox- drawn s e e d d r i l l s . Some q u a l i f i e d a t t e m p t s t o p l a n t w i t h s e e d d r i l l s of t h e Cossul and TAMTU d e s i g n s have f a i l e d a t OTC's i n I r i n g a . The TAMTU d e s i g n does n o t work, and t h e e x t r e m e l y e x p e n s i v e and s o p h i s t i c a t e d th ree- row s e e d d r i l l from Cossul is i n s u f f i c i e n t l y r o b u s t . Most OTC's i n I r i n g a have s topped u s i n g p l a n t e r S.

TA MTU QX-DRA WN PLANTER

Price: (as l .l .80) Tsh. 1500.00 ($185.00)

E x p e r i e n c e f rom most A f r i c a n c o u n t r i e s g e n e r a l l y con- f i r m t h a t ox-drawn p l a n t e r s a r e , b y t h e i r v e r y t e c h n i - c a l n a t u r e , s o p h i s t i c a t e d and e x p e n s i v e imp lemen t s w i t h many d e l i c a t e movable p a r t s which t e n d t o b r e a k , damage t h e s e e d s o r c l o g .

T h e i r u s a g e r e q u i r e s a smooth s e e d b e d o f a c e r t a i n ( d r y ) m o i s t u r e l e v e l as w e l l as h i g h q u a l i t y g r a d e d s e e d s o f good g e r m i n a t i o n power . The t e c h n i c a l p rob lems o f ox-drawn s e e d e r s r e q u i r e a n advanced s e r v i c i n g l e v e l . Under T a n z a n i a n c o n d i t i o n s , a l l t h e s e f a c t o r s make ox-drawn s e e d i n g a n e x p e n s i v e t e c h n o l o g i c a l complex which is u n l i k e l y t o b e a d o p t e d . G e n e r a l l y , t h e f a i r l y l i m i t e d t i m e u s e d i n p l a n t i n g ( e x c e p t f o r f i n g e r m i l l e t ) , t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e f a c t t h a t t h e p l a n t e r is a s i n g l e p u r p o s e implement means t h a t p l a n t e r s a r e l a r g e l y u n a b l e t o r e l i e v e l a b o u r b o t t l e - n e c k s i n A f r i - c a n p e a s a n t f a r m i n g . More i m p o r t a n t , and as c o n f i r m e d i n mos t o t h e r A f r i c a n c o u n t r i e s w i t h advanced o x - c u l t i - v a t i o n ( e . g . The Gambia, S e n e g a l , S i e r r a Leone, Upper V o l t a ) , p l a n t e r s a r e u n a b l e t o e n s u r e economic r e t u r n s on t h e i n v e s t m e n t made. A good number o f p e a s a n t s i n t h e Gambia and Upper V o l t a h a v e been pushed i n t o indeb- t e d n e s s t h r o u g h f o r e i g n d o n o r a n d l o c a l gove rnmen t e f f o r t s t o p romote t h e s o - c a l l e d c o m p r e h e n s i v e p a c k a g e o f ox- equipment t o f a r m e r s on a c r e d i t b a s i s .

1.4 V i l l a g e V i s i t s

1 . 4 . 1 I n t r o d u c t i o n and Methodology

The p u r p o s e o f t h e v i l l a g e v i s i t s was t o g e t a f i r s t hand i m p r e s s i o n o f t h e p e a s a n t s ' t o o l i n v e n t o r i e s , t h e s t a t e o f t h e t o o l s i n u s e , t h e u s a g e p a t t e r n s a n d p e a s a n t s ' own o p i n i o n s as t o t h e a v a i l a b i l i t y o f t o o l s f rom r u r a l b l a c k s m i t h s and f rom t h e f o r m a l and i n f o r m a l d i s t r i b u t i o n s y s t e m s . Our o b s e r v a t i o n s were r e l a t e d t o t h e knowledge and e x p e r i e n c e o f t h e R e g i o n a l A g r i c u l - t u r a l Development O f f i c e r s , RTC and v i l l a g e s h o p mana- g e r s , and v i l l a g e l e a d e r s . A t a l m o s t a l l i n t e r v i e w s s e v e r a l p e a s a n t s were p r e s e n t . Each i n t e r v i e w was con-

c l u d e d by g e t t i n g g e n e r a l consensus on l i f e - s p a n o f implements , a v e r a g e househo ld r e q u i r e m e n t s , s h o r t a g e s , e t c .

The s u r v e y was conduc ted a s a r a p i d r u r a l a p p r a i s a l ( R o b e r t Chambers ( 1980 Rapid Rura l A p p r a i s a l : R a t i o n a l and R e p e r t o i r e , Development Paper No 155, IDS Sussex) on t h e g e n e r a l farm implements s i t u a t i o n i n 9 s e l e c t e d r e g i o n s . A s f a r a s w e a r e in formed , such a t y p e o f farm implements s u r v e y i s t h e f i r s t of i t s k i n d i n Tanzan ia . D e s p i t e b e i n g s p o t c h e c k s , we b e l i e v e t h a t t h i s r a p i d s u r v e y methodology h a s y i e l d e d u s e f u l r e s u l t s and may have r e l e v a n c e f o r o t h e r u s e r s . The methodology used i s d e s c r i b e d i n Appendix 2 : . The d e t a i l e d r e s u l t s of our i n t e r v i e w s and d i s c u s s i o n s were recorded i n Appendix 4:1 of t h e o r i g i n a l r e p o r t .

1 . 4 . 2 Main C o n c l u s i o n s from V i l l a g e V i s i t s

Although we would l i k e t o c a u t i o n a g a i n s t t o o f a r - r e a c h i n g c o n c l u s i o n s based on our m a t e r i a l (we u s e t h e t e r m r a p i d r u r a l a p p r a i s a l r a t h e r t h a n v i l l a g e s u r v e y s - and w e know t h a t many of t h e p e a s a n t s we d i s c u s s e d w i t h were r e l a t i v e l y w e l l - o f f , and n o t r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of " t h e a v e r a g e s m a l l - s c a l e f a r m e r " ) our f i n d i n g s seem t o c o n f i r m t h e f o l l o w i n g :

- Household t o o l i n v e n t o r i e s c o n s i s t of 3 t o 4 h o e s ,

1 t o 2 m a t c h e t s , u s u a l l y one a x e , and implements s p e c i a l i z e d f o r t h e c r o p s l o c a l l y grown.

- There w i l l no rmal ly be a t l e a s t one hoe f o r e a c h ab le- bodied household member; t h e man u s i n g t h e h e a v i e s t ( a n d newes t ) and t h e female a more worn hoe f o r p r imary c u l t i v a t i o n and weeding, and c h i l d r e n u s i n g even more worn h o e s f o r weeding.

- The wear of h o e s is b a s i c a l l y a f u n c t i o n of t h e a b r a s i v e n e s s of t h e s o i l , t h e i n t e n s i t y of use and q u a l i t y . Around Mwanza, f o r example , w i t h s t r o n g l y a b r a s i v e sandy s o i l s and i n t e n s i v e u s e , a hoe f o r

p r i m a r y c u l t i v a t i o n w i l l l a s t as l i t t l e as one s e a s o n , whereas a round K i l i m a n j a r o and Mbeya, where v o l c a n i c s o i l s domina te , a hoe may s e r v e t h i s purpose f o r 3-4 y e a r s .

- A matche t w i l l l a s t a t l e a s t 4 y e a r s b e f o r e a r e- p lacement i s c o n s i d e r e d n e c e s s a r y ( e v e n i f t h e h a n d l e w i l l o f t e n have t o b e r e p a i r e d e a r l i e r ) .

- W e b e l i e v e t h a t it is i m p o r t a n t t o s t u d y r e g i o n a l p r e f e r e n c e s f o r t y p e s of h o e s and hoe usage . The round-eyed hoe (which comes i n 3 s i z e s ) i s wide ly u s e d , b u t t h e t a n g e d hoe is p r e f e r r e d i n t h e s o u t h e r n h i g h l a n d s and o t h e r a r e a s . The s t r e n g t h o f p r e f e r e n c e v a r i e s s o t h a t i n sou thwes t I r i n g a , f o r i n s t a n c e , p e a s a n t s w i l l p u r c h a s e and u s e round-eyed h o e s i f t h e t anged h o e s a r e n o t a v a i- l a b l e , whereas i n Rungwe d i s t r i c t o n l y t a n g e d hoes a r e a c c e p t a b l e . I t is i m p o r t a n t t h a t t h e marke t ing o f t h i s t y p e of implement i s based on more d e t a i l - e d i n v e s t i g a t i o n s o f t h e p r e f e r e n c e s t h a n what we have been a b l e t o make.

- I n c e r t a i n a r e a s s p e c i a l weeding h o e s ( s u c h a s t h e

impor ted factory- made half-moon hoe o r s m a l l hoes made by b l a c k s m i t h s ) a r e i n demand, whereas i n o t h e r a r e a s worn down hoes s e r v e t h i s purpose .

- Factory-made h o e s and m a t c h e t s domina te , b u t i n a r e a s of s c a r c i t y ( o r s t r o n g b l a c k s m i t h t r a d i t i o n ) l o c a l l y made h o e s a r e o f t e n found. A s f a r a s a x e s a r e concerned , b l a c k s m i t h s make l i g h t e r t y p e s , whereas t h e h e a v i e r a r e impor ted . L o c a l l y s p e c i a- l i z e d implements , such a s b i l l - h o o k s , s i c k l e s and many o t h e r s a r e normal ly made by b l a c k s m i t h s .

- T h e s t a t e o f w e a r i ~ g e n e r a l l y r a t h e r h i g h ~ b u t i t would n o t be c o r r e c t t o s a y t h a t t h e r e i s a " t o o l famine" a s o t h e r s t u d i e s have conc luded .

- There i s a marked p r e f e r e n c e f o r factory- made implements. However, many p e a s a n t s complain abou t t h e q u a l i t y of UFI-hoes ( t h e h e a t- t r e a t m e n t i s n o t p r o p e r l y done , r e s u l t i n g i n r a p i d w e a r ) .

- Repair of broken implements is n o r m a l l y done l o c a l l y by b l a c k s m i t h s . A t a n g i s o f t e n r i v e t t e d t o t h e hoe- blade when t h e e y e h a s b roken o f f .

- We a r e convinced t h a t i n most cases money is no r e s t r i c t i o n t o t h e p e a s a n t i f he h a s t h e oppor tu- n i t y t o buy new implements.

A s h a s been e l a b o r a t e d i n o t h e r s t u d i e s , t h e u s e o f oxen f o r d r a u g h t p u r p o s e s is r e s t r i c t e d t o c e r t a i n a r e a s . The s t a t e of t h e p r e s e n t n a t i o n a l s t o c k of ox- p loughs i s r a t h e r bad , as t h e s h o r t a g e o f s p a r e p a r t s is s e v e r e . C e r t a i n plough p a r t s such a s s h a r e s , l and- s i d e s , c h a i n s , b o l t s / n u t s , wheel assembly p a r t s , r i g h t h a n d l e s , e t c . , a r e i n v e r y g r e a t demand.

1 . 4 . 3 The Impact o f t h e Farm Implements S h o r t a g e on P r o d u c t i v i t y

I n t e r v i e w s w i t h p e a s a n t househo lds were i n most c a s e s completed by d i s c u s s i n g t h e g e n e r a l farm implements s i t u a t i o n i n t e r m s of t o o l i n v e n t o r i e s , a v e r a g e house- h o l d r e q u i r e m e n t s , usage p a t t e r n , s h o r t a g e s i t u a t i o n and t h e q u a n t i t y of implements p a s s i n g t h r o u g h v i l l a g e s h o p s , t h e black- market s i t u a t i o n , e tc . Fur the rmore , t h e impact o f t h e s h o r t a g e s i t u a t i o n and t h e poor con- d i t i o n o f t h e implements were d i s c u s s e d . I n c r e a s e d t i m e and d r u d g e r y of l a b o u r were everywhere ment ioned a s having become a b i g problem. I n a d d i t i o n , poor t i l l a g e of t o o low d e p t h was ment ioned a s a problem. There was a t e n d e n c y t o s a y t h a t t h e a c r e a g e c u l t i v a t e d had gone down i n such t e r m s as: "Well , i f we do n o t g e t h o e s , how can we c u l t i v a t e ? " However, when s p e c i f i c a l l y asked whether t h e a c r e a g e c u l t i v a t e d had d e c l i n e d i n t h i s v e r y v i l l a g e o r whether t h i s had happened f o r t h o s e p r e s e n t , t h e r e were g e n e r a l l y no c l e a r c u t answers o r examples , and t h e r e was r e l u c t a n c e t o r e p l y .

Th is makes u s conc lude t h a t t h e r e h a s n o t been a s e v e r e t o o l f amine , b u t t h e g e n e r a l s h o r t a g e and poor condi- t i o n of t o o l s may have had a n e g a t i v e impact on y i e l d s because of poor t i l l a g e and because more d r u d g e r y h a s been i n v o l v e d , which f u r t h e r c o n s t r a i n s peak l a b o u r p e r i o d s i n p r imary c u l t i v a t i o n and weeding. Regarding

ploughs , t h e r e h a s been a v i r t u a l famine o f p loughs and s p a r e p a r t s , p a r t l y because of t h e i n c r e a s i n g demand f o r p loughs and p a r t l y because t h e c u l t i v a t i o n f a c t o r p e r p lough i s v e r y h i g h a t p r e s e n t .

E s s e n t i a l p a r t s l i k e s h a r e s , l a n d s i d e s , wheel a s s e m b l i e s , e t c . , have been more o r l e s s i m p o s s i b l e t o g e t f o r most plough owners , making many p loughs u n f i t f o r c u l t i v a t i o n and weed c o n t r o l . I f more p loughs and s p a r e p a r t s had been a v a i l a b l e , a l a r g e r p o t e n t i a l a c r e a g e c o u l d have been c u l t i v a t e d . Whether t h i s c o u l d have r a i s e d t h e t o t a l o u t p u t i s a n open q u e s t i o n , w i t h less c l e a r - c u t answers , and dependent on a number of f a c t o r s , n o t l e a s t t h e a v a i l a b i l i t y of l a b o u r f o r weeding a l a r g e r a c r e a g e a t t h e r i g h t t i m e . F u r t h e r- more, t h e amount and d i s t r i b u t i o n of r a i n f a l l , t h e i n c i d e n c e of weeds and c r o p p e s t s , t h e q u a l i t y o f s e e d s , t h e a p p l i c a t i o n of f e r t i l i z e r s o r manure and n o t l e a s t , c r o p p r i c e s , a r e among t h e f a c t o r s which w i l l i n f l u e n c e t o t a l o u t p u t i n a more d i r e c t way t h a n a v a i- l a b i l i t y of p loughs . T h i s means t h a t t h e r e w i l l n o t be a boom i n t h e o u t p u t of c r o p s even i f t h e r e i s a boom i n t h e s u p p l y o f p loughs .

1 . 4 . 4 Summary o f Household Tool I n v e n t o r y and Requirements and t h e Genera l Supply S i t u a t i o n

I n t h i s s e c t i o n we have made a r e g i o n a l summary o f our v i l l a g e v i s i t s and i n t e r v i e w s . Th is summary i n c l u d e s b r i e f s on ( 1 ) t h e farming sys tems and predominant s o i l s ; ( 2 ) common household t o o l i n v e n t o r i e s f o r factory- made implements , i n c l u d i n g t h e a v e r a g e l i f e span of t h e implements and a v e r a g e household purchase r e q u i r e m e n t s ; ( 3 ) t h e g e n e r a l s h o r t a g e and s u p p l y s i t u a t i o n f o r farm implements , i n c l u d i n g b r i e f s on t h e r o l e o r l i q u i d i t y p o s i t i o n of v i l l a g e shops and t h e r o l e of b l a c k s m i t h s f o r supp ly ing farm implements.

Tab le 1 . 3 p r e s e n t s an overview of t h e number of s p e c i - f i c fa rmer i n t e r v i e w s by r e g i o n , d i s t r i c t and by socio- economic s t r a t u m t o which t h e f a r m e r s o r house- h o l d s belong :

T a b l e 1 . 3 Overview of Farmer I n t e r v i e w s

Number o f i n t e r v i e w s , P l o u g h

Reg ion D i s t r i c t owner s R i c h Average Poor T o t a l

C o a s t R u f i j i - - 1 - 1

S i n g i d a S i n g i d a R u r a l 2 - 4 - 4

T a b o r a Nzega 2 1 1 - 2

S h i n y a n g a G e n e r a l I n f o r m a t i o n - - - - -

Mwanza Mag U 3 3 - - 3

Ar u s h a Hanang - 1 - 2 3

K i l iman- Moshi j a r o R u r a l - 1 - 1 2

I r i n g a Nj ombe 2 ( 9 - 3 $ g ) - 3

Mbeya -- Tukuyu l 2 -p-

- 4 2 --

9 r e g i o n s t o t a l s 10 8 1 1 3 22

( g ) = grol l - f a r m e r i n t e r v i e w

The i n t e r i i e w s w i t h 22 f a r m e r s i n 9 r e g i o n s c a n n o t p ro- v i d e a s c i e n t i f i c o r r e p r e s e n t a t i v e b a s i s f o r g e n e r a l i - z i n g on h o u s e h o l d t o o l r e q u i r e m e n t s and w e recommend t h a t a more g e n e r a l and w i d e r m a r k e t s u r v e y i s under- t a k e n t o s u b s t a n t i a t e r e q u i r e m e n t s . Such a s u r v e y s h o u l d i n p a r t i c u l a r c o v e r d i f f e r e n t a r e a s o f e n v i r o n- m e n t a l t y p e s and f a r m i n g s y s t e m s s e l e c t e d on t h e b a s i s o f g e n e r a l s o i l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ( w i t h s o i l a b r a s i v e n e s s a s t h e main f a c t o r ) and on g e n e r a l t o o l t y p e p r e f e r e n - c e s a s w e l l as t o o l - c r o p s p e c i f i c i t y .

Our b a s i s f o r g e n e r a l i z a t i o n stems from t h e f o l l o w i n g f a c t o r s :

1. D i s c u s s i o n s w i t h m a r k e t i n g o r g a n i z a t i o n s , r e g i o n a l , d i s t r i c t and l o c a l a u t h o r i t i e s . Our f a r m e r i n t e r v i e w r e s u l t s g e n e r a l l y c o r r e s p o n d w i t h o f f i c i a l i n f o r m a t i o n , i n p a r t i c u l a r w i t h t h a t o f l o c a l o f f i c i a l s .

2 . Each h o u s e h o l d i n t e r v i e w w a s c o m p l e t e d w i t h a g e n e r a l d i s c u s s i o n w i t h g r o u p s o f f a r m e r s p r e s e n t t o g e t g e n e r a l c o n s e n s u s . Two i n t e r v i e w s i n d i f f e r e n t a r e a s o f I r i n g a were g r o u p i n t e r v i e w s , a n d t h e s e a r e much more u s e f u l as a b a s i s f o r g e n e r a l i z a t i o n , a l t h o u g h d e t a i l s o f r e p a i r , b r e a k a g e , s p e c i a l t o o l s , e t c . are l a c k i n g .

3 . The l i f e s p a n o f mos t i m p l e m e n t s , i n p a r t i c u l a r o f h o e s , s h a r e s and m a t c h e t s , is g e n e r a l l y s o s h o r t t h a t it l e a v e s l i t t l e room f o r i n t r a - d i s t r i c t v a r i a n c e i n t i m e .

4 . I n mos t cases w e h a v e t r i e d t o c o n f i r m o u r d a t a t h r o u g h d i s c u s s i o n s w i t h o t h e r p e o p l e , m e t more o r less a c c i d e n t a l l y d u r i n g o u r 2 1 / 2 months s t a y i n T a n z a n i a .

5 . G e n e r a l i z a t i o n s a r e , l a s t o f a l l , b a s e d on o u r g e n e r a l a n d s p e c i f i c knowledge o f t h e f a r m i n g s y s t e m s and s o i l c o n d i t i o n s i n t h e d i f f e r e n t a r e a s . T h i s a p p l i e s i n p a r t i c u l a r t o C o a s t , K i l i - m a n j a r o , Arusha and S i n g i d a r e g i o n s .

C o n t r a r y t o t h e g e n e r a l un- informed g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s made i n t h e TISCO R e p o r t ( 1 9 8 0 ) , o u r d a t a a r e b a s e d on a me thodo logy , a c t u a l v i s i t s i n t h e f i e l d and l e n g t h y i n t e r v i e w s .

C o a s t R e g i o n , R u f i j i D i s t r i c t , I k w i r i r i V i l l a g e I n t h e d i s t r i c t t h e r e i s i n t e n s i v e d o u b l e- c r o p p i n g o f r i c e , m a i z e , c o t t o n and cow-peas on a l l u v i a l c l a y s o i l s i n t h e f l o o d p l a i n s ; a n d u p l a n d s h i f t i n g c u l t i v a t i o n on s a n d y s o i l s w i t h c a s s a v a , p i g e o n- p e a s and se same and a mixed , p e r e n n i a l m o s a i c o f f r u i t t r e e s and c a s h e w n u t s , w i t h low t i l l i n g i n t e n s i t y . I n t h e whole d i s t r i c t and

i n o t h e r c o a s t a l r e g i o n s , t h e r e is i n t e n s i v e use o f a x e s , m a t c h e t s and i n d i g e n o u s b i l l - h o o k s f o r c l e a r i n g f i e l d s and f o r c h a r c o a l p r o d u c t i o n .

An a v e r a g e househo ld w i t h two ab le- bodied p e r s o n s c u l - t i v a t e s some 2-3 a c r e s w i t h a t o o l i n v e n t o r y o f 1- 2 l a r g e h o e s ( m o s t l y R/E), two m a t c h e t s ( t h e r e is a pre- f e r e n c e f o r c u r v e d ) and 1-2 a x e s (R/E o r i n d i g e n o u s t a n g e d ) . A l a r g e hoe l a s t s a t leas t 3-4 y e a r s , m a t c h e t s t h e same and a x e s some 5-7 y e a r s . A household needs t o buy 2 new hoes e v e r y 4 t h y e a r o r 1 new hoe e v e r y 2-3 y e a r s , a new matche t e v e r y 2nd y e a r and a t l e a s t one axe e v e r y 5 t h- 6 t h y e a r . These f i g u r e s a r e approxima- t i o n s and n o t g e n e r a l l y conf i rmed .

The s u p p l y of blacksmith-made t o o l s is v e r y i m p o r t a n t and may a f f e c t t h e r a t e o f p u r c h a s e of factory- made t o o l s . There is a s h o r t a g e of l a r g e h o e s and a s e v e r e s h o r t a g e of m a t c h e t s and a x e s . There is l a c k o f v i l l a g e shop l i q u i d i t y f o r p r o c u r i n g implements.

S i n g i d a Region, S i n g i d a R u r a l D i s t r i c t , Utaho &

S e k o t u r e V i l l a g e T h i s i s a semi- ar id r e g i o n w i t h main ly poor sandy s o i l s and more l i m i t e d c u l t i v a t i o n on b l a c k c o t t o n c l a y s . There i s s m a l l - r i d g e fa rming o f b u l l r u s h m i l l e t and sorghum w i t h manuring. I n t h e n o r t h e r n p a r t s of t h e r e g i o n t h e r e a r e sandy t o c l a y loams w i t h ox- ploughing and manuring of maize , sorghum, b u l l r u s h m i l l e t , c o t t o n and s u n f l o w e r .

An a v e r a g e household w i t h two ab le- bodied p e r s o n s c u l - t i v a t e s some 3-5 a c r e s , i n t h e n o r t h where ox- ploughs a r e used t h i s i n c r e a s e s t o 6-7 a c r e s . The household h a s two l a r g e R/E h o e s , a n i n d i g e n o u s b i l l - h o o k , pe rhaps a matche t and a t l e a s t one i n d i g e n o u s t a n g e d a x e . A l a r g e hoe l a s t s 2-3 y e a r s and a normal p u r c h a s e requ i rement i s one new hoe e v e r y year o r 2 hoes e v e r y 2nd y e a r , i n t h e n o r t h 2 h o e s e v e r y 3 r d y e a r . A p lough s h a r e l a s t s 1- 1 1/2 s e a s o n s .

Matche t s and a x e s a r e g e n e r a l l y n o t i n g r e a t demand due t o t h e impor tance of t h e s u p p l y of blacksmith-made implements . There is a v i r t u a l famine s i t u a t i o n a s r e g a r d s p loughs and plough p a r t s and a c r i t i c a l s h o r t a g e of t h e p r e f e r r e d R/E 3 l b hoes . V i l l a g e shops a r e i n a poor l i q u i d i t y p o s i t i o n a s r e g a r d s s u p p l y i n g farm implements , I n a n a t i o n a l c o n t e x t , S i n g i d a is un- f a v o u r e d (compared t o o t h e r r e g i o n s ) i n t e r m s of t h e s u p p l y o f farm implements .

Tabora Region, Nzega D i s t r i c t , I d u g u t a h

Miguwa V i l l a g e Nzega D i s t r i c t i s f a i r l y d e n s e l y p o p u l a t e d wi th t h e l a r g e s t ox-plough p o p u l a t i o n (24 000) of any d i s t r i c t i n Tanzan ia . The a g r i c u l t u r a l sys tem is f a i r l y i n t e n- s i v e w i t h b o t h r i d g e and f l a t c u l t i v a t i o n , manuring and d i v e r s i f i e d c r o p p i n g o f maize , sorghum, r i c e , c a s s a v a , g r o u n d n u t s , c o t t o n and some t o b a c c o i n t h e s o u t h . S o i l s a r e sandy t o sandy loams.

An a v e r a g e household w i t h two ab le- bodied p e r s o n s would c u l t i v a t e 3-5 a c r e s , more f o r househo lds owning p l o u g h s . An a v e r a g e househo ld t o o l i n v e n t o r y would con- s is t of a t l e a s t two l a r g e R/E h o e s ( 3 l b s p r e f e r r e d ) , 1- 2 m a t c h e t s and a t l e a s t one a x e . A l a r g e hoe used f o r weeding o n l y l a s t s 2 y e a r s , b u t o n l y 1- 1 1 / 2 y e a r s i f used a l s o f o r p r i m a r y f l a t c u l t i v a t i o n . A matche t l a s t s 4-5 y e a r s and a n a x e 6- 7 y e a r s . I n Urambo and Tabora D i s t r i c t s , t h e r e i s i n t e n s i v e use o f a x e s and m a t c h e t s f o r f i e l d c l e a r i n g and t o b a c c o c u l t i v a t i o n ( c u t t i n g of miombo wood f o r t o b a c c o c u r i n g ) .

A househo ld needs t o buy a t l e a s t one new hoe p e r y e a r and p o s s i b l y 1 1/2-2 h o e s p e r y e a r i f p r imary c u l t i v a - t i o n i s done manua l ly . Two plough s h a r e s a r e g e n e r a l l y r e q u i r e d p e r s e a s o n , and a plough becomes worn o u t a f t e r 5- 7 y e a r s . There i s a s t a r v a t i o n s i t u a t o n f o r p loughs and p lough p a r t s and a s e r i o u s s h o r t a g e o f hoes and m a t c h e t s . B lacksmi th- suppl ied implements and r e p a i r work i s v e r y i m p o r t a n t . V i l l a g e shop l i q u i d i t y i s poor .

Mwanza R e g i o n , Magu D i s t r i c t , K a b i l u & Ng'haya V i l l a g e Mwanza Region i s g e n e r a l l y a d e n s e l y p o p u l a t e d , f a i r l y humid r e g i o n w i t h a l o n g c rop- growing s e a s o n and w i t h i n t e n s i v e r i d g e f a r m i n g on e x h a u s t e d s a n d y s o i l s . The c r o p p i n g s y s t e m i s d i v e r s i f i e d w i t h a l a r g e v a r i e t y o f c r o p s grown, o f t e n i n mixed s t a n d s . I m p o r t a n t c r o p s a r e c a s s a v a , sorghum, r i c e , m a i z e and p u l s e s . Ox- ploughing i s o f i n c r e a s i n g i m p o r t a n c e d u e t o a d e c l i n e i n t r a c t o r c u l t i v a t i o n and w i t h d r a w a l o f y o u t h s ( t r a d i t i o n a l a g e g r o u p work p a r t i e s ) f rom a g r i c u l t u r e .

An a v e r a g e h o u s e h o l d w i t h two a d u l t a b l e- b o d i e d p e r s o n s c u l t i v a t e s 3-5 a c r e s , plough- owning h o u s e h o l d s 6-7 a c r e s . A no rma l t o o l i n v e n t o r y c o n s i s t s o f 2 o r 3 l a r g e R/E h o e s ( 3 l b s ) , and a t l e a s t 1 m a t c h e t a n d 1 a x e . The l a r g e h o e s l a s t o n l y o n e s e a s o n , g i v i n g a r e q u i r e m e n t o f 2 new h o e s p e r h o u s e h o l d p e r s e a s o n . Axes may l a s t a r o u n d 1 0 y e a r s a n d m a t c h e t s ( p r e f e r e n c e f o r c u r v e d ) 5-6 y e a r s . Two s h a r e s a re r e q u i r e d p e r p l o u g h p e r s e a s o n and a p l o u g h o n l y l a s t s some 5-7 y e a r s w i t h t h e p r e s e n t h i g h c u l t i v a t i o n f a c t o r .

I n Magu t h e r e was a g e n e r a l s h o r t a g e o f h o e s , a c r i t i - c a l s h o r t a g e o f m a t c h e t s a n d a x e s a n d a f a m i n e s i t u a - t i o n f o r p l o u g h s and p l o u g h p a r t s . B l a c k s m i t h s a r e o f g r e a t i m p o r t a n c e i n Geita b u t less s o i n t h e e a s t e r n a r e a s . We s a w o n e v e r y well-managed v i l l a g e s h o p w i t h- o u t l i q u i d i t y p r o b l e m s .

S h i n y a n g a Region Our v i s i t t o S h i n y a n g a c o i n c i d e d w i t h a v i s i t o f t h e Pr ime M i n i s t e r and t h e r e w a s c o n s e q u e n t l y no o p p o r t u n i - t y t o meet r e g i o n a l and d i s t r i c t o f f i c i a l s and t o u n d e r t a k e v i l l a g e v i s i t s . Most t i m e was s p e n t v i s i t i n g SIDO a n d t h e l a r g e i n f o r m a l s e c t o r p r o d u c i n g o x - c a r t s and v a r i o u s a c c e s s o r i e s . W e r e c e i v e d b o t h d e t a i l e d and g e n e r a l i n f o r m a t i o n on t h e f a rm implement s i t u a t i o n t h r o u g h a n i n t e r v i e w w i t h t h e RIDEP c o o r d i n a t o r C h a r l e s WO r tmann ,

Shinyanga i s by f a r t h e l a r g e s t p l o u g h i n g r e g i o n i n T a n z a n i a and o x- c a r t i n g is v e r y i m p o r t a n t . F l a t c u l t i - v a t i o n o f m a i z e , sorghum a n d c o t t o n w i t h ox- p loughs i s

p r e v a l e n t i n t h e t r e e l e s s e a s t e r n p a r t o f t h e r e g i o n w i t h p r e v a l e n c e of c l a y loams and b l a c k c o t t o n c l a y s . Kahama i n t h e wes t h a s upland manual r i d g e c u l t i v a t i o n on sandy s o i l , h a s f o r e s t and bush land and is impor tan t f o r c h a r c o a l p r o d u c t i o n .

I n Kahama, a househo ld needs t o buy two R/E h o e s ( 3 l b s ) e v e r y y e a r and t h e use of m a t c h e t s and a x e s is f a i r l y i n t e n s i v e . I n t h e e a s t e r n d i s t r i c t s , 1-1 1/2 l a r g e R/E h o e s a r e r e q u i r e d p e r househo ld a n n u a l l y . A t l e a s t one and i d e a l l y two s h a r e s a r e r e q u i r e d p e r p lough a n n u a l l y . The r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r m a t c h e t s and a x e s a r e much lower h e r e .

I n Sh inyanga , t h e r e i s a s e v e r e s h o r t a g e o f hoes and a d e s p e r a t e s h o r t a g e o f p loughs and plough s p a r t s . These a r e s t i l l p a r t l y hand led by t h e p a r a l l e l marke t .

Arusha Region, Hanang D i s t r i c t , Nangwa and Mogitu V i l l a g e The a r e a v i s i t e d i s of medium t o h i g h p o p u l a t i o n d e n s i t y w i t h medium r a i n f a l l . There i s f l a t c u l t i v a t i o n of main ly maize and b e a n s , w i t h some sorghum, on v e r y f e r t i l e n e o v o l c a n i c c l a y - loam s o i l s . T r a c t o r - h i r e c u l t i v a t i o n i s v e r y common f o r p r i m a r y c u l t i v a t i o n b u t ox- ploughing is on t h e i n c r e a s e due t o h i g h c h a r g e s f o r t r a c t o r c u l t i v a t i o n . The f i rewood i s main ly sof twood.

An a v e r a g e household wi th two ab le- bodied p e r s o n s c u l - t i v a t e s 4-5 a c r e s and h a s an i n v e n t o r y of 2 l a r g e hoes ( 3 l b s R/E p r e f e r r e d by men, 2 1/2 l b s t a n g e d by many women), 1-2 m a t c h e t s ( p r e f e r e n c e f o r c u r v e d ) and 1-2 a x e s ( p r e f e r e n c e f o r 3 l b s by men, 2 1 / 2 by women). I d e a l l y , husband and w i f e e a c h would have one a x e and one m a t c h e t . On a v e r a g e , a hoe l a s t s 4-5 y e a r s , a matche t 8-10 y e a r s and an a x e up t o 15 y e a r s i f b o t h husband and wive e a c h have a n axe and a m a t c h e t . A household needs t o buy no more t h a n one hoe e v e r y second y e a r . Plough s h a r e s l a s t 2 y e a r s a l t h o u g h many would p r e f e r t o buy a new s h a r e e v e r y y e a r .

Arusha Region h a s g e n e r a l l y been f a v o u r e d i n t h e s u p p l y o f farm implements , and a p a r t from some s h o r t a g e o f hand t o o l s i n 1980 and 1981, t h e r e h a s been no r e a l s h o r t a g e o f h o e s and m a t c h e t s a l t h o u g h t h e r e is some problem i n g e t t i n g a x e s . There is a g e n e r a l t o s e v e r e s h o r t a g e o f p loughs and e s p e c i a l l y plough p a r t s . V i l l a g e s h o p s g e n e r a l l y s u f f e r problems w i t h l i q u i d i t y and embezzlement of f u n d s and s u p p l y v e r y few of t h e farm implements used . Blacksmiths a r e of some importan- c e i n s u p p l y i n g k n i v e s , t anged hoes and p lough s h a r e s .

K i l i m a n j a r o Region, Moshi R u r a l D i s t r i c t , Dakau V i l l a g e The m a j o r i t y of t h e r e g i o n a l p o p u l a t i o n l i v e i n t h e humid Coffee-Banana b e l t on t h e mountain s l o p e s w i t h a h i g h l y i n t e n s i v e fa rming system c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a d e n s e mosaic o f main ly p e r e n n i a l c r o p s and w i t h 2-3 a n n u a l v e g e t a b l e c r o p s . Many househo lds have f i e l d s of 1-3 a c r e s i n t h e lowlands which a r e c u l t i v a t e d w i t h t r a c t o r s and grown w i t h maize and b e a n s . There i s l i m i t e d o x- c u l t i v a t i o n i n Hai D i s t r i c t .

An a v e r a g e househo ld would c u l t i v a t e 1 1/2-2 1/2 a c r e s w i t h c o f f e e , bananas and v e g e t a b l e s ( e s p e c i a l l y b e a n s ) on t h e mounta in , and 1-2 a c r e s w i t h maize and beans i n t h e lowland . The household t o o l i n v e n t o r y is v e r y complex, c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a v a r i e t y of blacksmith-made s p e c i a l t o o l s . A household g e n e r a l l y needs 2-3 l a r g e R/E h o e s ( p r e f e r e n c e f o r 3 l b s by men and 2 1/2 by women), one f o r k e d hoe ( 3 p r o n g s ) , two m a t c h e t s ( p r e f e r e n c e f o r c u r v e d 16 i n c h ) and one axe ( 3 l b s ) . Half-noon hoes a r e p o s s e s s e d by perhaps 2 5 p e r c e n t of t h e h o u s e h o l d s .

A l a r g e hoe l a s t s 3-4 y e a r s , a f o r k e d hoe 5-7 y e a r s , a half-moon weeding hoe 6-8 y e a r s , a matche t 5-7 y e a r s and a n axe 10-12 y e a r s . A household needs t o buy 1- 1

1/2 l a r g e h o e s e v e r y second y e a r .

There h a s been some s h o r t a g e of f o r k e d hoes and t h e r e i s a h i g h unmet demand f o r half-moon h o e s . Otherwise t h e r e h a s been a good s u p p l y of farm implements and an e x c e s s s u p p l y of ox- ploughs. Blacksmiths a r e e x t r e m e l y

i m p o r t a n t and h i g h l y s k i l l e d and t h e r e i s a good s u p p l y s i t u a t i o n . Most f a r m implemen t s a r e s o l d t h r o u g h t h e open m a r k e t s y s t e m and t h r o u g h p r i v a t e s h o p s .

I r i n g a R e g i o n , Njombe D i s t r i c t , I k e l u and Mayale V i l l a g e The s o u t h e r n and w e s t e r n p a r t s o f t h e r e g i o n a r e f a i r l y humid a n d d e n s e l y p o p u l a t e d , w h i l e t h e n o r t h e r n a n d e a s t e r n i n t e r m e d i a t e u p l a n d h a s medium r a i n f a l l . The u n f e r t i l e s a n d y loams are i n t e n s i v e l y c u l t i v a t e d w i t h m a i z e , b e a n s , sorghum and some t o b a c c o and s u n f l o w e r i n t h e d r i e r n o r t h w e s t e r n a r e a , w i t h g e n e r a l and i n t e n s i v e u s e o f f e r t i l i z e r a n d / o r manure . Ox- ploughing i s common and i n t e r r o w c u l t i v a t i o n w i t h p l o u g h s and r i d g e r s i s s p r e a d i n g . L o c a l l y made whee l- ba r rows a r e common.

The a v e r a g e h o u s e h o l d c u l t i v a t i n g 3-6 a c r e s h a s two l a r g e ( 3 l b s ) R / E h o e s , one m a t c h e t and o n e a x e , p l u s a d d i t i o n a l i n d i g e n o u s t o o l s . S i c k l e s u s e d t o b e common a s w e l l b u t a r e b e i n g p h a s e d o u t f o r l a c k o f s u p p l y . Tanged Uf ipa h o e s a re p r e f e r r e d i n t h e h i l l y s o u t h w e s t e r n h i g h l a n d s .

The l i f e s p a n o f l a r g e h o e s v a r i e s and i s up t o 3 y e a r s i n t h e h i g h l a n d s and o n l y 1 y e a r i n t h e more s a n d y i n t e r m e d i a t e u p l a n d s . Ma tche t s and a x e s l a s t o n l y 3-5 y e a r s , s l i g h t l y l o n g e r i n t h e h i g h l a n d s . A h o u s e h o l d n e e d s t o buy a t l e a s t 1 1 / 2 h o e s a n n u a l l y i n t h e s o u t h- west and 2 R / E h o e s ( 3 l b s ) a n n u a l l y i n o t h e r a r e a s . A

s i c k l e l a s t s 3-5 y e a r s and a p l o u g h 5-6 y e a r s . Two s h a r e s a r e needed a n n u a l l y . T h e r e h a s been a g e n e r a l s h o r t a g e o f h o e s and a more s e r v e r e s h o r t a g e o f m a t c h e t s , a x e s , s i c k l e s , p l o u g h s and p l o u g h p a r t s . We l a c k i n f o r m a t i o n on v i l l a g e s h o p s , b u t t h e r e g i o n h a s had t h e a d v a n t a g e , l i k e Arusha , K i l i m a n j a r o and Plbeya, o f h a v i n g TFA and o f b e i n g s u p p l i e d w i t h p l o u g h s t h r o u g h t h e R e g i o n a l A g r i c u l t u r a l Development P r o j e c t . B l a c k s m i t h s a r e i m p o r t a n t f o r s p e c i a l t o o l s u p p l i e s .

Mbeya R e g i o n , Tukuyu D i s t r i c t , Matwebe & Mpugusu V i l l a g e s Mbeya Region is c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y g r e a t v a r i a n c e w i t h r e s p e c t t o f a r m i n g s y s t e m s and a l t i t u d e s . Tukuyu, a n d t o a l e s s e r e x t e n t p a r t s o f I le je , Mbozi ( s o u t h e a s t e r n ) a n d s o u t h e a s t Mbeya d i s t r i c t a re d e n s e l y p o p u l a t e d , humid and g e n e r a l l y h i l l y areas w i t h f e r t i l e v o l c a n i c c l a y loams . The f a r m i n g s y s t e m is i n t e n s i v e , w i t h p e r e n n i a l g r o v e s o f c o f f e and b a n a n a , w i t h l a r g e - r i d g e c u l t i v a t i o n o f swee t p o t a t o e s , m a i z e and v e g e t a b l e s , and w i t h f l a t o r s m a l l - r i d g e c u l t i v a t i o n o f m a i z e , r i c e and p o t a t o e s on f l a t p l a t e a u s and i n r i v e r v a l l e y d e p r e s s i o n s ( r i c e ) . Ox- ploughing is m a i n l y found i n t h e Kyela f l o o d p l a i n ( r i c e ) a n d i n p a r t s o f Mbozi and Mbeya d i s t r i c t s .

I n Tukuyu a n a v e r a g e h o u s e h o l d c u l t i v a t i n g 2- 3 a c r e s would i d e a l l y h a v e 2 l a r g e t a n g e d Rungwe Hoes ( 4 l b s ) ; i f n o t a v a i l a b l e , t h e n o n e Rungwe h o e and o n e 2 1/2- 3 1/2 l b t a n g e d U f i p a h o e o r one 3 l b R/E h o e . R/E h o e s a r e n o t l i k e d . I d e a l l y t h e h o u s e h o l d s h o u l d h a v e a m a t c h e t ( c u r v e d ) and a R/E a x e ( 3 l b s ) b u t most h o u s e h o l d s d o n o t p o s s e s s t h e s e b e c a u s e o f u n a v a i l a b i l i t y . I n d i g e n o u s t a n g e d a x e s ( s m a l l e r ) and b i l l - h o o k s o f v a r i o u s s i z e s a r e n e c e s s a r y p a r t s o f a h o u s e h o l d t o o l i n v e n t o r y t o g e t h e r w i t h o t h e r s p e c i a l t o o l s . R/E a x e s a r e borrowed f o r f e l l i n g b i g t r e e s and m i g h t , l i k e m a t c h e t s , l a s t up t o 10 y e a r s . Rungwe and U f i p a h o e s l a s t a b o u t 5 y e a r s . A h o u s e h o l d n e e d s a new Rungwe h o e e v e r y 2 1/2 y e a r s ; i n K y e l a a new Rungwe hoe i s needed s o o n e r ( a b o u t 2 y e a r s ) d u e t o more s a n d y s o i l s . A p l o u g h s h a r e l a s t s 2 y e a r s i n Mbeya and Tukuyu a n d 1 y e a r i n K y e l a , I t i s o u r i m p r e s s i o n t h a t v i l l a g e s h o p s d o s u p p l y imp lemen t s when t h e y a re d i s t r i b u t e d , b u t p r i v a t e s h o p s a n d TFA a r e i m p o r t a n t as w e l l . Black- s m i t h s a r e s k i l l e d and v e r y i m p o r t a n t f o r s u p p l y i n g s p e c i a l t o o l s .

1.5 Ox-Mechanization

I n t h e e a r l y 1 9 8 0 s T a n z a n i a h a s s e e n a n u n p r e c e d e n t e d e x p a n s i o n and deve lopmen t o f t h e u s e o f a n i m a l d r a u g h t power i n p e a s a n t f a r m i n g . The e x p a n s i o n i n o x - c u l t i v a - t i o n , t h r o u g h e x t e n d e d u s e o f t h e s i n g l e - f u r r o w mould- b o a r d p l o u g h , and t h r o u g h i n c r e a s e d a d o p t i o n o f ox- c a r t s , i s a r e s u l t o f a number o f f a c t o r s , which c a n b e summarized as f o l l o w s :

1 . The re h a v e b e e n c h a n g e s i n l a n d- u s e and i n c r e a s e d l a b o u r c o n s t r a i n t s imposed b y v i l l a g i z a t i o n , which h a v e f a c i l i t a t e d o r i n c r e a s e d t h e b e n e f i t s o f a n i - m a l t r a c t i o n , i n c l u d i n g t h e u s e o f o x - c a r t s t o overcome i n c r e a s e d h o m e s t e a d- t o- f i e l d d i s t a n c e s .

2 . I n some r e g i o n s l i k e Arusha , I r i n g a a n d t h e Lake Zone r e g i o n s t h e r e h a s been a d e c l i n e i n t r a c t o r c u l t i v a t i o n and s o a r i n g h i r e r a t e s f o r t r a c t o r c u l t i v a t i o n as w e l l a s h i g h r a t e s f o r h i r i n g wage l a b o u r , t h e c o s t s o f which c a n b e r e d u c e d by t h e u s e o f o x - c u l t i v a t i o n .

3 . T h e r e h a v e b e e n c h a n g e s i n c r o p p i n g p a t t e r n s i n a number o f r e g i o n s ( e . g . , Rukwa, I r i n g a , Arusha , Mwanza, S h i n y a n g a and Mara) f rom l a b o u r - i n t e n s i v e h a n d - c u l t i v a t e d c r o p s t o w a r d s more e x t e n s i v e l y c u l t i v a t e d ma ize which l e n d s i t s e l f t o o x- c u l t i v a- t i o n .

4 . Cash i s a v a i l a b l e f o r t h e p u r c h a s e o f p l o u g h s , c a r t s and young oxen d u e t o h i g h b l a c k- m a r k e t p r i c e s on f o o d c r o p s and h i g h l i v e s t o c k p r i c e s . T h i s income l a r g e l y c a n n o t b e s p e n t on t h e u s u a l consumer g o o d s d u e t o s h o r t a g e s .

5 . T h e r e h a s been a w i t h d r a w a l o f o l d e r b o y s and young men f rom p r o d u c t i v e a g r i c u l t u r a l work i n t o e d u c a t i o n and i n t o p e t t y t r a d i n g . Many h o u s e h o l d s a r e f a c e d w i t h a g rowing p rob lem o f l a b o u r s h o r t a g e which is t h e n o f f s e t by a d o p t i n g ox -cu l - t i v a t i o n .

6 . I n some r e g i o n s l i k e I r i n g a , Arusha and S i n g i d a , t h e r e h a s b e e n s u p p o r t f o r and s u p p l y o f p l o u g h s a n d c a r t s t h r o u g h RIDEPs a n d m i s s i o n s . l

T h e r e is now a h i g h and g rowing demand f o r ox- p loughs and f o r h i g h - q u a l i t y , d u r a b l e ( a n d e x p e n s i v e ) c a r t s , p u l l e d by oxen o r donkeys .

A t t h e same t i m e , t h e r e are improvements i n t h e u s e o f ox-drawn e q u i p m e n t . Some f a r m e r s h a v e s t a r t e d t o u s e mou ldboa rd p l o u g h s t o t h r o w r i d g e s ( e . g . , i n Mara, Mwanza a n d N z e g a ) , t o u n d e r t a k e d o u b l e- p a s s i n t e r - r o w weeding a n d t o improve r o w- p l a n t i n g b y p l a n t i n g i n p loughed f u r r o w s . The u s e o f r i d g e r s f o r r i d g e p r e p a r a - t i o n , i n t e r - r o w weeding and p o t a t o and g r o u n d n u t h a r v e s t i n g h a s s t a r t e d , as h a s t h e u s e o f i n t e r - r o w c u l t i v a t o r s f o r i n t e r - r o w weeding and e a r l y l a n d p r e p a- r a t i o n i n a f ew a r e a s , where e x t e n s i o n a c t i v i t i e s and s u p p l y o f improved imp lemen t s h a v e been e x t e n d e d t o f a r m e r s ( m a i n l y I r i n g a a n d S h i n y a n g a , due t o RIDEP a c t i v i t i e s ) .

The u s e o f f a rm- yard manure , f a c i l i t a t e d b y means o f o x - c a r t s a n d w h e e l b a r r o w s , is i n c r e a s i n g , and s o i s s u p p l e m e n t a r y f e e d i n g o f d r a u g h t oxen t h r o u g h c o l l e c - t i o n o f m a i z e s t a l k s , e t c . A few f a r m e r s h a v e s t a r t e d t o f i t l o c a l l y made w h e e l s and f i x e d d raw- bar s t o t h e i r s l e d g e s t o r e d u c e d r a u g h t power r e q u i r e m e n t s and i n - c r e a s e l o a d i n g c a p a c i t y .

I n s h o r t , b o t h l o c a l s p o n t a n e o u s i n n o v a t i o n s a n d government/RIDEP i n d u c e d improvements a r e a d o p t e d . The p e a s a n t s ' i n t e r e s t i n o x - c u l t i v a t i o n and r e l a t e d improvemen t s is h i g h . So f a r t h i s i n t e r e s t h a s been f r u s t r a t e d by l a c k o f improved i m p l e m e n t s , o r by s u p p l y o f poor q u a l i t y o r i n a p p r o p r i a t e imp lemen t s

1 . For a f u r t h e r d i s c u s s i o n , see K j s r b y : Problems a n d C o n t r a d i c t i o n s i n t h e Development o f O x- C u l t i v a t i o n i n T a n z a n i a ( 1 9 8 3 ) .

( e . g . , t h e C o s s u l c u l t i v a t o r s a n d r i d g e r s i m p o r t e d b y UFI). A p a r t f r o m . t h e I r i n g a R I D E P O x e n i z a t i o n P r o j e c t , a n d S h i n y a n g a , t h e r e h a s b e e n v i r t u a l l y no demons t r a- t i o n and e x t e n s i o n o f improved imp lemen t s on p e a s a n t f i e l d s .

T h e r e i s a l a r g e u n u t i l i z e d i n d u s t r i a l and workshop c a p a c i t y f o r p r o d u c i n g f a r m implemen t s i n T a n z a n i a and b o t h t h e p u b l i c and t h e p r i v a t e s e c t o r is g e t t i n g i n- c r e a s i n g l y i n v o l v e d i n p r o d u c t i o n o f o x- c a r t s a n d p l o u g h s . The s t r a i g h t wooden o r s t ee l beam d e s i g n o f some o f t h e s e p l o u g h s c o n s t i t u t e s t h e b a s i c s o f a t o o l - b a r f r a m e t o which r i d g e r b o t t o m s , c u l t i v a t o r t i n e s , g r o u n d n u t / p o t a t o l i f t e r s and h a r r o w s c a n b e a t t a c h e d . The a d o p t i o n o f s u c h t o o l b a r d e s i g n s is a l r e a d y common i n a number o f o t h e r A f r i c a n c o u n t r i e s . The re a r e now f i v e p l o u g h m a n u f a c t u r e r s i n T a n z a n i a as compared t o o n e j u s t two y e a r s a g o , and t h e r e is a need t o work t o w a r d s s t a n d a r d i z e d and good q u a l i t y d e s i g n s wh ich a r e a d a p t a b l e t o t h e f a r m i n g s y s t e m s a n d f u n c t i o n a l f o r i n d u s t r i a l p r o d u c t i o n and r u r a l workshop r e p a i r s .

Of no less i m p o r t a n c e is t h e f a c t t h a t T a n z a n i a is a t p r e s e n t e x p e r i e n c i n g s o m e t h i n g which c o u l d b e l i k e n e d t o a " f a r m implemen t s campa ign" , t h e o r i g i n s o f which c a n b e t r a c e d t o t h e c o m p l a i n t s a b o u t s h o r t a g e o f i m p l e m e n t s , e s p e c i a l l y p l o u g h s , i n r u r a l a r e a s . Thus, a good d e a l o f gove rnmen t e f f o r t i s now c o n c e n t r a t e d on e n s u r i n g p r o p e r d i s t r i b u t i o n o f i m p l e m e n t s , i n c r e a s e d p r o d u c t i o n , e t c .

The t i m e is r i p e f o r t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f improved imp lemen t s as i n d i c a t e d by t h e i n t e r e s t shown by inno- v a t i v e p e a s a n t s and b y t h e s u c c e s s f u l o x e n i z a t i o n p ro- j e c t i n I r i n g a .

What r e m a i n s is t o g e t a p p r o p r i a t e imp lemen t s i n t o t h e p e a s a n t s ' h a n d s f o r f i e l d t e s t i n g , f a c t - f i n d i n g a n d a d o p t i o n i n t h e i r own e n v i r o n m e n t , r a t h e r t h a n r e l y i n g on c o n v e n t i o n a l b u r e a u c r a t i c " i n s t i t u t i o n b u i l d i n g " w i t h i t s a c a d e m i c a l l y o r i e n t e d r e s e a r c h , deve lopmen t and t e s t i n g a c t i v i t i e s a t R&D C e n t r e s .

CHAPTER TWO INTRODUCTION AND DEVELOPMENT OF NEW FARM IMPLEMENTS

At several places in this report we discuss how to improve and develop the farm implements used in Tanzania in order to increase their utility to the peasant or to lower the cost of manufacturing them. However, we only exceptionally recommend that new implements should be introduced. In other reports, e.g., Phillips and Zachariah, there are long lists of new implements, which in their view would increase agricultural yield. In general we are sceptical about such proposals, as they appear to neglect the technological and socio-economic issues that have to be taken into account when introducing new implements.

Instead, we discuss some items of equipment which appear to have some chance of being adopted or which may be subjected to trial introduction under the conditions suggested by us.

Our main recommendation is that Tanzania should look to other sub-saharan African countries for suitable implements rather than looking overseas.

2.1 Approaches to Technology Introduction

Statistically, 80-95 per cent of the attempts aimed at introducing new or intermediate technology in peasant farming fail - and Tanzania is no exception. Catch words like peasant conservatism or ignorance are used to explain this. A brief review of the approaches of technology introduction in Tanzania shows, however, that the approaches themselves are one-tracked and miss a number of important technological and socio-economic issues which have to be taken into consideration. A technology cannot be successfully introduced unless

t h e r e is a l i k e l i h o o d o f a d o p t i o n . T h i s l i k e l i h o o d is b a s e d on t h e n a t u r e and c h a n g e o f t h e v a r i o u s p e a s a n t f a r m i n g s y s t e m s and n o t on a n y p r e- c o n s i d e r e d t e c h n o l o- g i c a l o r e n g i n e e r i n g i d e a o f what s h o u l d b e a n a p p r o- p r i a t e p i e c e o f t e c h n o l o g y .

S i n c e t h e l a t e 1 9 6 0 ' s f o u r main a p p r o a c h e s t o p e a s a n t f a r m t e h n o l o g y deve lopmen t c a n b e i d e n t i f i e d i n Tan- z a n i a :

1 . The S i m p l e V i l l a g e Techno logy a p p r o a c h d e v e l o p e d b y MacPherson a t TAMTU i n t h e e a r l y 1970s . T h i s a p p r o a c h u s e d b a s i c f a rm implemen t s (whee l- b a r r o w s , h a r r o w s , c u l t i v a t o r s a n d s i n g l e hand j a b p l a n t e r s o f s i m p l e wooden f r a m e d e s i g n s ) , b u t had l i t t l e i m p a c t b e c a u s e t h e r e w a s no p e a s a n t i n t e r e s t , n o r p e r h a p s a n y n e e d s f o r t h i s t e c h n o l o- gy a t t h e t i m e .

2 . The P r o g r e s s i v e Farmer Technology a p p r o a c h which h a s been and s t i l l is v e r y p o p u l a r a t TAMTU/CAMAR- TEC and among many T a n z a n i a n a g r i c u l t u r a l e n g i n e e r s . S o p h i s t i c a t e d f a rm m a c h i n e r y d e v e l o p e d f o r maximum p r o d u c t i v i t y , s u c h as t h e d i s c- h a r r o w , d o u b l e- f u r row p l o u g h , p l a n t e r , 4-wheel wagon, UAC Too l c a r r i e r , a re t h e p r o d u c t s o f t h i s a p p r o a c h . T h i s e q u i p m e n t is v e r y h e a v y , e x p e n s i v e and some o f it e v e n c l u m s y and s t i l l i n s u f f i c i e n t l y d e v e l o p e d t o f u n c t i o n p r o p e r l y . I t h a s n o t , and w i l l n o t , b e a d o p t e d beyond a few e x c e p t i o n a l l a r g e - s c a l e o x- f a r m e r s .

3 . The more r e c e n t F u l l Package o r F u l l Range a p p r o a c h b a s e d m a i n l y on i m p o r t i n g and /o r c o p y i n g I n d i a n Equ ipmen t . l The few d e s i g n s i m p o r t e d by UFI

1 ) P h i l l i p s & Z a c h a r i a h ( 1 9 8 0 ) p r o p o s e a f u l l r a n g e o f I n d i a n equ ipmen t f o r t i l l i n g , e a r t h moving ( f o r s o i l c o n s e r v a t i o n ) , i r r i g a t i o n , e t c . TEMDO a n d K i l i m o h a v e been g i v e n t h e f o l l o w i n g p u b l i c a t i o n t o u s e f o r f a rm implemen t s t e c h n o l o g y deve lopmen t i n T a n z a n i a : " B r i e f s on Human-Powered and Animal-Drawn Improved Farm Equipment" . ( C o l l e g e o f A g r i c u l t u r a l E n g i n e e r- i n g , P u n j a b A g r i c u l t u r a l U n i v e r s i t y , Lundh iana , I n d i a . March 1 9 8 3 ) . Fo r a t h o u g h t p r o v o k i n g c r i t i q u e o f t h e ' a p p r o p r i a t e ' t e c h n o l o g y deve lopmen t e x i g e n- c i e s o f a g r i c u l t u r a l e n g i n e e r s a t I n d i a n R & D In- s t i t u t i o n s , see V,S. N a i p a u l : I n d i a - A wounded C i v i- l i z a t i o n .

h a v e n o t b e e n s u f f i c i e n t f o r T a n z a n i a n r e q u i r e - m e n t s . The F u l l Range a p p r o a c h is s t i l l new b u t j u d g i n g f r o m K i l i m o ' s r e c e n t s c r e e n i n g l i s t o f f a r m e q u i p m e n t , t h e i d e a is t o g e t l o c a l manu- f a c t u r e r s i n v o l v e d i n p r o d u c i n g s a m p l e s f o r t e s t i n g i n a l l ox- p lough ing r e g i o n s . I f t h i s is f o r t h e s a k e o f t e s t i n g o n l y , it may be r e a s o n a b l e , b u t no a t t e m p t i s made t o i d e n t i f y p r i o r i t i e s i n t h i s l o n g l i s t o f e q u i p m e n t , mos t of which h a s n e i t h e r been s e e n n o r t r i e d - o u t i n Tan- z a n i a . W e f ee l o b l i g e d t o q u e s t i o n o f t h e r e i s need f o r a l l t h i s equ ipmen t i n T a n z a n i a n p e a s a n t f a r m i n g s y s t e m s .

4 . I n f o r m a l l o c a l deve lopmen t o f d e s i g n s and s p o n t a- n e o u s a d o p t i o n , i n t h e v i l l a g e s , o f i n n o v a t i o n s which t e n d t o s u r f a c e unde r s t r e s s and c r i s i s con- d i t i o n s and which are aimed a t overcoming con- s t r a i n t s i n p r o d u c t i o n and t r a n s p o r t . T h e r e i s a t p r e s e n t f a s t a d o p t i o n o f s u c h i n n o v a t i o n s , which c a n b e r e l a t e d t o t h e e f f e c t s o f v i l l a g i z a t i o n and t h e p r e s e n t s h o r t a g e s . T h e s e i n n o v a t i o n s o r l o c a l d e s i g n s i n c l u d e p r i v a t e - s e c t o r o x - c a r t m a n u f a c t u r- i n g , whee l- ba r rows (some o f them 2-wheeled w i t h c a r b e a r i n g s made o f s t i c k s ) , f i x i n g w h e e l s t o s l e d g e s and improved r o w- p l a n t i n g , i n t e r - r o w c u l - t i v a t i o n a n d r i d g i n g w i t h UFI p l o u g h s .

A l o t c a n b e l e a r n t f rom t h i s s p o n t a n e o u s p r o c e s s o f d e s i g n a n d t e c h n o l o g y a d o p t i o n , f i r s t o f a l l b e c a u s e it r e f l e c t s t h e mos t immed ia t e t e c h n o l o g y n e e d s o f t h e f a r m i n g s y s t e m s - which s h o u l d c o n s e q u e n t l y r e c e i v e p r i o r i t y - and s e c o n d l y b e c a u s e it is b a s e d on l o c a l raw mater ia l and s k i l l s . T a n z a n i a n R & D i n s t i t u t i o n s h a v e b a s i c a l l y been o u t o f t o u c h w i t h t h i s e s s e n t i a l p r o c e s s . They h a v e b e e n l a g g i n g b e h i n d and some s t a f f members a r e e v e n d i s i n t e r e s t e d , c l a i m i n g t h a t t h i s is n o t p r o p e r d e v e l o p m e n t . However, t h e t r e n d c a n n o t b e r e v e r s e d b u t c a n b e s u p p o r t e d w i t h r e q u i r e d raw m a t e r i a l a n d w i t h t h e deve lopmen t o f more e f f e c t i v e e q u i p m e n t - i n a d i a l o g u e w i t h t h e l o c a l p r o c e s s .

T h i s i s , p e r h a p s , t h e p l a c e f o r a f ew c r i t i c a l comments as r e g a r d s i m p o r t i n g a n d / o r c o p y i n g I n d i a n f a r m e q u i p- ment - and f o r t h a t m a t t e r t e c h n o l o g y o r t e c h n o l o g i c a l c o n c e p t s f rom e l s e w h e r e i n t h e w o r l d . I n d i a h a s a l o n g h i s t o r y o f a n i m a l d r a u g h t power and a h i g h l y d e v e l o p e d u s a g e o f and m a n u f a c t u r i n g s e c t o r f o r a n i m a l d r a u g h t

e q u i p m e n t , f rom which a l o t o f i d e a s and e x p e r i e n c e s c a n b e g a i n e d . Bat I n d i a is a l s o w o r l d s a p a r t f rom Tan- z a n i a , b o t h i n t e r m s on t h e l e v e l o f r u r a l c r a f t s m a n- s h i p , e n g i n e e r i n g s e c t o r - s k i l l s a n d raw material s u p p l y , as w e l l as i n terms o f t h e n a t u r e o f f a r m i n g s y s t e m s . I n d i a n f a r m l a n d is des tumped and h a s b e e n u n d e r i n t e n s i v e d o u b l e- c r o p p i n g w i t h i r r i g a t i o n f o r c e n t u r i e s . T h e r e is a c u l t u r e o f c a r i n g f o r and s e r v i c i n g t h e t e c h n o l o g y . Thus , b o t h s i m p l e wooden- f r amed and s o p h i s t i c a t e d s t e e l - f r a m e d equ ipmen t w i l l work unde r I n d i a n c o n d i t i o n s b u t c a n n o t w i t h s t a n d t h e rough h a n d l i n g , t h e l a n d c o n d i t i o n s and t h e l a c k o f a s e r v i c e i n f r a - s t r u c t u r e i n T a n z a n i a . Why h a s T a n z a n i a n o t l o o k e d t o o t h e r A f r i c a n c o u n t r i e s f o r a s c r e e n i n g l i s t o f a p p r o p r i a t e f a rm equ ipmen t?

I n t e r m s o f i r r i g a t i o n , t i l l a g e e q u i p m e n t , w a t e r l i f t i n g d e v i c e s and p o s t - h a r v e s t i n g e q u i p m e n t ( e s p e c i a l l y c a n e c r u s h e r s and o i l p r e s s e s ) , a l o t c a n b e l e a r n t f rom I n d i a . And w e b e l i e v e t h a t more c a n b e l e a r n t f rom i d e n t i f y i n g equ ipmen t d e v e l o p e d and used f o r a g e s i n r u r a l a r e a s t h a n f rom t h e d e s k d e s i g n s o f improved equ ipmen t d e v e l o p e d a t academic R & D i n s t i t u t i o n s .

F i n a l l y , t h e r e i s a f i f t h a p p r o a c h , t h e c o m p r e h e n s i v e t e s t i n g programme which i s b e i n g t r i e d i n Kenya w i t h f u n d i n g f rom U N a g e n c i e s . Between 1977 a n d 1981 a l t o g e t h e r 95 p i e c e s o f fa rm equ ipmen t were t e s t e d a c c o r d i n g t o c r i t e r i a o f s u i t a b i l i t y f o r p e a s a n t f a r m i n g and whe the r t h e y c o u l d b e m a n u f a c t u r e d l o c a l l y , p a r t i c u l a r l y by small r u r a l workshops . Whi le t h e m a j o r i t y o f i t e m s p r o v e d t e c h n i c a l l y o r e c o n o m i c a l l y u n s u i t a b l e f o r u s e i n Kenya, s e v e n p i e c e s o f equ ipmen t were found t o h a v e p o t e n t i a l , i n some cases a f t e r m o d i f i c a t i o n , f o r l o c a l c o n d i t i o n s .

These i t e m s are: - a hand weede r , which r e d u c e d t h e t i m e needed t o

weed o n e h e c t a r e b y 81 p e r c e n t - a m a n u a l l y o p e r a t e d ma ize s h e l l e r - t h r e e d i f f e r e n t t y p e s o f p l o u g h s / c u l t i v a t o r s ,

i n c l u d i n g a m u l t i p u r p o s e t o o l b a r - a hand p l a n t e r f o r ma ize and b e a n s - a n o x - c a r t wheel and a x l e

I n 1982, a new U N p r o j e c t s t a r t e d w i t h t h e a i m o f produc ing c o p i e s of t h e s e i t e m s and making them a v a i l a b l e t o f a r m e r s , a l o n g w i t h t r a i n i n g t h r o u g h f a r m e r s t r a i n - ing c e n t r e s . Between 1982 and 1984, t h e Kenyan Govern- ment budge ted 8 m i l l . K.shs. on t h e l o c a l manufac tu r ing component ( D a i l y Nat ion 10/10/83).

T h i s approach a p p e a r s s o l i d l y comprehensive , s t a r t i n g , a s it d o e s , from t h e f u l l range l i s t . But it i s v e r y resource- demanding. Tanzan ia can s a v e on r e s o u r c e s by drawing on t h e e x p e r i e n c e s o f t h i s programme, r a t h e r t h a n embarking on t h e f u l l range approach w i t h I n d i a n equipment , However, t h e o u t s t a n d i n g drawback of t h e Kenyan programme i s whether o r n o t t h e i d e n t i f i e d equipment w i l l a c t u a l l y be adop ted on a s u f f i c i e n t s c a l e .

2.2 Selective Priorities for Implements and Designs to Improve Likelihood of Adoption

There a r e some i m p o r t a n t t e c h n o l o g y i s s u e s which a r e c r u c i a l f o r a c t u a l , commercial a d o p t i o n of new implements on a wider s c a l e , and which a r e o f t e n over looked by t h o s e who d e f i n e t e c h n o l o g y needs f o r t h e p e a s a n t s and by t h o s e e n g i n e e r s who d e s i g n equipment . The e x p e r i e n c e from most c o u n t r i e s , and from A f r i c a n count- r i e s i n p a r t i c u l a r , shows t h a t a c t u a l a d o p t i o n o r t h e l i k e l i h o o d of a d o p t i o n can be d e f i n e d a c c o r d i n g t o a s e t o f s e l e c t i v e c r i t e r i a o r p r i o r i t i e s , which poten- t i a l o r a c t u a l a d o p t e r s t e n d t o u s e i n t h e i r d e c i s i o n s t o a d o p t . These can b e summarized as f o l l o w s :

1 ) The implements ( i n p a r t i c u l a r ox- equipment) must be l i g h t , s i m p l e ( f o r r e p a i r s and a d j u s t m e n t s ) and d u r a b l e . I f n o t , t h e y become a s t r a i n on oxen and o p e r a t i o n s a s w e l l a s c o n s t i t u t i n g an i n v e s t m e n t r i s k which t h e p o t e n t i a l buyer w i l l n o t t a k e . He a l s o c o n s i d e r s a v a i l a b i l i t y o f s p a r e - p a r t s an i m p o r t a n t r i s k f a c t o r .

2 ) The implements must b e a b l e t o r e l i e v e major l a b o u r b o t t l e - n e c k s (and d r u d g e r y of work) and t h e y must b e a g r o n o m i c a l l y a p p r o p r i a t e . I f n o t , t h e y a r e u s e l e s s . In agronomic o r t e c h n i c a l t e r m s , t h e implements must b e a b l e t o do t h e job a t l e a s t a s w e l l a s t h e t r a d i t i o n a l l y used t o o l .

3 ) The implements must be a b l e t o e n s u r e economic r e t u r n s on t h e i n v e s t m e n t made and t h e y must i n- c r e a s e income p e r u n i t of l a b o u r t i m e r e q u i r e d f o r u s i n g t h e implement on a c e r t a i n t a s k o r a c r e a g e . A f u r t h e r i m p o r t a n t advan tage i s t h a t p e r c a p i t a income i s r a i s e d . Thus, we a r e t a l k i n g a b o u t a r e t u r n on c a p i t a l , l a b o u r and a g e n e r a l i n c r e a s e i n f a m i l y income. The economics of a t e c h n o l o g y i s o f t e n a most t r i c k y i s s u e , of which p e a s a n t s n o n e t h e l e s s have a n i n t i m a t e p e r c e p t i o n .

Need less t o s a y , t h e c o s t of t h e implement i s of c r u- c i a l impor tance . However, t h e c o s t f a c t o r is a f f e c t e d by t h e mul t i- purpose n a t u r e of t h e implement and t h e e x t e n t t o which i t s c a p a c i t y can b e u t i l i z e d . Thus, t h e r e l a t i v e economic advan tage of buying and u s i n g a n implement is a l s o a f f e c t e d by p o t e n t i a l income from be ing a b l e t o h i r e it o u t , and by t h e s u b j e c t i v e c o s t and o b j e c t i v e a v a i l a b i l i t y of f a m i l y l a b o u r and t h e r e a l c o s t of h i r i n g i n wage l a b o u r . Fur the rmore , a v a i- l a b i l i t y of c a s h and p r e f e r e n c e s f o r a l t e r n a t i v e expen- d i t u r e , as w e l l a s t h e r e a l p r i c e o b t a i n e d f o r c r o p s , is of major impor tance .

One c a n n o t s imply p r e d i c t o r d e f i n e a l i s t of implements f o r p e a s a n t f a rms . But l i g h t , d u r a b l e , cheap and a p r o p r i a t e mul t i- purpose implements do have a c l e a r advan tage . The development of p e a s a n t farm mechaniza- t i o n i n Tanzan ia s h o u l d t a k e t h e s e s e l e c t i v e p r i o r i t i e s a s a s e r i o u s p r o p o s i t i o n . Even t h e p r o v i s i o n of c r e d i t t o speed up e x t e n s i o n of equipment is bound t o be a c o s t l y i f n o t s h o r t l i v e d a f f a i r , which w i l l n o t c o n t r i - b u t e t o s o l v i n g t h e r e a l problems of p e a s a n t farm mechan iza t ion u n l e s s t h e implements a r e a p p r o p r i a t e i n t e r m s of t h e above c r i t e r i a .

F i n a l l y , g i v e n a l l t h e p r e s e n t c o n s t r a i n t s of manu- f a c t u r i n g , manpower and t r a n s p o r t i n Tanzan ia , t h e r e is a narrow l i m i t t o what can be done and a c h i e v e d f o r t h e t i m e b e i n g . Thus t h e p r i o r i t y must be t o i n t r o d u c e equipment which, f i r s t of a l l , can r e l i e v e t h e most s e r i o u s c o n s t r a i n t s i n p r o d u c t i o n ( a n d t r a n s p o r t ) , and which can e n s u r e economic r e t u r n s . I f a d o p t i o n of new t e c h n o l o g y can r e l i e v e t h e s e c o n s t r a i n t s , t h e n new con- s t r a i n t s w i l l s u b s e q u e n t l y c r o p up and t h e s e conse-

q u e n t l y c o n s t i t u t e t h e n e x t s t e p f o r t e c h n o l o g y deve- l o p m e n t , Our ca t ch- word is s t e p- b y- s t e p p r i o r i t y selec- t i o n , r a t h e r t h a n t r y i n g t o do e v e r y t h i n g a t o n c e and e n d i n g up h a v i n g done n o t h i n g . The f u l l p a c k a g e d e a l is o n l y a s u r f a c e c o n v e n i e n c e f o r ' b a n k a b l e ' p rogrammes, a d m i n i s t r a t o r s a n d p o l i t i c i a n s .

2.3 New Hand Implements for Cultivation

D e s i g n a s p e c t s , m a n u f a c t u r i n g and i n t r o d u c t i o n o f r i v e t t e d t a n g e d h o e s a n d p r e s s- h a r d e n e d welded h o e s h a v e a l r e a d y b e e n d i s c u s s e d . S u f f i c e it h e r e t o add t h a t 30 ,000 welded h o e s h a v e b e e n i m p o r t e d f rom N o r t h l a n d E n g i n e e r i n g i n Zambia unde r t h e Tan-Zam b a r t e r a g r e e m e n t . UFI h a s s e n t 6 ,000 o f t h e s e o u t t o RTC's. D e s p i t e t h e s h o r t a g e o f h o e s , t h e we lded h o e s a r e n o t s e l l i n g , d u e t o t h e i r poor q u a l i t y . UFI h a s t a k e n a d e c i s i o n t o s t o p f u r t h e r d i s t r i b u t i o n and i s l e f t w i t h a u s e l e s s s t o c k o f 24 ,000 h o e s . I d e a l Casemen t s L t d . h a s a l s o s e n t o u t s a m p l e s o f welded h o e s t o RTC's f o r t e s t - m a r k e t i n g b u t RTC manage r s s t a t e t h a t t h e s e d o n o t s e l l e i t h e r .

Cotex h a s s t a r t e d t o p r o d u c e s t r a i g h t m a t c h e t s . The c h o i c e o f p r o d u c i n g s t r a i g t h m a t c h e t s h a s b e e n made t o s a v e on raw m a t e r i a l and t o ease m a n u f a c t u r e . I n some a r e a s o f T a n z a n i a t h e r e i s no p a r t i c u l a r o r s t r o n g p r e- f e r e n c e f o r e i t h e r s t r a i g h t o r c u r v e d m a t c h e t s . But i n a number o f r e g i o n s , t h e r e is a c l e a r p r e f e r e n c e f o r c u r v e d m a t c h e t s , e . g . i n c o a s t - l i n e r e g i o n s , Mwanza, Arusha , K i l i m a n j a r o , and t h e S o u t h e r n H i g h l a n d s . The r e a s o n is t h a t c u r v e d m a t c h e t s a r e s h a r p e n e d on t h e u p p e r i n c l i n e d c u r v e and c a n b e u s e d as a b i l l - h o o k and s i c k l e f o r c u t t i n g g r a s s . Thus , i f b o t h s t r a i g h t and c u r v e d m a t c h e t s were a v a i l a b l e f o r consumer c h o i c e , it i s l i k e l y t h a t c u r v e d m a t c h e t s would t a k e a much h i g h e r s h a r e o f sa les . For a p e a s a n t , t h e p a r t i c u l a r q u a l i t y , m a t e r i a l , s h a p e , c u r v a t u r e and w e i g h t o f a n implement i s o f c r u c i a l i m p o r t a n c e , however s i m p l e t h i s implement may a p p e a r t o t h o s e who make d e c i s i o n s on i m p o r t s and l o c a l m a n u f a c t u r i n g . Market s u r v e y s , i n i t i a l t r i a l t e s t i n g u n d e r p e a s a n t f a r m i n g c o n d i t i o n s and

t e s t - m a r k e t i n g o f s m a l l b a t c h e s c a n f a i r l y e a s i l y b e d o n e . W e a d v i s e a g a i n s t t h e i d e a p r o p o s e d by some d e s i g n e r s and m a n u f a c t u r e r s t h a t t h e p r e s e n t s h o r t a g e s i t u a t i o n c a n b e e x p l o i t e d t o m a n u f a c t u r e and m a r k e t new d e s i g n s . Accord ing t o t h e c r i t e r i a o f p r i o r i t y s e l e c t i o n t o overcome l a b o u r c o n s t r a i n t s and e n s u r e economic r e t u r n s , t h e r e a r e , however , two m a n u a l l y o p e r a t e d imp lemen t s which d e s e r v e c o n s i d e r a t i o n . These a r e hand weede r s and r o t a r y j a b p l a n t e r s ( s i n g e l row) .

The hand weeder h a s a l r e a d y b e e n m e n t i o n e d . Samples s h o u l d b e i m p o r t e d f rom Kenya and f i e l d t e s t e d i n v a r i o u s a r e a s , i n p a r t i c u l a r i n Mwanza, Mbeya, Arusha , K i l i m a n j a r o and Tanga - i . e . , i n areas w i t h i n t e n s i v e s y s t e m s o f manual c u l t i v a t i o n , h i g h r a i n f a l l and r a p i d weed g r o w t h - t o t e s t s u i t a b i l i t y b e f o r e a n y l o c a l m a n u f a c t u r i n g i s t a k e n up.

The r o t a r y j a b o r i n j e c t i o n p l a n t e r is a l r e a d y u n d e r t r i a l i n t r o d u c t i o n i n Refugee S e t t l e m e n t s i n w e s t e r n T a n z a n i a and on p e a s a n t f a r m s i n S h i n y a n g a , where it is b e i n g p r o d u c e d b y Wigehe RCW and b y Mr. Mahembo's g e n e r a l e n g i n e e r i n g workshop. By O c t o b e r 1 983, t h e l a t t e r h a v e p r o d u c e d 30 on o r d e r f o r t h e RIDEP a t a p r i c e o f 2 ,200 Tsh. p e r p i e c e . The r o t a r y j a b p l a n t e r h a s a number o f a d v a n t a g e s compared w i t h most an imal- drawn p l a n t e r s . I t i n j e c t s s e e d s ( 2 a n d 4 p e r h o l e f o r m a i z e and sorghum r e s p e c t i v e l y ) even on a rough s u r f a c e which h a s been p l o u g h e d o r hoed o n l y o n c e . I t e n a b l e s f a s t e r p l a n t i n g t h a n p l a n t i n g i n t h e f u r r o w a f t e r a n ox- plough p a s s s i n c e it is n o t d e p e n d e n t on s l o w ox- team movement and t ime- consuming t u r n s a t t h e h e a d l a n d s . I t is c h e a p e r t h a n a n animal- drawn p l a n t e r . R o t a r y j a b p l a n t e r s s h o u l d b e f i t t e d w i t h a f u r r o w d i s c t o e n s u r e p a r a l l e l row w i d t h .

2.4 O x- D r a w n Equipment

The r e c e n t l o c a l d e s i g n m o d i f i c a t i o n s o f p l o u g h s w i t h UFI p l o u g h b o t t o m s were d e s c r i b e d i n C h a p t e r 1 . 3 . 1 . R i d g e r , c u l t i v a t o r s , h a r r o w s and s e e d - d r i l l s were d e s c r i b e d i n C h a p t e r s 1 . 3 . 2 , 1 . 3 . 3 a n d 1 . 3 . 4 . O x- c a r t s a r e d e s c r i b e d i n C h a p t e r 3 .6 .

I n t e r m s o f l o c a l l y manufactured t o o l b a r d e s i g n , l e t u s b r i e f l y d e s c r i b e t h e Kabanyola T o o l b a r , made by Themo Farm Implements Company i n Arusha. The Kabanyola is a Ugandan a d a p t i o n of a B r i t i s h d e s i g n , which Themi modi f i ed s e v e r a l times a f t e r a s e r i e s of f i e l d t e s t s t o s t r e n g t h e n it and t o a d a p t t o l o c a l l y a v a l i a b l e m a t e r i a l . The f i r s t frame adopted f o r manufac tu r ing c o n s i s t s o f a s t r a i g h t p i p e beam w i t h welded h i t c h , d e p t h wheel, a d j u s t a b l e p i p e h a n d l e assembly (welded) and a v e r t i c a l b a r t o which t h e UFI p lough bot tom is b o l t e d .

The weeding t i n e a t t a c h m e n t ( t r i a l p roduced) i s a s q u a r e , hollow-box-bar (open a n g e l A-frame d e s i g n ) , b o l t e d t o t h e beam and h o l d i n g b o l t c lamps w i t h 5 a n g l e b a r t i n e h o l d e r s . Narrow r e v e r s i b l e r i p p e r t i n e s ( s o l d by RTC) were f i t t e d . T h e s e a r e n o t s u i t a b l e f o r weeding ( l e a v e broad s t r i p s o f l a n d u n c u l t i v a t e d ) , and a r e h a r d l y s u i t a b l e f o r ha r rowing and s c a r i f y i n g when a t t a c h e d t o a n open A-frame. T h i s f rame w i t h an UFI bot tom is 3-4 kg h e a v i e r t h a n t h e UFI p lough . A number of t h e s e f rames w i t h plough bo t toms were s o l d , main ly i n S i n g i d a and Arusha, a t p r i c e s o f around 1,800/- s h s . , i .e . 1,000/- s h s . above t h e p r i c e of t h e UFI

p lough .

While t h e o p e r a t i n g s t a b i l i t y and ploughirig performance of t h i s d e s i g n is g e n e r a l l y good, t h e r e have been a number of c o m p l a i n t s from f a r m e r s a b o u t h e a v i n e s s , c r a c k i n g and b r e a k i n g o f welds ( e s p e c i a l l y t h e h i t c h ) a n d , o f c o u r s e , t h e h i g h p r i c e . A member of t h e team t o o k t h i s p lough t o 3 v i l l a g e s i n Hanang D i s t r i c t f o r p e a s a n t farm t e s t i n g . The i n s t a n t r e a c t i o n on s e e i n g t h e plough was t h a t t h e f a r m e r s examined a l l t h e welds i n d e t a i l and found s m a l l c r a c k s .

The A-bar weeding f rame was u n f i t f o r i n t e r r o w weeding, w h i l e a n a t t a c h e d and m o d i f i e d German r i d g e r body from CAMARTEC worked e x c e l l e n t l y f o r i n t e r- r o w weeding. The spanner s u p p l i e d w i t h t h e t o o l b a r i s d i f f i c u l t t o u s e and we had t o r e l y on o t h e r s p a n n e r s .

R e c e n t l y t h e d e s i g n h a s a g a i n b e e n changed t o a hollow- box beam and t h e h i t c h h a s b e e n s t r e n g t h e n e d . A l i g h t w e i g h t ( a b o u t 31 k g ) a n d a h e a v i e r w e i g h t d e s i g n h a s now b e e n p roduced i n r e s p o n s e t o i n d i v i d u a l f a r m e r and l o c a l - s p e c i f i c p r e f e r e n c e s . Themi h a s a l s o bough t 30- 50 o l d r i d g e r s , b e i n g p a r t o f a non-moving s u r p l u s f rom K i l i m a n j a r o RTC, i n o r d e r t o u s e t h e r i d g e r b o t t o m s as t o o l b a r a t t a c h m e n t s .

W i t h i n a p e r i o d o f o n l y one y e a r , Themi h a s b e e n r e s p o n s i v e t o i n i t i a l d e s i g n and q u a l i t y p r o b l e m s . Themi u n d e r t a k e s t e s t i n g o f i t s p r o d u c t i n t h e f i e l d and is i n c o n t a c t w i t h f a r m e r s who v i s i t t h e f a c t o r y . I n r e t r o s p e c t , however , t h e c h o i c e o f t h e Kabanyola d e s i g n was p r o b a b l y a b i t p r e m a t u r e .

The r e m a i n i n g p rob lem i s t h e h i g h p r i c e , which is p a r t - l y a r e f l e c t i o n o f n o n- s u b s i d i s e d m a n u f a c t u r i n g and l i m i t e d b a t c h p r o d u c t i o n . The Themi t o o l b a r w i l l b e un- a b l e t o compe te w i t h t h e UFI p l o u g h i f UFI p l o u g h s become a v a i l a b l e i n l a r g e r q u a n t i t i e s . UFI i s , however , i n d i r e c t l y s u b s i d i z e d . I f t h e demand f o r r i d g e r s and c u l t i v a t o r s i n c r e a s e s , Themi h a s t h e a d v a n t a g e o f b e i n g a b l e t o s u p p l y a n a l l - i n - o n e t o o l b a r p r o v i d e d a b e t t e r weeding a t t a c h m e n t d e s i g n is a d o p t e d . Due t o t h e despe- r a t e s h o r t a g e o f t r e k c h a i n s and f o r e i g n e x c h a n g e , t h e r e h a s b e e n a n i l l - c o n c e i v e d i d e a t o s u p p l y s i sa l r o p e s as a s u b s t i t u t e w i t h o u t i n v e s t i g a t i n g f i r s t w h e t h e r t h i s was f e a s i b l e . Dur ing t h e s e c o n d World War, U k i r i g u r u R e s e a r c h S t a t i o n t e s t e d t h i s i d e a u s i n g i r o n l o o p s f o r a t t a c h i n g t h e t r e k r o p e t o t h e p l o u g h h i t c h . Even s o , t h i s r e q u i r e d two r o p e s p e r s e a s o n . Ki l imo/ RIDEP i n S h i n y a n g a i s t e s t i n g means o f h i t c h i n g r o p e s w i t h l e a t h e r s t r a p s . S t i l l , t h e r o p e as s u c h i s bound t o r o t as a n e f f e c t o f w e t s e a s o n c u l t i v a t i o n .

Dur ing o u r m i s s i o n , w e found l a r g e s t o c k s o f heavy t r e k r o p e , which t h e RTC's were u n a b l e t o s e l l . The r o p e i s s o t h i c k t h a t it c a n n o t b e d i r e c t l y a t t a c h e d t o t h e p l o u g h h i t c h o r s a f e t y hook. I n Hanang, a few f a r m e r s h a v e t w i n e d 4 c a t t l e t r e k r o p e s t o g e t h e r as a s u b s t i - t u t e f o r c h a i n s . The c o s t o f t h e s e c a t t l e r o p e s a t

c a t t l e a u c t i o n s w a s 14/ - s h s . e a c h , and t h u s a p l o u g h t r e k r o p e c o s t 56/-., which is e q u a l t o t h e c h a i n p r i c e . T h r e e t o f o u r o f t h e s e were r e q u i r e d p e r s e a s o n and some o f t h e f a r m e r s h a d g i v e n up b e c a u s e o f t h e t r o u b l e e n t a i l e d .

A s a r e s u l t o f t h e r o p e a d v e n t u r e and t h e c r y f o r c h a i n s ( b r o u g h t up i n P a r l i a m e n t ) , c h a i n s h a d t o b e f lown i n u r g e n t l y .

2.5 Simple post-~arvesting Equipment

Simple p o s t - h a r v e s t i n g equ ipmen t i n c l u d e s manual o r p e d a l powered e q u i p m e n t l i k e ma ize s h e l l e r s , g r a i n g r i n d i n g ( f l o u r ) m i l l s , winnowers , g r o u n d n u t s h e l l e r s , t h r e s h e r s ( e . g . r i c e h u l l e r s ) and s e e d - d r e s s e s . U n t i l r e c e n t l y t h e r e h a v e b e e n o n l y f ew a t t e m p t s t o i n t r o d u c e m a i z e and g r o u n d u t s h e l l e r s , and winnowers made by TAMTU, UAC and t h e S i n g i d a R e g i o n a l Workshop. The re h a s b e e n no a d o p t i o n o f t h e s e d e s i g n s .

Maize sheller

Groundnut Sheller (UFI)

UFI h a s made a l i m i t e d number o f g r o u n d n u t s h e l l e r s and h a s imported c a s t - i r o n ma ize s h e l l e r s f rom C o s s u l . I n t h e p e r i o d 1978- 80, U F I ' s n a t i o n a l s a l e s o f ma ize and g r o u n d n u t s h e l l e r s a v e r a g e d a b o u t 2 0 0 and 5 0 u n i t s p e r y e a r r e s p e c t i v e l y , a n d most o f t h e s e a r e i n RTC s t o r e s . I n K i l i m a n j a r o , TFA h a s s o l d some C o s s u l ma ize s h e l l e r s . TFA r e p o r t e d p r o b l e m s w i t h them b r e a k i n g , b o t h t h e c a s t - i r o n f i t t i n g s and o t h e r p a r t s .

" I n a s s e s s i n g t h e need f o r , and t h e v a l u e o f , p o s t - h a r v e s t i n g equ ipmen t i n t h e small-scale f a r m i n g and r u r a l s e c t o r c o n t e x t , it is i m p o r t a n t t o r e c o g n i z e t h a t i n mos t i f n o t a l l cases, t h e o p e r a t i o n s t h a t t h e s e a p p l i a n c e s p e r f o r m c a n a l s o b e c a r r i e d o u t w i t h r e l a t i - v e l y s i m p l e a n d o f t e n s e l f - p r o v i d e d equ ipmen t .... The f a c t t h a t t h e r e a r e a l t e r n a t i v e ways d o i n g t h e work o f t h e s e m a c h i n e s means t h a t t h e r e c a n b e no a b s o l u t e mea- s u r e s o f t h e a d e q u a c y o r o t h e r w i s e o f l o c a l i n v e n t o r i e s ; t h i s s t a n d s t o b e d e t e r m i n e d o n l y b y t h e o p p o r t u n i t y c o s t o f p e o p l e s ' t i m e " . (IFAD 1983, annex II:11)

We a g r e e w i t h t h e IFAD r e p o r t . T h r e s h i n g o f m a i z e ( g r a i n removal f rom t h e c o b ) , sorghum, m i l l e t s and b e a n s ( p o d r e m o v a l ) i s m a i n l y done by s t i c k b e a t i n g which h a s no t o o l c o s t and is o f t e n done by co- opera- t i v e l a b o u r . T h r e s h i n g o f whea t , sorghum, m i l l e t , b e a n s , and p o s s i b l y paddy , c a n a l s o b e done b y p u l l i n g s i m p l e animal- drawn t h r e s h i n g s l e d g e s ( w h i c h c a n b e made l o c a l l y o f wood) i n c i r c l e s o v e r t h e g r a i n s s p r e a d o u t i n a y a r d , p r o v i d e d t h a t t h e q u a n t i t y o f g r a i n s j u s t i E y t h i s . T h i s i s a common method a l l o v e r A s i a . I n Hanang, h a r v e s t e d b e a n s a r e p l a c e d on v i l l a g e r o a d s f o r t r a c t o r s t o d r i v e o v e r . Green ma ize and b e a n s a r e removed by hand .

I n t h e m a j o r sorghum and paddy a r e a s , e . g . Kye la , Suku- maland and S i n g i d a , a n a t t e m p t c a n b e made t o i n t r o d u c e t h e h a r v e s t i n g s l e d g e s ( s e e FAO 1969: Farm Implements f o r A r i d and T r o p i c a l R e g i o n s . Rome). Maize s h e l l i n g g e n e r a l l y r e q u i r e s c o n s i d e r a b l e t i m e . F u r t h e r m o r e , g r a i n - b i n s t o r a g e o r b a g g i n g o f m a i z e i s a p p a r e n t l y one s i m p l e way o f r e d u c i n g t h e s e r i o u s ' S c a n i a ' b e e t l e a t t a c k s , b e c a u s e t h e s i z e o f t h e b e e t l e s p r e v e n t s them f rotn moving i n s t a c k e d ma ize g r a i n and t h u s t h e y m a i n l y a t t a c k c o b maize s t o r e d on r a f t e r s ( p e r s . comm. w i t h J o e l S t r a u s s and C h a r l e s Lane , OXFAM, Arusha ) , Conse- q u e n t l y , t h e m a i z e s h e l l e r i d e n t i f i e d by t h e UN-Kenyan programme s h o u l d b e t e s t e d w i t h p r i o r i t y g i v e n t o T a b o r a ( m o s t a f f e c t e d b y S c a n i a ) , A r u s h a , K i l i m a n j a r o and t h e S o u t h e r n H i g h l a n d s ( i m p o r t a n t m a i z e a r e a s ) .

The g r i n d i n g o f f l o u r from maize , o t h e r g r a i n s and c a s s a v a is a n e x t r e m e l y a rduous and time-consuming a c t i v i t y f o r women when done manual ly by u s i n g g r i n d i n g s t o n e s . A l t e r n a t i v e l y , many househo lds spend c o n s i d e r a b l e amounts of money monthly on t a k i n g maize t o t h e engine- powered hammer m i l l s s o popula r i n t h e v i l l a g e s . Many of t h e s e a r e now a t a s t a n d s t i l l owing t o l a c k of d i e s e l and s p a r e- p a r t s . S t o c k s of l o c a l l y manufac tu red hammer m i l l s c a n n o t b e s o l d because o f l a c k o f power pr ime movers.

Hand m i l l s a r e common i n c e r t a i n o t h e r A f r i c a n c o u n t r i e s , e . g . Swaz i land . OXFAM h a s s t a r t e d an i n t e r e s t i n g t e s t i n g and e x t e n s i o n programme f o r hand m i l l s i n a number of r e g i o n s i n Tanzan ia . S i x imported m i l l s have been t e s t e d and two of t h e m i l l s , c o s t i n g 2-2,500/- s h i l l i n g s ( C I F ) appear t o have good poten- t i a l . According t o t h e programme worker , I a n L e g g e t t , 2,000 hand m i l l s c o u l d b e s o l d a n n u a l l y i n d i s t r i c t s l i k e Makete and Njombe, where m i l l i n g i s done f o r o t h e r h o u s e h o l d s a g a i n s t h i r e c h a r g e s . I n poor r e g i o n s l i k e S i n g i d a and Dodoma, a d o p t i o n i s s l o w e r . To be c o s t e f f e c t i v e i n c a p a c i t y u t i l i z a t i o n , some t e n househo lds have t o c o- o p e r a t e i n u s i n g t h e m i l l s , and t h i s c o n s t i - t u t e s a s o c i o - c u l t u r a l problem as t o where t h e m i l l s h o u l d be p l a c e d , e t c . T h i s p r o j e c t s h o u l d be c l o s e l y f o l l o w e d b e f o r e any o t h e r l e s s- i n f o r m e d a t t e m p t s a r e made t o import o r d e v e l o p l o c a l d e s i g n s .

We l a c k i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t t h e m e r i t s of g roundnut s h e l l e r s i n Tanzanian p e a s a n t farming sys tems . West A f r i c a n c o u n t r i e s l i k e Senegal s h o u l d have advanced e x p e r i e n c e s on such s h e l l e r s . T r a d i t i o n a l manual paddy s h e l l i n g o r h u l l i n g i s , however, t ime- consuming, and hand paddy s h e l l e r s migh t b e a p r i o r i t y implement f o r Mbeya, Tabora , Sukumaland and some c o a s t a l r e g i o n s .

Given t h e p r i o r i t y s e l e c t i o n c r i t e r i a , we do n o t b e l i e v e i n winnowers and s e e d- d r e s s e r s ( e . g , f o r d r e s s i n g p e s t i c i d e s i n s t o r e d g r a i n s ) . Winnowing is an e a s y t a s k u t i l i z i n g s k i l l e d hand movement and wind- power. Seed d r e s s i n g w i t h p e s t i c i d e s i s a l s o an e a s y manual t a s k .

2 . 6 Research, Test ing and Extension

2 . 6 . 1 I n t r o d u c t i o n

The re a p p e a r s t o b e a v e r y small m a r k e t f o r improved imp lemen t s . The August 1 9 8 3 p r i c e i n c r e a s e o f 2 0 0 p e r- c e n t on improved ox-drawn implemen t s l i k e r i d g e r s , c u l - t i v a t o r s and h a r r o w s i s l i k e l y t o p e r p e t u a t e t h i s s i t u a t i o n . RTC's h a v e n o t been a b l e t o g e t t h e i r supp- l i e s o f improved imp lemen t s o u t t o v i l l a g e s t o a l l o w p o t e n t i a l b u y e r s t o assess t h e i r q u a l i t y and u t i l i t y . The I n d i a n d e s i g n s i m p o r t e d f o r t h e T a n z a n i a n m a r k e t a r e g e n e r a l l y n o t a p p r o p r i a t e f o r T a n z a n i a n c o n d i t i o n s and v e r y few h a v e b e e n s o l d .

With r e s p e c t t o a p p r o p r i a t e d e s i g n s , r e s e a r c h and e x t e n s i o n a c t i v i t i t i e s h a v e l a r g e l y f a i l e d b o t h t o d e v e l o p a p p r o p r i a t e p r o t o t y p e s and t o i n t r o d u c e w e l l p r o v e n p r o t o t y p e s f rom o t h e r A f r i c a n c o u n t r i e s i n t o T a n z a n i a n p e a s a n t f a r m i n g s y s t e m s .

Wi th two i m p o r t a n t e x c e p t i o n s , i .e . t h e I r i n g a Oxeniza- t i o n P r o j e c t and t h e e x t e n s i o n a c t i v i t i e s o f t h e Sh inyangya RIDEP, gove rnmen t e x t e n s i o n s e r v i c e s t o f a r m e r s h a v e n o t made headway b e c a u s e o f t h e l a c k o f p r o p e r l y t e s t e d and p r o v e n imp lemen t s and l a c k o f know- l e d g e o f t h e i r r e q u i r e d s p e c i f i c a t i o n s and pe r fo rman- ces, n o t l e a s t i n c l u d i n g t h e t y p e s o f imp lemen t s most needed and which s h o u l d b e g i v e n p r i o r i t y f o r f a r m i n g s y s t e m s .

G e n e r a l l y , K i l i m o ' s e x t e n s i o n s t a f f l a c k u s e f u l know- l e d g e a b o u t t h e n e c e s s a r y p r i o r i t i e s and d e t a i l s o f t h e s e l e c t i v e deve lopmen t o f c o m p r e h e n s i v e ox-mechaniza- t i o n . Many of them h a v e n e v e r s e e n a p p r o p r i a t e p r o t o - t y p e s . They l a c k u p- t o- d a t e knowledge a b o u t ox-mechani- z a t i o n and t h e whole i n t e r r e l a t e d set o f t e c h n o l o g i c a l , a g r o n o m i c , economic and s o c i o - c u l t u r a l c o n d i t i o n s which d e t e r m i n e a d o p t i o n o f i n n o v a t i o n s . W e f ound t h a t e v e n d i s t r i c t f u n c t i o n a l o f f i c e r s were unaware t h a t i n t h e i r d i s t r i c t t h e p e a s a n t s t h e m s e l v e s had t a k e n t o a d o p t i n g l o c a l s p o n t a n e o u s i n n o v a t i o n s o f improved me thods s u c h a s row p l a n t i n g w i t h p a r a l l e l row w i d t h , i n t e r - r o w c u l -

t i v a t i o n and r i d g i n g u s i n g UFI p l o u g h s , s u p p l e m e n t a r y f e e d i n g o f d r a u g h t o x e n on c r o p h a r v e s t r e s i d u e s , f i t t - i n g w h e e l s t o s l e d g e s , e tc . I t c o u l d b e s a i d a t p r e s e n t t h a t e x p e r i m e n t a l l y o r i e n t e d and i n n o v a t i v e f a r m e r s i n v i l l a g e s h a v e r e a c h e d a s t a g e , b r o u g h t a b o u t b y i n- c r e a s i n g l a b o u r c o n s t r a i n t s and t h e g e n e r a l c r i s i s , where t h e y a r e a h e a d o f t h e g e n e r a l l e v e l o f e x p e r t i s e i n gove rmen t and i n t h e r e s e a r c h a n d d e v e l o p m e n t s e c t o r .

Two m a j o r i m p r e s s i o n s a r i se f rom o u r a n a l y s i s o f t h e R & D s y s t e m as it e x i s t s a t t h e moment:

1 ) The f o c u s is on a c a d e m i c and t h e o r e c t i c a l r e s e a r c h a n d i m p r a c t i c a l e x p e r i m e n t a t i o n r a t h e r t h a n on a d a p t i v e r e s e a r c h a n d deve lopmen t work, n o t t o m e n t i o n i m p l e m e n t a t i o n .

2 ) C o n s i d e r a b l e e m p h a s i s h a s b e e n p u t on i n s t i t u t i o n b u i l d i n g as opposed t o s o l v i n g p rob lems i n t h e f i e l d .

T h e r e is t h u s a c l e a r need t o :

1 ) s h i f t a c t i v i t i e s away from t h e d e s k s o u t i n t o t h e v i l l a g e s ;

2 ) c o n c e n t r a t e on a f i e l d and p e a s a n t o r i e n t e d a p p r o a c h i n o r d e r t o c a t c h up on t h e deve lopmen t p r o c e s s o f a d o p t i o n o f l o c a l s p o n t a n e o u s innova- t i o n s , and t o c o n t i n u e f rom t h e r e ;

3 ) e s t a b l i s h t h e need and p r i o r i t i e s f o r t h o s e p a r t i - c u l a r imp lemen t s and s e c t o r a c t i v i t i e s which s t a n d t h e b e s t c h a n c e o f a d o p t i o n and which h a v e t h e b e s t p o t e n t i a l f o r s u p p o r t i n g t h e deve lopmen t o f . p e a s a n t a g r i c u l t u r e ;

4 ) r e c o g n i z e t h a t p e a s a n t s o c i e t i e s o p e r a t e a c c o r d i n g t o a l o g i c o f t h e i r own and t h a t t h i s l o g i c h a s s o f a r b e e n p o o r l y u n d e r s t o o d by deve lopmen t t h e o r i e s ;

5 ) a c c e p t t h a t it is d i f f i c u l t and somet imes c o u n t e r - p r o d u c t i v e t o impose i n n o v a t i o n s a c c o r d i n g t o a top- bo t tom a p p r o a c h which t h e p e a s a n t s a r e n o t i n t e r e s t e d i n , as i n n o v a t i o n s a r e u n l i k e l y t o become a d o p t e d on a n y scale u n l e s s a f e l t i n t e r e s t among p o t e n t i a l u s e r s h a s d e v e l o p e d and u n l e s s

t h e r e a r e o b j e c t i v e a d v a n t a g e s - s o c i a l , economic and t e c h n o l o g i c a l - a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h i s innova- t i o n s .

2 . 6 . 2 CAMARTEC (The C e n t r e f o r A g r i c u l t u r a l Mechaniza- t i o n and R u r a l Technology) , Arusha

The C e n t r e f o r A g r i c u l t u r a l Mechan iza t ion and R u r a l Technology (CAMARTEC) w a s e s t a b l i s h e d a s a p a r a s t a t a l under t h e M i n i s t r y o f I n d u s t r i e s i n November 1981. The p a r a s t a t a l is t h e r e s u l t of a merger of t h e Tanzanian A g r i c u l t u r a l Machinery and T e s t i n g Uni t (TAMTU) - f o r- merly under t h e M i n i s t r y o f A g r i c u l t u r e and s i n c e 1978 under t h e M i n i s t r y of I n d u s t r i e s - and t h e Arusha A p p r o p r i a t e Technology P r o j e c t (AATP), f o r m e r l y under t h e s m a l l I n d u s t r i e s Development O r g a n i z a t i o n (SIDO). TAMTU and AATP were i n many r e s p e c t s two o p p o s i t e p o l e s , d i f f e r i n g i n s i z e and c a p a c i t y , o b j e c t i v e s , i n t e r e s t s and o r g a n i z a t i o n a l s t r u c t u r e and s t y l e .

TAMTU's a c t i v i t i e s d a t e back t o 1955 and e n t a i l e d t e s t i n g of l o c a l and imported a g r i c u l t u r a l implements and machinery, development and t e s t i n g o f p r o t o t y p e s of b o t h hand and an imal o p e r a t e d implements and b a t c h pro- d u c t i o n o f p r o t o t y p e s a t TAMTU and i t s s i x r u r a l c r a f t workshops ( R C W s ) l o c a t e d i n d i f f e r e n t a r e a s of t h e c o u n t r y . Over t h e l a s t few y e a r s , TAMTU h a s s u f f e r e d from l a c k of f u n d i n g . I ts r e s e a r c h and developpment a c t i v i t i e s have f o r some y e a r s been run a t a low l e v e l wi th l i t t l e o r i e n t a t i o n t o w a r d s p e a s a n t a d a p t i v e r e s e a r c h and development . Both t e s t i n g and b a t c h pro- d u c t i o n a t TAMTU and t h e RCWs have been w e l l below c a p a c i t y . Most RCWs have f o r some y e a r s been managed by r e g i o n a l a u t h o r i t i e s o r SIDO and a r e f a c i n g problems of poor o r g a n i z a t i o n and d i r e c t i o n , and s h o r t a g e o f mate- r i a l s . The main s u c c e s s of TAMTU h a s been i t s o x- c a r t d e s i g n which was adop ted by most p u b l i c o x- c a r t workshops i n t h e c o u n t r y . There h a s a l s o been some produc- t i o n of s p i k e t o o t h ha r rows , b u t a c t u a l a d o p t i o n and use o f t h e s e by p e a s a n t s h a s been n e g l i g i b l e . Other ox-drawn implements deve loped by TAMTU have i n most r e s p e c t s been i n a p p r o p r i a t e . They a r e t o o heavy, t o o s o p h i s t i c a t e d and t o o e x p e n s i v e f o r s t a n d i n g any chance of a d o p t i o n i n p e a s a n t f a rming .

T h i s a p p l i e s t o t h e r e c t a n g u l a r s p i k e t o o t h h a r r o w , t o t h e d i s c h a r r o w ( n o t a d o p t e d f o r b a t c h p r o d u c t i o n ) and t o t h e p l a n t e r c u l t i v a t o r , and d o u b l e f u r r o w p l o u g h ( K i f a r u ) . TAMTU1s p r o t o t y p e s h a v e h a r d l y b e e n i n u s e on p e a s a n t f a r m s , a p a r t f rom a few p i e c e s o f e q u i p m e n t t e s t e d b y TAMTU i n a c o u p l e o f v i l l a g e s n e a r Arusha . Both d u r i n g o u r r e c e n t s u r v e y and d u r i n g p r e v i o u s s u r - v e y s w e f o u n d TAMTU e q u i p m e n t ( p l a n t e r s , c u l t i v a t o r s , d o u b l e- f u r r o w p l o u g h s , h a r r o w s and o x - c a r t s ) l y i n g unused o r b r o k e a t D i s t r i c t A g r i c u l t u r a l O f f i c e s and O x- t r a i n i n g C e n t r e s (OTC ' s ) .

TAMTU h a s m a i n l y c o n c e n t r a t e d on two c o n c e p t s o f t e c h - n o l o g y d e v e l o p m e n t , b o t h o f which h a v e p r o v e d o f l i m i t e d u t i l i t y i n t h e T a n z a n i a n c o n t e x t :

1 ) The s i m p l e v i l l a g e t e c h n o l o g y (SVT) c o n c e p t i n t r o - d u c e d by MacPherson. When MacPherson l e f t TAMTU i n t h e mid 1970s t h i s work was a p p a r e n t l y d i s c o n- t i n u e d .

2 ) The Maximum P r o d u c t i v i t y c o n c e p t o r t h e p r o g r e s s i - v e f a r m e r a p p r o a c h , b a s e d on t h e deve lopmen t o f s o p h i s t i c a t e d h e a v y and e x p e n s i v e equ ipmen t l i k e t h e d o u b l e- f u r r o w p l o u g h and t h e TAMTU p l a n t e r . T h i s is t h e t y p e o f equ ipmen t s t i l l p r e f e r r e d b y many a g r i c u l t u r a l e n g i n e e r s i n T a n z a n i a , and MacPherson a l s o p l a y e d a r o l e i n t h e deve lopmen t o f t h i s e q u i p m e n t .

I n g e n e r a l TAMTU h a s s u f f e r e d from t h e i n j e c t i o n o f a l i e n i d e a s a b o u t t e c h n o l o g y d e v e l o p m e n t , and i t s d e s i g n s a re now g e n e r a l l y o b s o l e t e . D e s p i t e being w e l l

e q u i p p e d w i t h m a c h i n e r y g e a r e d t o w a r d s b a t c h p roduc- t i o n , TAMTU h a s h a d a h i s t o r y o f p r o d u c i n g v e r y l i t t l e . Only o x- c a r t s h a v e been s o l d t o p e a s a n t s f o r l a c k o f b e t t e r d e s i g n s . A number o f c r a f t s m e n t r a i n e d b y TAMTU h a v e l e f t f o r b e t t e r p a i d j o b s i n a more i n- s p i r i n g and p r o d u c t i v e e n v i r o n m e n t . CAMARTEC h a s h a d t o t a k e o v e r t h e r e m a i n i n g s t a f f o f o f f i c e r s , c r a f t s m e n and s k i l l e d w o r k e r s . TAMTU h a s a l s o s u f f e r e d f rom b e i n g " i s o l a t e d " i n t h e m i d d l e o f a m i l i t a r y camp a t t h e o l d Tangany ika P a c k e r s s i t e .

I n terms o f o r g a n i z a t i o n a l s t r u c t u r e and s t y l e TAMTU w a s h i g h l y s t r u c t u r e d a n d b u r e a u c r a t i c (Whitcombe and Miles 1 9 8 1 : 9 ) w h i l e AATP was more f l e x i b l e a n d democra- t i c a l l y s t r u c t u r e d , wh ich among o t h e r t h i n g s p r o v i d e d a n i n s p i r i n g work ing e n v i r o n m e n t f o r t h e AATP s t a f f member S .

AATP w a s s t a r t e d i n 1 9 7 7 a n d h a s r e c e i v e d c o n s i d e r a b l e Swed i sh a s s i s t a n c e . I ts main a c t i v i t i e s c o n s i s t e d o f r e s e a r c h a n d d e v e l o p m e n t i n b u i l d i n g mater ia ls , r u r a l t r a n s p o r t a t i o n , e n e r g y and w a t e r s u p p l y . AATP's r e s e a r c h a n d d e v e l o p m e n t e f f o r t h a s b e e n m a i n l y adap- t i v e , w i t h some s u c c e s s w i t h s o i l - c e m e n t b l o c k s , a b lockmak ing mach ine a n d a v i l l a g e c h a i n pumnp, w h i l e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f a number o f e n e r g y d e v i c e s - s o l a r , b i o g a s and wind- powered - h a s n o t b e e n s u c c e s s f u l .

AATP c o n d u c t e d a l o t o f t r a i n i n g c o u r s e s a n d e x t e n s i o n a c t i v i t i e s i n v i l l a g e l e v e l t e c h n o l o g y a n d d e v e l o p e d a n e x t e n s i o n mechanism a n d e x t e n s i o n programme b a s e d on a c o n c e p t o f r e s o u r c e - i n t e n s i v e , p a r t i c i p a t o r y , v i l l a g e - l e v e l e x t e n s i o n . T h e r e i s no d o u b t t h a t t h i s a p p r o a c h h a s c o n s i d e r a b l e m e r i t b u t t h a t it h a s a l s o b e e n r e sou rce- demand ing i n t e r m s o f t i m e , manpower and f i n a n c e .

I n c o n t r a s t t o mos t o t h e r R & D i n s t i t u t i o n s , t h i s a p p r o a c h i n v o l v e d s u r v e y s a n d d i s c u s s i o n s i n r u r a l a r e a s on v i l l a g e r ' s p e r c e i v e d t e c h n o l o g y n e e d s , i n o r d e r t o d e t e r m i n e w h i c h t y p e o f t e c h n o l o g y would b e mos t r e q u i r e d . A t t e m p t s were t h e n made t o a c h i e v e con- s e n s u s i n t h e v i l l a g e s on a c c e p t a n c e and i n t r o d u c t i o n o f t h e t e c h n o l o g y . F i n a l l y , l o c a l c r a f t s m e n were e n c o u r a g e d t o j o i n i n g r o u p s f o r t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f pro- t o t y p e s b a s e d m a i n l y on a v a i l a b l e r e s o u r c e s i n t h e v i l l a g e s . The who le p r o c e s s w a s t ime- consuming a n d h a s m a i n l y b e e n s u c c e s s f u l l as r e g a r d s c h a i n pumps a n d b r i c k- m a k i n g i n some v i l l a g e s .

The l e n g t h y and d i f f i c u l t p r o c e s s o f a c q u i r i n g v i l l a g e c o n s e n s u s and v i l l a g e c o o p e r a t i o n b a s i c a l l y stems f rom t h e p r e v a i l i n g p o l i t i c a l c o n c e p t o f t h e v i l l a g e as a u n i t o f p r o d u c t i o n a n d o r g a n i z a t i o n . B u t , i n c o n t r a s t

t o t h e p o l i t i c a l i d e o l o g y o f t h e T a n z a n i a n s t a t e , t h e v i l l a g e g e n e r a l l y d o e s n o t f u n c t i o n as a u n i t o f p ro- d u c t i o n o r as t h e f o c a l p o i n t f o r a d o p t i o n o f i nnova- t i o n s . AATP c a n h a r d l y b e blamed f o r t h e p o l i t i c a l s t a t e o f a f f a i r s , b u t when a p p r o p r i a t e t e c h n o l o g y is t h e i s s u e , t h e n it becomes p e r t i n e n t t o a d o p t a more r e a l i s t i c a p p r o a c h .

Seen i n r e t r o s p e c t - and g i v e n t h e p r e s e n t p r o c e s s o f a d o p t i o n o f l o c a l s p o n t a n e o u s i n n o v a t i o n s u n a i d e d by i n s t i t u t i o n a l e x t e n s i o n a g e n t s - t h e a p p r o a c h must now b e t o t a k e up and s u p p o r t t h o s e s p o n t a n e o u s deve lopmen t a c t i v i t i e s , which c a n b e s e e n t o improve b o t h p roduc- t i v e c o n d i t i o n s and community l i f e . The e x t e n s i o n a p p r o a c h o f AATP h a s a l o t o f m e r i t , i n s o f a r as it is b a s e d on t h e l o c a l d i a l o g u e a p p r o a c h , i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f p e r c e i v e d n e e d s , e tc . Even s o , AATP h a d a t e n d e n c y t o s t a r t t o o much f rom s c r a t c h , i n a d d i t i o n t o e x p e r i m e n t- i n g w i t h i m p r a c t i c a l o r uneconomica l d e v i c e s l i k e s o l a r c o o k e r S.

AATP d i d n o t e n g a g e i n t h e deve lopmen t o f improved f a rm implemen t s a l t h o u g h a few o f t h e s t a f f members had a s o l i d background f o r d o i n g s o . The main r e a s o n f o r s t a y i n g o u t o f t h i s f i e l d was t h a t is was c o n s i d e r e d TAMTU's domain b o t h by AATP a n d SIDO.

I n mid 1 9 7 9 , t h e T a n z a n i a I n d u s t r i a l S t u d i e s and Con- s u l t i n g O r g a n i z a t i o n (TISCO) w a s commiss ioned by t h e M i n i s t r y o f I n d u s t r i e s t o u n d e r t a k e a s t u d y on t h e re- o r g a n i z a t i o n o f TAMTU. T h e r e were r e s e r v a t i o n s w i t h i n t h e M i n i s t r y w i t h r e g a r d t o t h e recommendat ions o f TISCO a n d t h e M i n i s t r y e s t a b l i s i ~ e d a P l a n n i n g Team t o r e v i e w t h e m a t t e r . I n e a r l y 1 9 8 0 , t h e P l a n n i n g Team p r e s e n t e d v e r y d i f f e r e n t recornmendat ions t o t h e M i n i s t r y .

Both t h e TISCO and t h e P l a n n i n g Team p r o p o s a l s e n v i s a g- e d t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f a p a r a s t a t a l t o d e a l w i t h a g r i - c u l t u r a l m e c h a n i z a t i o n and r u r a l t e c h n o l o g y b a s e d on TAMTU a n d AATP. However, t h e r e was no c o n s e n s u s as t o t h e f u n c t i o n s o f t h e new p a r a s t a t a l , and c o n s e q u e n t l y no c o n s e n s u s a s t o t h e p a r a s t a t a l ' s o r g a n i z a t i o n a l

s t r u c t u r e , manpower and o t h e r r e s o u r c e s , o p e r a t i n g mechanisms and work p rog rarnmes.

The re was c o n s e n s u s , however , on t h e l o c a t i o n o f t h e new o r g a n i z a t i o n a t Tenge ru n e a r Arusha , and on t h e b r o a d r e q u i r e m e n t s o f t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n i n terms o f b u i l d i n g s and p h y s i c a l p l a n t . A c c o r d i n g l y , a s i t e was s e l e c t e d , a p h y s i c a l p l a n d e v e l o p e d and f i n a n c e a l l o - c a t e d . C o n s t r u c t i o n began i n l a t e 1980. S h o r t a g e s and o t h e r p rob lems h a v e d e l a y e d t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n programme and o c c u p a t i o n o f t h e new f a c i l i t i e s . F u l l o c c u p a t i o n o f t h e f a c i l i t i e s i s now e x p e c t e d d u r i n g 1983/84. Work- s h o p m a c h i n e r y and t e s t i n g f a c i l i t i e s were moved t o Tenge ru i n November/December 1983.

I n December 198 4 two c o n s u l t a n t s f rom I n t e r m e d i a t e Techno logy C o n s u l t a n t s L td ( I T C ) , London, p roduced a r e p o r t a d v i s i n g on " t h e c o n c e p t a n d f u n c t i o n s o f t h e p l a n n e d o r g a n i z a t i o n , a n d , i n g e n e r a l t .erms, on i t s o r g a n i z a t i o n a l s t r u c t u r e , manpower and o t h e r r e s o u r c e s , o p e r a t i n g mechanisms, and i n i t i t a l . work programme" (Whitcome & Miles 1981 : l 1 .

A s f a r as c a n b e g a u g e d , t h e ITC r e p o r t i s n o t t h e f i n a l o n e and d o e s n o t p r e s e n t c l e a r - c u t recommenda- t i o n s , b u t r a t h e r d i s c u s s e s t h e above- ment ioned i s s u e s i n b r o a d t e r m s and g e n e r a l l y a d v o c a t e s t h a t t h e i n s t i - t u t i o n s h o u l d u n d e r t a k e o n l y a l i m i t e d number o f r e l a t - e d f u n c t i o n s and a l i m i t e d number o f work programmes w i t h i n t h e s e f u n c t i o n s .

Some months l a t e r , a t t h e r e q u e s t o f t h e M i n i s t r y , an- o t h e r c o n s u l t a n t from t h e same c o n s u l t a n c y o u t f i t p roduced a r e p o r t on t h e f u n c t i o n a l r o l e and o p e r a t i o n a l p o l i c y o f CAMARTEC (URT/Minis t ry o f I n d u s t r i e s 1 9 8 2 ) . Accord ing t o t h e r e p o r t , t h e p r i n c i p a l f u n c t i o n o f CAMARTEC would b e " t o h e l p meet t h e b a s i c n e e d s i n t h e r u r a l s e c t o r t h r o u g h i n p u t s o f a d v i c e , t e c h n i c a l a s s i s t a n c e and t r a i n i n g t o s e c t o r a l deve lopmen t p rogrammes o p e r a t i n g a t r e g i o n a l l e v e l " , I t w i l l b e p r o b l e m- o r i e n t e d and w i l l c o n c e n t r a t e on e x p l o i t i n g t h e " t e c h n o l o g y s h e l f " b e f o r e e n g a g i n g i n R & D e f f o r t .

P r o d u c t i o n o f e q u i p m e n t w i l l b e m a i n l y t e c h n i c a l a n d economic v a l u e a n a l y s i s , a n d w i l l b e o r i e n t e d t o w a r d s d e m o n s t r a t i n g t h e p o t e n t i a l f o r l o c a l m a n u f a c t u r e . S t a - t u t o r y t e s t i n g i s e x p e c t e d t o c o n s t i t u t e a r e l a t i v e l y mino r p a r t o f CAMARTECfs work" .

The r e p o r t recommends t h a t t e c h n i c a l s t a f f b e o r g a n i z e d i n p r o f e s s i o n a l c a d r e s o r p a n e l s , c o n c e n t r a t i n g on a g r i c u l t u r a l m e c h a n i z a t i o n , w a t e r s u p p l y a n d r u r a l con- s t r u c t i o n , s u p p o r t e d b y a n economic e v a l u a t i o n u n i t and a workshop u n i t a n d w i t h l i a s o n o f f i c e r s t o p r o v i d e t h e r e q u i r e d l i n k a g e t o t h e r e g i o n a l d e v e l o p m e n t programmes and t o S I D O . Focus s h o u l d i n i t i a l l y b e on a i d i n g t h e d e v e l o p m e n t programmes i n two r e g i o n s : Arusha and S i n g i d a .

Accord ing t o a b r o c h u r e p u b l i s h e d by CAMARTEC, the f u n c t i o n s o f t h e C e n t r e i n c l u d e :

" a ) To c a r r y o u t a p p l i e d r e s e a r c h d e s i g n e d t o f a c i l i t a - t e t h e d e s i g n i n g , a d a p t i o n and d e v e l o p m e n t o f m a c h i n e r y a n d e q u i p m e n t s u i t a b l e f o r u s e i n a g r i - c u l t u r a l and r u r a l d e v e l o p m e n t .

b ) To d e v e l o p and m a n u f a c t u r e a p p r o v e d p r o t o t y p e s , componen t s a n d c u l t u r a l t e c h n i q u e s and t e c h n o l o- g i e s , and e v a l u a t e t h e i r s u i t a b i l i t y f o r l o c a l a d a p t a t i o n .

c ) To a d o p t f o r e i g n d e s i g n s o f a g r i c u l t u r a l m a c h i n e r y a n d e q u i p m e n t i n t e n d e d f o r u s e i n a g r i c u l t u r a l and r u r a l deve lopmen t i n t h e U n i t e d R e p u b l i c and t o p u b l i s h t h e i r r e s u l t s ,

d ) To p e r f o r m t es t s on a l l t y p e s o f m a c h i n e r y a n d e q u i p m e n t i n t e n d e d f o r u s e i n a g r i c u l t u r a l and r u r a l d e v e l o p m e n t i n t h e U n i t e d R e p u b l i c a n d t o p u b l i s h t h e i r r e s u l t s .

e ) To c o n d u c t s h o r t t r a i n i n g c o u r s e s d e s i g n e d t o p r o- v i d e p r a c t i c a l t r a i n i n g and knowledge t o v i l l a g e c o m m u n i t i e s i n t h e u s e and m a i n t e n a n c e o f a g r i c u l - t u r a l m a c h i n e r y a n d o t h e r a p p r o p r i a t e t e c h n o l o g y d e v i c e s .

£ 1 To o f f e r c o n s u l t a n c y s e r v i c e s on t h e d e s i g n i n g , t e s t i n g and o t h e r t e c h n i c a l a s p e c t s o f a g r i c u l - t u r a l m e c h a n i z a t i o n .

g ) To a c t as t h e n a t i o n a l l i n k w i t h o t h e r n a t i o n a l and i n t e r n a t i o n a l i n s t i t u t i o n s engaged i n a c t i v i - t i e s r e l a t e d t o t h e f u n c t i o n s o f t h e C e n t r e . "

The o r g a n i z a t i o n a l s t r u c t u r e c o m p r i s e s t h r e e d i r e c t o r a - t e s and o n e d i v i s i o n unde r t h e D i r e c t o r G e n e r a l ; v i z :

a ) D i r e c t o r a t e o f Technology Development b ) D i r e c t o r a t e o f T e s t i n g a n d P r o d u c t i o n C ) D i r e c t o r a t e o f E x t e n s i o n and T r a i n i n g d ) D i v i s i o n o f F i n a n c e and A d m i n i s t r a t i o n .

Programmes o f t h e C e n t r e

" a ) R e s e a r c h and Development Programme

The d i r e c t o r a t e o f t e c h n o l o g y deve lopmen t w i l l r e s e a r c h on and d e v e l o p m a c h i n e s , imp lemen t s , b u i l d i n g m a t e r i a l s and e n e r g y s o u r c e s t h a t a r e s u i t a b l e t o t h e r u r a l p e o p l e i n T a n z a n i a . A l r e a d y g o b a r- g a s h a s shown good r e s u l t s . A g r i c u l t u r a l p r o c e s s i n g m a c h i n e s , wind power and s o l a r e n e r g y s y s t e m s a r e a r e a s o f p r i o r i t y o f t h e c e n t r e . Improvement o f r u r a l h o u s e s by d e v e l o p i n g l o c a l b u i l d i n g m a t e r i a l s , i s o n e p r o j e c t t h a t h a s a b i g demand. O t h e r a r e a s a r e i n w a t e r pumping s y s t e m s , h e a l t h f a c i l i t i e s , c r o p s t o r a g e and t r a n s p o r t a t i o n a t a c h e a p c o s t .

b ) T e s t i n g and P r o d u c t i o n Programme

I n t h i s programme t e s t i n g oE v a r i o u s i m p l e m e n t s , power u n i t s , m a c h i n e s and t e c h n i q u e s w i l l b e n e c e s s a r y b e f o r e r ecommenda t ions t o t h e f i e l d a r e made. The s o u r c e s o f t h e s e e q u i p m e n t s a r e o u t s i d e and i n s i d e t h e c o u n t r y . Any newly d e v e l o p e d d e v i c e by t h e c e n t r e w i l l a l s o be t e s t e d b e f o r e p r o d u c t i o n o r u s e i n t h e f i e l d . The c e n t r e w i l l c o n t i n u e t o p r o d u c e f rom c h o s e n p r o t o t y p e s t h o s e mach ines where f i e l d demand i s b i g and where t h e demand c a n n o t b e s a t i s f i e d b y l o c a l p r o d u c e r s .

C ) E x t e n s i o n o f T r a i n i n g Programme

I n o r d e r t o p a s s t e c h n o l o g y t o t h e p e o p l e who need i t , a c o m p r e h e n s i v e e x t e n s i o n programme w i l l b e p u r s u e d by t h e c e n t r e .

The c e n t r e w i l l h a v e f i e l d c o n t a c t w i t h r e g i o n a l h e a d s and r e l e v a n t s t a f f who a r e engaged i n m a n u f a c t u r i n g t h e p r o t o t y p e s a p p r o v e d by t h e c e n t r e . The c e n t r e t h e n w i l l h a v e a c o o r d i n a t i n g r o l e be tween t h e s o u r c e s o f t e c h n o -

l o g y and t h e end u s e r s . A f e e d b a c k f rom t h e f i e l d t o CAMARTEC w i l l b e n e c e s s a r y s o t h a t improvement o f e x i s t i n g t e c h n o l o g y o r t e c h n i q u e s c a n b e done .

I n r e g a r d o f t h e a b o v e , it is i m p o r t a n t t h a t t r a i n i n g b e done by t h e c e n t r e . T r a i n i n g w i l l t h e r e f o r e , b e c e n t r e b a s e d o r f i e l d b a s e d .

A t t h e c e n t r e , s e l e c t e d g r o u p s o f p e o p l e w i l l u n d e r g o s h o r t t e r m p r a c t i c a l t r a i n i n g s o t h a t t h e y c a n g o back t o t h e v i l l a g e s and t e a c h f e l l o w v i l l a g e t e c h n i c i a n s on l e a r n t s k i l l s . F i e l d t r a i n i n g w i l l b e done by c e n t r e p e r s o n n e l i n i d e n t i f i e d v i l l a g e s o r f i e l d c e n t r e s t o v i l l a g e p e o p l e o r g r o u p s o f s k i l l e d v i l l a g e r s o r what CAMARTEC f i n d s b e n e f i t them. I t is t h r o u g h t r a i n i n g t h a t t e c h n o l o g y c a n s p r e a d t o t h e u s e r s . I n c o n d u c t i n g e x t e n s i o n and t r a i n i n g , v a r i o u s p r o v e n communica t ion s k i l l s w i l l b e u s e d . The e m p h a s i s w i l l b e t o t r a i n t h e p e o p l e t o h e l p t h e m s e l v e s u s i n g wha teve r r e s o u r c e s a r e a v a i l a b l e i n t h e l o c a l i t y . The i d e a o f t e c h n o l o g y a t a r e a s o n a b l e c o s t w i l l b e o n e a r e a o f c o n c e r n .

d ) Manpower Development Programmes

The ma jo r r e s o u r c e o f CAMARTEC is t h e s t a f f . T h e r e is a g r e a t need t o h a v e s k i l l e d , w e l l - q u a l i f i e d , c r e a t i v e and i n n o v a t i v e s t a f f . T h i s w i l l depend on t h e a b i l i t y o f t h e c e n t r e t o r e c r u i t c o m p e t e n t s t a f f and t o p r o v i d e o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r s t a f f deve lopmen t t h r o u g h s h o r t and l o n g- t e r m t r a i n i n g i n a n o u t o f T a n z a n i a . S t a f f deve- lopmen t w i l l a l s o depend on t h e i n i t i a t i v e o f i n d i v i - d u a l s t o r e a d , p a r t i c i p a t e i n s e m i n a r s and t o u r s and b e n e f i t f rom t h a t e x p o s u r e . I n t h i s case t h e n , CAMARTEC w i l l t r y t o s e c u r e f u n d s f o r s t a f f deve lopmen t f rom w i t h i n t h e c o u n t r y and a b r o a d . The number o f p e o p l e t o g o on f o r f u r t h e r s t u d i e s w i l l depend on s t a f f p o s i - t i o n , a v a i l a b l e t r a i n i n g s l o t s and f u n d s . "

The d e s c r i p t i o n g i v e n a b o v e a b o u t t h e way i n which CAMARTEC was e s t a b l i s h e d p r o v i d e s a n example o f how a new l a r g e r e s e a r c h and deve lopmen t i n s t i t u t i o n i s c r e a t e d , a p p a r e n t l y w i t h o u t making r e a l l y q u a l i f i e d and d e t a i l e d a s s e s s m e n t s o f what t h e r o l e and f u n c t i o n s o f t h e i n s t i t u t i o n w i l l b e i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e most u r g e n t n e e d s o f t h e r u r a l s e c t o r , and whe the r t h e a c t i v i t i e s o f s u c h a l a r g e c e n t r a l i z e d i n s t i t u t i o n c a n a c t u a l l y r e a c h o u t t o t h e r u r a l s e c t o r .

CAMARTEC's f u n c t i o n s and work programme would seem t o c o n s t i t u t e a n enormous t a s k , which is t o c o v e r n o t j u s t

two p i l o t r e g i o n s , b u t i n i t i a l l y 8 r e g i o n s . I n f a c t , t h e f u n c t i o n s and work programme would seem t o r e p r e- s e n t n o t j u s t a c o n t i n u a t i o n b u t a n e x t e n d e d , combined v e r s i o n o f t h e programmes o f t h e two f o r m e r o r g a n i z a- t i o n s , l a r g e l y t o b e c a r r i e d o u t by t h e same s t a f f a s b e f o r e .

Given t h e c u r r e n t p r o b l e m s o f r e c r u i t i n g q u a l i f i e d s t a f f and t h e s h o r t a g e o f f u n d s , means o f t r a n s p o r t , m a t e r i a l s u p p l y , e t c , which c o n s t r a i n most i n s t i t u t i o n s i n T a n z a n i a , it becomes p e r t i n e n t t o e s t a b l i s h p r i o r i - t i e s which a t least w i l l h a v e some i m p a c t . For CAMARTEC t h e t a s k h a s n o t been made e a s i e r by i n h e r i t i n g two q u i t e d i f f e r e n t R & D i n s t i t u t i o n s w i t h d i f f e r e n t o r i e n t a t i o n s and work programmes.

Even w i t h a dynamic D i r e c t o r G e n e r a l and f o u r q u a l i f i e d D i r e c t o r s i n c h a r g e o f t h e d i r e c t o r a t e s , CAMARTEC w i l l h a v e t o assume a s e n s e o f d i r e c t i o n i n t h e s e l e c t i o n o f p r i o r i t i e s t o h a v e a n i m p a c t on t h e deve lopmen t and s p r e a d o f i n n o v a t i o n s .

I t m i g h t , t h e r e f o r e , b e a d v i s a b l e t o f o l l o w t h e r e- commendat ions o f t h e r e p o r t c i t e d above i n terms o f c o n c e n t r a t i n g a c t i v i t i e s on e x p l o i t i n g t h e e x i s t i n g t e c h n o l o g y s h e l f i n t h e r u r a l a r e a s ; and above a l l , t o c o n c e n t r a t e on t h o s e t e c h n o l o g i e s wh ich a r e most l i k e l y t o i n c r e a s e l a b o u r p r o d u c t i v i t y and income p e r h e a d , wh ich a r e w i t h i n t h e econoinic means o f p e a s a n t house- h o l d s and f o r which a demand is d e v e l o p i n g .

V i e w s g a i n e d f rom v i s i t s t o CAMARTEC

CAMARTEC h a s 9 0 employees coming f rom two v e r y d i f f e - r e n t i n s t i t u t i o n s . I t was e s t a b l i s h e d i n a n economic c r i s i s w i t h s h o r t a g e o f f u n d s , q u a l i f i e d manpower, means o f t r a n s p o r t , m a t e r i a l , e t c .

S i n c e i t s s t a r t i n 1 9 8 1 , a l m o s t a l l o f CAMARTECts deve- lopmen t f u n d s h a v e gone i n t o t h e new b i g s i t e a t T e n g e r u . CAMARTEC h a s been i n a v e r y d i f f i c u l t p o s i t i o n w i t h l o c a t i o n s a t t h r e e s i t es a n d w i t h l a c k o f o p e r a- t i o n a l deve lopmen t f u n d s t o i n i t i a t e i t s g e n e r a l R & D

programme. I t i s t h u s t o o e a r l y t o e v a l u a t e t h e p e r f o r - mance and i m p a c t o f t h i s programmme, b u t some o b s e r v a- t i o n s c a n b e made w i t h r e s p e c t t o b u i l d i n g t h e b a s e f o r f u t u r e work and w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e p r e s e n t o r i e n t a t i o n o f CAMARTEC. With t h e r e c e n t c o m p l e t i o n o f c o n s t r u c t i o n work a t T e n g e r u - t h o u g h some o f f i c e b u i l d i n g s a r e s t i l l l a c k i n g - t h e b o t t l e n e c k o f i n t e r s i t e t r a n s p o r t and communica t ion h a s b e e n r e l i e v e d . The new workshop b u i l d i n g i s s p a c i o u s , t h e mach ine i n v e n t o r y i s f a i r l y g o o d , and i n mid December 1983 it rema ined o n l y t o con- n e c t power , a l r e a d y i n s t a l l e d , t o t h e m a c h i n e s f o r s t a r t i n g up p r o d u c t i o n o f o x- c a r t s and d o u b l e- f u r r o w p l o u g h s .

R a w mater ia l f o r t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f a b o u t 2 ,000 o x- c a r t s a t Tenge ru a n d some o f t h e R C W ' s h a s been s e c u r e d , p a r t l y t h r o u g h a USAID/TRDB f i n a n c e d scheme o f raw material i m p o r t s u p p o r t . I n 1982/83 CAMARTEC had o n l y 2 o l d v e h i c l e s . By t h e end o f 1983, 5 new v e h i c l e s had been s e c u r e d t o g e t h e r w i t h a f u e l a l l o c a t i o n , t h u s g r e a t l y improv ing t h e t r a n s p o r t s i t u a t i o n . Te lephone and t e l e x communica t ions h a s a l s o been s e c u r e d .

Housing , h i g h e r p a r a s t a t a l s a l a r i e s and v a r i o u s f r i n g e b e n e f i t s , ( e . g . , f o o d a l l o w a n c e s ) had b e e n s e c u r e d f o r t h e s t a f f members. Thus m o r a l e i s s a i d t c h a v e improved and CAMARTEC is r e a d y t o s t a r t p r o d u c t i o n w i t h a n i n i - t i a l t a r g e t ( a l s o f o r a t l e a s t f o u r R C W ' s ) o f some 2 ,000 o x - c a r t s and 50 d o u b l e- f u r r o w p l o u g h s .

P r o c e d u r e s f o r f i e l d t e s t i n g o f f a rm implemen t s ( o x and t r a c t o r d rawn) a re b e t t e r and l e n g t h i e r t h a n t h o s e o f o t h e r i n s t i t u t i o n s ( e . g . , Uyole A . C . ) and a number o f d i f f e r e n t d e s i g n s o f o x- p l o u g h s , r e c e i v e d f o r t e s t i n g d u r i n g 1982 a n d 1983 , h a v e r e p o r t e d l y been b r o u g h t t o f a r m e r s i n Mbuguni V i l l a g e , which h a s a l l - t h e - y e a r - round c u l t i v a t i o n w i t h i r r i g a t i o n , a l l o w i n g f o r c o n t i - nuous f i e l d t e s t i n g unde r p e a s a n t f a r m c o n d i t i o n s . The o f f i c e r i n c h a r g e o f t e s t i n g a t CAMARTEC h a s l o n g expe- r i e n c e i n t e s t i n g f rom h i s work i n TAMTU.

However, a l t h o u g h some o f t h e p l o u g h s had b e e n a t CAMARTEC f o r more t h a n a y e a r and a l t h o u g h p r e l i m i n a r y

t e s t i n g r e p o r t s were n e a r i n g c o m p l e t i o n b y December, 1983 , CAMARTEC h a s e a r n e d i t s e l f a poor name among some o f t h e m a n u f a c t u r e r s and d e s i g n e r s i n T a n z a n i a b e c a u s e o f t h e poor r e s p o n s e g i v e n . CAMARTEC's t e s t i n g f i e l d a t Tenge ru s h o u l d a l l o w f o r i n i t i a l t e s t i n g even d u r i n g t h e d r y s e a s o n . P r e l i m i n a r y t e s t i n g r e s u l t s s h o u l d b e s e n t t o t h e d e s i g n e r s and m a n u f a c t u r e r s t o a l l o w f o r d e s i g n improvements and s u b s e q u e n t p e a s a n t f a r m t e s t i n g s o as t o a v o i d w a s t i n g t i m e .

R e c e n t r e p o r t s t r y i n g t o i d e n t i f y CAMARTEC's r o l e and f u n c t i o n h a v e s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h e r e is a t p r e s e n t no g r e a t need f o r s t a t u t o r y t e s t i n g o f f a r m equ ipmen t i n T a n z a n i a , s i n c e p r o v e n p r o t o t y p e s which c o u l d b e i m p o r t e d f rom a b r o a d h a v e a l r e a d y been w e l l - t e s t e d , b o t h i n s t a t u t o r y a n d f i e l d t e s t i n g t e r m s .

However, a number o f new a n d / o r m o d i f i e d p l o u g h and t o o l b a r d e s i g n s h a v e r e c e n t l y b e e n made i n T a n z a n i a , and t h e r e a r e f i v e new p l o u g h m a n u f a c t u r e r s i n t h e c o u n t r y . T h e i r t r i a l p r o d u c t s wi l l - r e q u i r e t e s t i n g , b o t h as r e g a r d s m a t e r i a l and i n t h e f i e l d . A l though t h e w e l l e s t a b l i s h e d t e s t i n g p r o c e d u r e s and f a c i l i t i e s o f CAMARTEC s h o u l d b e u t i l i z e d , a t i m e l y r e s p o n s e f rom CAMARTEC w i l l b e r e q u i r e d , as o u t l i n e d a b o v e .

However, t h e t r i a l p r o d u c t s s h o u l d a l s o b e t e s t e d b y o t h e r i n s t i t u t i o n s i n d i f f e r e n t p a r t s o f t h e c o u n t r y t o e n s u r e v a r i a b l e e n v i r o n m e n t a l t e s t i n g c o n d i t i o n s , e . g . , Uyole A g r i c u l t u r a l C e n t r e (UAC), U k i r i g u r u , and n o t l e a s t , s e l e c t e d OTC's o f t h e I r i n g a P r o j e c t . T h i s p ro- j e c t c a n l e n d equ ipmen t t o s u r r o u n d i n g e x p e r i e n c e d ox- f a r m e r s . T h i s some t imes t e n d s t o i n v o l v e rough h a n d l i n g o f t h e equ ipmen t ( n o t l e a s t b e c a u s e o f p o o r l y t r a i n e d o x e n ) , and weaknesses and b r e a k a g e s s h o u l d t h e n o c c u r f a i r l y q u i c k l y . T h i s a l l o w s f o r a f eed- back t o t h e m a n u f a c t u r e r s .

2 . 6 . 3 CAMARTEC's P o t e n t i a l R o l e i n t h e I n t r o - d u c t i o n a n d E x t e n s i o n o f Improved Farm Implemen t s

I t is o u r i m p r e s s i o n t h a t CAMARTEC l a c k s d i r e c t i o n and a p r a g m a t i c p e a s a n t - o r i e n t e d a p p r o a c h when it comes t o t h e s e l e c t i o n o f improved imp lemen t s f o r t e s t i n g and

e x t e n s i o n t o p e a s a n t s i n t h e r u r a l a r e a s . T h i s is a l s o p a r t l y r e f l e c t e d i n CAMARTEC's p l a n f o r p r o d u c i n g d o u b l e- f u r r o w p l o u g h s f o r which raw material h a s b e e n s e c u r e d . The p l o u g h is a s o p h i s t i c a t e d and e x p e n s i v e i t e m f o r a small m i n o r i t y o f w e a l t h y o x- f a r m e r s , t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f wh ich w i l l t a k e up s c a r c e r e s o u r c e s and c a p a c i t y a t CAMARTEC. I f CAMARTEC c a n p r o d u c e d o u b l e- f u r r o w p l o u g h s , t h e n t h e y s h o u l d be able t o p r o d u c e r i d g e r s as w e l l , and t h e r e is a much wide r need and demand f o r t h e s e .

I n g e n e r a l we c o n s i d e r it u n n e c e s s a r y t o c o n t i n u e on t h e TAMTU t r a c k o f d e v e l o p i n g i n t e r m e d i a t e t y p e s o f f a rm i m p l e m e n t s , when w e l l p r o v e n and w i d e l y a d o p t e d equ ipmen t c a n be i m p o r t e d f rom o t h e r A f r i c a n c o u n t r i e s where t h e deve lopmen t o f c o m p r e h e n s i v e o x- m e c h a n i z a t i o n and manual m e c h a n i z a t i o n ( e . g . , hand p l a n t e r s , wheeled p u s h h o e s and k n a p s a c k s p r a y e r s ) h a v e p r o g r e s s e d w e l l beyond t h e s t a g e o f T a n z a n i a . W e t h u s recommend i m p o r t a t i o n o f b a t c h e s o f improved imp lemen t s l i k e t h e " S i n e Houe" T o o l b a r ( w e l l a d o p t e d i n a number o f A f r i c a n c o u n t r i e s ) , t h e R o t a r y J a b- P l a n t e r and t h e Wheeled Push Hoe ( e . g . , f r o m Kenya) f o r p e a s a n t f a rm e x t e n s i o n and t e s t i n g i n d i f f e r e n t f a r m i n g s y s t e m s , i n c l u d i n g t h o s e o f Sukumaland, where b o t h i n t e n s i v e manual c u l t i v a t i o n and o x - c u l t i v a t i o n is w e l l d e v e l o p e d and i n need o f improved m e c h a n i z a t i o n t o r e l i e v e l a b o u r and t i m e c o n s t r a i n t s .

Members o f s t a f f f rom CAMARTEC w i l l h a v e t o s t a y o u t i n t h e v i l l a g e s w i t h t h e f a r m e r s d u r i n g t h e whole t i l l i n g s e a s o n t o e n s u r e e a r l y c u l t i v a t i o n , row p l a n t i n g , i n t e r - r o w c u l t i v a t i o n , e t c . Such a n a c t i v i t y i n v o l v e s as a p r e r e q u i s i t e a n a t t i t u d e o f r e s p e c t f o r t h e p e a s a n t s , a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e whole f a r m i n g s y s t e m i n c l u d i n g i t s c o n s t r a i n t s and e c o n o m i c s , and a s o c i o l o - g i c a l o r a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l a p p r o a c h t o t h e s e l e c t i o n o f p a r t i c i p a t i n g a r e a s , v i l l a g e s and f a r m e r s .

I t i s p e r h a p s a r e f l e c t i o n o f CAMARTEC's o r i e n t a t i o n t h a t it h a s t r i e d t o r e c r u i t o n l y a g r i c u l t u r a l e n g i n e e r s , and n o t p e r s o n s w i t h a background i n f a r m i n g s y s t e m s , a g r i c u l t u r a l economics and s o c i o l o g y . I t i s

r e v e a l i n g t h a t t h e t a r g e t g r o u p f o r CAMARTEC w i l l b e e x i s t i n g gove rnmen t i n s t i t u t i o n s , which i n t h e c o n t e x t o f f a rm implemen t s a re RADO's and t h e i r s t a f f ( K i l i m o E x t e n s i o n A g e n t s ) and A g r i c u l t u r a l R e s e a r c h S t a t i o n s , a c c o r d i n g t o t h e D i r e c t o r G e n e r a l o f CAMARTEC.

I n o u r o p i n i o n , t h i s i n s t i t u t i o n a l s e t - u p h a s f a i l e d t o u n d e r t a k e e x t e n s i o n i n p e a s a n t f a r m m e c h a n i z a t i o n , and i s s t i l l p o o r l y e q u i p p e d and t r a i n e d f o r d o i n g i t , w i t h few e x c e p t i o n s . CAMARTEC h a s a good b a s i s i n i t s T r a i n- i n g & E x t e n s i o n D i r e c t o r a t e , w i t h r u r a l e x p e r i e n c e f rom t h e AATP p e r i o d , t o r e a c h o u t t o t h e r e a l a d o p t e r s , t h e p e a s a n t s , d i r e c t l y and i m m e d i a t e l y . The e x p e r i e n c e g a i n e d from a CAMARTEC programme o f f a rm t e s t i n g , t r a i n i n g and e x t e n s i o n , i n v o l v i n g r e s i d e n t K i l i m o e x t e n s i o n o f f i c e r s , c a n p r o v i d e a sound p r a c t i c a l b a s i s f o r t r a i n i n g o f h i g h e r c a d r e s and members o f s t a f f o f r e s e a r c h s t a t i o n s . W e b e l i e v e t h a t t h e bot tom- up a p p r o a c h o f AATP h a s more m e r i t s t h a n t h e h e a v y t o p - down o n e , i n c l u d i n g t h e s e n d i n g o f p e o p l e a b r o a d f o r f u r t h e r f o r m a l t r a i n i n g . The e x t e n s i o n p r o b l e m s and t h e p r a c t i c a l i m p l e m e n t a t i o n work a r e l o c a t e d i n t h e v i l l a g e s and n o t a t h i g h e r i n s t i t u t i o n s o f f o r m a l l e a r n i n g a b r o a d .

F i n a l l y , d i r e c t e x t e n s i o n o f improved i m p o r t e d f a r m i m- p l e m e n t s i n t h e v i l l a g e s c a n b e u t i l i z e d f o r a p p l i e d r e s e a r c h on t h e n a t u r e o f t h e p r o c e s s o f a d o p t i o n o f t e c h n o l o g i e s and on t h e t e c h n o l o g y n e e d s o f t h e r u r a l p o p u l a t i o n . A s f a r a s w e a r e i n f o r m e d , CAMARTEC h a s o n l y one E x t e n s i o n O f f i c e r , t r a i n e d as a s o c i o l o g i s t , who h a s a good e x p e r i e n c e i n r u r a l r e s e a r c h . W e b e l i e v e t h a t t h i s e x p e r i e n c e s h o u l d b e u t i l i z e d f o r e x t e n s i o n and r e s e a r c h a c t i v i t i e s .

The E x t e n s i o n & T r a i n i n g D i r e c t o r a t e h a s a r e l a t i v e l y w e l l - s t o c k e d Documen ta t ion C e n t r e a t t h e AATP s i t e , and t h e work o f k e e p i n g it u p- t o- d a t e s h o u l d b e s u p p o r t e d . Be fo re g e t t i n g i n v o l v e d i n a n y R & D work, a l l r e l e v a n t l i t e r a t u r e , i n p a r t i c u l a r f rom T a n z a n i a and o t h e r A f r i - c a n c o u n t r i e s , s h o u l d b e s t u d i e d .

A s r e g a r d s t h e deve lopmen t o f o x - c u l t i v a t i o n , CAMARTEC s h o u l d t a k e n o t e o f t h e f a c t t h a t t h e r e a r e o t h e r p r o- j e c t s i n T a n z a n i a which h a v e a c q u i r e d c o n s i d e r a b l e , u s e f u l a n d up- to- da te e x p e r i e n c e i n i n t r o d u c t i o n , e x t e n s i o n and t r a i n i n g a c t i v i t i e s . I n p a r t i c u l a r w e h a v e f o u n d t h a t t h e r e i s a n u r g e n t need t o l e a r n f rom t h e e x p e r i e n c e s o f t h e I r i n g a ~ x e n i z a t i o n P r o j e c t .

2 . 6 . 4 Uyo le A g r i c u l t u r a l C e n t r e , Mbeya

Uyole A g r i c u l t u r a l C e n t r e (UAC) w a s i n i t i a l l y e s t a b - l i s h e d i n 1969 as a n a g r i c u l t u r a l r e s e a r c h i n s t i t u t e and became a p a r a s t a t a l u n d e r t h e M i n i s t r y o f A g r i c u l - t u r e i n 1977. I ts f u n c t i o n s h a v e widened f rom c r o p r e s e a r c h and s o i l s c i e n c e t o i n c l u d e a number o f o t h e r d i s c i p l i n e s i n c l u d i n g a g r o - e n g i n e e r i n g . UAC i s s u p p o r t - e d b y t h e N o r d i c c o u n t r i e s .

Most o f t h e r e s e a r c h and deve lopmen t work i n a n i m a l d r a u g h t power a t UAC was s t a r t e d i n 1977 by t h e Agr i- c u l t u r a l E n g i n e e r i n g R e s e a r c h Depa r tmen t (AERD). I n r e c e n t y e a r s AERD's r e s e a r c h and deve lopmen t work h a s c o n c e n t r a t e d on improved g r a i n s t o r a g e , m a i z e s h e l l e r s , r u r a l t r a n s p o r t e q u i p m e n t , a n i m a l h a r n e s s e s , m o d i f y i n g t h e UAC t o o l c a r r i e r , and s e t t i n g up a v i l l a g e t e c h n o- l o g y workshop.

Work on t h e UAC t o o l c a r r ' i e r s t a r t e d i n 1977 and h a s c o n t i n u e d s i n c e t h e n . The o b j e c t i v e o f t h e r e s e a c h p ro- j e c t w a s t o d e v e l o p a s i m p l e and c h e a p t o o l c a r r i e r t o s u i t t h e n e e d s o f v i l l a g e r s .

The o r i g i n a l i d e a was a l s o t o d e v e l o p a n ox-drawn m u l t i p u r p o s e and minimum t i l l a g e implement which c o u l d d r i l l s e e d s on l a n d n o t a l r e a d y p r e p a r e d t h r o u g h c u l t i - v a t i o n , and which c o u l d p e r f o r m s u b s e q u e n t weed ing . A f t e r some y e a r s o f t r i a l and m o d i f i c a t i o n t h e s e e d d r i l l s y s t e m now works , b u t t h e b e a r i n g d e s i g n c a u s e s a l o t o f f r i c t i o n and t h u s h i g h d r a u g h t power r e q u i r e - m e n t s f o r p u l l i n g t h e c a r r i e r .

The same prob lem w i t h h e a v i n e s s , b u l k i n e s s and t o o h i g h c o n s t r u c t i o n c o s t s would seem t o a p p l y t o t h e f o u r - whee l wagons c o n s t r u c t e d b y t h e Depa r tmen t . These

wagons may work on t h e smooth r o a d s and s u r f a c e a t UAC,

b u t t h e y would b e much t o o h e a v y and d i f f i c u l t t o ope- r a t e unde r t o u g h v i l l a g e and f i e l d c o n d i t i o n s a n d , i n t e r m s o f c o s t s , would b e f a r beyond t h e economic means o f p e a s a n t s .

The Depar tment h a s b e e n i n v o l v e d i n f i e l d t e s t i n g o f v a r i o u s equ ipmen t a t t h e C e n t r e , i n c l u d i n g t h e new p l o u g h f rom Z Z K and t h e wooden beam p l o u g h f rom SIDO. Implements a r e a l s o e x p e c t e d f rom a b r o a d f o r t e s t i n g and l o c a l a d a p t a t i o n . More e f f o r t s s h o u l d b e concen- t r a t e d o n t h e s e a c t i v i t i e s .

T h e r e h a s b e e n a t e n d e n c y t o u n d e r t a k e t o o many r e s e a r c h p r o j e c t s and t o f o c u s on s p e c i f i c t e c h n i c a l p r o b l e m s i n a n i s o l a t e d way r a t h e r t h a n working o u t an i n t e g r a t e d r e s e a r c h and deve lopmen t programme i n c o l l a - b o r a t i o n w i t h o t h e r r e l e v a n t d e p a r t m e n t s , e . g . , t h e d e p a r t m e n t s o f e x t e n s i o n and a g r i c u l t u r a l economics . Too l i t t l e a t t e n t i o n h a s been g i v e n t o t h e r e a l n e e d s and c o n s t r a i n t s o f t h e p e a s a n t s , i n c l u d i n g t h e i r t e c h - n o l o g i c a l and economic c a p a c i t y f o r a d o p t i n g innova- t i o n s . The Depa r t emen t h a s been s l o w i n r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e c r i t i c i s m s and p r e f e r e n c e s o f t h e p e a s a n t s and i n a d a p t i n g i t s t e s t i n g , r e s e a r c h and d e s i g n work t o p e a s a n t f a r m i n g s y s t e m s .

The F a r m e r s T r a i n i n g Wing o f t h e E x t e n s i o n Depar tment h a s a l s o been a c t i v e i n p r o m o t i n g t h e u s e o f improved ox-drawn e q u i p m e n t and u n d e r t a k i n g d e m o n s t r a t i o n s o f p l o u g h s made by SIDO a n d Z Z K i n p i l o t v i l l a g e s i n t h e ne ighbourhood o f UAC.

The wooden beam p l o u g h h a s been t e s t e d f a i r l y i n t e n s i - v e l y a t Uyole . The most i n t e n s i v e u s e stems from t h e Draught Animal U n i t h i r i n g o u t t h e p l o u g h s w i t h oxen and o p e r a t o r t o members o f t h e C e n t r e ' s s t a f f . One o f t h e o p e r a t o r s s t r e s s e d t h a t h e was e x t r e m e l y s a t i s f i e d w i t h t h e p e r f o r m a n c e o f t h e p l o u g h , and t h a t h e would p r e f e r t o buy it t o t h e UFI p l o u g h . Another member o f s t a f f f rom t h e Fa rmers T r a i n i n g Wing, who s p e n d s a l o t o f t i m e w i t h f a r m e r s i n t h e s u r r o u n d i n g v i l l a g e s , was r a t h e r c r i t i c a l a b o u t t h e i d e a o f wooden beams.

The g e n e r a l i m p r e s s i o n g a i n e d f rom UAC i s t h a t it is one o f t h e few a g r i c u l t u r a l r e s e a r c h i n s t i t u t i o n s i n t h e c o u n t r y wh ich h a s b e e n p r o d u c t i v e i n t u r n i n g o u t r e s e a r c h r e s u l t s o f a f a i r l y h i g h q u a l i t y b y academic s t a n d a r d s .

A g e n e r a l o b s e r v a t i o n is t h a t l a r g e , b u r e a u c r a t i c a l l y o r g a n i z e d R & D i n s t i t u t i o n s l i k e CAMARTEC a n d UAC v e r y e a s i l y t e n d t o g e t a b s o r b e d i n t h e i r own i s o l a t e s p h e r e s o f a c a d e m i c o r e x p e r i m e n t a l work r a t h e r t h a n c o n c e n t r a t i n g o n t h e a c t u a l p rob lems and c o n s t r a i n t s i n t h e e x i s t i n g p e a s a n t f a r m i n g s y s t e m s .

2 . 6 . 5 The R e g i o n a l O x e n i z a t i o n P r o j e c t , I r i n g a ( A component o f t h e A g r i c u l t u r a l Development P r o j e c t ( A D P ) , I r i n g a R e g i o n )

The A g r i c u l t u r a l Development P r o j e c t i n I r i n g a Region (ADP) was s t a r t e d w i t h a s s i s t a n c e f rom t h e European Development Fund i n 1977. The f i r s t p h a s e o f t h e p r o- ject was c o m p l e t e d b y t h e end o f J u n e 1981, and t h e s e c o n d p h a s e w a s f r o m 1981 t o 1985. A p a r t f rom o t h e r p r o j e c t componen t s , i n c l u d i n g t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f s e a s o n a l i n p u t s and t h e p r o p a g a t i o n o f s u n f l o w e r and p y r e t h r u m c u l t i v a t i o n , ADP r u n s a f a i r l y l a r g e and s u c c e s s f u l o x - t r a i n i n g programme combined w i t h p r o v i - s i o n o f improved imp lemen t s .

By November 1983 , 12 o x - t r a i n i n g c e n t r e s (OTC) and 116 o x - t r a i n i n g u n i t s (OTU) had been e s t a b l i s h e d ( a b o u t one OTC f o r e a c h d i v i s i o n ) , and f o r p h a s e I1 t h e r e were p l a n s t o c o n s t r u c t a n a d d i t i o n a l two OTC's a n d 48 OTU's. Dur ing p h a s e I , some 560 p e a s a n t s were t r a i n e d i n t h e u s e o f improved imp lemen t s and o x - t r a i n i n g m e t h o d s , and 7 , 0 0 0 p a i r s o f oxen were t r a i n e d , i n i - t i a l l y by u s i n g t h e n o s e r i n g method. An a d d i t i o n a l 3 ,500 p a i r s o f oxen were t o b e t r a i n e d d u r i n g p h a s e I1 w i t h a n a n n u a l t r a i n i n g programme f o r some 300-400 p e a s a n t s .

Mainly young s c h o o l l e a v e r s and some o l d e r p e a s a n t s a r e s e l e c t e d by t h e i r v i l l a g e s t o b e t r a i n e d f o r t h r e e months a t t h e OTC's and t h e y c a n b r i n g t h e i r oxen f o r t r a i n i n g a t t h e c e n t r e , A f t e r c o m p l e t i n g t h e c o u r s e t h e

t r a i n e e s a r e s u p p o s e d t o r e t u r n t o t h e i r v i l l a g e s and p r o p a g a t e t h e improved me thods .

The ADP h a s a l s o e s t a b l i s h e d a workshop i n Maf inga f o r p r o d u c i n g o x - c a r t s , h a r r o w s and whee lba r rows , 'which s t a r t e d t o o p e r a t e i n O c t o b e r 1982. The workshop h a s a n a n n u a l c a p a c i t y f o r p r o d u c i n g 1 ,000 c a r t s , b u t s o f a r o n l y 86 c a r t s h a v e b e e n p r o d u c e d . The t r i a n g u l a r s p i k e - t o o t h h a r r o w s , o f which 41 had been p roduced by November 1982, a r e o f p o o r c r a f t m a n s h i p , and a number o f them h a v e b r o k e n d u r i n g t es t s a t t h e OTC's.

The ADP h a s p l a y e d a n i m p o r t a n t r o l e i n t h e d i s t r i b u - t i o n o f b o t h improved imp lemen t s and t h e common UFI p lough . In c o- o p e r a t i o n w i t h t h e p r o j e c t , TRDB o p e r a t e s a c r e d i t scheme f o r imp lemen t s d i s t r i b u t i o n on t h e b a s i s o f a r e v o l v i n g f u n d t o which t h e p r o j e c t c o n t r i - b u t e s 40% and t h e bank 60%. By November 1983, 1 ,008 p l o u g h s , 148 r i d g e r s , 197 i n t e r - r o w c u l t i v a t o r s a n d 87 h a r r o w s had b e e n d i s t r i b u t e d b y t h i s scheme t o 44 v i l l a g e s w i t h l o a n s a p p r o v e d by TRDB. The ra te o f repayment i s b e t t e r t h a n f o r s e a s o n a l i n p u t d i s t r i b u t i o n .

The o x e n i z a t i o n programme o f t h e I r i n g a A.D.P. i s b y mos t s t a n d a r d s a r a t h e r s u c c e s s f u l deve lopmen t p r o j e c t w i t h a f a i r l y i m p r e s s i v e p e r f o r m a n c e when t a k i n g t h e p r e s e n t d i f f i c u l t c o n d i t i o n s i n T a n z a n i a i n t o c o n s i d e- r a t i o n . P r o j e c t o r g a n i z a t i o n is good and b o t h t h e Tan- z a n i a n and e x p a t r i a t e ( m a i n l y W. German) s t a f f h a v e b e e n c o m m i t t e d , w e l l i n f o r m e d and g e a r e d t o w a r d s p e a s a n t f a r m m e c h a n i z a t i o n .

The I r i n g a ADP, h a s , as f a r as w e know, b e e n t h e f i r s t p r o j e c t i n T a n z a n i a t o d e v e l o p and e x t e n d a f e a s i b l e s y s t e m o f mechan ized weeding .

S i n c e u s e and d e m o n s t r a t i o n o f r i d g e r s ( a n d c u l t i v a - t o r s ) s t a r t e d a t t h e OTC's i n t h e 1980/81 s e a s o n , t h e r e h a s been a r e c e n t and r e l a t i v e l y r a p i d l y g rowing i n t e - r e s t i n them.

The p r o m o t i o n o f h a r r o w s h a s g e n e r a l l y r e c e i v e d a poor r e s p o n s e among f a r m e r s , a l t h o u g h h a r r o w i n g may w e l l b e a s u i t a b l e method i n t h e h i g h l a n d s o f Njombe.

I n g e n e r a l we would l i k e t o warn a g a i n s t e x t e n s i o n o f c r e d i t f o r a f u l l package of equipment . The p r o v i s i o n o f a f u l l s e t o f equipment t o i n c l u d e an o x- c a r t , a harrow, a r i d g e r and a c u l t i v a t o r would r e p r e s e n t a d r a s t i c i n c r e a s e i n c a p i t a l a c q u i s i t i o n f o r i n d i v i d u a l p e a s a n t h o u s e h o l d s , t h e f u l l income r e a l i z a t i o n of which it might t a k e y e a r s t o a c h i e v e . The consequence of such a c r e d i t - b a s e d f u l l package d e a l might w e l l be i n d e b t e d n e s s f o r t h e p e a s a n t s and problems of recover- i n g o u t s t a n d i n g a r r e a r s .

The EEC D e l e g a t i o n i n Dar es Salaam, which i s channe l - i n g f u n d s f o r t h e p r o j e c t , h a s approved f o r e i g n exchange f o r and h a s had a n o r d e r o f 2,000 S i n e Houe t o o l b a r s from France f o r t h e p r o j e c t . These t o o l b a r s a r e among t h e most wide ly adop ted p i e c e s of improved ox-equipment on p e a s a n t f a rms i n A f r i c a . F u r t h e r , t h e y have t h e m e r i t of be ing l i g h t and a l s o combine a t t a c h - ments o f mouldboard p l o u g h s , c u l t i v a t o r t i n e s - which s h o u l d i n c l u d e h i l l e r b l a d e s - r i d g e r , g roundnut l i f t e r s and sometimes even harrows i n one f rame , making t h e p u r c h a s e of e a c h t o o l r e l a t i v e l y c h e a p e r .

The f i r s t b a t c h o f Mafinga o x- c a r t s was c r i t i c i s e d f o r t h e i r poor d e s i g n and c r a f t m a n s h i p , and we do n o t recommend such c a r t s f o r t h e n o r t h e r n and c e n t r a l zones of Tanzan ia .

The f i n a l i s s u e which d e s e r v e s ment ion ing is whether t h e I r i n g a p r o j e c t is r e p l i c a b l e i n o t h e r r e g i o n s and whether t h i s is j u s t i f i e d i n t e r m s o f c o s t s and e x p e c t- e d b e n e f i t s . F i r s t , it s h o u l d be n o t e d t h a t t h e r e a r e 12 OTC's, w i t h a n o t h e r two i n Makete D i s t r i c t n e a r i n g c o m p l e t i o n . D e s p i t e t h i s l a r g e number o f O T C ' s , some of them s e r v e two d i v i s i o n s and up t o around 30 v i l l a g e s . In a d d i t i o n t h e r e a r e 116 OTU's w i t h a n a d d i t i o n a l 48 p lanned f o r c o m p l e t i o n . There i s a t o t a l o f a b o u t 600 v i l l a g e s i n t h e r e g i o n , n o t a l l of which can be oxen iz - e d .

Using 1980 p r i c e s , t h e approx imate c o s t s o f e s t a b l i s h - i n g and runn ing a n OTC and a n OTU were budgeted a s shown below. To t h i s s h o u l d be added t r a n s p o r t c o s t s .

Budge t p o s t i n g s ( P h a s e 11) OTC OTU

C o n s t r u c t i o n o f b u i l d i n g s 100 ,000 5 ,000 Equipment ( o x a n d t r a n s p o r t ) 40 ,000 11 ,300 Running c o s t s ( o x e n , e t c . ) 80 ,000 3 ,700 P e r s o n n e l ( 5 p e r s o n s a n n u a l l y ) 15 ,000 U n i t c o s t S h s 325 ,000* 20 ,000 T o t a l c o s t o f 14 OTC' S a n d 116 OTU's 2 820 ,000 2 232 ,000

Amounts a r e i n 1980 p r i c e s * The f o r e i g n e x c h a n g e component o f t h i s amount w a s 4 2 % .

I f t e r m i n a t i o n o f c o n s t r u c t i o n o f two OTC's is e x c l u d e d (300 ,000 / -1 , t h e r e c u r r e n t b u d g e t f o r r u n n i n g 14 OTC's amounted t o 3 m i l l i o n s h i l l i n g s on t h e 1983/84 b u d g e t , w i t h o n l y a 10% f o r e i g n e x c h a n g e component . The b u d g e t c o v e r s wages f o r t r a i n e e s and OTC s t a f f , and p r o v i s i o n o f s e a s o n a l i n p u t s (130 ,000 / - ) a n d e q u i p m e n t r e p l a c e - men t . I n a d d i t i o n t h e r e a r e t r a n s p o r t c o s t s , H.Q. project s t a f f s a l a r i e s a n d h o u s i n g which were n o t i n c l u d- e d . The t o t a l c o s t o f e s t a b l i s h i n g and r u n n i n g s u c h a p r o j e c t o v e r 5 y e a r s c o u l d w e l l e x c e e d 10 m i l l i o n s h i l l i n g s , i n 1980 p r i c e s . Wi th OTC's becoming more t h a n j u s t i s o l a t e d f o c a l p o i n t s , t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f a l a r g e number o f OTC's a n d OTU's, as done i n I r i n g a , is r e q u i r e d f o r s u c h a t y p e o f p r o j e c t .

I n t h e p r e s e n t c i r c u m s t a n c e s , w i t h a h i g h r a t e o f i n - f l a t i o n , l a c k o f b u i l d i n g m a t e r i a l s , t r a n s p o r t and f u e l , t h e v e r y c o s t o f r e p l i c a t i o n would b e p r o h i b i - t i v e . I n g e n e r a l , howeve r , w e a r e o f t h e o p i n i o n t h a t t h e i n v e s t m e n t made i n I r i n g a by EEC a n d T a n z a n i a h a s b e e n w o r t h w h i l e . Both t h e p r e s e n t and l i k e l y f u t u r e i m p a c t , and t h e e x p e r i e n c e s g a i n e d , h a v e b e e n e x t r e m e l y u s e f u l a n d a l o t c a n b e l e a r n t f rom them. F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e p r o j e c t s h o u l d b e o f f u t u r e i n t e r e s t i n terms o f t h e e x p e r i e n c e s t h a t c a n b e l e a r n t f rom i t s s o c i a l e q u i t y o r i e n t a t i o n a n d f rom i t s n o n- b u r e a u c r a t i c and e f f i c i e n t a p p r o a c h .

2.6.6 K i l i m o E x t e n s i o n S e r v i c e , O x- T r a i n i n g C e n t r e s a n d t h e S h i n y a n g a RIDEP E x t e n s i o n Approach

A s a n e f f e c t o f t h e Second F i v e- y e a r P l a n , a b o u t two OTC's were se t u p i n v i r t u a l l y e v e r y r e g i o n i n t h e

c o u n t r y , and t h e s e have been t h e r e c i p i e n t s of most of t h e improved ox-equipment a v a i l a b l e i n t h e c o u n t r y , produced main ly by TAMTU i n t h e 1 9 7 0 ' s o r impor ted by UFI.

We have v i s i t e d two of t h e s e OTC's and have found them v i r t u a l l y i n o p e r a t i v e w i t h l a r g e s t o c k s o f unused, broken o r r u s t i n g equipment - q u i t e a p a t h e t i c s i g h t . One e x p l a n a t i o n f o r t h e decay was t h a t D e c e n t r a l i z a t i o n i n 1972 i n v o l v e d c o n c e n t r a t i o n of f u n d s , v e h i c l e s and manpower under t h e r e g i o n a l development d i r e c t o r a t e s and t h a t t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l s e c t i o n s w i t h i n t h e d i r e c t o - r a t e s were n e g l e c t e d .

With r e s p e c t t o t h e p r o p a g a t i o n o f improved farm implements , we a r e n o t convinced t h a t t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t of a number o f Farm S e r v i c e C e n t r e s ( F S C ' s ) w i l l have any t a n g i b l e impac t , s i n c e b o t h O T C ' s and FSC' w i l l of geo- g r a p h i c a l n e c e s s i t y and t r a n s p o r t c o n t r a i n t s remain f o c a l p o i n t s from which l i t t l e d i f f u s i o n can be e x p e c t- e d . I n f a c t we t e n d t o b e l i e v e , based on our f i n d i n g s , t h a t i n s t i t u t i o n b u i l d i n g is g e n e r a l l y n o t a s o l u t i o n t o t h e promotion of improved farm implements and methods of c u l t i v a t i o n .

A s n o t e d s e v e r a l t i m e s , t h e main c o n s t r a i n t on t h e s p r e a d o f improved implements and methods o f mechanized c u l t i v a t i o n h a s been l a c k of a p p r o p r i a t e p r o t o t y p e s and l a c k o f t e s t i n g o f good p r o t o t y p e s on p e a s a n t f a rms . Kilimo e x t e n s i o n s e r v i c e s have had l i t t l e t o o f f e r because t h e r e was no a p p r o p r i a t e equipment t o demon- s t r a t e . T h e i r e x p e r i e n c e and t r a i n i n g i s c o n s e q u e n t l y p o o r , and t h i s a p p l i e s t o many of t h e r e g i o n a l and d i s t r i c t mechan iza t ion o f f i c e r s , who p r o b a b l y know more a b o u t t r a c t o r s t h a n a b o u t t o o l b a r s .

I f Ki l imo e x t e n s i o n s e r v i c e i s t o p l a y a r o l e , it might r e q u i r e a major o v e r h a u l of t h e sys tem, i f n o t a v e r y d i f f e r e n t approach . Such an a l t e r n a t i v e approach might t a k e a s i t s p o i n t of d e p a r t u r e t h e e x i s t i n g t e c h n o l o g y l e v e l and c o n s t r a i n t s o f t h e l o c a l p e a s a n t farming sys tems . Th is would r e q u i r e i n c e n t i v e s , democracy ( e f f e c t i v e d e c e n t r a l i z a t i o n ) and c o n t r o l from below,

r a t h e r t h a n c o n t r o l , o r d e r s and b l a n k e t recommendat ions imposed f rom a b o v e .

2 . 7 Conclusion

A s r e g a r d s t h e a t t e m p t s t o i n t r o d u c e new fa rm equ ipmen t f o r a d o p t i o n on p e a s a n t f a r m s i n T a n z a n i a , t h e u n c r i t i - cal i m p o r t o f c h e a p u n t e s t e d equ ipmen t f rom I n d i a ( a n d now Zambia) h a s b y a n d l a r g e b e e n a c o s t l y m i s t a k e . F u r t h e r m o r e , mos t a t t e m p t s t o d e s i g n and d e v e l o p u s e f u l f a r m equ ipmen t h a v e f a i l e d , b o t h i n t e r m s o f b a s i c t e c h n o l o g y c r i t e r i a and i n terms o f a d o p t i o n . The a t t e m p t s h a v e b e e n un in fo rmed o f p e a s a n t f a r m i n g , i n- f l u e n c e d by u n q u a l i f i e d p o l i t i c a l d e c i s i o n- m a k i n g , and a t t e m p t s h a v e n o t b e e n g u i d e d b y t h e s e l e c t i v e p r i o r i - t i e s which d e t e r m i n e t h e l i k e l i h o o d o f a d o p t i o n .

I n a d d i t i o n , t h e r e h a v e b e e n a number o f d e s i g n e r s and a g r i c u l t u r a l e n g i n e e r s - e x p a t r i a t e and T a n z a n i a n - who h a v e a p p a r e n t l y had a n i m p l i c i t w i s h t o i n v e n t t h e i r own p i e c e o f d e s i g n , a c c o r d i n g t o t h e ' d o it a l l my- s e l f ' a p p r o a c h . T h e r e h a v e b e e n v i r t u a l l y no s e r i o u s a t t e m p t s t o f o l l o w up and u n d e r t a k e f i e l d t e s t s o f equ ipmen t which h a s shown good p e r f o r m a n c e and a d o p t i o n i n o t h e r A f r i c a n c o u n t r i e s . The o n l y e x c e p t i o n t o t h i s i s t h e OXFAM Hand M i l l P r o j e c t and t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f t h e r o t a r y j a b p l a n t e r i n r e f u g e e s e t t l e m e n t s and i n Sh inyanga by Mr C. Wortmann/~IDEP.

I n terms o f d e s i g n d e t a i l s and t r i a l t e s t i n g o f ox- e q u i p m e n t , a v e r y u s e f u l p u b l i c a t i o n f rom S i e r r a Leone c o u l d b e c o n s u l t e d i n t h e f u t u r e : P a u l S t a r k e y ( 1 9 8 1 ) : "Farming With Work Oxen i n S i e r r a Leone" . Government P r i n t i n g Dept . F ree town . l T h i s p u b l i c a t i o n h a s been w r i t t e n on t h e b a s i s o f a n i n t e n s i v e f i e l d t e s t i n g and

1 ) Write t o S i e r r a Leone Work Oxen P r o j e c t , M i n i s t r y o f A g r i c u l t u r e & F o r e s t r y , Tower H i l l , F r ee town - o r t o Njala U n i v e r s i t y C o l l e g e , P r i v a t e Mail Bag, F ree - t own , S i e r r a Leone .

t r i a l programme f o r c u l t i v a t i n g m a i z e , g r o u n d n u t s , cow- p e a s and swamp r i c e , u s i n g a r a n g e o f p o t e n t i a l l y u se- f u l equ ipmen t f rom o t h e r A f r i c a n c o u n t r i e s , i .e . 3 t o o l b a r s , and s e v e r a l p l o u g h s , h a r r o w s , p l a n t e r s and s i m p l e i r r i g a t i o n e q u i p m e n t . The r e p o r t h a s a l o t o f e x c e l l e n t i l l u s t r a t i o n s on u s e and d e s i g n d e t a i l s and p r o v i d e s good d i s c u s s i o n s o f t h e s e w i t h a v e r d i c t on t h e l i k e l i h o o d o f a d o p t i o n . I t f u r t h e r d e a l s w i t h numerous o t h e r u s e f u l and n e c e s s a r y s u b j e c t s , i n c l u d i n g work oxen h u s b a n d r y , d i s e a s e s , y o k i n g , c r o p c u l t i v a - t i o n , t r i a l l a y o u t , e tc . I n terms o f u s e f u l n e s s , p e r- s p e c t i v e a n d q u a l i t y , t h i s r e p o r t is w o r l d s a p a r t f rom t h e I n d i a n p u b l i c a t i o n now u s e d i n Dar es Salaam.

CHAPTER THREE DEMAND ESTIMATES

I n t h i s c h a p t e r w e w i l l r e c o r d and compare some o f t h e s t u d i e s t h a t h a v e p r e v i o u s l y a t t e m p t e d t o assess t h e demand f o r f a r m implemen t s i n T a n z a n i a , c o n c l u d i n g w i t h o u r own a s s e s s m e n t s . W e a r e c o n c e n t r a t i n g t h e r e v i e w t o imp lemen t s i n h i g h demand.

3.1 Hand Implements

a ) - The N a t i o n a l I n d u s t r i a l Development C o r p o r a t i o n ( N I D C ) , a n I n d i a n c o n s u l t i n g company, i n 1 9 7 3 f o r e c a s t - e d t h e demand f i g u r e s shown i n T a b l e 3 .1 :

T a b l e 3.1 NIDC demand f i g u r e s , hand i m p l e m e n t s , 1973

I t e m 1 9 7 9 1986 Hoe S 2 460 0 0 0 2 7 3 0 0 0 0 M a t c h e t s 1 346 000 1 6 5 0 0 0 0 Axes 1 0 1 6 000 1 250 0 0 0 P i c k a x e s 23 0 0 0 26 000 S l a s h e r s 91 000 95 000 S i c k l e s 95 0 0 0 110 0 0 0 S h o v e l s 60 0 0 0 7 0 000

The demand f o r hand imp lemen t s was worked o u t as func- t i o n o f number o f h o u s e h o l d s , h o u s e h o l d s t o c k s , produc- t i v e l i f e o f t h e imp lemen t s and t h e assumed g r o w t h r a t e s . G e n e r a l l y s p e a k i n g , t h e N I D C s t u d y r e m a i n s one o f t h e mos t m e t i c u l o u s s t u d i e s on demand.

b ) - I n 1977 M i l l e r e s t i m a t e d t h e a n n u a l demand f o r h o e s t o 2.5 m i l l i o n . T h i s e s t i m a t e was b a s e d on t h e 1969 r u r a l h o u s e h o l d s u r v e y , and t h e o r e t i c a l assump- t i o n s o f r e p l a c e m e n t and g r o w t h r a t e s .

C ) - The f i g u r e s of t h e TISCO s t u d y from 1980 a r e shown i n T a b l e 3.2:

T a b l e 3.2 TISCO demand f i g u r e s , hand implements , 1980

I t em 1980 1984

Hoes 4 400 000 4 800 000 Matche t s 4 000 000 4 300 000 Axes 173 000 240 000 S h o v e l s / s p a d e s 370 000 670 000 S i c k l e s 91 000 110 000 Cane and s i s a l k n i v e s 150 000 260 000 S l a s h e r s 70 000 120 000

A s f a r a s hoes a r e concerned , TISCO based i t s f i g u r e s on t h e assumpt ion t h a t e v e r y r u r a l and e v e r y 1 0 t h urban household buys one hoe p e r year ( i n Mwanza two p e r y e a r ) and t h a t t h e r e is an accumulated demand e q u a l t o 50% of t h i s . Approximately t h e same would a p p l y f o r m a t c h e t s . For a x e s , s h o v e l s and k n i v e s ( w i t h a l i f e span assumed t o exceed 8 y e a r s ) t r e n d l i n e a n a l y s i s based on p r e v i o u s s u p p l y i s used . S i c k l e demand is a l s o computed on t h e b a s i s of an assumpt ion o f numbers p e r household and t h e i r r ep lacement e v e r y 5 t h y e a r .

I n t h e TISCO s t u d y f o r t h e new Mwanza p l a n t , t h e s e f i g u r e s a r e m a i n t a i n e d , e x c e p t i n r e s p e c t of s h o v e l s where p o s s i b l y a t y p i n g e r r o r had d i s t o r t e d t h e p re- v i o u s 1984 f i g u r e s . I t i s now, however, s e t a t 300,000,

d ) - P h i l l i p s and Zachar iah ( J u n e 1980 ) adopted t h e e s t i m a t e s i n t h e N I D C s t u d y , b u t made a c o r r e c t i o n of t h e s i c k l e s e s t i m a t e . However, t h e s t u d y d i d n o t con- t a i n any f i e l d o b s e r v a t i o n s a d d i t i o n a l t o p r e v i o u s s t u d i e s .

e ) - The " o f f i c a l " demand f i g u r e s f o r 1983, a s c a l - c u l a t e d by t h e M i n i s t r y of I n d u s t r i e s ( b a s i c a l l y on t h e TISCO f i g u r e s ) , i s 4.7 m i l l i o n h o e s , 4.3 m i l l i o n m a t c h e t s and 0.224 m i l l i o n a x e s . However, t h e General Manager a t UFI i s of t h e o p i n i o n t h a t t h e f i g u r e s a r e

t o o h i g h . The M i n i s t r y o f A g r i c u l t u r e estimates t h e demand f o r h o e s as 3 . 9 m i l l i o n i n 1983, b u t t h e M i n i s t e r i n a n i n t e r v i e w s t a t e d t h a t h e b e l i e v e s t h i s f i g u r e i s t o o h i g h ; h e would p u t t h e f i g u r e be tween 2 . 5 a n d 3 m i l l i o n h o e s p e r y e a r .

£1 - Our demand p r o j e c t i o n s a r e b a s e d , as mos t p r e v i o u s s t u d i e s , on t h e number o f h o u s e h o l d s , which a c c o r d i n g t o t h e 1978 p o p u l a t i o n c e n s u s c a n b e e s t i m a t e d a t 4 . 3 m i l l i o n i n 1984, o f which 0 .7 m i l l i o n a r e u r b a n house- h o l d s . Our f i e l d a s s e s s m e n t , b a s e d on o u r own o b s e r v a- t i o n s and d i s c u s s i o n s w i t h p e a s a n t s and r e g i o n a l o f f i - c i a l s , i n d i c a t e s t h a t TISCO's method o f a s suming a n a t i o n a l a v e r a g e f i g u r e is t o o s i m p l i s t i c . W e h a v e i n- s t e a d worked o u t a n a v e r a g e r e p l a c e m e n t f i g u r e f o r a l l t h e r e g i o n s w e h a v e v i s i t e d ( o r a r e o t h e r w i s e known t o U S ) r a n g i n g f rom up t o 2 h o e s p e r y e a r t o one hoe e v e r y 4 t h y e a r , and computed t h i s t o t h e number o f house- h o l d s . Depending on t h e a s s u m p t i o n s made, w e a r r i v e a t a hoe demand f i g u r e v a r y i n g f rom 2 .7 m i l l i o n t o 3 . 1 m i l l i o n h o e s p e r y e a r as a r e a l i s t i c demand f i g u r e . The a d d i t i o n o f a c c u m u l a t e d demand i s c o n s i d e r e d b y u s t o b e i n c o r r e c t . A t t h i s h i g h l e v e l o f r e p l a c e m e n t , accu- m u l a t e d demand i s t a k e n up b y t h e a n n u a l demand.

Fo r m a t c h e t s w e h a v e found t h a t t h e r e p l a c e m e n t i s e v e r y 4 t h - 5 t h y e a r , t h u s a n a n n u a l demand o f 0.9 m. We s u g g e s t a d d i n g 7 5 % t o c o v e r p e n t- u p demand. For a x e s t h e same method i s more u n r e l i a b l e as f a r f rom e v e r y h o u s e h o l d h a s a f a c t o r y- m a d e a x e . W e s u g g e s t t h a t e v e r y s e c o n d h o u s e h o l d would buy s u c h a n a x e e v e r y 8 t h y e a r , g i v i n g a demand f i g u r e o f 270,000. I t w a s n o t p o s s i b l e f o r u s t o c o l l e c t h a r d d a t a on demand f o r o t h e r items m e n t i o n e d a b o v e , b u t as t h e N I D C and t h e TISCO s t u d i e s l a r g e l y a g r e e ( w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n o f s h o v e l s ) w e s u g g e s t t a k i n g a n a v e r a g e o f t h e s e f i g u r e s .

S h o v e l s , wh ich a r e o n l y t o a small e x t e n t a g r i c u l t u r a l t o o l s , a l t h o u g h t h e i r i m p o r t a n c e is i n c r e a s i n g , seem t o b e o v e r e s t i m a t e d b y TISCO.

g ) - T h e s e f i g u r e s , which s h o u l d b e r e g a r d e d as t h e o r e t i c a l , s h o u l d b e c o r r e l a t e d t o a c t u a l s u p p l y ,

w h i c h f o r t h e l a s t 4 y e a r s o f s h o r t a g e mus t b e r e g a r d e d as minimum f i g u r e s , as w e l l a s t o t h e r e g i o n a l r e q u i r e m e n t s r e p o r t e d b y t h e RTCs.

A c t u a l s u p p l y ( e x UFI) is shown i n T a b l e 3.3:

T a b l e 3 . 3 UFI s u p p l y , hand imp lemen t s 1979- 1983 ( i n m i l l i o n s )

Hoes ( a l l t y p e s ) 2.7 1 .9 1 .1 1 . 6 1 .7 M a t c h e t s 1.2 0 .7 0 .03 0 . 8 0 . 5 Axes 0.292 0 .126 0 .056 0 .269 0.083

RTC r e q u i r e m e n t s ( a s r e p o r t e d by BIT) f o r 1983/84 a r e g i v e n i n T a b l e 3 .4 :

T a b l e 3 . 4 RTC r e q u i r e m e n t s , hand i m p l e m e n t s 1983/84

Hoes ( r / e ) e x c l S i n g i d a a n d Ruvuma 2 .9 m M a t c h e t s e x c l S i n g i d a a n d Ruvuma 0 .4 m Axes e x c l S i n g i d a a n d Ruvuma 0 .129 m

h ) - Our demand estimate b e l o w i s a n a t i o n a l f i g u r e i n t e n d e d t o g u i d e m a n u f a c t u r i n g i n d u s t r i e s . However, when it comes t o a c t u a l p r o d u c t i o n , t h e f o l l o w i n g a s p e c t s must b e t a k e n i n t o a c c o u n t .

A s shown i n C h a p t e r 1 t h e t y p e o f hoe i n demand v a r i e s . W e d o n o t h a v e f i g u r e s t o s u g g e s t what p e r c e n- t a g e o f t o t a l h o e demand r e f e r s t o t a n g e d h o e s , a n d amongs t t h o s e t o Rungwe h o e s o r t o U f i p a h o e s , b u t we c o n s i d e r it q u i t e p o s s i b l e f o r t h e m a r k e t i n g d e p a r t - m e n t s o f e i t h e r RTC o r UFI t o assess t h i s . UFI h a s a t r a v e l l i n g s a l e s m a n , who s h o u l d b e a b l e t o c o l l e c t d a t a i n t h i s r e s p e c t .

A f u r t h e r p o i n t t o n o t e i s t h a t d i f f e r e n t r e g i o n s h a v e d i f f e r e n t p r e f e r e n c e s i n r e s p e c t o f t h e w e i g h t o f t h e h o e s u s e d . T h i s i s a l s o a n a r e a f o r more d e t a i l e d m a r k e t s t u d i e s ,

To some e x t e n t , f a r m e r s a r e p r e p a r e d t o a c c e p t a l t e r n a - t i v e s f o r t h e i r p r e f e r r e d hoe b u t a l s o t h i s v a r i e s from a r e a t o a r e a .

The same t y p e of a s s e s s m e n t s h o u l d be made f o r m a t c h e t s (which come i n two s h a p e s and two s i z e s ) b u t it is our f i n d i n g t h a t p r e f e r e n c e s a r e n o t as d e f i n i t e a s f o r hoe S .

I n t h e l o n g e r t e r m p e r s p e c t i v e , t h e r e a r e some dynamic f a c t o r s t h a t w i l l i n f l u e n c e demand. For hoes , i n c r e a s e d ox- ploughing i s s u c h a f a c t o r . For a x e s , d e f o r e s t a t i o n w i l l lower demand, whereas r e s e t t l e m e n t s w i l l i n c r e a s e i t .

Our demand e s t i m a t e s f o r t h e most common hand implements used by p e a s a n t f a r m e r s i n r u r a l a r e a s ( t h u s ex- c l u d i n g s l a s h e r s , s h o v e l s / s p a d e s and p i c k- a x e s ) , based on our f i e l d a s s e s s m e n t , a r e shown i n Tab le 3.5:

T a b l e 3 . 5 Annual demand e s t i m a t e f o r hand implements 1984

Implement Annual demand 1984

Hoes ( r / e and t a n g e d ) 3.0 m Matche t s 1 .0 m Axes 0.25 m S i c k l e s ( N I D C and TISCO f i g u r e ) 0.11 m Cane and s i s a l k n i v e s (TISCO) 0.26 m

The growth i n demand f o r any of t h e s e i t e m s is n o t e x p e c t e d t o exceed p o p u l a t i o n g rowth , a p p r o x i m a t e l y 3% p e r annum.

The e s t i m a t e s above a r e n o t p r i c e - r e l a t e d , A t t h e p re- s e n t o f f i c i a l p r i c e l e v e l , t h e r e i s o n l y a v e r y s m a l l p r o p o r t i o n of t h e p o p u l a t i o n t h a t would n o t be a b l e t o p u r c h a s e t h e implements t h e y need f o r l a c k of f u n d s , p a r t i c u l a r l y c o n s i d e r i n g t h e p r e s e n t s c a r c i t y of consumer goods .

i ) - For f u t u r e demand e s t i m a t e s we recommend a more d e t a i l e d a p p l i c a t i o n of our method. Th is w i l l i n c l u d e

g r o u p i n g t h e c o u n t r y i n t o a r e a s w i t h similar s o i l ( f o r h o e s ) o r v e g e t a t i o n ( f o r a x e s and m a t c h e t s ) c o n d i t i o n s and s i m i l a r u s a g e p a t t e r n s f o r t h e implement s t u d i e d ;

b ) work ing o u t t h e a v e r a g e a n n u a l r e p l a c e m e n t ra te f o r e v e r y area p e r h o u s e h o l d ;

C ) comput ing t h e number o f h o u s e h o l d s ( d e d u c t i n g u r b a n p o p u l a t i o n and i n some cases g r o u p s o f p e o p l e f a l l - i n g o u t s i d e t h e u s u a l p a t t e r n ( p a s t o r a l i s t s i n some areas ;

d ) c o m p i l i n g r e g i o n a l a n d n a t i o n a l f i g u r e s ;

e ) compar ing w i t h a c t u a l sa les f i g u r e s ( t o c h e c k on o v e r / u n d e r - e s t i m a t i o n ) .

3 . 2 The Demand for Ox-Ploughs

S e v e r a l f i g u r e s h a v e been a d v a n c e d , r a n g i n g from t h e more c o n s e r v a t i v e est imates o f m a n u f a c t u r e r s o v e r TISCO's 7 5 , 0 0 0 p l o u g h s t o K i l i m o ' s 126 ,000 f o r 1983. TISCO's f i g u r e seems t o b e t h e o f f i c i a l l y a c c e p t e d o n e , a l t h o u g h Ki l imo t e n d s t o p r e f e r i t s own.

I t i s r a r e l y s p e c i f i e d t o what e x t e n t t h e demand f i g u r e s c o n t a i n a c c u m u l a t e d o r pen t- up demand, and how much o f t h i s is a n n u a l r e p l a c e m e n t demand and a n n u a l i n c r e a s e i n demand.

I n t h i s s t u d y w e h a v e a d o p t e d a me thodo logy o f c a l c u - l a t i n g t h e demand f o r ox- p loughs b a s e d on t h e r e g i o n a l p o p u l a t i o n o f p l o u g h s . To a r r i v e a t t h e l a t t e r f i g u r e w e h a v e j u x t a p o s e d e s t i m a t e s and c e n s u s f i g u r e s f rom a l l s t u d i e s a v a i l a b l e t o u s , r a n g i n g f rom t h e end o f t h e c o l o n i a l p e r i o d t o t h e mos t r e c e n t r e g i o n a l c o u n t s and estimates. Based on a c o m p a r i s o n o f t h e s e w e h a v e t r i e d r e a l i s t i c a l l y t o a r r i v e a t r e g i o n a l p l o u g h popu- l a t i o n ~ . We h a v e t h e n i n c l u d e d t h e most r e c e n t r e g i o n a l d i s t r i b u t i o n o f p l o u g h s f rom UFI as w e l l as i n f o r m a t i o n on l e g a l and i l l e g a l movements o f p l o u g h s a r r i v i n g a t c e r t a i n RTC d e s t i n a t i o n s and t h e n b e i n g r e s o l d t o o t h e r r e g i o n s .

From t h e s e f i g u r e s a n a n n u a l r e p l a c e m e n t r a t e - v a r y i n g i n t e r - r e g i o n a l l y due t o d i f f e r e n t s o i l c o n d i t i o n s and u s a g e p a t t e r n s - h a s b e e n d e d u c t e d . Thus w e a r r i v e a t r e g i o n a l ox- plough p o p u l a t i o n s f o r e a r l y 1 9 8 4 .

T a b l e 3 . 6 shows t h e r e g i o n a l p l o u g h p o p u l a t i o n f o r d i f f e r e n t p e r i o d s and s u r v e y s .

T a b l e 3 . 6 The R e g i o n a l P l o u g h P o p u l a t i o n f o r D i f f e r e n t P e r i o d s , as Given by ~ i f f e r e n t S u r v e y s a n d E s t i m a t e s

Codes: e ) Our e s t ima te n.a. = no account , n . i . = n o t included. h s h = n i l .

Source

Region

Arusha D ' Salaam Coast Dodana I r i n g a Kagera Kigcma Kiliman- j a r o Lindi Mara *eya Morogoro M t w r a Mvianza Rukw Ruvma Shinyanga

T a b l e 3 , 6 shows t h a t t h e l a r g e s t number o f p l o u g h s a r e i n e a s t e r n S h i n y a n g a , n o r t h e r n Tabora and n o r t h e r n S i n g i d a R e g i o n s , a l l f a l l i n g w i t h i n t h e f l a t and f a i r l y t r e e l e s s , g r a i n- g r o w i n g " c u l t i v a t i o n s t e p p e " o f t h e n o r t h - c e n t r a l p l a t e a u .

T h e s e a r e a s h a v e low r a i n f a l l a n d h i g h c a t t l e p o p u l a- t i o n ~ , and ox- p lough ing i s a means t o e i t h e r e x t e n d c u l t i v a t e d a c r e a g e s , o r t o t r y and b e a t t i m e i n l a n d p r e p a r a t i o n , o r b o t h . T o g e t h e r w i t h Mara and t h e Kyela f l o o d p l a i n a t Lake Myassa, t h e s e a r e a s h a v e h i s t o r i -

( a ) 1956-61

W r i c u l t

R e p r t s

10,OOOe n.a. n.a. n.a.

2,000e n . a . n.a.

n . a . n.a.

16,000 13,000

n.a. n.a.

4,000e 1,000

n.a. . 25,000

(b) 1973

Kilimo

(Kayllmbo)

17,000 n.a. n.a. n.a.

328 n.a.

8

118 n .a .

5,152 16,325

8 -

1,200 1,820

- 23,137

;kS:;a , iC,OOOe 5,000

Tanga n .a .

24,775 6,288

-

96,153 To ta l

( C ) 1975

RDD

Survey

18,500 6 9

3,677 2,170

46 8

381 566

6,606 19,492

38 63

3,397 3,012

28 25,629

75,000

25,617 6,588

36

115,509

(d) 1976-78

FAC- Kilimo Survey

27,463 n.a.

24 1,835

n.a. 141

17

1,166 512

10,135 18,676

71 83

6,000 3,012

16 33,592 26,585 33,536

85

162,949

(f) 1979

TISCO

13,640 n.a. n .a . n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a.

381 n.a.

13,000 21,564

n.a. n.a.

1,230 5,000

n.a. 38,559 26,600 33,600

n.a.

n.a. ,

1982

Kilimo

( K a y m b )

25,164 1,175

6,175 9,284

228 42

3,720 627

12,866 24,485

96 96

14,858 5,358

39 33,954 29,220

8,137 96

175,616

( h ) 1983 RAJ33 Es t & cenus

i n Regions

32,000 n.a. n.a. n .a .

25,000 n .a . n.a.

' few' n.a. n.a.

21,000 n.a. n.a.

19,000 n .a . n.a. n .a .

e a r l y 1984 SIDA F.I. S tudy

Estimate

24,000 n . i . n . i .

4,500 24,000

n.1. n . i .

1,400 n . i .

15,000 21,000

n . i . n . i .

17,000 6,500

n . i . 36,000

22,000 3 4 , 0 0 0 ~

n .a .

n .a .

24,000 29,000

n . i .

202,400

c a l l y b e e n t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t o x- p l o u g h i n g areas i n t h e c o u n t r y .

S i n c e t h e c o m m i s s i o n i n g o f UFI i n 1971, t h e a n n u a l , t o t a l s u p p l y o f p l o u g h s t o Main land T a n z a n i a h a s n o t b e e n a b l e t o meet demand. I n t h e y e a r s f o l l o w i n g t h e v i l l a g i z a t i o n campa ign (1974-761, t h e demand f o r p l o u g h s h a s b e e n i n c r e a s i n g s t e a d i l y . Over t h e f i v e - y e r p e r i o d 1974- 78, t h e t o t a l s u p p l y a v e r a g e d o n l y some 7 , 6 0 0 p l o u g h s p e r annum ( a s compared t o 9 , 0 0 0 p l o u g h s s o l d i n S h i n y a n g a i n 1 9 6 1 ) . Over t h e f o u r - y e a r p e r i o d 1979- 82, t h e t o t a l s u p p l y a v e r a g e d 1 0 , 5 0 0 p l o u g h s p e r annum, a n d i f t h e e x c e p t i o n a l s u p p l y o f 1983 ( 2 6 , 0 0 0 p l o u g h s ) i s i n c l u d e d , w e g e t 13 ,600 p l o u g h s wh ich c a n b e compared t o a n o f f i c a l demand f i g u r e o f 75 ,000 p l o u g h s f o r 1983/84 .

E q u i t a b l e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f p l o u g h s a n d s p a r e s h a s t o b e b a s e d on t h e r e g i o n a l p l o u g h p o p u l a t i o n and n o t s i m p l y on r e g i o n a l r e q u i r e m e n t s worked o u t a c c o r d i n g t o d i f f e - r e n t me thods i n d i f f e r e n t r e g i o n s a n d s u b j e c t t o more o r less random p o l i t i c a l i n f l a t i o n s and d e f l a t i o n s .

W e h a v e d i s t i n g u i s h e d t h e p r e s e n t demand f o r p l o u g h s i n T a n z a n i a i n t e r m s o f t h r e e f a c t o r s :

1 ) Annual r e p l a c e m e n t demand f o r m a i n t a i n i n g a g i v e n p l o u q h p o p u l a t i o n i n o p e r a t i n s c o n d i t i o n . T h i s - - - demand i s a p e r c e n t a g e - o f t h e - p l o u g h p o p u l a t i o n . I f t h e a v e r a g e l i f e s p a n o f p l o u g h s i s 1 0 y e a r s t h e r a t e o f r e p l a c e m e n t needed t o m a i n t a i n t h e s t o c k i s 1 0 % . he l i f e s p a n o f a p l o u g h i s d e t e r m i n e d f i r s t o f a l l by t h e a b r a s i v e n e s s o f t h e s o i l and s e c o n d l y by t h c c d l t i v a t i o n f a c t o r p e r p l o u g h ( i . e . , t h e annpxal a v e r a g e r a t e o f c u l t i v a t i o n o r t h e a v e r a g e number o f a c r e s c u l t i v a t e d p e r p l o u g h a n n u a l l y ) .

2 ) The a c c u m u l a t e d demand, f o u n d i n mos t b u t n o t a l l p l o u g h i n g r e g i o n s o f T a n z a n i a , which i s h e r e d e f i n e d t o i n c l u d e : ( i ) o v e r d u e r e p l a c e m e n t , r e- q u i r e d b e c a u s e t h e m a j o r i t y o f p l o u g h s a r e i n a d e p l o r a b l e c o n d i t i o n . ( i i ) a p e n t- u p o r i n c r e a s e i n demand f rom would b e o x- f a r m e r s who h a v e b e e n u n a b l e t o g e t p l o u g h s .

G m W 0 0 0 1 1 0 000 0 0 0 0 w j j g $ o o o 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

I W - ?'?? 9 ? ? y 9 9 9 8 1

4J U

'&V" m u E c * - m C

W m r - C z w p yj W rda rl g a a C O O . 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 000.1 0 0 000 0 0 0 0

o m o e o o o m .4 . . . c . . . . . ? ? ?

' U - & o m w w w - m - - W w e m (V

62 E&$, n m r (V.- ~ N N o

(V

m

.- , PI & - 0" d U m 22% 5 .4 c- 2 2 g 5 rr(

m 0 0 0 0 - 0 0 0 0 0 0 o o q q - 0 E 0 U3 9 m $8: ??X Fj .?z 4 C O W W P

W C C m h- W 5 B -

El 00 " 0 0 ' 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 c, 5 00.. m 0 m o o 0 0 0 0 .rl 3 $ g ' 4 3 ; ; m LO p G'?? o m ? ? F P C O ~ 4 -? c3 - m C N d' U, PI- C .

aJ C c d r d

0 0 0 0 0 000 0 0 0 10 l o w o . 1 w m o m o o o m w m o . . c

- m - m * L " ? ? /! 1 . . * N m m cJ(v e m - W

N

Explanations to Table 3.7:

n.a. = No account n.r. = Not received n.i. = Not included dash = Nil ( - )

(c) = Figures in brackets indicate estimated accumulated demand. (a) + (b) Totals include an added 5% for n.a. regions.

(g) Estimated accumulated demand includes overdue replacement and pent-up demand. It has been assessed by weighing against each other the following factors:

1) The regional population of ploughs and their condition which effects overdue replacement demand.

2) The regional supply of ploughs 1983184 (e) as well as previous supplies which reduce pent-up demand and overdue replacement.

3) The recent overall increase of supply in ploughs vis-2 -vis the overall availability of oxen and land for expansion in ox- ploughing, i.e., constrained future demand or the potential for increase.

4) The regional availability of tractors for contract ploughing which in particular applies to areas in Arusha and Kilimanjaro Regions. These have already got or are likely to get the majo- rity of the Swaraj and Valmet tractors coming in.

5) Effective demand in relation to purchasing power which may in particular constrain demand in Singida and Dodoma Regions.

6) RADO, DAD0 and RTC managers' assessment of accumulated demand where these appear to be realistic and consistent with the above points, e.g., in Arusha, Iringa and Mbeya.

The p r e s e n t pen t- up demand is n o t c o n s t r a i n e d b y access t o oxen and l a n d . I f it was, it would n o t b e a pen t- up demand b u t r a t h e r a c o n s t r a i n e d p o t e n t i a l demand o f t h e f u t u r e which w e s h a l l a t t e m p t t o assess be low.

3 ) The i n c r e a s e d demand o r a n n u a l g r o w t h i n demand i s b a s i c a l l y o f t h e same n a t u r e as t h e pen t- up demand. The i n c r e a s e d demand d e r i v e s - f r o m t h e e x p e c t e d f u t u r e i n c r e a s e i n b u y e r s o f p l o u g h s . I t may a l s o b e p o s i t i v e l y a f f e c t e d by p a s t o r a l i s t s t a k i n g up o x- p l o u g h i n g , as happened some 10- 15 y e a r s a g o i n some a r e a s o f Hanang D i s t r i c t and i n a f ew a r e a s o f M a a s a i l a n d .

G e n e r a l C o n c l u s i o n s on P r e s e n t Demand

I n T a b l e 3 .7 w e h a v e p r e s e n t e d c u r r e n t demand f i g u r e s f rom p r e v i o u s estimates andourrevised and u p d a t e d e f f e c t i v e demand f i g u r e s f o r p l o u g h s .

Based o n f a i r l y d e t a i l e d i n f o r m a t i o n a n d t a k i n g i n t o a c c o u n t a whole r a n g e o f h i s t o r i c a l , e conomic , e n v i r o n- m e n t a l and p o l i t i c a l f a c t o r s i n t h e me thodo logy s p e l l e d o u t i n d e t a i l a b o v e , w e h a v e a r r i v e d a t a n a t i o n a l p l o u g h p o p u l a t o n o f a b o u t 200 ,000 ox- p loughs i n u s e i n T a n z a n i a f o r e a r l y 1984. On t h e b a s i s o f t h i s f i g u r e we h a v e worked o u t a n i n i t i a l a n n u a l r e p l a c e m e n t demand o f some 26 ,000 p l o u g h s b a s e d on u p d a t e d rates o f r e p l a c e - ment ( 1 0- 1 5 % ) f o r e a c h r e g i o n .

The e s t i m a t e d a c c u m u l a t e d demand o f 75 ,000 p l o u g h s a t p r e s e n t h a s b e e n a s s e s s e d by w e i g h i n g a whole r a n g e of d e t e r m i n i n g f a c t o r s . The a c c u m u l a t e d demand i s h i g h b e c a u s e t h e l ow s u p p l y o v e r t h e l a s t 5-8 y e a r s h a v e amounted t o a v i r t u a l s t a r v a t i o n s i t u a t i o n , c a u s i n g t h e o v e r d u e r e p l a c e m e n t demand t o p e a k .

The e s t i m a t e d a n n u a l r a t e o f i n c r e a s e i n demand r a n g e s f r o m 5-15 p e r c e n t d e p e n d i n g on t h e e x t e n t t o w h i c h t h e p o t e n t i a l f o r f u r t h e r e x p a n s i o n h a s b e e n e x h a u s t e d and o n t h e a s s e s s e d a v a i l a b l e p u r c h a s i n g power .

I n c o n c l u s i o n , w e e s t i m a t e t h e c o n t i n u o u s a n n u a l demand, c o n s i s t i n g o f r e p l a c e m e n t demand a n d i n c r e a s e i n demand, t o b e a p p r o x i m a t e l y 5 0 , 0 0 0 p l o u g h s . I n a d d i - t i o n , t h e r e i s a n a c c u m u l a t e d demand o f a o n c e- o f f n a t u r e o f 75 ,000 p l o u g h s .

The accumulated demand, which is of a once off nature, could theoretically be satisfied by the injection 75,000 mainly imported ploughs, followed by a replacement demand of some 36,000 ploughs (13% of the national plough population of the 277,000 ploughs), and theoretically an annual increase in demand of some 16-17,000 ploughs at a rate of increase of 6% per annum, i.e. a total effective demand of around 50,000 ploughs.

W e have a r r i v e d a t a t o t a l p o t e n t i a l number o f p l o u g h s o f 4 0 0 , 0 0 0 f o r t h e coming 5- 10 y e a r s b a s e d on t h e po ten- t i a l a v a i l a b i l i t y o f d r a u g h t oxen.

3.3 The Supply and Requirements for Plough Spare Parts

I t h a s t o b e s t r e s s e d t h a t t h e r e i s a s e v e r e s h o r t a g e o f e s s e n t i a l s p a r e p a r t s f o r p loughs i n a l l t h e r e g i o n s v i s i t e d . I t f u r t h e r h a s t o be s t r e s s e d t h a t a p r o p e r s u p p l y o f r e q u i r e d s p a r e p a r t s can c o n t r i b u t e s i g n i f i - c a n t l y t o reduc ing b o t h overdue and a n n u a l r ep lacement demand f o r complete p loughs by e x t e n d i n g t h e i r working l i f e - s p a n .

I t is a l s o obv ious t h a t it is c h e a p e r b o t h f o r t h e consumers and f o r t h e n a t i o n a l economy a t l a r g e t o e n s u r e t h a t t h e r e q u i r e d s u p p l y of s p a r e p a r t s r e a c h e s o u t , r a t h e r t h a n c o n c e n t r a i n g a l l f u n d s and e f f o r t s on producing and d i s t r i b u t i n g comple te p loughs t o c a t e r b o t h f o r rep lacement and f o r pent- up and i n c r e a s e d f u t u r e demand.

The a c t u a l d i s t r i b u t i o n o f p lough p a r t s from J a n u a r y t o November 1983 g e n e r a l l y f a l l s f a r s h o r t o f b o t h t h e o f f i c i a l r e g i o n a l r e q u i r e m e n t s and of t h e demand, w i t h t h e p a r t i a l e x c e p t i o n o f s h a r e s and c h a i n s . The s u p p l y of t h e s e i s s t i l l i n s u f f i c i e n t b u t much h i g h e r t h a n f o r any p r e v i o u s y e a r s .

No l a n d s i d e s , s a f e t y hooks , wheel b u s h e s , wheel h o l d e r s and beams were d i s t r i b u t e d . Lands ides , wheel b u s h e s , wheel h o l d e r s , a x l e s , whee l s , r i g h t h a n d l e s and n u t s / b o l t s f o r plough bot tom and h a n d l e assembly a r e t h o s e p a r t s which a r e most b a d l y needed t o r e h a b i l i t a t e t h e p loughs . Beams and f r o g s have a v e r y low demand though some c o u l d p r o b a b l y be s o l d i n I r i n g a , S i n g i d a , Tabora , Mwanza and Mara. Beams and f r o g s a r e n o t f i r s t p r i o r i -

t y .

3 . 4 The P o t e n t i a l f o r Ox-Ploughing i n t h e Next Decade

The p o t e n t i a l f o r e x p a n s i o n o f ox- p lough ing is n o t as h i g h as b e l i e v e d b y many gove rnmen t o f f i c i a l s a t c e n t r a l l e v e l . F i r s t o f a l l t h i s p o t e n t i a l i s e f f e c t i - v e l y l i m i t e d b y t h e a v a i l a b i l i t y o f d r a u g h t a n i m a l s . S e c o n d l y , it is c o n s t r a i n e d by a v a i l a b i l i t y o f l a n d . The s e c o n d c o n s t r a i n t works i t s e l f o u t i n a much more s u b t l e way a n d i s r e l a t e d t o t h e v i l l a g i z e d s e t t l e m e n t p a t t e r n , t h e n a t u r e o f e x i s t i n g f a r m i n g s y s t e m s , r a i n - f a l l , b u s h i n f e s t a t i o n , a v a i l a b i l i t y o f g r a z i n g , t o p o- g r a p h y a n d s o o n . The commonly h e a r d s t a t e m e n t t h a t T a n z a n i a h a s a m p l e , f e r t i l e l a n d r e s o u r c e s is n o t wrong as s u c h , b u t it i s a n o v e r s i m p l i f i c a t i o n , i n p a r t i c u l a r when a p p l i e d t o t h e p o t e n t i a l f o r o x - c u l t i v a t i o n .

The t o t a l number o f p o t e n t i a l p l o u g h s t h e n works up t o 450 ,000 a t a mean ox-team f a c t o r o f 3 . 4 o x e n . Fo r t h e n e x t d e c a d e w e c o n s i d e r t h i s t h e a b s o l u t e p o t e n t i a l , w h i c h w e s h a l l h a v e t o r e d u c e e v e n f u r t h e r t o a r r i v e a t a more p r o b a b l e f i g u r e o f p o t e n t i a l demand. I f w e de- d u c t a n o t h e r 3 0 % , w e a r r i v e a t a rounded f i g u r e o f 300 ,000 p o t e n t i a l p l o u g h s which means a t o t a l p o t e n t i a l i n c r e m e n t o f some 100 ,000 p l o u g h s ( d i s c o u n t i n g r e p l a c e - m e n t ) o v e r t h e n e x t 7-10 y e a r s , w i t h a b a s e l i n e o f 200 ,000 e x i s t i n g p l o u g h s . A t t h e v e r y mos t it c o u l d amount t o 1 5 0 , 0 0 0 p l o u g h s . T h i s w i l l make l i t t l e d i f f e - r e n c e f o r t h e p l a n n i n g o f m a n u f a c t u r i n g c a p a c i t y .

The f a c t t h a t many o x e n a r e s t i l l u n t r a i n e d is no con- s t r a i n t on t h e p o t e n t i a l f o r o x- p l o u g h i n g . I n f a c t p l o u g h i n g w i t h a n ox- team i s a f a i r l y s i m p l e t e c h n o l o g y t o a d o p t by p e a s a n t s who h a v e grown u p w i t h c a t t l e .

3 . 5 The Demand f o r R i d g e r s , C u l t i v a t o r s and Harrows

As t h e t o t a l m a r k e t demand f o r p l o u g h s g r a d u a l l y s t a r t s t o d e c l i n e a n d f a l l s s h o r t o f i n s t a l l e d m a n u f a c t u r i n g c a p a c i t y , t h e u n u t i l i z e d c a p a c i t y c a n b e u s e d f o r p ro- d u c i n g r i d g e r s . T h e r e i s a t p r e s e n t no r e a l e f f e c t i v e demand f o r r i d g e r s ( o r c u l t i v a t o r s ) o f a m a g n i t u d e

which w a r r a n t s i n s t a l l a t i o n o f new c a p a c i t y f o r t h e m a n u f a c t u r i n g i n T a n z a n i a . T h e r e are a t p r e s e n t a good number o f i d l e and p a r t l y i n c o m p l e t e r i d g e r s i n s t o c k a t RTC go-downs, which c o u l d f a r i l y e a s i l y b e r e h a b i l i - t a t e d and s e n t o u t t o t h e r u r a l areas.

For t h e n e x t c o u p l e o f y e a r s w e would t e n t a t i v e l y assess t h e n a t i o n a l r e q u i r e m e n t f o r r i d g e r s a t 2- 3000.

3 . 6 The Demand f o r O x- C a r t s

3 . 6 . 1 Background

A s w i t h ox- p loughs , t h e r e i s a t p r e s e n t a boom i n t h e demand f o r o x - c a r t s . T h i s i s r e l a t e d t o t h e e f f e c t s o f v i l l a g i z a t i o n wh ich h a s b r o u g h t a b o u t c h a n g e s i n s e t t l e m e n t and l a n d- u s e p a t t e r n s . The d i s t a n c e s t o f i e l d s and f i r e w o o d s o u r c e s h a v e i n c r e a s e d . D i s t a n c e s t o water s o u r c e s h a v e i n c r e a s e d i n some v i l l a g e s , be- c a u s e t h e i n s t a l l e d w a t e r schemes a r e n o t o p e r a t i n g , due t o l a c k o f m a i n t e n a n c e o f poor scheme c o n s t r u c - t i o n . I n g e n e r a l , t r a n s p o r t c o n s t r a i n t s and t h e p rob lem o f h e a d p o r t e r a g e h a v e i n c r e a s e d c o n s i d e r a b l y , i n p a r - t i c u l a r w i t h r e g a r d t o t r a n s p o r t o f h a r v e s t e d c r o p s and f i r ewood .

However, v i l l a g i z a t i o n h a s a l s o had o t h e r more p o s i t i v e e f f e c t s , which h a v e had a n i m p a c t on t h e i n c r e a s e d u t i - l i t y o f o x - c a r t s , whee lba r rows and o t h e r means o f t r a n s p o r t . The f i e l d and l a n d- u s e p a t t e r n i s now more pe rmanen t t h a n t h e p r e v i o u s p a t t e r n o f f a l l o w and s h i f t i n g c u l t i v a t i o n s y s t e m s c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y c h a n g i n g f o o t p a t h s y s t e m s . P a t h s a r e now more p e r m a n e n t , t r a c k s o r v i l l a g e r o a d s h a v e b e e n l a i d o u t and c l e a r e d , and t h e c o n d i t i o n s f o r car t movement h a v e improved. R u r a l h o u s e c o n s t r u c t i o n , u s i n g b r i c k s , h a s become more common and t h e need f o r t r a n s p o r t i n g b u i l d i n g m a t e r i a l f rom b r i ck- mak ing si tes a n d f i r e w o o d f o r b r i ck- mak ing h a s i n c r e a s e d . The f a r m i n g s y s t e m h a s i n t e n s i f i e d i n many a r e a s and h a s become more d e p e n d e n t on t h e u s e o f manure and f e r t i l i z e r ( i n I r i n g a , Mbeya and Rukwa). These a r e b u l k y o r h e a v y i n p u t s , t h e t r a n s p o r t o f which is e a s e d b y mechan ized t r a n s p o r t . I n some areas s u p p l e -

m e n t a r y f e e d i n g o f o x e n d u r i n g t h e e a r l y t i l l i n g s e a s o n h a s i n c r e a s e d , and b u l k y ma ize s t a l k s a r e c o l l e c t e d f rom t h e f i e l d s upon h a r v e s t w i t h o x - c a r t s and a r e b r o u g h t t o t h e h o m e s t e a d s f o r s t o r i n g .

I n n o r t h e r n S i n g i d a and i n I g u n g a , s t a l k s o f m a i z e , sorghum and b u l l r u s h m i l l e t a re c o l l e c t e d f o r f i r e - wood. The i n c r e a s e d i n t e n s i t y o f l a b o u r d u r i n g t h e c u l - t i v a t i o n s e a s o n s h a s e n f o r c e d i n c r e a s e d r e l i a n c e on s t o c k s o f f i r e w o o d , c o l l e c t e d f rom f a r away and b r o u g h t w i t h o x - c a r t s o r s l e d g e s d u r i n g t h e d r y s e a s o n .

The more r e c e n t d e c l i n e i n t h e number o f t r a c t o r s and l o r r i e s i n o p e r a t i n g c o n d i t i o n and s h o r t a g e o f d i e s e l i n t h e r u r a l a r e a s h a s i n v o l v e d s o a r i n g h i r e c h a r g e s f o r t h e s e means o f t r a n s p o r t . O x- c a r t s h a v e t o a n i n- c r e a s i n g e x t e n t t a k e n o v e r t h e d i s c o n t i n u e d b u s and l o r r y t r a n s p o r t s e r v i c e s i n r u r a l a r e a s , i n c l u d i n g l o n g d i s t a n c e t r a n s p o r t o f p e o p l e i n e a s t e r n Sh inyanga . A p a r t f rom t h e h i g h p r i c e s o f o x - c a r t s , t h e g e n e r a l t r a n s p o r t s i t u a t i o n h a s c o n t r i b u t e d t o p u s h i n g up t h e h i r e r a t e s f o r o x - c a r t t r a n s p o r t a t i o n , t h u s e n s u r i n g h i g h economic r a t e s o f r e t u r n t o i n v e s t m e n t s made i n o x - c a r t s .

T h i s f a c t a l s o e x p l a i n s why t h e r e i s a demand f o r h i g h q u a l i t y and e x p e n s i v e c a r t s , and n o t poor and c h e a p c a r t s . Given t h e l o n g d i s t a n c e i n v o l v e d i n c a r t i n g and t h e good o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r incomes f rom h i r i n g them o u t , it becomes i m p o r t a n t t h a t t h e c a r t s a r e r e l i a b l e and d u r a b l e . I f t h e wheel s e t o f a c a r t b r e a k s down, it i s e x t r e m e l y d i f f i c u l t t o g e t s p a r e s o r t o h a v e it re- p a i r e d . Cus tomers c a n n o t r e l y on a h i r e d c a r t which b r e a k s down a l l t h e t i m e and w i l l o p t f o r a n o t h e r c a r t i n t h e v i l l a g e i f a v a i l a b l e .

C a r t owner s h a v e r e c o v e r e d t h e i r i n v e s t m e n t s i n one o r two c r o p h a r v e s t s e a s o n s . P a r t n e r s h i p s o f two o r t h r e e h o u s e h o l d s i n p u r c h a s i n g and o p e r a t i n g o f c a r t s a r e common.

F i n a l l y w e s h o u l d n o t e t h e s o c i a l b e n e f i t s o f o x - c a r t s a n d whee lba r rows which h a v e i m p o r t a n t i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r

b o t h t h e s e x u a l - and aged- based d i v i s i o n o f l a b o u r i n r u r a l a r e a s . S i n c e men and y o u t h s , e v e n young b o y s , a r e s o f a r t h e main o p e r a t o r s o f o x- c a r t i n g and o x- s l e d g e teams, women a r e r e l i e v e d o f t h e a r d u o u s and t i m e consuming work o f b e i n g "pack a n i m a l s " . The male team ope- r a t o r s a p p a r e n t l y t e n d t o t a k e o v e r s u c h t a s k s as w a t e r f e t c h i n g , t h e c u t t i n g o f f i r e w o o d a n d c o l l e c t i o n o f g r a i n s t a l k s f o r f o d d e r . For example , i n t h e case o f w a t e r f e t c h i n g it is t h e t e a m o p e r a t o r s who f e t c h w a t e r and f i l l t h e drums t o b e c a r r i e d on s l e d g e s o r c a r t s , and t h e w a t e r f e t c h e d i s s t o r e d i n drums, which may i m- p r o v e w a t e r q u a l i t y . O x- c a r t i n g , i n c o n t r a s t t o mould- b o a r d p l o u g h i n g f o r p r i m a r y c u l t i v a t i o n , may t h u s c h a n g e r u r a l l i f e i n T a n z a n i a .

Seen i n t h e g e n e r a l c o n t e x t o f l o n g d i s t a n c e movement o f g o o d s a n d p e o p l e , t h e c h a n g e f rom m o t o r i z e d t r a n s p o r t t o o x - c a r t i n g c a n be c o n s i d e r e d a s t e p back- wards . I n terms o f i n t r a - and i n t e r v i l l a g e t r a n s p o r t a - t i o n , t h e g e n e r a l deve lopmen t o f o x - c a r t i n g , w h e t h e r b a s e d on h i g h q u a l i t y c a r t o r on home-made s l e d g e s w i t h w h e e l s , i s a n i m p o r t a n t s t e p f o r w a r d . A l l means o f t r a n s p o r t r e q u i r e d i n t h e v i l l a g e s , whe the r m a n u f a c t u r- e d b y s p e c i a l i z e d workshops o r made t h r o u g h s i m p l e b u t f u n c t i o n a l and c h e a p i n v e n t i o n s i n t h e v i l l a g e s , s h o u l d r e c e i v e s u p p o r t .

3 . 6 . 2 The P r e s e n t Demand f o r Ox- Car ts

I n T a b l e 3 , 8 w e h a v e a t t e m p t e d a c o n s e r v a t i v e e s t i m a t e o f t h e p r e s e n t demand f o r h i g h q u a l i t y o x - c a r t s , worked o u t on t h e b a s i s o f t h e s c a n t d a t a a v a i l a b l e on r e g i o n a l o x - c a r t p o p u l a t i o n s and on o u r i m p r e s s i o n s g a i n e d f rom t h e r e c e n t f i e l d v i s i t s .

I n T a b l e 3 . 8 , a c o m p a r i s o n o f co lumns ( A ) and ( B ) i n d i -

cates a r a p i d i n c r e a s e i n t h e r e g i o n a l c a r t p o p u l a t i o n s

b u t o n l y o v e r a c o u p l e o f y e a r s . T h i s is l i k e l y t o

r ema in s o e v e n i f c e n s u s f i g u r e s had b e e n more

a c c u r a t e . A s r e g a r d s column ( C ) w e know t h a t t h e r e a r e

no l a r g e number o f o x - c a r t s i n Arusha , Mwanza,

S h i n y a n g a , S i n g i d a and T a b o r a . W e a l s o know t h a t t h e r e

a r e much l a r g e r numbers i n I r i n g a , Mara and Mbeya t h a n

Table 3 .8 Regional Ox-Cart Popula t ion 1975-1983 and Es t imated Demandfor Ox-Carts 1984-1986

FAO/ RADO R e g i o n a l Our c o n s . RDD K i l i m o e s t . o r RADO re- demand S u r v e y S u r v e y c e n s u s q u i r e m e n t s e s t i m a t e

Reg i o n 1 9 7 5 76- 78 1 9 8 3 1983/84 1984-86

Ar u s h a Dodoma I r i n g a K i l i m a n j a r o Mara Mbeya Mwanza Rukwa S h i n y a n g a S i n g i d a T a b o r a T a n g a

n .a. n . a .

2 , 5 2 5 v e r y f e w

n . a . n .a. n . a . n . a . n .a. n . a . n . a . n . a .

T o t a l 1 , 2 2 5 1 , 7 6 9 n . i . n . i . 1 2 , 0 0 0

n . a . = n o a c c o u n t n . i . = n o t i n c l u d e d 1 ) Our e s t i m a t e . Nzega D i s t r i c t a l o n e h a s 8 5 7 c a r t s , a n d

i n I g u n g a w e c o n t i n u o u s l y s a w o x - c a r t s a s w e l l .

Comments to Table 3.8

(A) The RDD survey figures look reasonable on a regional comparison, but Arusha, Iringa, Shinyanga and Tabora are probably understated.

( B ) The FAOIKilimo survey figures also look reasonable, but are probablyunder-redorded for Mara, Mbeya, Mwanza, Shinyanga and possibly Rukwa. Despite likely under-recording, note the overall rapid increase in numbers.

(C) The RADO estimates for Arusha and Mbeya are much too high. Mbeya might have some 500-800 carts taking into account among other things, production figures from the RADO workhop. Arusha should now have some 1,500-2,000 ox-carts, given the production from TAMTU and four other public workshops, plus a large number of village craftsmen. Shinyanga should have at least 2,000 carts. In Singida, at least 30% of the carts are inoperative due to the poor quality of the carts, made from the SIDOIRDD workshop in Singida Town.

(D) The regional requirements for Iringa are based on written requests and probably also expectancy of credits. In Kili- manjaro, one ox-cart workshop is facing problems in selling its cart, but this may be due to poor quality of the product, which we have not seen.

( E ) Figures for Dodoma, Mara and Rukwa are estimates only. Apart perhaps from Iringa, our estimates for the remaining regions are based on our assessment of the regional cart population and on our discussions and impressions in the regions. The figures are conservative estimates for high quality pneumatic tyre carts, and for Arusha, iron wheel carts as well.

i n d i c a t e d i n co lumns ( A ) and (B). W e b e l i e v e t h a t t h e

f i g u r e s shown p r o v i d e enough e v i d e n c e f o r t h e i n c r e a s e

i n t h e number o f o x - c a r t s f o l l o w i n g upon v i l l a g i z a t i o n

1974-76.

Our demand estimate i n column ( E ) a p p l i e s t o h i g h qua-

l i t y e x p e n s i v e o x - c a r t s . T h i s demand r e p r e s e n t s accumu-

l a t e d demand, i . e . o v e r d u e r e p l a c e m e n t demand f o r ca r t s

i n poor o p e r a t i n g c o n d i t i o n s , and a n i n c r e a s e d demand

a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e p rob lems o f t r a n s p o r t and e x p e c t e d

p r o f i t s f rom a p o t e n t i a l i n v e s t m e n t .

3 . 6 . 3 Some N o t e s on the R e l a t i o n s h i p be tween D e s i g n a n d Demand f o r Ox- Car ts

W e h a v e n o t e d a b o v e t h a t c a r t s h a v e t o b e o f a b e t t e r

q u a l i t y - and c o n s e q u e n t l y more e x p e n s i v e - t h a n t h e

c o n v e n t i o n a l TAMTU d e s i g n o r t h e d e s i g n s a d o p t e d b y

Uyole A g r i c u l t u r a l C e n t r e , t h e Maf inga workshop i n

I r i n g a a n d t h e S i n g i d a R e g i o n a l workshop. Wooden wheel

r i m s , and b e a r i n g s o f h a r d wood h a v e p r o v i d e d no d u r-

a b l e s o l u t i o n and a r e a v o i d e d b y t h o s e c a r t b u y e r s who

c a n a v o i d them. I r o n wheel r i m s a r e a c c e p t e d i n Arusha ,

b u t n o t n e c e s s a r i l y p r e f e r r e d .

G iven t h e t r a n s p o r t c o n s t r a i n t s and t h e s l o w p a c e o f

movement o f o x - c a r t s - it is h a r d l y a s p e e d - t h e r e i s

p r e f e r e n c e f o r t h e l a r g e r o x - c a r t s w i t h h i g h e r l o a d i n g

c a p a c i t y . O v e r l o a d i n g w i l l r ema in a p rob lem u n t i l c a r t s

a r e d e s i g n e d s t r o n g enough t o c a r r y t h e r e q u i r e d l o a d .

I n Sh inyanga and Tabora it i s common t o t eam s i x oxen

o r a mixed s ix- head team of oxen and donkeys t o p u l l c a r t s . These f a c t o r s s h o u l d e x p l a i n why c a r t owners p r e f e r Landrover o r small l o r r y wheel s e t s , d e s p i t e t h e d i f f i c u l t y o f o b t a i n i n g them and d e s p i t e t h e i r h i g h c o s t . There is an u r g e n t need t o work o u t axle- wheel set d e s i g n s which a r e s t r o n g , d u r a b l e and a p p r o p r i a t e f o r heavy l o a d s . A t t h e moment a t o t a l c o s t o f a c a r t up t o Shs. 16,000 d o e s n o t seem t o be a c o n s t r a i n t on demand.

Even s o , t h e r e is a l i k e l y l i m i t t o t h e number of e x p e n s i v e o x- c a r t s which can be s o l d because most h o u s e h o l d s w i l l f i n d it d i f f i c u l t t o pay t h i s c o n s i d e r- a b l e i n v e s t m e n t on normal c a s h t e r m s . Those w i t h enough c a t t l e can s e l l two f u l l s i z e d s t e e r s t o r e a l i z e t h e r e q u i r e d amount.

Although many h o u s e h o l d s i n a v i l l a g e b e n e f i t from t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of h i r i n g o x- c a r t s e r v i c e s f o r t r a n s p o r t o f c r o p s t o buying p o i n t s , and of w a t e r , f i r e w o o d , manure and b u i l d i n g m a t e r i a l , it is a l s o c l e a r t h a t b o t h t h e p r i c e of t h e c a r t s and h i r i n g c h a r g e s i n v i l l a g e s wi th o n l y few c a r t s t e n d t o be v e r y h i g h because of t h e c r i - t i c a l s h o r t a g e s i t u a t i o n . Thus, many househo lds cou ld s a v e on t r a n s p o r t e x p e n d i t u r e i n t h e l o n g run i f t h e y a c q u i r e d t h e i r own c a r t s , p a r t i c u l a r l y s o i f 2- 4 house- h o l d s j o i n e d i n t o p a r t n e r s h i p t o buy and use a c a r t . Expensive h i r i n g c h a r g e s w i l l d r i v e up t h e demand f o r c a r t s , b u t t h e r e i s s t i l l a l i m i t t o t h e demand f o r e x p e n s i v e c a r t s .

The wheel s e t d e s i g n s h o u l d be worked o u t w i t h a view t o b o t h q u a l i t y and t o t h e l i k e l y f u t u r e c o s t s o f manu- f a c t u r i n g them i n Tanzan ia . I n i t i a l import of b e a r i n g s i s a n e c e s s a r y p r e c o n d i t i o n f o r a r e a s o n a b l y r a p i d and b e n e f i c i a l s a t i s f a c t i o n of t h e p r e s e n t demand. When more c a r t s become a v a i l a b l e i n t h e r u r a l a r e a s , h i r e c h a r g e s w i l l d e c l i n e . T h i s a l s o means i n t h e f u t u r e a more c o m p e t i t i v e demand i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e c o s t o f manufac tu r ing t h e c a r t s .

S i n c e t h e demand f o r e x p e n s i v e c a r t s is s o h i g h a t

p r e s e n t , and s i n c e a number of p o t e n t i a l b u y e r s can and

w i l l e n t e r i n t o p a r t n e r s h i p s t o buy car ts , w i t h t h e

l i k e l i h o o d o f t h e i n v e s t m e n t b e i n g r e a l i z e d t h r o u g h

l i v e s t o c k sales, w e d o n o t see t h e need f o r c r e d i t as

t h e main p rob lem a t p r e s e n t .

For t h o s e p u b l i c workshops a n d R&D i n s t i t u t i o n s which

s t i l l t h i n k and work a l o n g t h e l i n e s o f t h e conven-

t i o n a l c h e a p d e s i g n s w i t h wooden w h e e l s and wooden

b e a r i n g s , w e s u g g e s t t h a t t h e y g o on a s u r v e y v i s i t t o

v i l l a g e s w i t h a h i g h number o f o x - c a r t s t o i n v e s t i g a t e

t h e o f t e n d i f f e r i n g d e s i g n d e t a i l s o f e x i s t i n g c a r t s ,

d i s c u s s p r e f e r e n c e s w i t h a c t u a l and p o t e n t i a l owners

and v i s i t p r i v a t e m a n u f a c t u r e r s t o d i s c u s s d e s i g n and

q u a l i t y . A l o t c a n b e l e a r n t f rom s u c h a b r i e f under-

t a k i n g and t i m e c a n be s a v e d b y i n v e s t i g a t i n g m a r k e t

p r e f e r e n c e s r a t h e r t h a n t h i n k i n g o u t d e s i g n s a t d e s k s .

CHAPTER FOUR LOCAL PRODUCTION AND REPAIR FACILITIES FOR FARM IMPLEMENTS AND OX-CARTS

4.1 Blacksmiths

I n T a n z a n i a ' s some 8000 v i l l a g e s , b l a c k s m i t h s a r e by f a r t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t s o u r c e f o r p r o d u c t i o n and r e p a i r o f f a r m i m p l e m e n t s . The 1967 P o p u l a t i o n Census showed t h a t t h e c a t e g o r y b l a c k s m i t h a n d r e l a t e d a c t i v i t i e s ( p l u m b e r s , w e l d e r s , t o o l - m a k e r s a n d m a c h i n i s t s ) amount- e d t o 0 . 0 9 % o r 1 2 , 6 0 0 p e r s o n s o f t h e t o t a l r u r a l popu- l a t i o n ( 1 4 m i l l i o n ) . However, due t o p r o b l e m s o f d e f i - n i t i o n , access, d i s t r u s t and s e a s o n a l p r o d u c t i o n c y c l e s i n r u r a l a r e a s t h e f i g u r e is n o t r e l i a b l e . L a t e r s u r - v e y s o f b l a c k s m i t h a c t i v i t i e s i n some r e g i o n s and d i s t r i c t s g i v e a n e q u a l o r h i g h e r p e r c e n t a g e o f m e t a l w o r k e r s i n t h e t o t a l r u r a l p o p u l a t i o n , f o r Tanga r e g i o n 0 .29% ( 1 9 7 4 ) , f o r Rukwa r e g i o n 0.35% ( 1 9 7 7 1 , f o r West Lake r e g i o n 0 . 1 2 % ( 1 9 7 4 1 , f o r Bagamoyo, Same/Pare and Kyela d i s t r i c t s 0 .09% ( 1 9 7 4 ) and f o r R u f i j i d i s t r i c t 0 .15% ( 1 9 7 9 ) (Mi i l l e r 1980 , P e r k i n s 1978 a n d Havnev ik 1 9 8 0 . ) A s t h i s t y p e o f s t u d y o n l y c o v e r s some r e g i o n s a n d d i s t r i c t s it is n o t p o s s i b l e t o d e r i v e f rom it a n a t i o n a l t o t a l o f t h e b l a c k s m i t h p o p u l a t i o n . T h i s i s p a r t i c u l a r l y s o b e c a u s e t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f b l a c k s m i t h s i s v e r y uneven b o t h be tween a n d w i t h i n r e g i o n s . The h e a v i e s t c o n c e n t r a t i o n seems t o b e i n t h e t r a d i t i o n a l a r e a s f o r i r o n s m e l t i n g , i n West- Tanzania a n d t h e Lake Zone, a n d i n p a r t s o f t h e c o a s t a l a r e a s . I n s p i t e o f p r o b l e m s o f a r r i v i n g a t a s p e c i f i c f i g u r e f o r t h e b l a c k s m i t h p o p u l a t i o n , b o t h o u r f i n d i n g s and t h o s e o f o t h e r s w a r r a n t t h e c o n c l u s i o n t h a t t h e number o f b l a c k- s m i t h s and t h e i r r o l e i n l o c a l p r o d u c t i o n i s s u f f i - c i e n t l y s i g n i f i c a n t f o r t h e i r i n c l u s i o n i n n a t i o n a l d e v e l o p m e n t p l a n n i n g .

I n v e s t i g a t i o n s i n d i c a t e t h a t i r o n w a s s m e l t e d a s f a r back a s 500 B.C. i n nor thwes te rn Tanzan ia . T h i s i m p l i e s t h a t metal working was w e l l e s t a b l i s h e d a t t h e t i m e of Arab and l a t e r European i n t r u s i o n . In f a c t , numerous e x p l o r e r s t e l l t a l e s o f t h e b l a c k s m i t h s ' m a s t e r o f t h e i r c r a f t . During German and B r i t i s h r e i g n i n Tanzan ia , from around 1890 t o 1961, t h e a u t h o r i t i e s banned m e t a l working a c t i v i t i e s , f o r s e v e r a l r e a s o n s : opening up avenues f o r m e t r o p o l i t a n m e t a l p r o d u c t s , o b s t r u c t i n g l o c a l gun-making and h i n d e r i n g i n t r a - d i s t r i c t t r a d e . The e f f e c t was t o d r i v e b l a c k s m i t h s p a r t l y i n t o h i d i n g , y e t s t i l l produc ing f o r t h e l o c a l communit ies r e q u i r i n g t h e i r s e r v i c e s . The demand f o r l o c a l l y produced commodities may have s t a g n a t e d o r dropped b u t t o claim t h e e r a d i c a t i o n o f t h e c r a f t seems t o be f a r from t h e t r u t h . A t Independence b l a c k s m i t h a c t i v i t i e s were a g a i n l e g a l i z e d b u t a t t i t u d e s remaining from t h e c o l o n i a l p e r i o d l e d n e i t h e r t o immediate re- c o g n i t i o n nor r e g i s t r a t i o n . These a t t i t u d e s a r e o n l y r e c e n t l y g i v i n g way among many b u r e a u c r a t s and government o f f i c i a l s . Many s t i l l r e g a r d t h e b l a c k s m i t h t e c h- nology a s o b s o l e t e and backward; n o t h i n g t o be g i v e n a p l a c e i n "modern" development s t r a t e g i e s .

The e f f e c t of h i s t o r i c a l e v e n t s and p r e s e n t a t t i t u d e s i s e a s i l y d i s c e r n e d d u r i n g v i s i t s t o b l a c k s m i t h work- s h o p s . O f f i c i a l p e r s o n s do n o t even seem t o know t h e whereabouts of b l a c k s m i t h s , l o c a l p e o p l e have t o g i v e d i r e c t i o n s . The team had t h e o p p o r t u n i t y t o v i s i t b l a c k s m i t h u n i t s i n C o a s t , S i n g i d a , Tabora , Arusha and K i l i m a n j a r o r e g i o n s . The i n f o r m a t i o n o b t a i n e d and o b s e r v a t i o n s made d u r i n g t h e s t u d y t o u r combined w i t h r e s u l t s from p r e v i o u s s u r v e y s , p r o v i d e t h e f o u n d a t i o n f o r t h e p r e s e n t r e p o r t .

The a v e r a g e b l a c k s m i t h i s a r a t h e r o l d man. He h a s l e a r n t t h e s k i l l s from h i s f a t h e r and he p a s s e s it t o h i s s o n s o r r e l a t i v e s . Hence, t h e r e is a t endency f o r t h e s k i l l s of t h e c r a f t t o move from one g e n e r a t i o n t o t h e n e x t w i t h i n t h e ex tended f a m i l y o r c l a n . How- e v e r , t h e a v e r a g e age of b l a c k s m i t h s seems t o be i n- c r e a s i n g . T h i s i s due t o poor r e c r u i t m e n t which re- f l e c t s d i f f i c u l t p r o d u c t i o n c o n d i t i o n s and poor p r o s p e c t s f a c i n g t h e c r a f t s m e n .

Government a g e n c i e s d i d n o t r e a l i z e t h e c r i t i c a l r o l e performed by b l a c k s m i t h s i n r u r a l a r e a s u n t i l r e c e n t y e a r s . The M i n i s t r y o f C u l t u r e and Youth was t h e f i r s t t o r e c o g n i z e t h e i r r o l e and i n i t i a t e d i n t h e mid-seven- t i e s v a r i o u s , a l b e i t l i m i t e d , programmes and campaigns f o r s u p p o r t l i k e "Jembe n i Mali" and "Jipemoyo" (Mini- s t r y of C u l t u r e and Youth 1976 and Kiyenze 1 9 8 1 ) . A t

t h e end of t h e 1970s t h e i n t e r e s t i n b l a c k s m i t h a c t i v i - t i e s had s p r e a d t o o t h e r government a g e n c i e s and e x t e r - n a l d o n o r s . One i m p o r t a n t r eason f o r t h i s , i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e awareness f o r b l a c k s m i t h s c r e a t e d by t h e M i n i s t r y of C u l t u r e and Youth, seems t o be t h e mounting s u p p l y problems of means o f p r o d u c t i o n i n r u r a l a r e a s due t o t h e deepening economic c r i s e s . In t h e n e x t sec- t i o n w e w i l l f o c u s on s u p p o r t programmes f o r b lack- s m i t h s i n i t i a t e d by o r r e l a t e d t o SIDO, which i s t h e body w i t h t h e major r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r promotion and s u p p o r t of r u r a l c r a f t s and s m a l l i n d u s t r i e s .

The need f o r r e p a i r of farm implements , hoes and p l o u g h s , r e p a i r of b i c y c l e s e t c . is f e l t much s t r o n g e r when t h e f low of commodities and s p a r e p a r t s h a s come a l m o s t t o a complete h a l t . I n a d d i t i o n t o r e p a i r , t h e b l a c k s m i t h s a l s o have a p l a c e i n p r o d u c t i o n o f p a r t i - c u l a r a r e a - s p e c i f i c farm implements n o t produced on a l a r g e s c a l e . When s u p p l y of t r a d i t i o n a l farm implements from i m p o r t s and n a t i o n a l i n d u s t r y improves t h e r e w i l l s t i l l be need f o r r e p a i r and a l s o a r e a - s p e c i f i c produc- t i o n o f t h i s k i n d . Hence, t h e s e a r e t h e major r o l e s we s e e f o r b l a c k s m i t h s i n r u r a l a r e a s i n t h e f u t u r e . The i r s k i l l s and p r o d u c t i o n r e p r e s e n t a n e c e s s a r y l o c a l complement t o l a r g e - s c a l e n a t i o n a l i n d u s t r i e s and a l s o a t e c h n o l o g i c a l b a s i s on v i l l a g e l e v e l from which i m - provements can s t a r t . T h i s r e q u i r e s t h a t t h e i r condi- t i o n s , p o s s i b i l i t i e s and c o n s t r a i n t s a r e unders tood and s u p p o r t programmes r e a l i s t i c a l l y d e s i g n e d ,

The b l a c k s m i t h s o p e r a t e m o s t l y a l o n e w i t h a s s i s t a n c e from one o r two a p p r e n t i c e s . Some s k i l l e d c r a f t s m e n have j o i n e d t o g e t h e r . However, c o o p e r a t i o n , which in- c l u d e s s p e c i a l i z a t i o n o f work p r o c e s s e s , i s s t i l l i n i t s embryonic s t a g e . The work i s m a i n l y done i n t h a t c h e d roof s h e d s ; some t i m e s t r e e s s u f f i c e a s a s h e l t e r . One a s s i s t a n t o p e r a t e s t h e b e l l o w s w h i l e t h e second may

assist t h e m a s t e r i n f o r g i n g , a l l s e a t e d on t h e ground. T h i s t r a d i t i o n a l working p o s i t i o n is c e r t a i n l y n o t i d e a l f o r working heavy hammers. I t may be a remnant from t h e t i m e when b l a c k s m i t h s were o f t e n on t h e move t o a v o i d r e s t r i c t i o n s and b a n s , hence l i t t l e heavy equipment c o u l d b e u t i l i z e d .

Most o f t e n t o o l s c o n s i s t of a n v i l s , some use o l d e n g i n e b l o c k s o r s t o n e s h a l f sunk i n t h e g round , b e s i d e t h e c h a r c o a l f i r e . No b l a c k s m i t h s were found t o use c o a l f o r f i r i n g which would i n c r e a s e t e m p e r a t u r e s and i m- p r o v e t h e q u a l i t y o f p r o d u c t s . A few knew a b o u t t h e p r o p e r i t i e s of c o a l b u t s t a t e d t h a t it was n o t a v a i l a b l e . The b e l l o w s a r e most o f t e n made by t h e b l a c k s m i t h from g o a t s k i n . Other m a t e r i a l s l i k e cow h i d e s and paper bags (cement b a g s ) may b e used i f g o a t s k i n s a r e n o t a v a i l a b l e . The b e l l o w s a r e a c t i v a t e d by s t i c k s and t h e a i r i s blown t h r o u g h wooden and c l a y p i p e s . Most t o n g s and hammers a r e a l s o made by t h e c r a f t s m e n t h e m s e l v e s . C h i s e l s a r e used t o c u t t h e red- h o t i r o n and h o l e s a r e made by se l f- made d r i l l s . The se l f- made t o o l shows a g r e a t d e a l o f i n g e n u i t y . The t o o l i n v e n t o r y i s , however, p a r t i c u l a r y l i m i t e d when it comes t o a n v i l s and v i c e s , t o o l s which c a n n o t e a s i l y be produced by t h e b l a c k s m i t h s t h e m s e l v e s .

The r u r a l b l a c k s m i t h s have good knowledge of t h e q u a l i - t y and l i m i t a t i o n s of v a r i o u s t y p e s of raw m a t e r i a l s . They have a n e x t r e m e l y low p e r c e n t a g e of waste i n t h e i r p r o d u c t i o n . The q u a l i t y of r e p a i r and new p r o d u c t s was h i g h , t h e main l i m i t a t i o n be ing t h e problem of p roper raw m a t e r i a l s u p p l y , Aft.er h e a t i n g and f o r g i n g , t h e p r o d u c t s a r e hardened i n w a t e r . The p r o d u c t i o n p r o c e s s of b l a c k s m i t h s c l e a r l y i n d i c a t e s a h i g h l e v e l of s k i l l s and knowledge, g i v e n t h e o p e r a t i n g c o n s t r a i n t s .

P r e v i o u s l y t h e s u p p l y o f raw m a t e r i a l was a s s u r e d by s m e l t i n g of i r o n i n some a r e a s ( G e i t a , Mufindi , Ufipa e t c . 1 . T h i s l a b o u r i n t e n s i v e a c t i v i t y gave way g r a d u a l l y and a t p r e s e n t t h e r e a r e h a r d l y any b l a c k- s m i t h c l a n s who engage i n t h i s . S c r a p i r o n o f v a r i o u s k i n d s i s g e n e r a l l y u s e d , i f n e c e s s a r y be ing removed from c a r wrecks and o l d t r a c t o r p loughs a l o n g t h e r o a d s

o r from abandoned mines . The c o m p e t i t i o n f o r s c r a p h a s i n c r e a s e d c o n s i d e r a b l y t h r o u g h e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f l a r g e- s c a l e r e s m e l t i n g p l a n t s . Thus, p r o d u c t i o n c o n d i t i o n s f o r b l a c k s m i t h s have d e t e r i o r a t e d f u r t h e r . T h i s h a s happened a t a t i m e when demand f o r b l a c k s m i t h ' s e r v i c e s is on t h e i n c r e a s e . Today, many c u s t o m e r s a c t u a l l y b r i n g t h e i r own s c r a p when o r d e r i n g a p a r t i c u l a r i t e m . On o t h e r o c c a s i o n s t h e b l a c k s m i t h and h i s a s s i s t a n t s t h e m s e l v e s g o on a s e a r c h f o r s c r a p . Our i n v e s t i g a t i o n s and t h o s e under taken by o t h e r s i n d i c a t e t h a t a v a i l a b i - l i t y o f s c r a p t o d a y r e p r e s e n t s t h e most s e r i o u s problem f a c i n g r u r a l b l a c k s m i t h p r o d u c t i o n . I t i s our o p i n i o n t h a t s p e c i f i c s u p p o r t a c t i v i t i e s t o e a s e t h i s problem w i l l improve t h e c o n d i t i o n s of b l a c k s m i t h p r o d u c t i o n and hence t h e main tenance and s u p p o r t of a g r i c u l t u r a l implements i n t h e r u r a l a r e a s . I n o r d e r t o u n d e r s t a n d more f u l l y t h e c r i t i c a l r o l e of b l a c k s m i t h s l e t u s look a t t h e t y p e s o f p r o d u c t s i d e n t i f i e d on our s t u d y t o u r which have p a r t i c u l a r r e f e r e n c e t o a g r i c u l t u r a l implements ,

A r e a- s p e c i f i c a g r i c u l t u r a l implements produced by b l a c k s m i t h s were found i n most r e g i o n s . In Coast Region ( a n d a l o n g t h e c o a s t and i n t h e s o u t h e r n p a r t of t h e c o u n t r y ) t h e b l a c k s m i t h s a r e p roduc ing t h e s m a l l t anged weeding hoe wide ly used by p e a s a n t s . The b l a d e is f i t t e d t o a s h o r t h a n d l e by d r i v i n g t h e p i n t h r o u g h it a f t e r h e a t i n g o r p r e - d r i l l i n g . T h i s a l l o w s v a r i a t i o n of t h e a n g e l between b l a d e and h a n d l e a c c o r d i n g t o t h e t e r r a i n and a g r i c u l t u r a l t a s k s t o b e c a r r i e d o u t . Th i s implement is n o t produced by l a r g e i n d u s t r i e s . Other implements s p e c i f i c t o many r e g i o n s and which a r e commonly used a r e b i l l - h o o k s and s i c k l e s ( K i l i m a n j a r o , S i n g i d a , Mbeya and C o a s t ) . These a r e curved implements of v a r i o u s s i z e and t h i c k n e s s which a r e sharpened on t h e i n s i d e edge . They have t o be sharpened r e g u l a r l y . Th i s i s done main ly on s t o n e s o r , i f a v a i l a b l e , by u s i n g f i l e s . I n a d d i t i o n , wear and t e a r r e d u c e s t h e s i z e of t h e b l a d e which i s f i t t e d t o a wooden h a n d l e .

In S i n g i d a r e g i o n a n i n d i g e n o u s b i l l - h o o k , hengo, i s r e p l a c i n g t h e m a t c h e t . The hengo i s made e x c l u s i v e l y by b l a c k s m i t h s from s u i t a b l e c a r s p r i n g s . The b l a d e , s l i g h t l y curved and a b o u t 1/3 of t h e l e n g t h of a

matche t b l a d e , i s f i t t e d t o a wooden h a n d l e a b o u t one mete r l o n g .

I n r e g i o n s w i t h e x t e n s i v e u s e o f ox- ploughs t h e range of b l a c k s m i t h p r o d u c t s t o o k on a d i f f e r e n t c h a r a c t e r ( S i n g i d a , Tabora , Shinyanga and Mwanza). Many b l a c k- s m i t h s i n t h e s e a r e a s produce plough s h a r e s e i t h e r by c u t t i n g and j o i n i n g o l d o n e s o r by u s i n g a s u i t a b l e p i e c e o f c a r s p r i n g . Other plough p a r t s r e p o r t e d t o be produced by b l a c k s m i t h s were l a n d s i d e s ( f r o m c a r s p r i n g ) , mouldboards ( f r o m s h e e t i r o n ) and wheel shanks . The c o n d i t i o n of p loughs i n s p e c t e d i n t h e v a r i o u s r e g i o n s was e x t r e m e l y poor . Unques t ionab ly , w i t h o u t t h e p l o u g h- r e l a t e d b l a c k s m i t h p r o d u c t i o n many a d d i t i o n a l p loughs would b e unab le t o o p e r a t e . The most c r i t i c a l s h o r t a g e , a p a r t from comple te p l o u g h s , were s h a r e s which a r e wear ing down f a s t b o t h due t o sandy s o i l s and i n t e n s i v e u s e . Another reason f o r r a p i d wear o f s h a r e s i s t h e use o f m i l d steel a s raw m a t e r i a l ' . A

programme f o r s u p p l y o f p r o p e r raw m a t e r i a l s f o r pro- d u c t i o n o f p lough s h a r e s would i n our o p i n i o n g r e a t l y enhance t h e s u p p l y and hence t h e e f f i c i e n c y of p loughs . Some b l a c k s m i t h s were a l s o found t o produce hammers f o r hammer m i l l s and o t h e r s p a r e p a r t s f o r p o s t - h a r v e s t p r o c e s s i n g equipment .

I n a d d i t i o n t o a r e a s p e c i f i c p r o d u c t s and s e r v i c e s , more g e n e r a l o n e s were found t h r o u g h o u t a l l r e g i o n s . The p r o d u c t i o n of l a r g e t a n g e d hoes was t a k i n g p l a c e t o a l i m i t e d e x t e n t , due t o l a c k of s u i t a b l e i r o n a s raw m a t e r i a l . The t e c h n i q u e o f b l a c k s m i t h s d o e s n o t a l l o w f o r p r o d u c t i o n of round-eyed (R/E) h o e s . However, some- t i m e s b l a c k s m i t h s do r e p a i r hoes by j o i n i n g an e y e t o a b l a d e t h r o u g h r i v e t t i n g . Large R/E d i g g i n g hoes a r e however s u p p l i e d from n a t i o n a l i n d u s t r i e s (UFI and Z Z K )

w h i l e t a n g e d o n e s a r e impor ted . A t p r e s e n t some b l a c k- smi th g r o u p s , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t h e l a k e zone and c o a s t r e g i o n , a r e p roduc ing l a r g e hoes from r e j e c t s i n n a t i o n a l i n d u s t r i e s ( U F I ) . SIDO h a s t a k e n t h e i n i t i a - t i v e i n i d e n t i f y i n g b l a c k s m i t h s g r o u p s and f a c i l i t a t i n g d i s t r i b u t i o n o f t h e r e j e c t s . I t i s e v i d e n t , however, t h a t t h e r o l e o f b l a c k s m i t h s i n p r o d u c t i o n o f l a r g e d i g g i n g hoes i s r e s t r i c t e d t o p e r i o d s of d e c l i n i n g o r low s u p p l y from l a r g e i n d u s t r i e s and i m p o r t s . F u t u r e

suppor t t o b lacksmi ths should acco rd ing ly no t be geared t o t h i s p roduc t ,

Tanged axes produced by b l acksmi ths , common i n a number of r eg ions (S ing ida , Tabora, Mbeya and C o a s t ) , a r e pre- s e n t l y i n low supply due t o raw m a t e r i a l c o n s t r a i n t s . They a r e g e n e r a l l y of l i g h t e r weight and a r e made from c a r s p r i n g s .

Product ion of t h e adze ( t e z o ) , which is a t r i a n g u l a r smal l b l ade wi th a p i n f i t t e d a t a r i g h t a n g l e , t o a s h o r t handle , is e x c l u s i v e l y done by b lacksmi ths . The adze i s used f o r p r e p a r a t i o n of house p o l e s and handles f o r v a r i o u s t y p e s of a g r i c u l t u r a l implements ( h o e s , axes , b i l l- hooks e t c . ) . The adze i s a l s o widely used by t h e numerous Makonde c a r v e r s a long t h e c o a s t and i n t h e sou th of t h e coun t ry .

In a d d i t i o n t o t h e va r i ed range of p roducts and r e p a i r a c t i v i t i e s f a l l i n g w i th in t h e ca t ego ry of farm implements, b lacksmi ths produce a s e r i e s of i t e m s f o r o the r u s e s , such a s v a r i o u s t y p e s of kn ives , s p e a r s , arrow heads , b r a c e l e t s , l a r g e n a i l s f o r b r i d g e c o n s t r u c t i o n , t h e meta l p i e c e s of coconut g r a t e r s (mboz i ) , need le s , v a r i o u s t y p e s of t o o l s , hammers, t ongs , d r i l l s mainly f o r t h e i r own use. They a l s o perform numerous s imple r e p a i r s e r v i c e s on b i c y c l e s , pos t- ha rves t i ng equipment, water pumps e t c .

The v e r s a t i l e p roduct ion c a r r i e d o u t by b lacksmi ths i n r u r a l a r e a s imply t h a t t h e i r s e r v i c e s a r e c a l l e d upon by many r u r a l d w e l l e r s and f o r d i f f e r e n t purposes . In f a c t , t h e s i z e of t h e market does no t r e p r e s e n t a l i m i t i n g f a c t o r t o product ion . Only one b lacksmi th v i s i t e d (Nzega d i s t r i c t ) s t a t e d l a c k of market t o be a problem. The o t h e r s emphasised s h o r t a g e of raw mate- r i a l s a s t h e main problem. Some a l s o i n d i c a t e d t h e need f o r more advanced t o o l s ( K i l i m a n j a r o ) .

4.2 Support Programmes

The UTUNDU Programme

Major p r o j e c t s f o r promoting v i l l a g e b lacksmi ths have been s c a r c e . According t o J e n s MGller (&¶ti l ler 1980)

t h e r e had been o n l y f o u r major p r o j e c t p r o p o s a l s i n t h i s r e s p e c t (Rao 1975, Kienbaum 1976, SIDA 1976 and G.A. MacPherson 1975) p r i o r t o t h e UTUNDU programme. Common t o them a l l is a n a n a l y s i s which o n l y p a r t i a l l y r e f l e c t s t h e r u r a l p r o d u c t i o n c o n d i t i o n s and t h e g e n e r a l economic s i t u a t i o n i n t h e c o u n t r y . According t o M i l l e r t h i s e x p l a i n s t h e i r narrow and i n a p p r o p r i a t e s c o p e . Hardly any o f t h e s e p r o p o s a l s were implemented, hence t h e r e i s no b a s i s f o r e v a l u a t i n g t h e e f f e c t s o f t h e s e p r o j e c t s .

However, a l l documents c o n t a i n e d u s e f u l i n f o r m a t i o n which t o some e x t e n t a s s i s t e d i n t h e d e s i g n of t h e UTUNDU programme. The name UTUNDU (which means s t u b b o r n i n S w a h i l i i n t h e s e n s e o f i n s i s t i n g , i n v e n t i n g , t r y i n g a g a i n ) w a s c a r r i e d over from t h e SIDA ( 1 9 7 6 ) p r o p o s a l . The new UTUNDU programme w a s w r i t t e n up i n l a t e 1976 and approved and adop ted by SIDO i n mid-1977. Under- l y i n g t h e programme was a s u r v e y of b l a c k s m i t h a c t i v i - t i e s i n many r e g i o n s coup led w i t h c e n t r a l l y a v a i l a b l e d a t a and i n f o r m a t i o n p rov ided by SIDO's r e g i o n a l o f f i c e s . The g e n e r a l h y p o t h e s i s , c o n t r a r y t o most o f t h e p r e v i o u s programmes, was " t h a t t h e t r a d i t i o n a l t e c h n o l o g y of t h e s m i t h s c o n s t i t u t e s a p r o d u c t i v e f o r c e which c a n be r e v i v e d , i n c r e a s e d and employed t o c o n t r i - b u t e t o w a r d s t h e s e l f - r e l i a n c e o b j e c t i v e s o f t h e c o u n t r y " ( M i l l e r 1 9 8 0 ) . The r e s u l t s o f M B l l e r ' s s u r v e y conf i rmed t h i s h y p o t h e s i s . L a t e r s u r v e y s have added f u r t h e r e v i d e n c e t o t h i s e f f e c t ( P e r k i n s 1978, P h i l l i p s and Zachar iah 1980, Havnevik 1 9 8 0 ) . Our f i e l d observa- t i o n s , i n c l u d i n g v i s i t s t o s e v e r a l b l a c k s m i t h u n i t s i n d i f f e r e n t r e g i o n s , a l s o s u p p o r t e d t h e h y p o t h e s i s .

The a ims of t h e UTUNDU programme w a s t o promote r u r a l , s m a l l - s c a l e p r o d u c t i o n and r e p a i r o f i r o n and m e t a l i t e m s , farm implements , t o o l s f o r o t h e r c r a f t s m e n and s m a l l i n d u s t r i e s , and househo ld u t e n s i l s . The u l t i m a t e o b j e c t i v e was n o t t h e promotion of t h e m e t a l t r a d e a s such , b u t t o c o n t r i b u t e towards m a i n t a i n i n g and i n- c r e a s i n g a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t i o n . Hence farm implements were s e e n a s t h e major p r o d u c t c a t e g o r y . The b a s i c assumpt ion of t h e programme was t h a t a s u b s t a n t i a l number of b l a c k s m i t h s is i n o p e r a t i o n ( a b o u t 10,000 i n

t h e whole coun t ry ) and t h a t t h e y a r e h i g h l y s k i l l e d i n te rms of t h e t echn iques of t h e i r c r a f t .

The programme had two main components, ( a ) p roduct and p roces s development and ( b ) r e g i o n a l implementat ion. The former component c o n s i s t e d of two phases ; t h e f i r s t being compi l a t i on of documentation and informat ion about new product p ro to types and improved i r o n work t e c h n i q u e s , t h e o t h e r being d i s semina t ion of t h e r e s u l t s of phase I . Regarding component (b), r e g i o n a l implementat ion, t h i s was s p l i t i n t o v a r i o u s i t e m s . F i r s t came i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of groups and then s e l e c t i o n of g roups t o be a s s i s t e d w i th in t h e programme. These groups o r workshops were d iv ided i n t o 3 c a t e g o r i e s mainly based on market s i z e c o n s i d e r a t i o n s .

Another i t e m was t h e s p e c i f i c a t i o n of p roduc t s . The UTUNDU programme no t on ly aimed t o b u i l d on e x i s t i n g s k i l l s bu t a l s o t o produce t h e t y p e of implements a l - ready being made. However, t h e v a r i o u s workshop catego- r i e s would have a somewhat d i f f e r e n t p roduct mix due t o d i f f e r e n t s i z e of markets and d i f f e r e n t p r o f i l e s i n t o o l s and equipment suppor t . The programme a l s o envisaged improved raw m a t e r i a l supply through an arrangment where SIDO and UFI were r e s p o n s i b l e f o r d i s t r i b u t i o n of b l anks and r e j e c t s from UFI t o t h e groups s e l e c t e d . Market a s s i s t a n c e was seen necessary on ly when product ion was aimed f o r o u t s i d e d i s t r i c t markets and c l o s e c o n s u l t a t i o n wi th RTC was then recom- mended. N o t e c h n i c a l advice and t r a i n i n g were needed and hence n o t provided i n phase I o f t h e r e g i o n a l implemen- t a t i o n of t h e programme. On our s tudy t o u r we saw no examples of RTCs handl ing b lacksmi th p roduc t s .

In s p i t e of s o l i d ground work and reasonable assump- t i o n s ( b u t maybe t o o h igh a s p i r a t i o n s ) t h e UTUNDU programme was never r e a l l y implemented a s proposed. In f a c t it was withdrawn by t h e government i n 1980 , t h e reason s t a t e d t o be l a c k of funds. What emerged a s t h e SIDO/UNIDO promotion of b lacksmi ths was a much more l i m i t e d programme t o be d i s cus sed subsequent ly .

C o n s o l i d a t i o n o f V i l l a g e P r o d u c t i o n o f A g r i c u l t u r a l Implements by Local B lacksmi ths . SIDO/UNIDO/Federal Republ ic o f Germany (FRG) p r o j e c t

The p r o j e c t l a s t e d from J u l y 1979 t o August 1980, w i t h p a r t i c i p a t i o n of one e x p e r t d u r i n g t h e p e r i o d and one f o r e i g n c o n s u l t a n t f o r one month. Nine b l a c k s m i t h g r o u p s were i d e n t i f i e d i n t h e Kagera, Mwanza and Mara r e g i o n s a s c a p a b l e of development g i v e n t h a t a p p r o p r i a- t e t o o l s and raw m a t e r i a l s were p r o v i d e d and worksheds were e r e c t e d .

I n J a n u a r y 1980 a s e t of t o o l s and equipment o f a wide range was d e l i v e r e d f r e e o f c h a r g e t o t h e 9 g r o u p s . They were purchased i n Kenya f o r a b o u t $ 30 000. In a d d i t i o n , l e a t h e r b e l l o w s were manufactured l o c a l l y . Scrap was purchased from UFI and d i s t r i b u t e d t o t h e g r o u p s , 18 t o n s i n 1980/81 and 1981/82 r e s p e c t i v e l y and 15 t o n s i n 1982/83. The a v e r a g e c o s t on s i t e was TShs 1 ,000 p e r t o n . The s c r a p was t o be p a i d f o r by t h e g roups i n c a s h o r on c r e d i t t e r m s . Worksheds were d e s i g n e d by t h e p r o j e c t e x p e r t and manufactured by PIPECO i n Dar e s Salaam a t a t o t a l c o s t o t TShs 108,000 e x works p l u s TShs 85,000 f o r t r a n s p o r t which was s u p p o r t e d by SIDO. The s h e d s were p rov ided f r e e of c h a r g e and e r e c t e d d u r i n g l a t e 1982, e x c e p t a t one l o c a t i o n .

The e v a l u a t i o n of t h i s p i l o t p r o j e c t w a s c a r r i e d o u t by a U N I D O c o n s u l t a n t d u r i n g 3 weeks i n March/April 1983. He managed t o v i s i t 6 o f t h e 9 g r o u p s a s s i s t e d p l u s one n o n- a s s i s t e d u n i t . In t h e e v a l u a t i o n r e p o r t t h e non- a s s i s t e d g roup ( i n Kagera) was observed t o show r u d i- mentary workmanship w i t h a l i m i t e d p r o d u c t r ange ( h o e s , banana d i g g e r s and k n i v e s ) made from poor raw mate- r i a l , To t h i s is c o n t r a s t e d t h e s i t u a t i o n i n t h e a s s i s t e d g roups r e g a r d i n g improvement i n q u a l i t y t h r o u g h i n t r o d u c t i o n of newer and more e f f i c i e n t hand t o o l s :

" I n comparison t h e use o f p r o p e r a n v i l , h e a v i e r hammers and t h e s u p p l y of h e a v i e r s c r a p s t e e l s have e n a b l e d t h e a s s i s t e d b l a c k s m i t h s t o make more s t u r d y t o o l s . The use

o f good f i l e s and v i c e s a l l o w s a b e t t e r f i n i s h a n d s h a r p e r e d g e o f c u t t i n g t o o l s . The u s e o f a p r o p e r l e a t h e r b e l l o w o r c r a n k b lower a l l o w s a h i g h e r h e a t i n g power f i r e and i n t u r n a more a p p r o p r i a t e f o r g i n g t e m - p e r a t u r e f o r t h e work p i e c e .

The u s e o f h a c k s a w s , t i n s n i p , p r o p e r c o l d c n i s e l s and hand d r i l l h a s a l l o w e d some c o l d metal work and s h e e t metal work t h a t is a b r o a d e n i n g o f t h e t r a d i t i o n a l b l a c k s m i t h r a n g e o f t e c h n i q u e s .

The u s e o f a work- shed, h i g h and l a r g e enough ( c o v e r e d a r e a : 4.4x7.6 m ) e n a b l e s t h e w o r k e r s t o move a r o u n d and s t a n d up more f r e e l y : t h i s h a s c e r t a i n l y a p o s i t i v e , i f i n d i r e c t , e f f e c t on t h e q u a n t i t y and q u a l i t y o f produc- t i o n . " ( U N I D O 1 9 8 3 ) .

I n s p i t e o f t h i s , c o n s i d e r a b l e room f o r improvement was f o u n d . Among o t h e r t h i n g s , it w a s emphas i sed t h a t :

( a ) Work s h e d s were e x p e n s i v e and c o u l d j u s t as w e l l h a v e been c o n s t r u c t e d f rom l o c a l raw materials and b e se t up b y t h e c r a f t s m e n t h e m s e l v e s .

( b ) The c o s t o f t o o l s p u r c h a s e d i n Kenya w a s v e r y h i g h .

( C ) Some o f t h e t o o l s and equ ipmen t l i k e t u b e b e n c h , s t o c k d i e s set and d r i l l b i t s d i d n o t c o r r e s p o n d t o n e e d s and s k i l l s o f t h e c r a f t s m e n .

( d ) A n v i l s , f i r e h e a r t h s and v i c e s were n o t p l a c e d t o a l l o w s t a n d i n g p o s i t i o n w h i l e work ing . The i m p a c t o f SIDO f i e l d t e c h n i c i a n s i s n o t s e e n t o h a v e been v e r y e f f e c t i v e i n t e r m s o f t e c h n i q u e .

( e ) A l t h o u g h it was p l a n n e d t h a t t h e b l a c k s m i t h g r o u p s were t o p a y f o r t o o l s and s h e d s , i n f a c t e v e r y- t h i n g w a s g i v e n t o them f r e e o f c h a r g e .

I n o u r o p i n i o n t h e p r o d u c t r a n g e o f t h e u n i t s is e x t r e - mely l i m i t e d i n l i g h t o f improved t o o l s and equ ipmen t a n d e x i s t i n g demand f o r v a r i o u s f a rm i m p l e m e n t s . For i n s t a n c e , o n l y a v e r y l i m i t e d q u a n t i t y o f p l o u g h s h a r e s was p r o d u c e d . The p r o d u c t s were o t h e r w i z e : h o e s , k n i v e s , a x e s , a d z e s , d i g g e r s , wood p l a n e s , min ing t o o l s , s p e a r s and some s h e e t metal p r o d u c t s ( b u c k e t s ,

c h i c k e n f e e d e r s , drums, e t c . ) . No o x- c a r t s were produc- e d and no o t h e r ox- plough r e l a t e d i t e m s . The t u r n- o v e r o f t h e g r o u p s i s s t a t e d t o i n c r e a s e s t e a d i l y f rom TShs 393,000 i n 1980/81 t o TShs 454,000 i n 1981/82 t o TShs 660 ,000 i n 1982/83. T h i s upward t r e n d i n d i c a t e s f ew p r o b l e m s r e g a r d i n g m a r k e t s b u t is f a r f rom s u f f i c i e n t t o w a r r a n t t h e h i g h i n v e s t m e n t c o s t s .

The a c t i v i t i e s i n i t i a t e d i n t h e t h r e e r e g i o n s h a v e sub- s e q u e n t l y b e e n e x t e n d e d b y SIDO h e a d q u a r t e s t o s e v e r a l o t h e r r e g i o n s . A s p e c i a l working g r o u p h a s been set up b y t h e M i n i s t r y o f I n d u s t r i e s w i t h r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s f rom t h e M i n i s t r y o f A g r i c u l t u r e , NDC, UFI and Aluminum A f r i c a t o p romote t h e d e c e n t r a l i z a t i o n o f f a r m i n g t o o l s and implement d e s i g n and m a n u f a c t u r i n g .

The U N I D O e x p e r t was s a t i s f i e d w i t h h i s f i n d i n g s i n t h e t h r e e r e g i o n s and d r a f t e d a p r o j e c t document o f p h a s e I1 w i t h immedia t e o b j e c t i v e s t o i n c r e a s e t h e c a p a c i t y o f t h e 9 g r o u p s , t o d i v e r s i f y t h e i r p r o d u c t i o n l i n e s , t o u p g r a d e t h e s t a n d a r d o f p r o d u c t i o n , t o e s t a b l i s h a permanent c h a n n e l f o r p u r c h a s e of a d e q u a t e raw mater ia l , t o t r a i n some o f t h e b l a c k s m i t h s i n r e c o r d s and a c c o u n t book- keep ing , a n t o t r a i n SIDO f i e l d t e c h n i c i a n s t o s u p e r v i s e f u r t h e r b l a c k s m i t h s g r o u p d e v e l o p m e n t s .

The t h r e e - y e a r b u d g e t d r a f t shows t h a t The F e d e r a l R e p u b l i c o f Germany and U N I D O c o n t r i b u t e d US$ 500 000 and t h e T a n z a n i a n gove rnmen t TShs 214 ,000 . T h i s ex- c l u d e s h o u s i n g f o r i n t e r n a t i o n a l s t a f f , C e r t a i n l y t h i s i s a c o s t l y v e n t u r e f o r t h e s a k e o f u p g r a d i n g s k i l l s and p r o d u c t i o n o f a l i m i t e d number o f b l a c k s m i t h s i n t h e l a k e zone .

SIDO's B l a c k s m i t h P r o m o t i o n A c t i v i t i e s

SIDO ' S s u p p o r t t o b l a c k s m i t h s is t a k e n up unde r t h e r u r a l t e c h n o l o g y t r a n s f e r programme. The o b j e c t i v e is t o assist v i l l a g e a r t i s a n s i n o r d e r t o i n c r e a s e p roduc- t i v i t y and t o p r o d u c e q u a l i t y goods and t o b r i n g v i l l a g e a r t i s a n s on a r e g u l a r p r o d u c t i o n o f f a rm implemen t s and as w e l l t o ass is t them i n t h e m a r k e t i n g o f t h e i r p r o d u c t s .

A major part of this support consists in channeling raw materials to blacksmiths groups. The quality and shape of the scrap procured from UFI have, however, been far from ideal for production of area specific implements and plough spares.

According to an agreement with SIDO, UFI is to send scrap and hoe rejects to regional SIDO offices. The regional manager will distribute the raw material with assistance from regional and district authorities or blacksmiths may come to the regional office to collect the material. SIDO will charge the cost of raw material plus 5% handling charge and transport costs. The distribution and costs of raw material from UFI under this arrangment during the period June 1982 to August 1983 are shown in Table 4.1.:

Table 4.1 UFI Regional Distribution of Raw Materials for SIDO; June 1982-August 1983 (Costs in TShs)

Average Cost of Transport Total Cost per

Regions Tons Raw Mat. Charge ~mountl ton

Mwanza Kagera Mtwara Lindi Mara Tanga Singida* Rukwa* Kig oma Morogoro* Irinaa*

* Collected by own regional arrangement 1 ) Includes 5% handling charges not specified in table.

Source: SIDO headquarters.

The prices quoted by UFI for SIDO purchases are on average TShs 4 5 0 for one ton of ordinary scrap and from TShs 500 to 600 for hoe rejects. Large industries using resmelted iron are however bidding up the price for UFI

s c r a p . I n t h e f u t u r e t h i s w i l l l e a d t o i n c r e a s e d compe- t i t i o n f o r t h e s c r a p a v a i l a b l e . I n November 1983 UFI s t a t e d t h a t it i n t e n d e d on c h a r g i n g TShs 800 p e r t o n s c r a p .

By November 1983 SIDO s t a t e d a l r e a d y t o have s u p p o r t e d 26 u n i t s w i t h l o c a l l y produced t o o l s e t s , each worth TShs 6500, c o n s i s t i n g o f s i x hammers, s i x t o n g s o f v a r i o u s s h a p e s , two c h i s e l s and one f l a t t e n e r . Up t o June 1984 t h e a i m of SIDO is t o a s s i s t 40 u n i t s . I n SIDO's o p i n i o n t h e RTC system i s n o t g e a r e d t o d i s t r i - b u t i o n of raw m a t e r i a l s t o farm implement p r o d u c e r s . SIDO t h e r e f o r e d e c i d e d t o b u i l d up i t s own c h a n n e l s f o r s u p p l y of raw m a t e r i a l .

K i l i m a n j a r o I n d u s t r i a l Development Cen te r

A minor and non-SIDO s u p p o r t programme f o r p r o d u c t i o n and t r a i n i n g o f b l a c k s m i t h s i s l i n k e d t o t h e Kiliman- j a r o I n d u s t r i a l Development Cen te r ( K I D C ) i n Moshi . T h i s p r o j e c t i s p a r t of t h e J a p a n e s e s u p p o r t t o t h e K i l i m a n j a r o Region. The p r o j e c t s t a r t e d i n mid- 1981 i n p remises o u t s i d e Moshi, and c o n s i s t s of one f o r g e shop , one s m a l l n o n- f e r r o u s f o u n d r y , and an e n g i n e e r i n g workshop. The f o r g e shop is equ ipped w i t h a s m a l l oven and two hammers, one of which is pneumat ic . The p r o j e c t is main ly t r a i n i n g - o r i e n t e d b u t it a l s o t a k e s some o r d e r s f o r p r o d u c t i o n . K I D C h a s manufactured 10,000 s m a l l f o r g e d h o e s , and h a s an o r d e r from RTC t o manufac tu re a d d i t i o n a l l y 20,000. T h i s w i l l t a k e K I D C one and a h a l f y e a r s t o comple te . The hoe b l a d e is f o r g e d and t h e e y e i s t h e n welded o n t o t h e hoe- blade.

An i n t e r e s t i n g a c t i v i t y a t K I D C i s t h e t r a i n i n g o f b l a c k s m i t h s i n more modern f o r g i n g t e c h n i q u e s . The b l a c k s m i t h s a r e a l s o g i v e n an o p p o r t u n i t y of f o r g i n g t h e t o o l s t h e y w i l l r e q u i r e t h e m s e l v e s . In t h e foundry , a n v i l s a r e c a s t i n b r a s s .

There i s o n l y one J a p a n e s e t e c h n i c a l a d v i s e r w i t h t h e p r o j e c t a t p r e s e n t .

Tn i s p r o j e c t m e r i t s f u r t h e r s t u d y i n o r d e r t o judge i f it can be d u p l i c a t e d i n o t h e r r e g i o n s o f Tanzan ia . The

p r o j e c t expe r i ences may a l s o be of importance t o SIDO's suppor t programme f o r b lacksmi ths .

4 . 3 C o n c l u s i o n

In our op in ion t h e i n i t i a t i v e s t aken by UNIDO/FRG and SIDO t o a s s i s t p roduct ion of a g r i c u l t u r a l implements i n t h e r u r a l a r e a s have a sound f o c u s , however, t h e i r e f f i c i e n c y i s l i k e l y t o be low.

The UNIDO/FRG programme has from t h e o u t s e t a l i m i t e d t a r g e t , i . e . , a s s i s t a n c e t o on ly 9 b lacksmi th groups i n a s p e c i f i c a r e a . I t i n c l u d e s bo th r e l a t i v e l y h igh c o s t i t ems such a s a p p r o p r i a t e sheds and a s e r i e s of improved t o o l s . In our op in ion t h e UNIDO/FRG programme could p rov ide u s e f u l in format ion regard ing t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of improving t h e product ion p roces se s and hence t h e q u a l i - t y of p roduc t s . Th i s should , however, i n our judgement no t be t h e prime p r i o r i t y of suppor t programmes a t t h e p r e s e n t s t a g e .

The a s s i s t a n c e g iven is t o o c o s t l y per u n i t suppor ted . Thus on ly a f r a c t i o n of t h e u n i t s capab le of i nc reas ing p roduc t ion and r e p a i r s e r v i c e s w i l l be reached. The p r e s e n t s t a t e of supply and maintenance of a g r i c u l t u r a l implements r e q u i r e t h a t b lacksmi th product ion is a c t i - va ted on a wide s c a l e . Given l i m i t e d funds a v a i l a b l e , t h i s can b e s t be done through improving t h e supply of a p p r o p r i a t e raw m a t e r i a l s i n a r a t h e r d i s p e r s e d manner coupled with a more l i m i t e d suppor t f o r d i s t r i b u t i o n of a few v i t a l t o o l s , l i k e proper a n v i l s , v i z e s , hacksaws, c h i s e l s and f i l e s . Such suppor t a c t i v i t i e s w i l l e v i d e n t l y f a c e t r a n s p o r t c o n s t r a i n t s which must be ccn- s i d e r e d . (Such an conc re t e programme is o u t l i n e d i n s e c t i o n 4 . 4 below.)

4 . 4 O u t l i n e o f a Raw M a t e r i a l Support Programme

E a r l i e r surveys and i n v e s t i g a t i o n s and our own observa- t i o n s dur ing t h e s tudy t o u r i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e l e v e l of s k i l l s and knowledge and a c c e s s t o t o o l s do no t ope ra t e

a s major c o n s t r a i n t s i n b l a c k s m i t h p r o d u c t i o n a c t i v i - t i e s . N e i t h e r is t h e market pos ing an o b s t a c l e t o in- c r e a s e d p r o d u c t i o n and r e p a i r a c t i v i t i e s . For some i t e m s , however, t h i s w i l l b e t h e c a s e when a n i n c r e a s e i n l a r g e- s c a l e p r o d u c t i o n l e a d s t o a n improved s u p p l y o f p r o d u c t s , f o r i n s t a n c e hoes . I t is our a s s e s s m e n t t h a t i n t h e f u t u r e t h e r e w i l l be a n i m p o r t a n t r o l e f o r b l a c k s m i t h s i n p r o d u c t i o n o f implements which a r e com- plementa ry t o t h o s e produced i n l a r g e i n d u s t r i e s , i n p a r t i c u l a r t h e a r e a s p e c i f i c implements. I n a d d i t i o n , we s e e b l a c k s m i t h s p l a y a r o l e i n p r o d u c t i o n of impor- t a n t p lough s p a r e s l i k e l a n d s i d e s and p lough s h a r e s which wear down f a s t and hence r e q u i r e c o n t i n u i t y of s u p p l y . A g a i n s t t h i s background we w i l l p ropose raw m a t e r i a l s t o be s u p p l i e d , f o r i n s t a n c e f o r t h e fo l low- i n g p r o d u c t spectrum:

( i ) plough s h a r e s and l a n d s i d e s ( i i ) b i l l hooks and s i c k l e s ( i i i ) a x e s and a d z e s ( t e z o ) ( i v ) s m a l l h o e s (weeding h o e s )

E v i d e n t l y t h e shape o f t h e raw m a t e r i a l s u p p l i e d shou ld l e n d i t s e l f t o a r a t h e r e a s y t r a n s f o r m a t i o n i n t o t h e d e s i r e d p r o d u c t . The p r o d u c t s l i s t e d have t h e p r o p e r t y t h a t t h e y may be c a r v e d o u t from a one meter long s t e e l b a r of t h e wid th and t h i c k n e s s o f a p lough s h a r e . According t o t h e needs of p a r t i c u l a r r e g i o n s t h e pro- d u c t mix may v a r y , however t h e raw m a t e r i a l q u a l i t y and shape c a n accomodate most p r e f e r e n c e s . Such b a r s a r e l i g h t enough t o be hand led by t h e b l a c k s m i t h i f c o l l e c t i n g t h e m a t e r i a l h i m s e l f , it i s s m a l l enough t o r e q u i r e o n l y modest c a s h o u t l a y s f o r i t s p u r c h a s e and it i s l a r g e enough and s t a n d a r d i z e d i n such a way t h a t it is n o t cumbersome t o h a n d l e i n l a r g e q u a n t i t i e s .

The c u t t i n g of t h e b a r i n t o s u i t a b l e p i e c e s is most e f f i c i e n t l y done by t h e b l a c k s m i t h s u s i n g hacksaws. Even though t h i s t a k e s some t i m e , it s a v e s t h e b lack- s m i t h from us ing t h e energy-consuming method of h e a t i n g and t h e n c u t t i n g w i t h a c h i s e l . I n c r e a s e d s u p p l y of hacksaws and b l a d e s would f a c i l i t a t e and e n s u r e t h e u s e r of t h e b e s t p o s s i b l e method.

The major c o n s t r a i n t f o r t h e above s u p p o r t a c t i v i t i e s i s t h e l a c k o f a . d i s t r i b u t i o n system which is s u f f i - c i e n t l y g r a s s - r o o t o r i e n t e d and a t t h e same t i m e pre- p a r e d t o keep r e g u l a r s t o c k o f s t e e l b a r s . I n our judgement t h e RTC system does n o t p o s s e s s s u c h p roper- t i e s . A t p r e s e n t RTCs a r e r e q u i r e d t o h a n d l e a v e r y l a r g e number o f commodities under v a r i o u s d e g r e e s of c o n f i n e m e n t , and hence do n o t have t h e c a p a c i t y t o h a n d l e a p r o d u c t of t h i s s p e c i a l c h a r a c t e r . Thus SIDO w i t h i t s n e t o f r e g i o n a l o f f i c e s s t a n d s o u t as t h e o n l y p o s s i b l e a l t e r n a t i v e . A s d i s c u s s e d e a r l i e r , SIDO a l r e a d y h a s a r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r s u p p o r t t o r u r a l b l a c k s m i t h s and h a s g a i n e d some e x p e r i e n c e t h r o u g h s u p p o r t work c a r r i e d o u t . I n t e r m s of raw m a t e r i a l s u p p l y , t h e SIDO/UFI a r rangement h a s been i n o p e r a t i o n f o r some t i m e and a s i z e a b l e amount of s c r a p and hoe r e j e c t s have a c t u a l l y been d i s t r i b u t e d . The major problems f a c i n g t h i s d i s t r i b u t i o n c h a n n e l a r e admini- s t r a t i v e d e l a y s , t r a n s p o r t c o n s t r a i n t s , h i g h c o s t s and t h e f i n a l d e s t i n a t i o n being r e g i o n a l towns. F u r t h e r d i s t r i b u t i o n from t h i s p o i n t h a s t o be under taken i n c o o p e r a t i o n w i t h r e g i o n a l and d i s t r i c t a u t h o r i t i e s , un- l e s s i t e m s a r e c o l l e c t e d by t h e c r a f t s m e n t h e m s e l v e s .

In o r d e r t o improve a d m i n i s t r a t i v e e f f i c i e n c y and coor- d i n a t i o n , SIDO s h o u l d look i n t o t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f e s t a b l i s h i n g a s p e c i a l desk i n t h e h e a d q u a r t e r s f o r t h e purpose o f f a c i l i t a t i n g raw m a t e r i a l and t o o l s u p p l i e s t o m e t a l working u n i t s i n r u r a l a r e a s . The r e s p o n s i b i - l i t y of t h i s desk s h o u l d be t o respond t o t h e demands of r e g i o n a l o f f i c e s f o r raw m a t e r i a l s and t o o l s , l o c a t e s u i t a b l e and c h e a p means of t r a n s p o r t and e n s u r e a s u f f i c i e n t f low of i m p o r t s of s t e e l b a r s and t o o l s . To b u i l d a s e p a r a t e t r a n s p o r t s e r v i c e f o r raw m a t e r i a l s and t o o l s t o t h e r e g i o n s w i l l b e c o s t l y , b u t i f combin- e d w i t h o t h e r SIDO t r a n s p o r t a c t i v i t i e s it may be eco- n o m i c a l l y f e a s i b l e . SIDO must a l s o improve i t s a b i l i t y t o l o c a t e p o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r j o i n t t r a n s p o r t s o f v a r i o u s k i n d s ( r a i l , l o r r y , l a n d r o v e r s , e t c . ) ,

The SIDO r e g i o n a l o f f i c e s s h o u l d be g i v e n t h e t a s k t o s t e p up t h e work t o i d e n t i f y b l a c k s m i t h s u n i t s . T h i s s h o u l d n o t be l i m i t e d t o g r o u p s of c r a f t s m e n working

t o g e t h e r ; i n d i v i d u a l b l a c k s m i t h s w i t h a p p r e n t i c e s must be i n c l u d e d . Supply of raw m a t e r i a l s h o u l d n o t be con- d i t i o n e d by f o r m a t i o n o f g roups a s i n t h e p a s t . The e x p e r i e n c e s have shown t h a t t h i s r e q u i r e s c o n s i d e r a b l e amounts o f i n c e n t i v e s , sometimes p r e s s u r e and t h e pro- c e s s of f o r m a t i o n may t a k e c o n s i d e r a b l e t i m e . Very o f t e n s u c h g roups d i s i n t e g r a t e r a p i d l y , as c r a f t s m e n j o i n i n g from ne ighbour ing v i l l a g e s i n o r d e r t o make t h e g r o u p s l a r g e enough t o o b t a i n s u p p o r t , r e t u r n home. S a l e s of s t e e l b a r s s h o u l d be l i m i t e d t o t h o s e g r o u p s o r i n d i v i d u a l s i d e n t i f i e d and t h e r e g i o n a l o f f i c e s , o f t e n l o c a t e d on i n d u s t r i a l e s t a t e s , s h o u l d keep ade- q u a t e s t o c k s t o s a t i s f y a n t i c i p a t e d demand. Reg iona l managers must a c c o r d i n g l y a t t e m p t t o g e t a b e t t e r p i c- t u r e of p r o d u c t i o n l e v e l s o f v i l l a g e b l a c k s m i t h s . The managers must a l s o t a k e e v e r y o p p o r t u n i t y t o in form v i l l a g e o f f i c i a l s and b l a c k s m i t h s a b o u t t h e s u p p l y sys tem e s t a b l i s h e d f o r t h i s s p e c i a l i t e m .

The above s i m p l y amounts t o s a y i n g t h a t SIDO r e g i o n a l managers s h o u l d g e t more a c q u a i n t e d w i t h v i l l a g e pro- d u c t i o n a c t i v i t i e s . Th i s may r e q u i r e a change of s t y l e and emphasis and it may b e f a c i l i t a t e d i f r e g i o n a l o f f i c e s a r e g i v e n a d d i t i o n a l f u n d s f o r t r a n s p o r t a t i o n and some t y p e of i n c e n t i v e s . T h i s s h o u l d be i n v e s t i g a t - e d by SIDO h e a d q u a r t e r s and i f n e c e s s a r y fo l lowed up. The o n l y way t o s u s t a i n s u c h a raw m a t e r i a l s u p p o r t a r rangement i s t o f i x t h e p r i c e e q u a l t o t h e r e a l c o s t , and make payment t e r m s c a s h on d e l i v e r y o r on c o l l e c - t i o n , Our d i s c u s s i o n s w i t h v i l l a g e b l a c k s m i t h s i n d i c a t e t h a t some a r e w i l l i n g t o pay such a p r i c e f o r appro- p r i a t e raw m a t e r i a l s i f a v a i l a b l e , b u t some may be un- a b l e t o and must c o n t i n u e s c r a p c o l l e c t i o n i n t h e t r a - d i t i o n a l way. Cont inuous s u p p l y of raw m a t e r i a l s would improve t h e c o n d i t i o n s f o r i n c r e a s i n g c a s h incomes among b l a c k s m i t h s and improve t h e p r o s p e c t s f o r t h e c r a f t , which i n t u r n may c a u s e b e t t e r r e c r u i t m e n t con- d i t i o n s .

Improved raw m a t e r i a l s u p p l y would e n a b l e b l a c k s m i t h s t o p u t i n more days i n p r o d u c t i o n . A t p r e s e n t t h e f i r s t e n c o u n t e r e d o b s t a c l e t o i n c r e a s e t h e t i m e used i n pro- d u c t i o n i s a v a i l a b i l i t y o f raw m a t e r i a l s . Another and

more s e r i o u s c o n s t r a i n t i s d u e t o t h e need f o r b l a c k- s m i t h s t o e n g a g e i n a g r i c u l t u r a l c u l t i v a t i o n . T h i s con- s t r a i n t c a n n o t b e removed w i t h o u t a f u n d a m e n t a l change o f t h e economic s t r u c t u r e i n t h e r u r a l areas and i s t h u s t o b e t a k e n as a g i v e n f a c t . Hence, t h e a c t u a l p r o d u c t i o n l e v e l o f b l a c k s m i t h s i s f a r l o w e r t h a n t h e p o t e n t i a l o n e .

The s u p p o r t progamme s h o u l d t a k e as i t s p o i n t o f d e p a r- t u r e t h e a c t u a l a v e r a g e p r o d u c t i o n l e v e l s , which a c c o r d i n g t o v a r i o u s s u r v e y s c a n b e f i x e d a t 200 k g s o f raw material u s a g e p e r b l a c k s m i t h p e r annum. T h i s i s l o c a l l y a v a i l a b l e s c r a p , which i s becoming i n c r e a s i n g l y s c a r c e . W e e n v i s a g e t h e i m p o r t e d raw m a t e r i a l ( b a r s ) t o compensa te f o r t h e d e c l i n e i n l o c a l l y a v a i l a b l e raw material . W e estimate t h a t t h e i m p o r t e d s t e e l w i l l , on a v e r a g e , r e p l a c e 2 5 % o f t h e p r e s e n t raw m a t e r i a l s u p p l y , i . e . 5 0 kgs a n n u a l l y . F u r t h e r , o u r a s s u m p t i o n i s t h a t , on a v e r a g e , o n l y 40% o f t h e b l a c k s m i t h popu la- t i o n w i l l make u s e o f t h e new raw material o f f e r due t o p r o b l e m s o f i d e n t i f i c a t i o n , i n f o r m a t i o n , t r a n s p o r t and l i q u i d i t y .

W e p r o p o s e t h a t t h e programme s h a l l be o f f e r e d t o r e g i o n s where t h e u s e o f a r e a s p e c i f i c imp lemen t s and/ o r p l o u g h s i s common and b l a c k s m i t h s e x i s t i n r e a s o n- a b l e numbers . On t h i s b a s i s w e s u g g e s t t h a t 1 1 r e g i o n s d i v i d e d i n t o 3 zones s h a l l b e i n c l u d e d : t h e n o r t h e r n z o n e , Mara, Mwanza, Kage ra , S h i n y a n g a , T a b o r a and S i n g i d a ; t h e w e s t e r n , Mbeya and Rukwa , L i n d i ,

Mtwara and C o a s t r e g i o n . The p r o d u c t s l i k e l y t o b e g i v e n e m p h a s i s i n l o c a l p r o d u c t i o n i n t h e s e r e g i o n s a r e :

Mara and Mwanza: p l o u g h s h a r e s , l a n d s i d e s and h o e s . Kagera : s p e c i a l i z e d t o o l s f o r c o f f e e and banana c u l t i - v a t i o n , s i c k l e s , a x e s and a d z e s . S h i n y a n g a : p l o u g h s h a r e s , l a n d s i d e s , h o e s and a d z e s . T a b o r a : p l o u g h s h a r e s , l a n d s i d e s , b i l l - h o o k s , a x e s , a d z e s and h o e s . S i n g i d a : b i l l - h o o k s , p l o u g h s h a r e s , l a n d s i d e s and h o e s .

Mbyea: a x e s , a d z e s , s i c k l e s and h o e s .

Rukwa: a x e s , a d z e s , s i c k l e s , hoes , p lough s h a r e s and l a n d s i d e s . Mtwara, L i n d i and Coas t : b i l l - h o o k , s i c k l e s , a x e s , a d z e s and hoes .

A s d i s c u s s e d e a r l i e r , w e p ropose t h a t t h e u n i t of raw m a t e r i a l t o be s u p p l i e d s h a l l be a 120 c m long s t e e l b a r w i t h c r o s s s e c t i o n 15 c m by 1 .5 cm. The s t e e l s h a l l be of a q u a l i t y p r o p e r f o r making d u r a b l e plough s h a r e s . Such a b l a n k can f o r i n s t a n c e b e t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o , a l t e r n a t i v e l y , 4 p lough s h a r e s , 4 b i l l - h o o k s , 4 l a r g e h o e s of t h e Ufipa/Rungwe t y p e and a v a r i a b l e number of a d z e s o r weeding s h o e s .

The p r o d u c t mix w i l l v a r y a c c o r d i n g t o a r e a s p e c i f i c t o o l s o r p lough s p a r e needs . The p o s s i b i l i t y t o v a r y t h e p r o d u c t a c c o r d i n g t o needs by u s i n g one s t a n d a r d i z - e d p i e c e o f s t e e l , i s of g r e a t impor tance t o e f f i c i e n c y i n o r d e r i n g , h a n d l i n g and d i s t r i b u t i o n .

One such s t e e l b a r w i l l weigh a b o u t 20 kgs which makes it r e l a t i v e l y heavy i n r e l a t i o n t o i t s volume (2700 cm3). W e assume t h a t t h e s t e e l b a r s , c u t i n t h e s p e c i - f i e d s h a p e , w i l l b e impor ted t o Tanzan ia from a compe- t i t i v e s u p p l i e r . I t is of importance t h a t c r a t e s o f s t e e l b a r s can b e t r a n s p o r t e d s e a l e d from t h e e x t e r n a l s u p p l i e r t o t h e i n d i v i d u a l r e g i o n a l towns i n Tanzan ia . I n a d d i t i o n , t h e we igh t o f one c r a t e s h o u l d be s u c h t h a t it can be hand led by r e g i o n a l means of o f f - and unload ing and r e g i o n a l t r a n s p o r t . Hence we propose t h a t t h e s t a n d a r d u n i t f o r t r a n s p o r t is a c r a t e c o n t a i n i n g 50 s teel b a r s o f t o t a l weight s l i g h t l y above one t o n . I n o r d e r t o s e c u r e e f f i c i e n t c o l l e c t i o n from r a i l p o i n t o r ha rbour and i n t e r n a l r e g i o n a l d i s t r i b u t i o n , we s u g g e s t t h a t t h e t r a n s p o r t f u n c t i o n a t SIDO r e g i o n a l o f f i c e s is s t r e n g t h e n e d t o compile w i t h t h e t r a n s p o r t r e q u i r e m e n t s o f t h e b l a c k s m i t h and o x- c a r t s u p p o r t pro- g r amme,

The s u p p o r t programme w i l l t o a l i m i t e d e x t e n t i n c l u d e s u p p l y of t o o l s . Hacksaws, b l a d e s and c h i s e l s s h a l l be made a v a i l a b l e t o SIDO r e g i o n a l o f f i c e s on o r d e r . A l i m i t e d number of a n v i l s and v i c e s is t o be s t o c k e d i n

e a c h r e g i o n and s o l d a t s u b s i d i s e d p r i c e s i f i n demand by b l a c k s m i t h s . The u s e of t h e s e t o o l s and equipment w i l l a l l o w a b e t t e r f i n i s h of p r o d u c t s and hence i m- prove t h e i r q u a l i t y .

I n t h e o u t l i n e of t h e programme c a r e h a s been t a k e n t o i n c l u d e mechanisms which i n c r e a s e t h e chances f o r t h e raw m a t e r i a l , t o o l s and equipment t o r e a c h t h e t a r g e t g r o u p , t h e b l a c k s m i t h s . Given t h e p r e s e n t s i t u a t i o n i n Tanzan ia , some of t h e i t e m s s u p p l i e d may n o t r e a c h t h e i r t a r g e t . According t o our o b s e r v a t i o n s i n t h e s e l e c t e d r e g i o n s w e a r e , however, q u i t e s u r e t h a t raw m a t e r i a l and t o o l s which f a l l i n t h e hands of o t h e r s w i l l be used p r o d u c t i v e l y a s w e l l .

4 . 5 O x- C a r t M a n u f a c t u r i n g

Over t h e l a s t f i v e t o e i g h t y e a r s , t h e p r o d u c t i o n and u s e o f o x- c a r t s h a s grown f a i r l y r a p i d l y . We conserva- t i v e l y e s t i m a t e t h e demand f o r o x- c a r t s t o b e 12,000 c a r t s ( h i g h q u a l i t y and e x p e n s i v e ) f o r t h e f i r s t 3- year p e r i o d . Even i f t h i s demand is s a t i s f i e d , t h e r e is s t i l l a l i k e l i h o o d of a subsequen t demand of a s i m i l a r o r d e r f o r good q u a l i t y b u t c h e a p e r o x- c a r t s .

Ox- cart m a n u f a c t u r i n g , is g e n e r a l l y n o t a s p e c i a l i z e d a c t i v i t y and most u n i t s - whether i n d i v i d u a l o r l a r g e , p r i v a t e o r p u b l i c - engage i n p r o d u c t i o n of a range of p r o d u c t s , i n c l u d i n g wheel ba r rows , h a n d- c a r t s and n o t l e a s t f u r n i t u r e . A number of t h e p u b l i c workshops - and some of t h e l a r g e r p r i v a t e ones w i t h up t o 10 employees ( e . g . i n Shinyanaga and Arusha) - a l s o produce o t h e r t y p e s of farm implements s u c h a s ha r rows , fu r row m a r k e r s , p l a n t- s p a c i n g w h e e l s , l j a b p l a n t e r s , p lough s h a r e s and hand t o o l s .

1. Only p u b l i c workshops engage i n p r o d u c t i o n of t h e s e t h r e e implements s i n c e t h e s e p r o d u c t s a r e n o t i n commercial demand a t a l l , b u t a r e bought by Kilimo f o r d e m o n s t r a t i o n s .

There a r e a b o u t 15 p u b l i c workshops i n Tanzan ia , most of them s u p p o r t e d by r e g i o n a l d i r e c t o r a t e s and o p e r a t e d under RADO s u p e r v i s i o n . Both t h e q u a l i t y of t h e i r pro- d u c t s and t h e economic performance of t h e s e workshops is g e n e r a l l y v e r y poor a t p r e s e n t and h a s been s o f o r a number of years .1 The i r p r o d u c t s have been s u b s i d i z e d t o lower t h e p r i c e .

S i x R C W ' s i n d i f f e r e n t r e g i o n s were s t a r t e d up under TAMTU w i t h West German a s s i s t a n c e . Only one of t h e s e (Nzega) i s now managed under CAMARTEC. There is now a t o t a l o f 9 R C W ' s , n o t a l l producing o x- c a r t s , which a r e p lanned t o r e c e i v e t e c h n i c a l a s s i s t a n c e from CAMARTEC. Most of t h e s e a r e managed and s u p p o r t e d by RADO and RDD

o f £ i c e s .

D e s p i t e t h e demand f o r h i g h q u a l i t y , pneumat ic t y r e o x- c a r t s , most of t h e p u b l i c R C W ' s c o n t i n u e t o produce m a i n l y i r o n wheel o r wooden wheel o x- c a r t s o f g e n e r a l l y poor q u a l i t y . Only i n Arusha Region h a s t h e r e been consumer a c c e p t a n c e o f i r o n whee l s , m a i n l y produced by Themi. Both t h e s e m a n u f a c t u r e r s a r e now working on pneumat ic whee l s .

Al though most t h e t h e s e workshops complain t h a t t h e y l a c k machinery o r t h a t it is i n need of r e p l a c e m e n t , t h e p u b l i c workshops a r e i n f a c t v e r y w e l l equipped w i t h machinery i f compared w i t h t h e p r i v a t e o x- c a r t m a n u f a c t u r e r s and even t h e l a r g e r p r i v a t e workshops. The p u b l i c workshops a r e over- employed and even t h e s m a l l e r o n e s have h i e r a r c h i c a l management s t r u c t u r e d w i t h a t l e a s t two managers . Overheads and a d m i n i s t r a- t i v e c o s t s a r e h i g h . They have had problems w i t h t r a i n - ed c r a f t s m e n l e a v i n g f o r b e t t e r p a i d o r more p r o d u c t i v e and i n s p i r i n g j o b s .

1. One e x c e p t i o n can b e found i n t h e 3 R C W ' s s t a r t e d up i n 1982 i n a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h Themi Farm Implements company. They a r e o r g a n i z e d on a semi- publ ic way and t h e i r c a r t s a r e w e l l made.

Although t h e y have had p r e f e r e n t i a l a c c e s s t o raw mate- r i a l a t o f f i c i a l - ( l o w ) p r i c e s , t h e i r p r o d u c t i o n h a s remained low. T h i s is n o t t o s a y t h a t t h e y have n o t been s h o r t o f raw m a t e r i a l , e s p e c i a l l y o v e r r e c e n t y e a r s . Workshops which make f u r n i t u r e on o r d e r from t h e M i n i s t r y of Educa t ion have g e n e r a l l y f a r e d b e t t e r i n economic t e r m s . Other t y p e of farm implements w i t h no commercial demand ( e . g . ha r rows) a r e produced on o r d e r from t h e M i n i s t r y of A g r i c u l t u r e ( R A D O ' s ) . I n c o n t r a s t , t h e l a r g e r p r i v a t e workshops w i t h 5-10 employees , o f which t h e r e a r e p r o b a b l y no more t h a n 5-10 i n t h e c o u n t r y ( w i t h s e v e r a l i n S h i n y a n g a ) , produce t h e p r e f e r r e d , h i g h q u a l i t y , pneumat ic t y r e ox- c a r t s a t p r i c e s o f TShs 12-15,000. T h e i r machine inven- t o r y i s much more l i m i t e d . I n Shinyanga, t h e workshops making whee l /ax le sets, have l a t h e s , power hack saws, power d r i l l s and mending v i c e s , a l l o f which t h e y have made t h e m s e l v e s by an amazing l e v e l of i n g e n u i t y i n u s i n g o l d c a r d i f f e r e n t i a l s , e t c .

Of much g r e a t e r importance i n t e r m s o f t o t a l o u t p u t of h i g h q u a l i t y o x- c a r t s - runn ing on o l d Landrover and c a r ax le /whee l s e t s - a r e a r e l a t i v e l y l a r g e and un- known number o f open- a i r workshops i n v i l l a g e s and d i s t r i c t towns.

Most of t h e s e c o n s i s t of p r i v a t e i n d i v i d u a l s who employ o n l y a few a p p r e n t i c e s o r s k i l l e d c a r p e n t e r s on a more o r l e s s t emporary basis. They o n l y use c a r p e n t r y hand- t o o l s and main ly produce on o r d e r o r on c o n t r a c t . I n t h e l a t t e r c a s e , t h e c a r t buyer may b r i n g h i s wheel s e t , t h e r e q u i r e d n u t s and b o l t s and even t h e t i m b e r , and t h e t o t a l c o s t of s u c h c a r t s is normal ly q u i t e low. I f a n o x- c a r t i s produced on o r d e r , t h e c r a f t s m a n h i m s e l f t r i e s t o g e t t h e second-hand wheel s e t , b o l t s , t i m b e r , e t c . He may spend c o n s i d e r a b l e t i m e away on long d i s t a n c e t r a v e l s t o ne ighbour ing r e g i o n a l towns l o o k i n g f o r a wheel s e t , t y r e s , t u b e s , e t c . and t h e b o l t s , which - i f s u c c e s s f u l - h e b r i n g s back by l o r r y o r on a b u s . The c o s t of t h e c a r t w i l l t h e n r e a c h 15,000 s h i l l i n g s ( O c t 1 9 8 3 ) .

N e i t h e r t h e l a r g e r nor t h e i n d i v i d u a l c r a f t s m e n i n t e r - viewed ment ioned l a c k o f machinery as b e i n g a con- s t r a i n t , and t h e y s a i d t h a t t h e marke t was i n s a t i a b l e . No d o u b t , t h e h i g h demand f o r such c a r t s h e l p s t o d r i v e up t h e f i n a l p r i c e t o h i g h ' a r t i f i c i a l ' l e v e l s which would n o t be t h e c a s e i f t h e wheel s e t s and a c c e s s o r i e s had been a v a i l a b l e i n t h e a r e a s where o x- c a r t s a r e produced,

F i n a l l y , t h e r e a r e p r o b a b l y some 10-15 miss ion- run workshops producing o x- c a r t s . While some o f t h e s e have t r i e d t o r e l y on t h e TAMTU o x- c a r t d e s i g n , and employ a s m a l l g roup of c r a f t s m e n working w i t h hand t o o l s . W e have h e a r d a b o u t a c o u p l e o f m i s s i o n s which produce on a l a r g e r scale w i t h machinery. I n comparison w i t h t h e p u b l i c workshops, t h e m i s s i o n workshops would p r o b a b l y be run a t lower c o s t s . They t e n d t o have l o n g s t a n d i n g networks f o r raw m a t e r i a l s u p p l y and t h e y have a c c e s s t o f o r e i g n exchange f o r i m p o r t s .

A s r e g a r d s t h e p r i v a t e o x- c a r t s e c t o r i n g e n e r a l , t h e c o n s t r a i n t s on p r o d u c t i o n a r e n e i t h e r c a p i t a l , machi- n e r y , o v e r h e a d s , s k i l l s , s a l e s o r t i m b e r s u p p l y ( m a i n l y mninga, mtundu, and g r e v e l i a ) , b u t r a t h e r t h e s e v e r e problem of g e t t i n g n u t s and b o l t s f o r j o i n i n g t h e c a r t box, and second-hand c a r a x l e s , wheel- r ims, hubs , b e a r- i n g , t y r e s and t u b e s . I n t h e c a s e o f Shinyanga, t h e s u p p l y o f o l d c a r wheel s e t s h a s been c o m p l e t e l y ex- h a u s t e d . Here, t h e f i x e d a x l e beam is made o u t o f s i s a l e s t a t e r a i l s o r p i p e s , t o which s t a b a x l e s , d r i l l e d from mi ld s t e e l b a r s , a r e welded. I n c r e a s i n g l y t h e wheels a r e b e n t and welded o u t of s h e e t i r o n and round b a r s because o l d c a r wheel- rims a r e d i f f i c u l t t o g e t .

F i n a l l y , it should be no ted t h a t t h e g e n e r a l t r a n s p o r t c r i s i s is l i k e l y t o have caused an i n c r e a s e i n t h e u s e o f hand c a r t s i n r e g i o n a l and d i s t r i c t towns , where such c a r t s have been common f o r a l o n g t i m e . Most of t h e s e run on second hand s a l o o n c a r wheel s e t s w i t h pneumat ic t y r e s , and t h e r e is a n i n f o r m a l manufac tu r ing s e c t o r , i n c l u d i n g some of t h e p r i v a t e m a n u f a c t u r e r s ment ioned above, f o r t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f t h e s e as w e l l . T h i s means t h a t even i n r e g i o n s w i t h no o r few ox-

c a r t s , e .g . Dar es Salaam, t h e second-hand wheel sets a r e i n demand. Thus even on an i n t e r - r e g i o n a l s c a l e r u r a l o x- c a r t u s e r s a r e i n d i r e c t l y competing w i t h t h e i n f o r m a l t r a n s p o r t s e c t o r i n towns f o r s c a r c e second- hand wheel s e t s .

Hence, i n g e n e r a l , p r i v a t e o x- c a r t p r o d u c t i o n is d i s - c o n t i n u o u s i n t i m e and s p a c e because o f l a c k o f raw m a t e r i a l . Most of t h e p u b l i c workshops a r e c o n s t r a i n e d by t h e same problem b u t t h e i r p r o d u c t i o n w a s low even b e f o r e t h e s c a r c i t y of raw m a t e r i a l s , I f t h e problem was n o t raw m a t e r i a l , t h e n it was power s u p p l y , poor machinery, l a c k of s p a r e s , t h e l e a v i n g of c r a f t s m e n , t h e l a c k of sales, t h e l a c k of t r a n s p o r t f o r g e t t i n g t h e m a t e r i a l , poor s u p p o r t and s u p e r v i s i o n by TAMTU, l a c k o f f u n d s , embezzlement of f u n d s , e t c .

I n s h o r t , most of t h e p u b l i c workshops have had no in- c e n t i v e t o produce and t h e y have no h i s t o r y o f produc- t i o n .

I n Table 4 , 2 we p r e s e n t p r o d u c t i o n and a n n u a l c a p a c i t y f i g u r e s f o r most of t h e workshops v i s i t e d . S i n c e we m a i n l y asked on o x- c a r t s , t h e t a b l e is incomple te f o r wheel ba r rows , h a n d- c a r t s and h a r r o w s / ( r i d g e r s ) .

S i n c e t h e a n n u a l p r o d u c t i o n d a t a c o l l e c t e d a r e incomple te f o r t h e t h r e e y e a r s i n q u e s t i o n , even f o r ox- c a r t s , and o n l y r e p r e s e n t a l i m i t e d number of p u b l i c and p r i v a t e m a n u f a c t u r e r s , t h e e r r a t i c a n n u a l o u t p u t s h o u l d n o t be t a k e n t o i n f e r any t r e n d s i n p r o d u c t i o n .

The new Mafinga Workshop i n I r i n g a Region is t h e l a r g e s t manufac tu re r of complete o x- c a r t s i n t h e c o u n t r y , w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n of Themi Farm Implements ( T F I ) i n Arusha, which p roduces o n l y t h e wheel s e t s f o r commercial s a l e t o i t s 3 a s s o c i a t e d R C W ' s and t o i n d i - v i d u a l s and TFA. Mafinga h a s , among o t h e r t h i n g s , s u f f e r e d from s e v e r a l break-downs o f i t s g e n e r a t o r s , and o n l y a b o u t 1 /3 of i t s o x- c a r t s have s o l d on comrnef- c i a l t e r m s , a l t h o u g h t h e y have been b rought o u t t o t h e 1 4 r e g i o n a l o x- t r a i n i n g c e n t e r s . The c a r t s a r e s m a l l , have i r o n rim wheels and a r e of v e r y poor c ra f t sman- s h i p , c o s t i n g 4 , 5 0 0 s h i l l i n g s .

Table 4 . 2 The P r o d u c t i o n o f Ox-Carts, Wheel Barrows, Hand-Carts and Harrows from 8 P u b l i c and P r i v a t e M a n u f a c t u r e r s f o r t h e Years 1980- 83

fund i = s k i l l e d c r a f t m n

To ta l (1981/82) T o t a l (1982/83)

n .a. = no t asked n . i . = no t inc luded Source: B t a c o l l e c t e d du r i rq v i s i t s , e t , - N o v . 1983

The Mbeya RCW i s among t h e most p r o d u c t i v e p u b l i c R C W ' s

w i t h an a v e r a g e a n n u a l o u t p u t o f a b o u t 60 o x- c a r t s over t h e l a s t 6 y e a r s and employing 2 2 p e r s o n s , The c a r t s main ly have wooden whee l s , l i n e d w i t h o l d c a r t y r e s . The c o s t of p r o d u c t i o n f o r a c a r t is TShs 5,000 and t h e

1982 1983

293 1,030 193 2,060

n . i . n . i .

n . i . n . i .

n . i . n . i .

s e l l i n g p r i c e is s u b s i d i z e d b y t h e RDD down t o TShs 2 ,500. T h i s u n i t . a l s o m a n u f a c t u r e s h a n d- c a r t s a n d h a r r o w s .

Nzega RCW h a s s u f f e r e d f rom i s o l a t i o n , l a c k o f s u p e r- v i s i o n and l a c k o f raw m a t e r i a l . I t i s f a i r l y w e l l e q u i p p e d f o r a s m a l l workshop b u t some o f t h e m a c h i n e r y i s o l d . The workshop h a s two oxen f o r t e s t i n g a n d d e m o n s t r a t i o n p u r p o s e s and a f a i r l y l a r g e p i e c e o f l a n d , mos t o f which is b u s h l a n d . A c a r t box i n s p e c t e d w a s o f good c r a f t s m a n s h i p . The p r i c e o f a Landrove r wheel set c a r t was TShs 8 , 0 0 0 . One o r two i r o n wheel sets were s o l d t o a m i s s i o n a r y i n 1981. The workshops h a s a manage r , a s s i s t a n t manager ( c r a f t s m a n ) , o n e s t o r e - k e e p e r , 2 c l e r k s , 3 c a r p e n t e r s and 3 w e l d e r s . The workshop c o m p e t e s w i t h a t l e a s t 5 smaller, p r i v a t e ca r t m a n u f a c t u r e r s i n Nzega town.

The S i n g i d a Workshop, s t a r t e d b y SIDO 1971 a n d t r a n s f e r e d t o t h e RDD i n 1985, i s a l a r g e workshop wh ich e n g a g e s i n p r o d u c t i o n o f a number o f f a rm imple- m e n t s , many o f which are o f poor q u a l i t y o r o f no u t i l i t y t o t h e p e a s a n t s . I n 1983, r e ' g i o n a l a u t h o r i t i e s o r d e r e d t h e whole p r o d u c t i o n o f o x - c a r t s t o b e r e t u r n e d t o t h e workshop t o r e c t i f y d e f e c t s on t h e w h e e l- a x l e c o n s t r u c t i o n . The w h e e l s a r e made o f wood. A l though t h e workshop , v i s i t e d s e v e r a l times and employ ing 21 p e r - s o n s , g i v e s a b u s y i m p r e s s i o n , w e a re n o t s u r e whe the r 90 c a r t s were i n f a c t p r o d u c e d i n 1982. I n 1982 t h e c a r t s were s o l d a t TShs 6 , 0 0 0 , i n 1983 a t TShs 8 ,000 . On a p r e v i o u s v i s i t , t h e p r i c e s q u o t e d were d o u b l e as h i g h . S i n g i d a h a s a t l ea s t two p r i v a t e m a n u f a c t u r e r s making p n e u m a t i c t y r e c a r t s f o r a r o u n d 1 5 , 0 0 0 s h i l l i n g s .

Mazao E n g i n e e r i n g Company i n Usa R i v e r n e a r Arusha was s t a r t e d as a p a r t n e r s h i p b y t h r e e p r i v a t e e n t r e p r e n e u r s i n 1981. The workshop r e c e i v e d SIDO c r e d i t s u p p o r t o f TShs 673,000 f o r a l i m i t e d number o f good m a c h i n e s , some o f which may r e p r e s e n t o v e r i n v e s t m e n t i n c a p a c i - t y . The workshop d o e s n o t h a v e as many m a c h i n e s as t h e p u b l i c workshops and employs 6 p e r s o n s ( 4 c r a f t s m e n ) a p a r t f rom t h e 3 p a r t n e r s . Mazao n e e d s a new s h e d and

s u f f e r s from l a c k of working c a p i t a l f o r p r o c u r i n g raw m a t e r i a l . I n 1982 Mazao r e p a i d o n l y h a l f o f t h e c r e d i t amount due. The p r i c e s f o r o x- c a r t s , made on o r d e r were set a t TShs 5 ,500 i n 1982 and TShs 7 ,000 i n 1983 i n o r d e r t o b e a b l e t o compete w i t h t h e s u b s i d i z e d CAMAR-

TEC p r i c e s . The workshop now h a s an o r d e r f o r 100 c a r t s b u t c a n n o t meet it due t o l a c k of f u n d s t o p u r c h a s e raw m a t e r i a l . I t a l s o makes plough s h a r e s by welding t o g e t h e r and f o r g i n g two worn-down s h a r e s . D e s p i t e t h e f i n a n c i a l s i t u a t i o n , w i t h a t t e m p t s t o g e t a TShs 100,000 NBC c r e d i t f o r t h e p u r c h a s e of raw m a t e r i a l s f o r 50 c a r t s , t h e workshop wants t o expand. Customers p r e f e r pneumat ic t y r e wheels a c c o r d i n g t o t h e produc- t i o n manager.

The two s m a l l , p r i v a t e o x- c a r t m a n u f a c t u r e r s , one from I l a m b i l o l e v i l l a g e i n Ismani , I r i n g a and t h e o t h e r from Nzega Town i n Tabora , a r e of a s i m i l a r n a t u r e i n t h e s e n s e t h a t t h e y produce a small number o f c a r t s on o r d e r a n n u a l l y . Both engage i n a g r i c u l t u r e and f u r n i - t u r e making a s w e l l , and t h e y b o t h spend a l o t of t i m e on t r a v e l s t o f i n d second-hand car- wheel s e t s .

For Nzega, t h e procurement c o s t ( l e s s t r a v e l e x p e n s e s ) of t h e comple te axle /wheel s e t was TShs 3,300 i n 1981, and a l m o s t TShs 8 ,000 i n 1983; p l u s TShs 1 ,500 f o r t i m b e r and TShs 360 f o r b o l t s i n 1981, which had gone up t o TShs 2,500 and TShs 1,000 r e s p e c t i v e l y i n 1983. I n 1983 an a d d i t i o n a l TShs 500 was s p e n t t o g e t t h e a x l e and wheels welded, g i v i n g an o v e r a l l m a t e r i a l c o s t of some TShs 10-12,000 f o r a c a r t . The c r a f t s m a n ' s l a b o u r c o s t was s e t a t TShs 100 p e r day over 3-4 d a y s f o r making t h e c a r t box. However, t h e c a r t might be s o l d a t TShs 13-15,000, depending on t r a v e l t i m e and expenses t o g e t t h e wheel s e t s . I n I r i n g a , t h e c o s t of a complete wheel s e t was some TShs 5,000 i n 1983, and a complete c a r t was s o l d a t TShs 8 ,000. Both c r a f t s m e n s t r e s s e d t h a t t h e r e was no l i m i t t o t h e market f o r c a r t s . The p r i v a t e workshop i n Shinyanga town main ly c o n c e n t r a t e d on t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f c a r t boxes , w i t h some 10 boxes l y i n g a t t h e workshop and w a i t i n g f o r wheels and a x l e s . These a r e produced by f o u r workshops w i t h main ly se l f- made machinery. The workshop v i s i t e d

employed 3-4 persons when there was work to do. The complete large-sized carts were made ready and sold at TShs 13-15,000 since buyers preferred to see the finished product first.

In Shinyanga there are at least 5 ox-cart manufacturing workshops of the larger type, with the metal engineering workshops diversifying into a number of products to reduce dependency on raw material supply for only one product.

A group of 6-7 young boys made solid-looking foot and hand pumps for ox-carts totally out of scrap (shock absorber cylinders, old lorry brake-pedals, wire, etc.). The valve heads were cast in aluminium. A painted foot pump sold at TShs 1,400.

In general, Table 4.2 shows that actual utilization of stated capacity is very low both among public and private manufacturers.

4.6 Support for Local Manufacturing of Ox-Carts

The north-central zone of Singida, Tabora, Shinyanga and Mwanza has been identified as the area with the largest concentrated demand for ox-carts (i.e., 6,000 carts for the first 3 years) and with the most experienced and innovative private manufacturing sector for both the required metal parts, wooden boxes and accessories like pumps. The zone is generally of great agricultural importance and has a relatively high population concentration, while at the same time it is suffering from serious transport constraints and lack of essential raw materials.

We are proposing that a raw material support and design development programme is established for ox-cart manufacture. The distribution of the required raw material can be made through SIDO. The proposed programme is primarily geared towards raw material import support and distribution of this material to existing private ox-cart manufacturers so as to ensure economic effi-

c i e n c y i n t h e u t i l i z a t i o n o f t h i s m a t e r i a l . Both t h e w e l l - e s t a b l i s h e d metal working workshops and i n d i v i d u a l c a r p e n t e r s i n v i l l a g e s s h o u l d b e s u p p l i e d w i t h t h e material r e q u i r e d .

To ease a p o t e n t i a l c o n s t r a i n t on t h e m a n u f a c t u r i n g o f ax l e- whee l sets, t h e SIDO Common F a c i l i t y Workshops (CFW' S ) i n S i n g i d a (Az imio Workshop) , S h i n y a n g a and Mwanza, a n d / o r p r i v a t e e n g i n e e r i n g workshops i n S i n g i d a , I g u n g a , Nzega and o t h e r r e g i o n a l o r d i s t r i c t t owns s h o u l d b e i n c l u d e d i n t h e programmes as component m a n u f a c t u r e r s , p r o v i d e d it c a n b e e n s u r e d t h a t t h e m a t e r i a l s u p p l i e d is u s e d f o r o x- c a r t componen t s . The f i r s t wheel sets made on t r i a l s h o u l d b e t e s t e d i n v i l l a g e s . S h i n y a n g a , Mwanza and Tabora RIDEP's s h o u l d b e a b l e t o ass is t .

Once p r o d u c t i o n i n c r e a s e s , t h e wheel se ts s h o u l d b e a b l e t o reach t h e v i l l a g e c a r p e n t e r s who a r e u s e d t o p r o d u c i n g c a r t s . Both f o r m a l and i n f o r m a l c h a n n e l s o f i n f o r m a t i o n s h o u l d b e u s e d t o i d e n t i f y t h e s e i n d i v i d u a l c a r p e n t e r s and i n f o r m them. The programme s h o u l d n o t r e q u i r e t h e f o r m a t i o n o f c o - o p e r a t i v e g r o u p s o f manu- f a c t u r e r s o r c a r p e n t e r s f o r s u p p o r t e l i g i b i l i t y . The c l o s e r e l a t i o n s e x i s t i n g i n Sh inyanga be tween SIDO and t h e p r i v a t e m a n u f a c t u r i n g s e c t o r s h o u l d b e u s e d as a model . The f u n c t i o n i n g and impac t o f t h e programme would be a s s e s s e d a f t e r one y e a r o f o p e r a t i o n t o i d e n- t i f y p rob lems and b o t t l e n e c k s .

CHAPTER FIVE INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTION OF FARM IMPLEMENTS

5.1 Small Scale Industrial Production

The deve lopmen t o f small-scale i n d u s t r i e s i n T a n z a n i a i s t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f t h e Small I n d u s t r i e s Develop- ment O r g a n i s a t i o n (SIDO). SIDO h a s b u i l t i n d u s t r i a l es ta tes i n a l m o s t a l l r e g i o n s o f t h e c o u n t r y . Companies e s t a b l i s h e d o u t s i d e t h e estates are a l s o a s s i s t e d on r e q u e s t . The SIDO r e g i o n a l manage r s h a v e t h u s t h e func- t i o n o f s u p e r v i s i n g a ) t h e SIDO es ta tes ( w h i c h h a v e a n e s t a t e m a n a g e r ) , b) o t h e r small-scale i n d u s t r i a l u n i t s i n t h e r e g i o n a n d c ) v i l l a g e b l a c k s m i t h s .

5 .1 .1 P r o d u c t i o n U n i t s w i t h i n t h e SIDO I n d u s t r i a l Es ta tes

W e h a v e v i s i t e d t h e i n d u s t r i a l estates i n S i n g i d a , S h i n y a n g a , Mwanza, Arusha , Moshi , Mbeya a n d I r i n g a . T h e r e i s no company i n t h e s e es ta tes which e x c l u s i v e l y m a n u f a c t u r e s f a r m implemen t s . The Common F a c i l i t i e s Workshops (CFW), of which t h e r e i s one i n e a c h es ta te , and some o t h e r u n i t s h a v e a c e r t a i n p a r t o f t h e i r ope- r a t i o n s g e a r e d t o t h e s e c t o r . The CFWs are owned and o p e r a t e d by SIDO. I n g e n e r a l t h e y a r e w e l l e q u i p p e d w i t h v e r s a t i l e mach in ing e q u i p m e n t s .

The SIDO CFW i n S i n g i d a i s w e l l r un and m a n u f a c t u r e s s t o v e s i n a d d i t i o n t o making s p a r e p a r t s o f v a r i o u s t y p e s and d o i n g r e p a i r j o b b i n g . The CFW i n Mbeya h a s m a n u f a c t u r e d t h e wooden beam p l o u g h , and h a s t h e capa- c i t y t o m a n u f a c t u r e l a r g e r s e r i e s o f t h i s imp lemen t . I t i s a l s o making t o o l s and d i e s f o r Z Z K . SIDO CFW i n I r i n g a h a s been p r o p o s e d f o r p l o u g h m a n u f a c t u r i n g , once a c o l l a b o r a t i o n a g r e e m e n t w i t h a Swedish s i s t e r company i s o p e r a t i v e . The wooden beam d e s i g n w i l l p r o b a b l y b e a d o p t e d .

The SIDO workshop i n S i n g i d a town, which f a l l s under t h e Regional Commissioner, h a s some 20 employees and h a s made hand- and animal-drawn implements o f inappro- p r i a t e o r n o n f u n c t i o n a l d e s i g n , o f poor q u a l i t y and a t a h i g h c o s t .

The Shinyanga SIDO e s t a t e works c l o s e l y w i t h t h e f a r m e r s i n s u r r o u n d i n g a r e a s and is a t t e m p t i n g t o meet t h e i r r e q u i r e m e n t s i n s p i t e o f l i t t l e s u p p o r t ( s e e a l s o under o x- c a r t m a n u f a c t u r e ) .

S e v e r a l companies a t t h e Moshi e s t a t e a r e i n v o l v e d i n t h e manufac tu re o f farm implements . MAFOTCO ( s e e below) makes plough s h a r e s , Moshi Hand Tools makes c o f f e e p r u n e r s ( i n q u a n t i t i e s s u f f i c i e n t t o meet n a t i o n a l demand), and K i l i m a n j a r o Foundry Company h a s made pro- t o t y p e s f o r f r o g s f o r Z Z K ( b u t no o r d e r h a s been r e c e i v e d s i n c e t h e n ) and c o v e r s f o r t h e h u l l e r s . KFC is a l s o i n t h e p r o c e s s of s t a r t i n g manufac tu re of c o f f e e p u l p e r s .

Simon Engineer ing Works, e s t a b l i s h e d o u t s i d e t h e Moshi I n d u s t r i a l estate, is a g e n e r a l e n g i n e e r i n g workshop, w i t h c a p a c i t y t o manufac tu re o x- c a r t s . Th i s company i s p r e s e n t l y i n s t a l l i n g a r a t h e r l a r g e manufac tu r ing capa- c i t y f o r a x e s and hammers w i t h Swedish a s s i s t a n c e . The equipment i n c l u d e s second-hand f o r g e hammers. The r a t e d a n n u a l c a p a c i t y i s p lanned a t some 120,000 p i e c e s . Un- f o r t u n a t e l y we have l i t t l e i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t t h e p r e s e n t s t a t u s o f t h i s p r o j e c t .

5-1.2 MAFOTCO, Moshi

T h i s company was o r i g i n a l l y s e t up t o f o r g e component p a r t s f o r o t h e r companies i n t h e Moshi SIDO e s t a t e . These were s c i s s o r s , c u t l e r y and hammers. MAFOTCO h a s r e c e n t l y s t a r t e d making plough s h a r e s . The p r o d u c t i o n p r o c e s s i n c l u d e s c u t t i n g , f o r g i n g , t r imming , ho le - punch ing , g r i n d i n g , h e a t - t r e a t m e n t , painting and pack ing . P l a n s a r e a l s o made t o f o r g e axe- heads a t MAFOTCO f o r one of t h e companies i n t h e Moshi e s t a t e .

MAFOTCO h a s a l r e a d y made 7 , 0 0 0 p loughs s h a r e s and have a f u r t h e r 5 ,000 s h a r e s i n p r o g r e s s . Without reduc ing t h e i r s u p p l y of component p a r t s t o o t h e r e s t a t e compa- n i e s , MAFOTCO c o u l d manufac tu re 20,000 s h a r e s p .a .

The raw m a t e r i a l i s h i g h ca rbon s t e e l , which is bought from Sweden. T h e . f o r g e hammers a r e r a t h e r s t r a i n e d by t h i s p r o d u c t i o n , which r e q u i r e s more f o r c e t h a n t h e machines were o r i g i n a l l y d e s i g n e d f o r . They would need an e x t r a f o r g e hammer t o i n c r e a s e t h e i r c a p a c i t y f o r making p lough- shares . The tool- room a t MAFOTCO is w e l l equ ipped .

Our c o n c l u s i o n is t h a t MAFOTCO s h o u l d be encouraged t o c o n t i n u e plough s h a r e p r o d u c t i o n b u t t h a t t h e equipment needs s h o u l d b e e v a l u a t e d , and some p r e v e n t i v e measures be t a k e n s o t h a t t h e f o r g e hammer i s n o t o v e r l o a d e d .

5 .1 .3 T h e m i Farm Implements and E n g i n e e r i n g CO L t d

T h i s company, which is l o c a t e d i n Arusha, was e s t a b l i s h e d i n 1982 w i t h f i n a n c i n g from RIDEP (USAID f u n d s ) and w i t h t e c h n i c a l s u p p o r t from SIDO ( a n d on t h e b a s i s of a f e a s i b i l i t y s t u d y p r e p a r e d by SIDO). There a r e p r e s e n t l y 7 a c t i v e p a r t n e r s i n Themi.

The company' S main p r o d u c t s a r e :

1 animal-drawn p loughs ( " t h e Kabanyola t o o l- b a r " 1 , a m u l t i p u r p o s e implement w i t h a beam made from g a l v a n i z e d wate r p i p e s . The bottom-assembly is bought from UFI.

The p lough is p r e s e n t l y s e l l i n g a t TShs 2,050 ( i . e . , a p p r o x i m a t e l y 700 more t h a n t h e UFI p l o u g h ) .

For more i n f o r m a t i o n , s e e Chapter 2 . 4 ,

2 ) m e t a l components f o r o x- c a r t s ( a x l e s , wheels , n u t s and b o l t s ) based on TAMTU/CAMARTEC d e s i g n s a s w e l l a s comple te w h e e l- s e t s . Wheel- sets c o s t TShs 2,600 w i t h i r o n wheels and TShs 3,000 w i t h pneumat ic t y r e s .

3 ) a push t y p e hand p l a n t e r .

I n a d d i t i o n t h e company u n d e r t a k e s e n g i n e e r i n g jobbing.

P r o d u c t i o n of p lough- shares h a s been d i s c o u n t i n u e d .

During t h e f i r s t 9 months of 1983, Themi 's p r o d u c t i o n f i g u r e s were a s f o l l o w s ( w i t h r e f e r e n c e t o t a r g e t s ) :

( % o f t a r g e t i n SIDO s t u d y )

w h e e l a x l e s 56 1 7 5 % s t e e l - w h e e l s 1 ,151 61% p l o u g h s + w e e d e r s 486 86% c o m p l e t e ca r t s 2 0 11%

S a l e s volume f o r t h e f i r s t 9 months w a s a l m o s t TShs 3.0 m i l l i o n , o f which 65% r e f e r s t o s t a n d a r d p r o d u c t s and t h e r e s t t o j o b b i n g .

Themi h a s b e e n g i v e n a s p e c i a l p e r m i t t o s e l l t o TFA and d i r e c t l y t o v i l l a g e s h o p s i n a d d i t i o n t o RTCs. RTCs h a v e shown r e l u c t a n c e i n d e a l i n g w i t h Themi p r o d u c t s .

Themi e x p a n s i o n r e q u i r e m e n t s i n c l u d e a h e a v y d u t y power hack- saw, e x p a n s i o n o f t h e f o u n d r y , a r c- w e l d i n g sets, a p i l l a r d r i l l , a s h a p i n g machine and wood working m a c h i n e s . A t a l a t e r s t a g e , Themi wan t s a new b u i l d i n g w i t h a f o r g e hammer.

Our c o n c l u s i o n a b o u t Themi i s t h a t t h e y h a v e shown a commendable e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l and i n n o v a t i v e t a l e n t , b u t w e a r e n o t c o n v i n c e d t h a t t h e p r o d u c t d e s i g n deve lopment is c o m p l e t e as f a r as t h e animal- drawn p l o u g h is c o n c e r n e d . T h e m i ' s r e l i a n c e on t h e TAMTU/CAMARTEC d e s i g n o f o x - c a r t s i s a l s o a n o b s t a c l e .

The p r o f i t l e v e l i n t h e company i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e y s h o u l d b e a b l e t o l ower t h e i r p l o u g h- p r i c e t o make it more i n l i n e w i t h U F I ' s p r i c e .

W e a r e o f t h e o p i n i o n t h a t no ma jo r i n v e s t m e n t s h o u l d b e made i n t h i s company u n t i l t h e r i g h t p l o u g h and c a r t - w h e e l d e s i g n h a s b e e n found . Themi may need t e c h - n i c a l a d v i c e f rom SIDO i n t h i s r e s p e c t .

TRDB w i l l a p p a r e n t e l y c o n t i n u e t o r e n d e r raw m a t e r i a l s u p p o r t t o Themi.

5 . 1 . 4 O t h e r Smal l- Sca le I n d u s t r i a l U n i t s

Apar t from t h e SIDO-supported u n i t s d i s c u s s e d above, and t h e o x- c a r t manufac tu r ing workshops d i s c u s s e d i n Chapter 4 . 5 , t h e r e a r e a number o f s m a l l u n i t s o p e r a t- i n g on t h e i r own. W e have n o t had t h e o p p o r t u n i t y of i d e n t i f y i n g a l l t h e s e , b u t w e have v i s i t e d some which may be of i n t e r e s t .

Umoja E n g i n e e r i n g Works i n Arusha manufac tu res wheel- bar rows and some hammer-mills. The o p e r a t i o n s a r e s e v e r l y c o n s t r a i n e d by l a c k of f u n d s and raw m a t e r i a l s . The o p e r a t i o n employs 15 p e o p l e and h a s a tu rn- over of TShs 1.5 m i l l i o n p e r y e a r . Wheel-barrows s e l l a t TShs 2 ,200.

Azimio Engineer ing Works o u t s i d e Arusha p r i m a r i l y makes window frames and a u t o s p a r e p a r t s . B u t t h e y a r e a l s o making some wheel ba r rows f o r TFA s e l l i n g a t TShs 1,400 ( s m a l l s i z e ) and TShs 1,800 ( l a r g e s i z e ) . C a p a c i t y i s 100 wheelbarrows a month. The u n i t a l s o u n d e r t a k e s a l o t of r e p a i r work.

Tanzan ia I n d u s t r i e s i n Mwanza m a n u f a c t u r e r s n u t s and b o l t s , b u t t h e s t e e l s u p p l i e d t o them i s of poor q u a l i t y and t h u s t h e p r o d u c t s a r e n o t v e r y good. Con- s i d e r i n g t h e need f o r n u t s and b o l t s ( e . g . , f o r ox- p l o u g h s ) , t h e p o s s i b i l i t i e s of up- grading t h i s company

s h o u l d be s t u d i e d .

5.2 Medium Scale Production

The t i t l e of t h i s s e c t i o n is n o t e n t i r e l y c o r r e c t , a s we a r e a l s o go ing t o d i s c u s s some u n i t s which by most s t a n d a r d s would be d e s c r i b e d a s s m a l l , and some of t h e SIDO-supported companies d e s c r i b e d i n Chap te r 5.1. may w e l l be c o n s i d e r e d a s medium s c a l e i n t h e Tanzanian c o n t e x t . However, t h e i n d u s t r i e s d i s c u s s e d below a r e g e n e r a l l y n o t t h e r e s u l t of SIDO o r o t h e r government d i r e c t e d e f f o r t s , They a r e p r i v a t e l y owned, m o s t l y by p e o p l e of Asian o r i g i n o r n a t i o n a l i t y . Futhermore, t h e y a r e members of t h e Metal Engineer ing I n d u s t r i e s Deve-

lopment A s s o c i a t i o n (MEIDA) which w a s s e t up w i t h Swe- d i s h a s s i s t a n c e i n 1979. MEIDA was formed t o f a c i l i t a t e exchange o f i n f o r m a t i o n and e x p e r i e n c e among m e t a l e n g i n e e r i n g i n d u s t r i e s , and between them and government i n s t i t u t i o n s . MEIDA is a l s o assuming an a d v i s o r y r o l e o f a p r o b l e m- i d e n t i f y i n g n a t u r e .

The companies t o be d i s c u s s e d can be grouped i n t o two c a t e g o r i e s , t h o s e who c a n p l a y a r o l e i n manufac tu r ing farm implements i n t h e f u t u r e , and t h o s e who a r e pre- s e n t l y manufac tu r ing p o s t - h a r v e s t i n g equipment .

5 . 2 . 1 The MEIDA " c a p a c i t y - i d e n t i f y i n g " e x e r c i s e

I n November 1983, MEIDA s u b m i t t t e d t o t h e M i n i s t r y o f I n d u s t r i e s a paper e n t i t l e d C a p a c i t i e s w i t h i n MEIDA f o r t h e manufac tu r ing o f farm implements . T h i s was t h e r e s u l t of d i s c u s s i o n s i n t h e Farm Implements Manufac- t u r e c o o r d i n a t i n g commit tee . I t s h o u l d b e r e c o g n i s e d t h a t t h e demand f o r implements u n d e r l y i n g t h e e x e r c i s e a r e t h o s e p rov ided by TISCO, and which we c o n s i d e r t o o h i g h .

MEIDA i d e n t i f i e d 12 companies t h a t between them c o u l d manufac tu re 1 . 3 m i l l i o n hoes . These h o e s a r e e i t h e r r i v e t t e d o r welded h o e s , n o t t h e common f o r g e d hoes . Four companies were i d e n t i f i e d f o r matche t p r o d u c t i o n , a l t o g e t h e r 6 m i l l i o n p i e c e s . Four companies c o u l d make 720,000 s h o v e l s p .a . between them, t h r e e companies 120,000 s l a s h e r s , and f o u r companies 80,000 r a k e s . Four companies were i d e n t i f i e d t o have t h e c a p a c i t y t o manu- f a c t u r e ox- ploughs, ha r rows , c u l t i v a t o r s and r i d g e r s . Of a l l t h e i d e n t i f i e d companies o n l y t h r e e a r e a c t u a l l y producing t h e i t e m s and a n o t h e r is a b o u t t o s t a r t pro- d u c t i o n . M E I D A is propos ing t h a t government shou ld a l l o c a t e f o r e i g n exchange t o t h e s e companies f o r impor- t a t i o n of raw m a t e r i a l s and r e q u i r e d t o o l s and d i e s . MEIDA i s a l s o p ropos ing t o i n t r o d u c e a q u a l i t y c o n t r o l s t a n d a r d , which MEIDA would s u p e r v i s e and g u a r a n t e e by t h e i s s u e o f c e r t a i n t r a d e mark l a b e l s .

I t s h o u l d be n o t e d t h a t t h e e x e r c i s e was mere ly aimed a t i d e n t i f y i n g e x i s t i n g c a p a c i t y i n Tanzan ia , it does n o t d i s c u s s o r e v a l u a t e i f t h e p r o d u c t i o n volumes proposed a r e r e a l i s t i c , nor t h e c o s t e f f e c t i v e n e s s ( i n

t e r m s of l o c a l and f o r e i g n f u n d s ) of manufac tu r ing t h e ment ioned i t e m s .

According t o our op inon , t h e manufac tu re o f hoes s h o u l d c o n t i n u e t o be c o n c e n t r a t e d t o l a r g e- s c a l e p r o d u c t i o n u n i t s . We do n o t e x c l u d e , however, t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t a welded, r i v e t t e d o r p ress- hardened hoe may b e cheaper t o p roduce , b u t we a r e n o t convinced t h a t t h i s i s a g i v e n f a c t . I n a d d i t i o n , we b e l i e v e t h e market p re- f e r e n c e s s h o u l d n o t b e u n d e r e s t i m a t e d . Casements A f r i c a h a s manufactured some welded h o e s , which a r e o f poor q u a l i t y , and c o n s e q u e n t l y we have found them l y i n g i n t h e RTC go-downs and u n s a l e a b l e . The r e l a t i v e l y s m a l l numbers t o be produced a t e a c h u n i t (200,000 b e i n g t h e h i g h e s t ) makes t h e impact s m a l l . I n p a r t i c u l a r , such low p r o d u c t i o n must n o t be a l lowed t o j u s t i f y a h i g h e r p r i c e p e r hoe t h a n what UFI i s c h a r g i n g . I f , however, t h e u n i t p r i c e can be lowered , an t h e s a l e a b i l i t y be d e m o n s t r a t e d , t h i s a l t e r n a t i v e p r o d u c t i o n t e c h n o l o g y s h o u l d be s u p p o r t e d , b u t t h i s does n o t e x c l u d e concen- t r a t i o n o f manufac tu re . Advanced p l a n s f o r hoe produc- t i o n appear t o e x i s t i n r e s p e c t of one company, Simon Engineer ing Works i n Moshi, b u t t h e equipment which is be ing i n s t a l l e d i s v e r s a t i l e enough f o r o t h e r produc- t i o n . MEIDA h a s a l r e a d y o r d e r e d s t e e l f o r 200,000 h o e s , b u t h a s n o t y e t d e c i d e d where t o u s e it.

Matchets a r e n o t produced i n Tanzania t o d a y . T r i a l pro- d u c t i o n s t a r t e d i n December a t Cotex ( s e e b e l o w ) . The i d e n t i f i e d t o t a l c a p a c i t y ( 6 . 0 m i l l i o n m a t c h e t s ) i s much t o o h i g h f o r t h e n a t i o n a l demand and we a r e s t r o n g l y s u g g e s t i n g t o r e s t r i c t manufac tu re t o one MEIDA u n i t .

One of t h e companies i d e n t i f i e d a s c a p a b l e of producing m a t c h e t s a s w e l l a s p loughs i s t h e N a t i o n a l B i c y c l e s Company Ltd ( N A B I C O ) i n Dar e s Salaam. T h i s company h a s p r e s e n t l y c e a s e d manufac tu r ing b i c y c l e s , and o n l y a s m a l l number of h i n g e s and some window-frames a r e p r e s e n t l y produced t h e r e . We s h a r e t h e g e n e r a l f e e l i n g t h a t t h i s i m p r e s s i v e l y equ ipped u n i t s h o u l d n o t be s t a n d i n g i d l e , b u t we b e l i e v e b i c y c l e s would have such a n economic b e n e f i t ( p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t h e r u r a l a r e a s ) t h a t it would be p remature t o r e s t r u c t u r e NABICO i n t o a

farm implements m a n u f a c t u r e r a s s u g g e s t e d by MEIDA. I f no b i c y c l e manufac tu r ing p a r t n e r can be found , a thorough i n v e s t i g a t i o n s h o u l d be done a t NABICO t o judge t h e u s e f u l n e s s of t h e equipment f o r , e . g . , p lough manufac tu re . ( C o n s i d e r i n g market f o r e c a s t s and t h e a v a i l a b l e c a p a c i t i e s a t Z Z K and UFI and o t h e r u n i t s , plough p r o d u c t i o n w i l l s t i l l have t o be a r a t h e r s m a l l o p e r a t i o n a t NABICO, n o t exceed ing 10,000 p i e c e s p e r year f o r t h e n e x t 4-5 y e a r s , and t h e r e a f t e r p e r h a p s even l e s s . )

S h o v e l s can b e manufactured a t f o u r companies, t h r e e of which a l r e a d y have t h e t o o l i n g r e q u i r e d . The t o t a l c a p a c i t y i n our view f a r exceeds n a t i o n a l demand, p a r t i c u l a r l y i f we c o n s i d e r t h e demand f o r s h o v e l s i n a g r i c u l t u r e . According t o t h e TISCO marke t s t u d y from 1980, t o t a l demand i n 1986 was f o r e c a s t a t a l m o s t 700,000 p i e c e s . I n t h e d r a f t r e p o r t t o NDC on Mwanza farm implements f a c t o r y , t h e demand based on p r e s e n t i m p o r t a t i o n is reduced t o 300,000.

One of t h e proposed m a n u f a c t u r e r s i s Hans P a u l Dhararn S ingh and Son Ltd i n Arusha. Th is company c l a i m s t o have a c a p a c i t y t o manufac tu re a s many a s 1,500 s h o v e l s p e r d a y , i . e . , more t h a n 300,000 p e r annum, which i s t h e f i g u r e used by MEIDA, b u t t h e manager s t a t e s t h a t h e would p r e f e r t o o p e r a t e a t 1/3 o f t h i s c a p a c i t y . There i s a b o t t l e n e c k i n t h e manufac tu re o f h a n d l e s . The companyappearsto have a l l t h e equipment r e q u i r e d . A problem f o r t h e manufac tu re r was t h a t he had n o t been a l lowed t o s e l l d i r e c t l y t o t h e marke t (UFI i s t h e con- f i n e e ) . P r e f e r a b l y he would s e l l n o t o n l y t o RTCs b u t t o TFA as w e l l . During our v i s i t we were t o l d t h a t t h i s m a t t e r had been p o s i t i v e l y r e s o l v e d .

I n a d d i t i o n t o s h o v e l s , Hans Pau l Dharam Singh and Sons i s a l s o manufac tu r ing maize h u l l e r s and maize m i l l s i n l i m i t e d numbers.

We were v e r y impressed by t h e i n g e n u i t y of t h e e n t r e - p r e n e u r . However, h i s p remises were e x t r e m e l y s m a l l and we a r e d o u b t f u l whether t h e y w i l l a l l o w t h e s c a l e of p r o d u c t i o n f o r e s e e n . The o n l y r e q u i r e m e n t , s i n c e t h e

m a r k e t i n g problem h a s been r e s o l v e d , i s f o r e i g n exchange f o r raw m a t e r i a l s . A s t o c k f o r 30,000 s h o v e l s was a v a i l a b l e .

Rakes and s l a s h e r s a r e a l s o i d e n t i f i e d as s u i t a b l e f o r MEIDA p r o d u c t i o n . W e do n o t t h i n k t h a t t h e s e implements f i n d much use i n a g r i c u l t u r a l a c t i v i t i e s , and p r e f e r n o t t o comment on p l a n s f o r t h e i r manufac tu re . I t

s h o u l d b e n o t e d , though , t h a t UFI h a s d e c i d e d t o s t o p manufac tu re of s l a s h e r s , which i n c r e a s e s t h e oppor- t u n i t y f o r s m a l l e r s c a l e o p e r a t i o n s . Compet i t iveness w i t h i m p o r t s must , however, be d e m o n s t r a t e d . Axes and s i c k l e s a r e f o r g e d p r o d u c t s and f o r t h i s r e a s o n MEIDA recommends t h a t Z Z K s h o u l d manufac tu re t h o s e .

The o n l y ox implement proposed f o r MEIDA companies i s t h e p lough , based on t h e wooden beam d e s i g n . Plough bot tom assembly and plough s h a r e s a r e t o be bought from o t h e r m a n u f a c t u r e r s (UFI and MAFOTCO) as w e l l a s t h e c a s t i r o n d r a g wheel. In o u r d i s c u s s i o n s w i t h MEIDA p e r s o n n e l , t h e y e x p r e s s e d some a p p r e h e n s i o n t h a t t h e demand f o r p loughs e s t i m a t e d by TISCO (75 ,000) may be t o o h i g h and t h u s t h e market w i l l become f l o o d e d i f a l l t h e f o u r i d e n t i f i e d companies would commence manufac- t u r e . W e s h a r e t h i s a p p r e h e n s i o n , and we a r e f u r t h e r - more a d v i s i n g a g a i n s t t o o h i g h p r o d u c t i o n of t h e wooden beam plough u n t i l it h a s been p r o p e r l y t e s t e d and eva- l u a t e d on p e a s a n t f a rms i n r u r a l a r e a s . We have v i s i t e d one of t h e proposed MEIDA-member companies , V i t a n d a Manufactur ing Company Ltd i n Mwanza.

T h i s company h a s a wide p r o d u c t r a n g e , i n c l u d i n g wooden f u r n i t u r e , which h a s even been e x p o r t e d , s h o e s , b e d s , t r a v e l l i n g goods , and farm implements . The p r o d u c t i o n equipment is l a r g e l y se l f- made , b u t s t i l l it a p p e a r s a p p r o p r i a t e t o t h e p r o d u c t i o n .

V i t a n d a h a s s t a r t e d p r o t o t y p e p r o d u c t i o n of p l o u g h s , b o t h wooden beam and hol low box s t e e l beam. Shares a r e bought from MAFOTCO. Bottom a s s e m b l i e s have been pro- mised from UFI b u t n o t y e t r e c e i v e d . The c a p a c i t y i s s t a t e d a s 5,000 p loughs per y e a r , i f raw m a t e r i a l PS made a v a i l a b e . P l a n s e x i s t t o make e i t h e r s h o v e l s o r h o e s a s w e l l .

The workforce is p r e s e n t l y a b o u t 300 b u t was 700 b e f o r e 1978. There a r e f o u r I n d i a n e x p a t r i a t e s working i n t h e company.

5 . 2 . 2 Cotex M e t a l s and Machinery L t d

Cotex, which is a member o f t h e Cotex g r o u p of compa- n i e s , s t a r t e d o p e r a t i o n s i n 1980. They have a number of p r o d u c t l i n e s , i n c l u d i n g p l a s t i c s , s p a r e p a r t s o f v a r i o u s t y p e s , t e l ecommunica t ion equipment and p r e s s e d s h e e t metal p r o d u c t s . Cotex a l s o h a s a w e l l equ ipped tool- room, which is c o n s i d e r e d t o be one o f t h e b e s t i n Tanzania .

The g roup i s owned by two overseas- based s h a r e h o l d e r s , who a l s o own i n d u s t r i e s i n t h e U K .

The t o t a l i n v e s t m e n t i n Cotex is TShs 24.5 m i l l i o n , and tu rn- over i n 1983 is go ing t o be above TShs 20 m i l l i o n .

The company is managed by 6 d i r e c t o r s , 5 of which a r e e x p a t r i a t e s . 40 o f t h e 150 workers a r e s k i l l e d .

The o p e r a t i o n s a r e s e v e r l y hampered by l a c k o f raw m a t e r i a l s , p a r t i c u l a r l y t o o l and d i e s t e e l , as Cotex h a s n o t r e c e i v e d any f o r e i g n exchange a l l o c a t i o n from t h e Bank of Tanzania f o r t h e l as t t h r e e y e a r s . Mr. Ramathal, t h e D i r e c t o r i n c h a r g e of o p e r a t i o n s , i s con- v i n c e d t h a t Cotex c o u l d p r o v i d e tool- room s e r v i c e s f o r a l l t h e companies i n t h e MEIDA g r o u p wich do n o t have a d e q u a t e f a c i l i t i e s t h e m s e l v e s . They a r e p r e s e n t l y n e g o t i a t i n g w i t h Z Z K t o make t o o l s f o r p l o u g h- p a r t s .

Cotex was chosen by t h e Swedish e x p e r t who h e l p e d MEIDA i d e n t i f y t h e most s u i t a b l e company f o r matche t produc- t i o n . T h i s e x p e r t from t h e Swedish s t e e l company Sandvik ( p r e v i o u s l y a l s o a matche t m a n u f a c t u r e r ) h a s a d v i s e d on t h e r e q u r i e d t o o l s and a d d i t i o n a l equipment. The t o t a l c o s t t o Cotex ( i n c l u d i n g MEIDA commission of 1 0 % ) f o r matche t p r o d u c t i o n is TShs 1.14 m i l l i o n . (Mr Ramathal claims t h a t Cotex i t s e l f would have been a b l e t o make t h e t o o l s a t a much lower p r i c e t h a n t h e one Sandvik charged f o r some i t e m s . Cotex i s c e r t a i n l y now i n a p o s i t i o n t o d u p l i c a t e t h e matchet- t o o l s .

The s p e c i f i c a t i o n f o r t h e s t r a i g h t 1 6" m a t c h e t s t o be manufac tu red by Cotex is based on t h e m a t c h e t s imported from PRC. Raw m a t e r i a l s a r e go ing t o b e imported from Sweden. The s t e e l i s a l r e a d y h e a t - t r e a t e d . 100 t o n s have been o r d e r e d of which 40 t o n s have been r e c e i v e d .

Cotex e s t i m a t e s t o b e a b l e t o p roduce 4,800 m a t c h e t s p e r d a y , o r up t o 1 . 5 m i l l i o n a y e a r ( two s h i f t produc- t i o n ) . With a c o n s e r v a t i v e a s s e s s m e n t , r e c o g n i z i n g a b o t t l e n e c k i n h a n d l e p r o d u c t i o n , we would p u t t h e capa- c i t y a t 750,000 p i e c e s p e r y e a r .

Cotex s h o u l d b e a b l e t o manufac tu re m a t c h e t s a c c o r d i n g t o t h e MEIDA programme. Given raw m a t e r i a l s t h e y have t h e c a p a c i t y t o f u l f i l 1 most of t h e n a t i o n a l demand. However, c o s t s t o t h e consumers a r e go ing t o be v e r y much h i g h e r t h a n a t p r e s e n t i f t h e Cotex c o s t i n g is c o r r e c t and a c c e p t e d by t h e N a t i o n a l P r i c e Commissioner. W e b e l i e v e t h a t t h e c o s t s s h o u l d be reduced , e . g . , by a l l o w i n g d u t y- f r e e i m p o r t a t i o n of s t e e l and by w r i t i n g- o f f t h e t o o l i n g over a l o n g e r p e r i o d . But a l s o o t h e r c o s t i t e m s s h o u l d be p o s s i b l e t o reduce t o make t h e Cotex matche t c o m p e t i t i v e w i t h UFI's imported m a t c h e t . In f o r e i g n exchange t e r m s , t h e r e is a s a v i n g which i s n o t n e g l i g i b l e . ( A t an a n n u a l produc- t i o n o f 1 m i l l i o n m a t c h e t s it may be some 4 m i l l i o n T S h s ) , t h u s t h e t o o l i n g i s p a i d f o r i n o n l y a c o u p l e of months.

5 . 2 . 3 Manufac tu re o f P o s t- H a r v e s t i n g Equipment

P o s t - h a r v e s t i n g equipment r e f e r s t o m i l l s and d e h u l l e r s f o r v a r i o u s t y p e s of produce. The use o f hand-powered equipment i s n o t common i n Tanzan ia , a l t h o u g h some a t t e m p s t o i n t r o d u c e them h a s been made by Oxfam. The common t y p e s of m i l l s o r hammers a r e powered by d i e s e l e n g i n e s o r e l e c t r i c m o t o r s , and t h e i r c a p a c i t i e s a r e s u f f i c i e n t t o s u p p l y e n t i r e v i l l a g e s . The d i e s e l - powered maize hammer-mills a r e commonly s e e n a l l over Tanzan ia .

T h i s t y p e of equipment is p r i m a r i l y d i s t r i b u t e d by AISCO. TFA h a s p r e v i o u s l y s o l d m i l l s b u t h a s l a t e l y had d i f f i c u l t i e s i n o b t a i n i n g s u p p l i e s . AISCO i s t h e

i m p o r t e r f o r t h e prime movers, i . e . , t h e motor o r e n g i n e , and s u b- c o n t r a c t s t h e m i l l manufac tu re t o any of t h e companies mentioned below. Such manufac tu re is l a r g e l y f i n a n c e d by TRDB. For t h e l a s t few y e a r s TRDB h a s had a c c e s s t o USAID f u n d s t o f i n a n c e t h e importa- t i o n of raw m a t e r i a l s . SIDO h a s a l s o p l a y e d an impor- t a n t r o l e i n t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of maize m i l l s t o v i l l a g e s by u t i l i z i n g f u n d s i n t h e Rura l H i r e - Purchase Fund, which i s f i n a n c e d by Sweden.

A s h o r t d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e most i m p o r t a n t m a n u f a c t u r e r s of p o s t- h a r v e s t i n g equipment is g i v e n below. Other pro- d u c t i o n u n i t s , such as Hans P a u l Dharam Singh and Son i n Arusha ( s e e above) and Umoja Engineer ing Works, a l s o i n Arusha, make a small number o f maize m i l l s , a s do many o t h e r e n g i n e e r i n g workshops. Mangula Machine Tools i n I f a k a r a is a l s o a c t i v e b u t t h e i r r e p u t a t i o n i n t e r m s of q u a l i t y i s r a t h e r bad.

Manik E n g i n e e r i n g Ltd i n Arusha m a n u f a c t u r e s 4 d i f f e - r e n t s i z e s of maize m i l l s . The company h a s a c a p a c i t y o f 60 m i l l s p e r month, b u t due t o raw m a t e r i a l s h o r t a g e s t h e y o n l y manufac tu re 4-5 m i l l s p e r month a t p r e s e n t . ( P r o d u c t i o n i n 1981 w a s a p p r o x i m a t e l y 400 u n i t s and i n 1982 o n l y 140 u n i t s . )

The company was e s t a b l i s h e d i n 1975 and moved t o a new f a c t o r y i n 1980. The p r e s e n t number of employees i s a b o u t 20.

The company appeared t o have a good p r o d u c t i o n l i n e b u t t h e f a c t o r y was s t o c k e d w i t h a l a r g e number of un- f i n i s h e d p r o d u c t s . These p r o d u c t s a r e d e l i v e r e d t o AISCO f o r a d d i t i o n of t h e prime movers, b u t AISCO h a s been s low i n p l a c i n g o r d e r s ,

I f t h e p r e s e n t s t o c k w a s comple ted , a l a r g e number of m i l l s c o u l d be s u p p l i e d t o t h e marke t . Manik Engineer ing undoubtedly h a s a l a r g e c a p a c i t y .

Uni ted E n g i n e e r i n g L t d , w a s s t a r t e d i n 1966, and t h e D i r e c t o r , Mr Manik, c l a i m s t o be t h e f i r s t maize m i l l m a n u f a c t u r e r i n Tanzan ia . The c a p a c i t y is s a i d t o b e

100 m i l l s p e r month . U n i t e d E n g i n e e r i n g h a s a c o n t r a c t w i t h TRDB t o m a n u f a c t u r e 1 ,000 m a i z e m i l l s . TRDB is s u p p l y i n g t h e raw materials ( a n d t h e b e a r i n g s ) . The company a l s o m a n u f a c t u r e s d e h u l l e r s and o i l e x p e l l e r s .

They h a v e p l a n s t o s t a r t m a n u f a c t u r e o f s t r a i g h t m a t c h e t s . The a n n u a l t u r n - o v e r is a b o u t TShs 30 m i l l i o n . The w o r k- f o r c e i s 30 p e o p l e .

5 . 3 Large S c a l e P r o d u c t i o n

L a r g e - s c a l e p r o d u c t i o n o f f a r m i m p l e m e n t s is p r e s e n t l y c a r r i e d o u t a t two p l a n t s : Ubungo Farm Implemen t s (UFI ) i n D a r es Salaam a n d Zana za K i l i m o ( Z Z K ) i n Mbeya. Mangula Mechan ica l a n d Machine T o o l s Company (MMT) i n I f a k a r a a l o n g t h e T a z a r a r a i l w a y is n o t p r i m a r i l y a f a r m i m p l e m e n t s m a n u f a c t u r e r b u t h a s p r o d u c t i o n o f p o s t - h a r v e s t i n g e q u i p m e n t . A f o u r t h f a c t o r y is p l a n n e d t o b e s t a r t e d i n Mwanza.

The N a t i o n a l Development C o r p o r a t i o n (NDC) i s t h e h o l d i n g company f o r a l l t h e s e c o m p a n i e s , and i s a l s o r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e p l a n n i n g a n d e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f t h e Mwanza f a c t o r y . A number o f p o l i c y i s s u e s i s t h u s d i s c u s s e d a n d d e c i d e d by NDC. S e c t o r c o - o r d i n a t i o n r e s t s , howeve r , f i n a l l y w i t h t h e M i n i s t r y o f I n d u s t r i e s .

The i n s t a l l e d c a p a c i t y f o r m a n u f a c t u r i n g h o e s a n d p l o u g h s a t UFI a n d Z Z K i s as f o l l o w s :

UFI Z Z K

Hoes 2 .0 m 0 .75 m P l o u g h s ( c o m p l e t e m a n u f a c t u r e ) 25 000 15 000

5.3.1 Ubungo Farm Implemen t s Company (UFI)

UFI, l o c a t e d i n Dar es Sa laam, w a s commiss ioned i n 1970. I t h a s b e e n f i n a n c e d by a n i n t e r e s t - f r e e l o a n f rom t h e P e o p l e s R e p u b l i c o f C h i n a . The f a c t o r y is

b u i l t around t h r e e h o t- f o r g i n g l i n e s , and it a l s o h a s a s m a l l foundry . The second and t h i r d f o r g i n g l i n e s were i n s t a l l e d i n 1979/80. The main p r o d u c t s manufactured a t UFI a r e round- eyes h o e s and ox p loughs . UFI h a s a l s o produced g r a s s s l a s h e r s and b a l i n g hoops , b u t t h i s pro- d u c t i o n was r e c e n t l y d i s c o n t i n u e d . A s UFI i s t h e s o l e i m p o r t e r of hand farm implements and p l o u g h s , it a l s o h a s a n i m p o r t a n t t r a d i n g f u n c t i o n .

UFI h a s been t h e s u b j e c t of s e v e r a l s t u d i e s ; r e c e n t o n e s i n c l u d e R e h a b i l i t a t i o n p r o p o s a l - Farm Implements ( S t e h a g e n - A r e f a l k ) from J u l y 1982 ( r e f e r r e d t o below as t h e " Stehagen r e p o r t " ) and Farming implements ( K i h e r i l e and H u r t i g , NDC) from May - June 1983 ( r e f e r r e d t o below as t h e " H u r t i g r e p o r t " ) .

The S tehagen r e p o r t is o r i e n t e d towards t h e s o l u t i o n of t h e p r o d u c t i o n problems which had hampered (and t o a l a r g e e x t e n t s t i l l hamper) U F I 1 s p r o d u c t i o n . A t t h e t i m e of t h e r e p o r t ( J u n e 19821, p r o d u c t i o n was a b o u t h a l f of t h e r a t e d c a p a c i t y . Genera l problems, s u c h as poor p l a n n i n g , c o o r d i n a t i o n and c o l l a b o r a t i o n th rough- o u t t h e i n d u s t r y and w i t h i n NDC/UFI were quo ted as b a s i c . The p r o d u c t i o n equipment a t UFI was c o n s i d e r e d r a t h e r worn, and b o t t l e n e c k s i d e n t i f i e d were t h e h e a t t r e a t m e n t s e c t i o n , t h e l a c k o f conveyors and t h e f r i c - t i o n e l e m e n t s of t h e sc rew p r e s s e s . Another weakness was t h e p u r c h a s i n g f u n c t i o n . The r e p o r t is v e r y c r i t i - c a l o f t h e t o p management of UFI, and t h e team recomrnendedthat SIDAshouldmake any s u p p o r t t o UFI con- d i t i o n a l upon a d e c l a r a t i o n of c o l l a b o r a t i o n from t h e Board o f UFI.

The team proposed t h a t UFI shou ld m a i n t a i n i t s produc- t i o n programme and s t i c k t o hoes and p loughs . More componen ts s h o u l d be bought , e . g . , c a s t p a r t s . No heavy i n v e s t m e n t s were c o n s i d e r e d n e c e s s a r y b u t a number of s m a l l e r i t e m s needed r e p l a c e m e n t , The h e a t t r e a t m e n t s e c t i o n , however, needed t o be c o m p l e t e l y r e p l a c e d ,

The Stehagen r e p o r t t h u s proposed t o r e t a i n t h e t echno- l o g y and r e h a b i l i t a t e t h e e x i s t i n g equipment and p u t emphasis on t h e s t r e n g t h e n i n g of t h e management o f UFI,

The H u r t i g R e p o r t a r g u e s s t r o n g l y f o r c o n c e n t r a t e d p ro- d u c t i o n o f h o e s and p l o u g h s , and a t t e m p t s t o demon- s t r a t e how UFI c a n f u l f i l t o t a l n a t i o n a l demand f o r t h e s e i m p l e m e n t s . A number o f s u g g e s t i o n s were p u t f o r - ward t o r e d u c e U F I ' s p r o d u c t i o n c o s t s , i n c l u d i n g b e t t e r e n e r g y u s a g e b y r e p l a c i n g t h e h e a t t r e a t m e n t s e c t i o n a n d r e d u c i n g t h e work f o r c e . The r e p o r t s u g g e s t s r e p l a c e m e n t o f t h e p r e s e n t D u p l e x- r o l l i n g m a c h i n e s i d e n t i f i e d as a main b o t t l e n e c k , a n d i n s t a l l a t i o n o f 3 e d g e- g r i n d i n g m a c h i n e s and 1 7 c o n v e y o r s . A c c o r d i n g t o H u r t i g t h i s would r e s u l t i n a r a t e d c a p a c i t y a t UFI o f 3 . 5 m i l l i o n h o e s a n n u a l l y . The c o s t estimate f o r t h i s i s TShs 26 m i l l i o n . A new h e a t t r e a t m e n t s e c t i o n was p r o p o s e d . The r e p o r t a p p e a r s t o b e a r g u i n g a g a i n s t p e r- s o n n e l s u p p o r t t o UFI. The m e n t i o n e d i n v e s t m e n t programme i s a imed a t i n c r e a s i n g p r o d u c t i o n a c c o r d i n g t o p r e s e n t t e c h n o l o g y . However, UFI s h o u l d a l s o s t a r t p l a n n i n g f o r a c h a n g e o f t e c h n o l o g y , a d o p t i n g r i v e t t e d h o e s a n d n o t f o r g e d h o e s as t h e main p r o d u c t a t UFI.

These two r e p o r t s a r e s t i l l b a s i c t o t h e a n a l y s i s o f t h e p r o b l e m s a t UFI a n d t h e i r c o n c l u s i o n s a r e u s e d i n a NDC b o a r d p a p e r f rom November 1983 o n t h e r e h a b i l i t a - t i o n o f UFI. A d e l e g a t i o n f rom NDC v i s i t e d Sweden i n A p r i l a n d May 1983 t o d i s c u s s w i t h p o s s i b l e c o l l a b o r a - t i o n p a r t n e r s and c l a r i f y t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s , b u t as y e t no f i n a l c o n c l u s i o n s h a v e b e e n a r r i v e d a t . T h e r e h a s b e e n some a r g u m e n t as t o w h e t h e r UFI s h o u l d b r o a d e n i t s p r o d u c t r a n g e t o i n c l u d e t a n g e d h o e s , m a t c h e t s , s p a d e s a n d a x e s .

I n t h e above- men t ioned NDC b o a r d p a p e r , t h e l a t e s t p o s i t i o n o f UFI i s w e l l summar ized . U F I ' s c a p a c i t y i s s t a t e d as 2 . 0 m i l l i o n h o e s and 25 ,000 ox- p loughs p e r y e a r w i t h 2 - s h i f t p r o d u c t i o n , The p r o d u c t o n a c h i e v e d o v e r t h e l a s t y e a r s i s as f o l l o w s :

Hoes 950 ,000 1 ,220 ,000 890,000 P l o u g h s 1 1 , 5 8 3 4 ,845 11 ,057

P r o d u c t i o n p rob lems i n c l u d e some m a l f u n c t i o n i n g m a c h i n e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e Duplex m a c h i n e s , wh ich i n a d d i t i o n a r e e x t r e m e l y cumbersome t o m a i n t a i n and t h u s c a u s e p r o d u c t i o n l o s s e s , and l a c k o f s p a r e p a r t s . M a t e r i a l h a n d l i n g and q u a l i t y c o n t r o l d e v i c e s are i n - a d e q u a t e . The l a t t e r h a s r e s u l t e d i n t h e p o o r p e r f o r - mance i n t h e h e a t t r e a t m e n t s h o p . The Duplex mach ines and t h e h e a t t r e a t m e n t u n i t h a v e u n n e c e s s a r i l y h i g h r u n n i n g c o s t s . NDC t h u s c o n s i d e r s new h e a t t r e a t m e n t e q u i p m e n t a b s o l u t e l y n e c e s s a r y , and f u r t h e r b e l i e v e s t h a t a conveyor s y s t e m f o r h a n d l i n g o f t h e b l a n k s is r e q u i r e d . Rep lacemen t o f t h e Duplex mach ines a l o n g w i t h H u r t i g ' s p r o p o s a l i s a l s o s u g g e s t e d . However, t h e NDC r e p r e s e n t a t i v e t h a t w e d i s c u s s e d w i t h d i d n o t a g r e e w i t h t h e s u g g e s t i o n t h a t UFI s h o u l d a d o p t a d i f f e r e n t t e c h n o l o g y y e t f o r a l o n g t i m e t o come. Even i f t h e m a c h i n e s a r e o u t- d a t e d t h e y a r e f u n c t i o n a l , and NDC/UFI c a n n o t a f f o r d t o w r i t e - o f f t h e i n v e s t m e n t . A c h a n g e i n t e c h n o l o g y must c o n s e q u e n t l y b e d e f e r r e d .

The f o l l o w i n g s h o u l d b e n o t e d a b o u t U F I ' s p r o d u c t i o n m a c h i n e r y . I t w a s i m p o r t e d from PRC and i n s t a l l e d b y C h i n e s e t e c h n i c i a n s . A 2nd a n d 3 r d p r o d u c t i o n l i n e were added i n 1979/80, b u t h a v e n e v e r f u n c t i o n e d p r o p e r l y . The a g r e e m e n t w i t h t h e C h i n e s e e s t a b l i s h e d p e r f o r m a n c e r a t e s and t h e p r o d u c t r a n g e b u t t h i s h a s n o t been p o s s i b l e t o a c h i e v e , n o t e v e n w i t h C h i n e s e s u p e r- v i s i o n . Some o f t h e a g r e e d p r o d u c t s , e . g . , m a t c h e t s and a x e s , h a v e n e v e r been p r o d u c e d . A d e l e g a t i o n f rom RC v i s i t e d UFI a t t h e t i m e o f o u r v i s i t , t o t r y t o r e c t i f y t h e m a c h i n e s . On o u r r e p e a t e d q u e s t i o n s a t b o t h t h e M i n i s t r y , UFI a n d NDC it was c l e a r l y s t a t e d t h a t t h e r e were no p l a n s t o a s k t h e C h i n e s e t o s e n d a n y t e c h n i c a l s t a f f t o assist i n t h e p r o d u c t i o n a t UFI.

The S t e h a g e n r e p o r t a l s o i d e n t i f i e d t o p management as a weakness a t UFI. S e v e r a l management c h a n g e s h a v e s i n c e t a k e n p l a c e . I n September 1983 a new G e n e r a l Manager f o r UFI, Mr B J Chambaka, t o o k o v e r . Mr Chambaka had p r e v i o u s l y b e e n G e n e r a l Manager a t S t e e l R o l l i n g M i l l s i n Tanga. The new G e n e r a l Manager h a s made a good e f f o r t i n s t e p p i n g up p r o d u c t i o n , and t h e f i g u r e s g i v e n t o u s show a n i m p r e s s i n g improvement . ( I t is n o t e w o r t h y t h a t UFI d i d n o t s u f f e r i t s low c a p a c i t y u t i l i z a t i o n a s

a r e s u l t of l a c k of raw m a t e r i a l , as most o t h e r compa- n i e s i n Tanzan ia , b u t from p r o d u c t i o n b o t t l e n e c k s . )

UFI s a l e s o f h o e s ( i m p o r t e d and manufac tu red) t o t a l l e d 1 .9 m i l l i o n f o r t h e p e r i o d J a n . 1 - Nov. 8 , 1983. For t h e p e r i o d up t o S e p t . 30, s a l e s were o n l y 1.0 m i l l i o n , t h u s t h e r e was a n i n c r e a s e i n 2 months o f 0.9 m i l l i o n . ( I t s h o u l d b e n o t e d though , t h a t t h i s i s t h e peak s e a s o n . ) UFI i m p o r t s f o r 1983 a r e p lanned a t 728,000 b u t w e do n o t know i f t h i s whole amount h a s y e t a r r i v e d . The H u r t i g r e p o r t s tates t h a t p r o d u c t i o n up t o June 1983 w a s o n l y 0.3 m i l l i o n h o e s . P r o d u c t i o n f o r t h e l a s t q u a r t e r of 1983 was 757,600 h o e s , 23,800 p lough beams, 17,000 bot tom a s s e m b l i e s and 21,000 h a n d l e s . P loughs were most c e r t a i n l y p a r t l y made from s e m i - f i n i s h e d s t o c k . Mr Chambaka h a s i n t r o d u c e d 3 - s h i f t o p e r a t i o n s t o make up f o r t h e machines t h a t a r e i d l e because o f t h e Chines f a u l t - f i n d i n g programme. Achieve- ment o f t h e p r o d u c t i o n t a r g e t f o r 1983, 1 .3 m i l l i o n h o e s i s t h u s a l m o s t s e c u r e d . The t a r g e t f o r 1984, which i s s e t a t 1.66 m i l l i o n h o e s , w i l l e a s i l y be a c h i e v e d a t t h i s r a t e o f p r o d u c t i o n . I t s h o u l d be added, t h a t Mr Chambaka i n s p i t e o f h i s s u c c e s s i n improving produc- t i o n , f u l l y s u p p o r t s t h e NDC r e q u e s t f o r r ep lacement i n v e s t m e n t s .

S a l e s o f p loughs up t o Nov. 8 , 1983 were 22,423. ( S t o c k s a t t h e same d a t e were 4 , 0 0 0 . ) The p r o d u c t i o n t a r g e t f o r 1984 i s 20,000 p loughs . Plough s p a r e p a r t s t o r e h a b i l i t a t e 40,000 p l o u g h s , and bottom a s s e m b l i e s t o o t h e r m a n u f a c t u r e r s w i l l be manufactured i n a d d i- t i o n .

We were s u b s e q u e n t l y informed t h a t t h e t o t a l p r o d u c t i o n f i g u r e s f o r 1983 were 1.45 m i l l i o n hoes and 23,252 comple te p loughs .

UFI h a s a r a t h e r l a r g e s t o c k o f p ick- axes and garden t o o l s , which were purchased on t h e b a s i s of demand over- e s t i m a t i o n s . There is a l s o a l a r g e s t o c k o f p ick- axes w i t h t h e v a r i o u s RTCs, and t h e s e have c r e a t e d a l o t of t e n s i o n between UFI and t h e RTCs. ( A s no ted e l s e w h e r e i n t h i s r e p o r t , many RTCs c l a i m t h a t t h e y were s e n t

t h e s e p i c k- a x e s w i t h o u t h a v i n g o r d e r e d them, and a re t h e r e f o r e r e f u s i n g t o p a y f o r t h e m . )

The p i c k- a x e p rob lem stems f rom t h a t o t h e r a c t i v i t y o f U F I ' s , v i z t r a d i n g . W e are d i s c u s s i n g t h i s r o l e i n C h a p t e r 6 , D i s t r i b u t i o n . The re h a s b e e n s t r o n g c r i t i - c i s m o f UFI t h a t p r e v i o u s management o v e r e m p h a s i z e d i m p o r t a t i o n . I t t e n d e d t o h i d e t h e f a c t t h a t manufac- t u r i n g o p e r a t i o n s were r u n n i n g a t a l o s s b e c a u s e o f t o o low e f f i c i e n c y . To r e c t i f y t h i s , NDC imposed on UFI t h e o b l i g a t i o n t o k e e p i m p o r t s i n a s e p a r a t e a c c o u n t . I t s h o u l d a l s o b e n o t e d t h a t UFI h a s d e c i d e d i t s e l f what number o f imp lemen t s t o m a n u f a c t u r e and i m p o r t r e s p e c- t i v e l y , on t h e b a s i s o f o r d e r f o r e c a s t s f rom RTCs b u t w i t h l i t t l e o r no c o o r d i n a t i o n w i t h t h e M i n i s t r y o f A g r i c u l t u r e .

The s h o r t f a l l i n m e e t i n g demand w i l l c o n t i n u e t o b e i m p o r t e d by UFI a l s o i n 1984. A p a r t f rom t h e t r a d i - t i o n a l s o u r c e s ( I n d i a , PRC and U K ) , i m p o r t s w i l l a l s o b e made f rom Zimbabwe a n d Zambia. The p r e v i o u s manager a t UFI h a s o r d e r e d 30 ,000 we lded h o e s and 15 ,000 p l o u g h s f rom Zambia. Our i n s p e c t i o n showed t h a t t h e q u a l i t y o f t h e Zambian p r o d u c t s is v e r y low and anyway t h e Zambian m a n u f a c t u r e r s w i l l n o t b e a b l e t o d e l i v e r t h e p l o u g h s u n t i l t h e end o f 1984. UFI h a s s t o p p e d s e n d i n g t h e Zambian h o e s t o t h e RTCs b e c a u s e of t h e i r i n f e r i o r q u a l i t y . On t h e o t h e r h a n d , s a m p l e s f rom Zimbabwe i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e i r q u a l i t y i s good .

The p r e s e n t l y m a n u f a c t u r e d ox p l o u g h i s b a s e d on a n I n d i a n d e s i g n and components a r e i m p o r t e d f rom t h e company C o s s u l . T h i s p l o u g h i s t h e mos t p o p u l a r i n T a n z a n i a ( g i v e n t h e l a c k o f a l t e r n a t i v e s ) b u t it h a s some w e a k n e s s e s ( r e f e r t o C h a p t e r 1.3.1) We d i s c u s s how t o i n t r o d u c e more modern p l o u g h t y p e s i n t o T a n z a n i a i n C h a p t e r 2 . However, w e s t r o n g l y recommend t h a t UFI s h o u l d t r y t o improve on t h e p r e s e n t d e s i g n t o i n c r e a s e t h e d u r a b i l i t y and l i f e t i m e o f t h e p l o u g h . One impor- t a n t a r e a o f improvement i s t h e n u t s and b o l t s . These a r e o f no less t h a n 9 d i f f e r e n t s i z e s , and t h u s a re- d u c t i o n o f t h i s number would b e o f a d v a n t a g e t o b o t h UFI when p r o c u r i n g s t o c k s and t o t h e f a r m e r when h e n e e d s a r e p l a c e m e n t . S e c o n d l y , t h e n u t s and b o l t s

s h o u l d b e f i t t e d w i t h some l o c k i n g d e v i c e , which would p r e v e n t them from l o o s e n i n g and t h u s a v o i d i n g t h e commonly s e e n d i s i n t e g r a t i o n o f t h e p loughs . A t plough- i n g t u r n s o r d u r i n g homes tead- to- f ie ld t r a n s p o r t s t h e plough is o f t e n dragged on t h e ground s k i d d i n g on t h e h a n d l e , which l e a d s t o heavy wear . A s i m p l e s k i d d i n g d e v i c e s h o u l d be f i t t e d o n t o t h e r i g h t h a n d l e .

A more profound d e s i g n change , which is c r u c i a l , is t o improve t h e s t e e l beam, s o t h a t it can a l l o w t h e use of o t h e r implements t h a n t h e plough.

The t e a m ' s c o n c l u s i o n s from rev iewing t h e r e p o r t s on UFI and from our d i s c u s s i o n s i n Dar es Salaam a r e t h e f o l l o w i n g .

There a r e no v a l i d r e a s o n s f o r d i s c o n t i n u i n g p r o d u c t i o n a t UFI. The c o s t comparisons i n d i c a t e t h a t hoe produc- t i o n l o c a l l y can compete w i t h i m p o r t a t i o n and is a f o r e i g n exchange s a v i n g a c t i v i t y . I n our o p i n i o n it would b e p remature t o change t e c h n o l o g y u n t i l f u r t h e r e x p e r i e n c e h a s been g a i n e d from p r o d u c t i o n and market- i n g o f welded o r r i v e t t e d hoes . W e s t r o n g l y s u g g e s t t h a t UFI s h o u l d c o n c e n t r a t e on hoe and plough produc- t i o n , i n c l u d i n g s p a r e p a r t s f o r p loughs . (The n e x t pro- d u c t t o be c o n s i d e r e d s h o u l d b e a x e s , which i s a l s o a f o r g e d p r o d u c t , p rov ided t h e c o s t e f f i c i e n c y is compe- t i t i v e t o i m p o r t s . ) We b e l i e v e t h a t UFI, w i t h a capa- c i t y o f 2 .0 m i l l i o n hoes and 25,000 p loughs , w i l l be a b l e t o s a t i s f y 65% of t h e hoe demand and a t l e a s t 40% of t h e plough demand i n Tanzan ia . Design m o d i f i c a t i o n s t o t h e s t e e l beam of t h e UFI plough a r e d e s i r a b l e .

Higher e f f i c i e n c y and a b e t t e r u t i l i z a t i o n r a t e may a l l o w UFI t o t r i m i t s p r o d u c t p r i c e s , which we f i n d u n n e c e s s a r i l y h i g h . To be a b l e t o f u l f i l 1 i t s impor tan t r o l e i n t h e Tanzanian economy, UFI must b e g i v e n s u p p o r t i n t h e forms of f u n d s f o r raw m a t e r i a l importa- t i o n , f o r r ep lacement of some machines , f o r s p a r e p a r t s and f o r c e r t a i n management r e i n f o r c e m e n t s . We b e l i e v e t h i s i s an a r e a where d o n o r s can p r o v i d e a s s i s t a n c e .

We f e e l s t r o n g l y c o n v i n c e d t h a t UFI s h o u l d b e r e l i e v e d o f i t s r o l e as a t r a d i n g company. Only f o r t h o s e items where UFI i s t h e main m a n u f a c t u r e r ( r / e h o e s , p l o u g h s and p o s s i b l y a x e s ) s h o u l d UFI m a i n t a i n i t s r o l e as i m p o r t e r .

On t h e o t h e r h a n d , UFI s h o u l d c o n t i n u e t o h a v e t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r s e l l i n g t o t h e r e g i o n s i n o r d e r t o h a v e a c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e m a r k e t . W e see no need t o i n t r o d u c e y e t a n o t h e r middle-man ( s u c h as AISCO) i n t h e p r e s e n t d i s t r i b u t i o n c h a i n . T h i s a l s o means t h a t w e c o n s i d e r t h e p r e s e n t a r r a n g e m e n t c o n c e r n i n g c r e d i t s t o RTCs as p r o p e r , a l t h o u g h t h e c r e d i t volume h a s t o b e r e d u c e d .

W e s u g g e s t a n a d m i n i s t r a t i v e c o o r d i n a t i o n be tween UFI and ZZK, and a s t r e n g t h e n i n g o f t h e two c o m p a n i e s ' p ro- d u c t i o n management t h r o u g h a management ag reement w i t h a s u i t a b l e o p e r a t i n g company.

5 . 3 . 2 Z a n a z a K i l i m o Ltd, Mbeya ( Z Z K )

The c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h i s p l a n t s t a r t e d i n 1977 b u t com- m i s s i o n i n g w a s s e v e r e l y d e l a y e d . T r i a l p r o d u c t i o n s t a r t e d i n A p r i l 1982 , and commerc ia l p r o d u c t i o n i n September 1982. However, t h e equ ipmen t is s t i l l n o t c o m p l e t e d u e t o l a c k o f f u n d s . The p l a n t was o r i g i n a l l y f i n a n c e d w i t h I n d i a n gove rnmen t c r e d i t s . SIDA h a s r e c e n t l y a g r e e d t o f i n a n c e some o f t h e m i s s i n g t o o l s and e q u i p m e n t .

The t o t a l i n v e s t m e n t i n t h e p l a n t up t o O c t o b e r 1983 was TShs 85 .5 m i l l i o n , i n c l u d i n g c i v i l works . The m a c h i n e r y c o s t 36.5 m i l l i o n . A f u r t h e r i n v e s t m e n t o f TShs 24 .5 m i l l i o n is c o n s i d e r e d n e c e s s a r y b e f o r e t h e p l a n t is c o m p l e t e . The p r o j e c t f i n a n c e h a s b e e n p ro- v i d e d t h r o u g h a n I n d i a n Government c r e d i t o f approxima- t e l y TShs 24.5 m i l l i o n , l o a n s f rom TIB a n d TDFL o f t o t a l l y TShs 34.2 m i l l i o n and e q u i t y c a p i t a l f rom NDC ( f i n a n c e d by a g r a n t f rom t h e N e t h e r l a n d s ) . Working c a p i t a l is p r o v i d e d b y NBC. The Du tch gove rnmen t h a s a l s o f i n a n c e d a c o n s i g n m e n t o f raw mater ia ls .

The p l a n t was d e s i g n e d w i t h t h e a s s i s t a n c e o f a n I n d i a n c o n s u l t i n g f i r m b u t t h i s company o b v i o u s l y l a c k e d ade -

q u a t e e x p e r i e n c e . At p r e s e n t t h e r e i s a t e a m o f I n d i a n t e c h n i c a l a s s i s t a n c e p e r s o n n e l f r o m a m a n u f a c t u r i n g company a s s i s t i n g i n t h e management o f Z Z K . The team c o n s i s t s o f 2 p e o p l e . T h r e e m o r e I n d i a n s a r e t r a i n i n g T a n z a n i a n p e r s o n n e l i n h a n d- f o r g i n g t e c h n i q u e s .

T h e p l a n t was d e s i g n e d t o p r o d u c e :

Hoes M a t c h e t s Axes P i c k - a x e s S h o v e l s Hand s p r a y e r s Ox p l o u g h s P l o u g h s p a r e s T r a c t o r d rawn d i s c h a r r o w s , d i s c p l o u g h s a n d c u l t i v a t o r s

7 5 0 , 0 0 0 a n n u a l l y 9 0 0 , 0 0 0 l'

2 5 0 , 0 0 0 "

2 0 , 0 0 0 "

5 0 , 0 0 0 "

2 0 , 0 0 0 "

1 5 , 0 0 0 " -

P r e s e n t p r o d u c t i o n i n c l u d e s h o e s , o x p l o u g h s , some s h o v e l s a n d some h a n d- f o r g e d p i c k - a x e s . P r o d u c t i o n f i g u r e s a r e a s f o l l o w s :

J a n u a r y 4 - S e p t e m b e r 3 0 , 1 9 8 3 P r o d u c t i o n a t Z Z K

r / e h o e s 1 1 7 , 3 3 4 p l o u g h s 1 , 0 6 4 s h o v e l s 2 , 0 8 4 p i c k - a x e s 3 0 5

T h i s r e p r e s e n t s less t h a n 1 0 % o f t h e c a p a c i t y o f t h e p l a n t ,

F o r t h e 6- month p e r i o d J a n u a r y t o J u n e 1 9 8 4 , Z Z K i s p l a n n i n g t h e f o l l o w i n g p r o d u c t i o n :

% o f r a t e d c a p a c i t y

r / e h o e s 1 5 0 , 0 0 0 4 7 Rungwe ( t a n g e d ) h o e s 2 5 , 0 0 0 Mould b o a r d p l o u g h s 9 , 0 0 0 180 P i c k - a x e s 1 2 , 0 0 0 120 S h o v e l s 3 0 , 0 0 0 720 W h e e l- b a r r o w s 1 , 8 0 0 - Hand a x e s 3 0 , 0 0 0 2 4

Wheel-barrow p r o d u c t i o n s t a r t e d a l r e a d y i n 1983. Among t h e p r o d u c t s o r i g i n a l l y p lanned f o r Z Z K , m a t c h e t s and s i c k l e s a r e n o t i n c l u d e d i n t h e programme, nor hand s p r a y e r s o r t r a c t o r- d r a w n implements . During 1984, Z Z K hopes t h a t t h e p r o d u c t i o n of hoes c a n r e a c h 2,500 a day ( 2 - s h i f t o p e r a t i o n ) , which is a b o u t d o u b l e t h e p r e s e n t p r o d u c t i o n . T h i s c o r r e s p o n d s t o a n a n n u a l p r o d u c t i o n of 625,000. Another p lanned development is t o s t a r t f o r g- i n g of p lough s h a r e s , mould-boards and f r o g s . However, Z Z K w i l l have t o p u r c h a s e d i e s , as Z Z K d o e s n o t y e t have enough s k i l l e d p e r s o n n e l i n i t s machine shop. . Z Z K

h a s asked UFI and Cotex f o r q u o t e s b u t t h e s e have been c o n s i d e r e d t o o h i g h . Some o t h e r d i e s have been made by t h e SIDO Common F a c i l i t y Workshop i n Mbeya.

NDC and Z Z K a r e s t i l l t r y i n g t o i d e n t i f y a s u i t a b l e c o l l a b o r a t i o n p a r t n e r f o r t r a c t o r implement manufac- t u r e .

M a t e r i a l s t o cover hoe p r o d u c t i o n f o r a p p r o x i m a t e l y 8 months a r e a v a i l a b l e ( t h e remainder of a Dutch g r a n t ) . For p lough p r o d u c t i o n t h e r e a r e no components i n s t o c k b u t m a t e r i a l s may be made a v a i l a b l e from TRDB (USAID f u n d s ) .

Z Z K i s p r e s e n t l y s e l l i n g hoes t o RTCs. I n t h e f u t u r e Z Z K hopes t o s e l l a l s o t o TFA. A submiss ion was made t o t h e N a t i o n a l P r i c e Commissioner i n October 1983 t o g e t a p p r o v a l on proposed p r i c e s f o r s a l e s from Z Z K .

The equipment and machinery a t Z Z K i s g e n e r a l l y con- s i d e r e d t o be v e r y good, a l t h o u g h it i s unbalanced and p r o v i d e d w i t h t o o few t o o l s . Mr T. L i l j e v i k is of t h e o p i n i o n t h a t t h e p l a n t i s over- equipped and s u g g e s t s t h a t c e r t a i n machines shou ld be d i s p o s e d o f . There a r e a few machines t h a t h e c o n s i d e r s n e c e s s a r y t o p r o c u r e .

SIDA h a s r e c e n t l y a g r e e d t o f i n a n c e TShs 7.0 m i l l i o n worth of t h e most needed i t e m s o f s p a r e p a r t s , t o o l s , d i e s t e e l and raw m a t e r i a l s . A f u r t h e r TShs 6 m i l l i o n a p p e a r s t o be a v a i l a b l e under an ~ n d i a n s t a t e c r e d i t f o r s p a r e p a r t s and plough component p u r c h a s e s i n I n d i a .

NDC h a s p r e p a r e d a p r o p o s a l f o r " d e - b o t t l e n e c k i n g " in- v e s t m e n t s a s f o l l o w s :

Tools and d i e s 13.4 m i l l i o n TShs Raw m a t e r i a l s f o r s p a r e s 3 .6 " Balancing equipment 2.3 " S p a r e s 0.5 " A c c e s s o r i e s 4.2 "

T r a i n i n g 0.5 "

TOTAL 24.5 m i l l i o n TShs

I t a p p e a r s t h a t t h i s p r o p o s a l d o e s n o t t a k e a c c o u n t of t h e above-mentioned SIDA g r a n t , and t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s o u g h t t h u s b e reduced by TShs 5 .9 m i l l i o n , w i t h o u t t a k i n g i n t o a c c o u n t t h e I n d i a n c r e d i t , which, i f t a k e n up, w i l l p o s s i b l y g o t o t h e p u r c h a s i n g of p lough compo- n e n t s .

A s f a r as t h e p r e s e n t p r o d u c t i o n i s concerned , Z Z K i s manufac tu r ing a round-eyed hoe which is n o t e a s i l y s o l d i n t h e Sou thern Highlands , where t h e Rungwe o r Uf i p a h o e s ( b o t h t a n g e d ) a r e i n demand. Most of t h e Z Z K pro- d u c t i o n h a s t h e r e f o r e been s o l d t o Morogoro RTC. However, t h e SIDA f u n d s w i l l b e used t o p u r c h a s e t o o l - i n g f o r Rungwe and Ufipa hoes .

The o r i g i n a l p lough was based on a n I n d i a n d e s i g n , which d i d n o t se l l a t a l l . Z Z K t h e n changed t o t h e wooden beam plough d e s i g n . However, Z Z K c l a i m s t h a t t h e y have been u n a b l e t o s e l l t h e wooden beam p lough , a s t h e RTCs r e f u s e t o buy i t , and Z Z K h a s d e c i d e d t o r e p l a c e t h e wooden beam w i t h a s i m i l a r l y shaped ( h o l l o w box) s t e e l beam which is now i n p r o d u c t i o n . The bottom assembly is bought from UFI. 750 s t e e l beam ploughs have been s o l d t o Mbozi d i s t r i c t , a t a p r i c e o f TShs 1 ,600.

The t e a m ' s o b s e r v a t i o n s a s a r e s u l t of t h e f a c t o r y v i s i t were t h a t p r o d u c t i o n was b a d l y o r g a n i s e d and a t a n u n a c c e p t a b l y low l e v e l . The h o e s showed s i g n s o f t h e t o o l b e i n g v e r y b a d l y worn.The o p e r a t i o n s i n t h e plough assembly h a l l a p p e a r e d t o b e w i t h o u t l o g i c . Pick- axe hand- forging c a n h a r d l y be regarded a s s u i t a b l e f o r l a r g e - s c a l e f a c t o r y p r o d u c t i o n .

NDC h a s r e c o g n i s e d t h e man-power c o n s t r a i n t s a t Z Z K , and h a s s u g g e s t e d a n i n t e n s i f i e d t r a i n i n g programme. However, w e must c o n c l u d e t h a t a new management i s of fundamental impor tance t o r e c t i f y t h e s i t u a t i o n a t Z Z K , and we do n o t b e l i e v e t h a t t h e p r e s e n t team h a s t h i s c a p a b i l i t y .

I n t h e p r e s e n t o r g a n i s a t i o n t h e r e a r e 5 d e p a r t m e n t s under t h e Genera l Manager. The p r e s e n t Genera l Manager Mr Mbena, i s s t i l l c a l l e d P r o j e c t Manager as NDC i s s t i l l r e g a r d i n g Z Z K a s a development p r o j e c t and n o t a commercial e n t e r p r i s e . Three of t h e d e p a r t m e n t s l a c k a manager. The t e c h n i c a l depar tment i s headed by one o f t h e I n d i a n e n g i n e e r s . There a r e 4 s e c t i o n s under him, two of which l a c k incumbents . The t e c h n i c a l manager i s s u p p o r t e d by two p r o d u c t i o n e n g i n e e r s , one of whom is a n I n d i a n , and one maintenance e n g i n e e r .

A c o u p l e of e n g i n e e r s a r e undergoing t r a i n i n g over- s e a s . The t o t a l workforce i s 6 0 p e o p l e , of which 21 have been f o r t r a i n i n g i n I n d i a f o r 3 t o 6 months.

The I n d i a n p e r s o n n e l i s prov ided i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e p r e v i o u s l y ment ioned t e c h n i c a l a s s i s t a n c e agreement . However, t h e p e r s o n n e l i s employed by Z Z K and h a s exe- c u t i v e f u n c t i o n s . The I n d i a n company p r o v i d e s p r o c e s s d rawings and back-up s e r v i c e s . The agreement r u n s f o r f i v e y e a r s b u t is s u b j e c t t o a n n u a l r ev iews and e n t i t - l e s t h e I n d i a n company t o c e r t a i n r e m u n e r a t i o n s p l u s a r o y a l t y based on p r o d u c t i o n volume. The agreement is f i n a n c e d under a n I n d i a n s t a t e c r e d i t .

Our c o n c l u s i o n is t h a t t h e I n d i a n company i s n o t pro- v i d i n g t h e s e r v i c e s t h a t a r e n e c e s s a r y t o p u t Z Z K i n t o p r o p e r o p e r a t i n g s h a p e . C l e a r l y t h e r e a r e n o t enough Tanzanian managers , and t h e I n d i a n s a r e t o o few t o manage t h e p l a n t on t h e i r own. We t h e r e f o r e s t r o n g l y recommend:

a ) t o t r a n s f e r one o r two more p r o d u c t i o n t e c h n i c i a n s t o Z Z K ;

b ) t o r e p l a c e t h e I n d i a n team of t e c h n i c a l p e r s o n n e l . We a r e conv inced , though , t h a t Z Z K needs management s u p p o r t from a company w i t h s o l i d e x p e r i e n c e o f f o r g i n g o p e r a t i o n s .

Our c o n c l u s i o n s w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e p r e s e n t and planned p r o d u c t i o n a t Z Z K a r e t h e f o l l o w i n g :

a ) a l l a c t i v i t i e s s h o u l d b e c o n c e n t r a t e d on a c h i e v i n g p r o p e r hoe p r o d u c t i o n and a smooth p r o d u c t i o n f low. An a n n u a l p r o d u c t i o n s u r p a s s i n g t h e r a t e d c a p a c i t y o f 0.75 m i l l i o n h o e s p e r y e a r s h o u l d be p o s s i b l e t o a c h i e v e from 1985 ;

b ) hand- forging of p ick- axes s h o u l d be d i s c o n t i n u e d . These i t e m s a r e i n low demand and t h e r e is a l a r g e unso ld s t o c k i n t h e c o u n t r y . W e do n o t t h i n k it is j u s t i f i e d t o r e t a i n t h i s o p e r a t i o n f o r t r a i n i n g pur- p o s e s o n l y ;

C ) s h o v e l p r o d u c t i o n shou ld o n l y b e c o n t i n u e d a f t e r p r o p e r a s s e s s m e n t of t h e market and of t h e produc- t i o n a t o t h e r manufac tu r ing u n i t s i n Dar e s Salaam and Arusha. Local demand may n o t j u s t i f y mass pro- d u c t i o n a t Z Z K ;

d ) t h e i d l e workforce , u n l e s s it can be d i s c h a r g e d , s h o u l d be employed i n wheel-barrow p r o d u c t i o n , b u t a p r o p e r p r o d u c t i o n l i n e must t h e n b e set up;

e ) manufac tu re o f t h e p r e s e n t t y p e of p lough (wooden d e s i g n of a s t e e l beam) s h o u l d be reviewed. P l a n s s h o u l d be made t o g e t h e r w i t h UFI t o s t a r t p a r t s manufac tu re f o r t h e UFI t y p e o f plough u n t i l e i t h e r Z Z K i s p r o p e r l y o r g a n i s e d f o r manufac tu re o f comple te UFI-type o r o t h e r m a r k e t a b l e t y p e s of p loughs f o r t h e s o u t h e r n r e g i o n s , o r a p o s s i b l e new plough d e s i g n h a s been p r o p e r l y e v a l u a t e d ;

f ) any p l a n s f o r manufac tu r ing t r a c t o r- d r a w n implements s h o u l d be s h e l v e d u n t i l p r o p e r p r o d u c t i o n of hand t o o l s and ox equipment is o r g a n i s e d .

We f i n a l l y b e l i e v e t h a t t h e c o s t e s t i m a t e s u b m i t t e d t o t h e N a t i o n a l P r i c e Commissioner s h o u l d be t h o r o u g h l y and c r i t i c a l l y e v a l u a t e d . I t d o e s n o t seem l i k e l y t h a t s u c h a wide d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e d i r e c t m a t e r i a l c o s t s between UFI and Z Z K i s c o r r e c t .

5 . 3 . 3 Mwanza Farm Implements Fac to ry

P lann ing f o r t h e t h i r d l a r g e - s c a l e farm implements f a c t o r y , which i s going t o be l o c a t e d t o Mwanza, is c o n t i n u i n g . T h i s p l a n t w i l l be e s t a b l i s h e d w i t h Bulga- r i a n a s s i s t a n c e . I ts c o n c e n t r a t i o n w i l l b e on t r a c t o r - drawn implements and i r r i g a t i o n equ ipment , b u t produc- t i o n o f h o e s , m a t c h e t s , a x e s and ox p loughs is a l s o

planned . C o n s t r u c t i o n of t h i s p l a n t i s a t p r e s e n t pro- j e c t e d t o s t a r t i n 1985 and b e f i n a l i z e d i n 1986, w i t h commercial p r o d u c t i o n commencing i n 1988.

The B u l g a r i a n s u p p l i e r h a s n o t y e t s u b m i t t e d an o f f e r b u t t h e B u l g a r i a n government h a s a g r e e d t o f i n a n c e 85% of t h e d e l i v e r y . The remainder w i l l be p a i d t h r o u g h b a r t e r a r r a n g e m e n t s . The t o t a l c o s t of t h e equipment is e s t i m a t e d by TISCO, who h a s r e c e n t l y s u b m i t t e d a d r a f t f e a s i b i l i t y s t u d y f o r t h e p l a n t t o NDC, a t around TShs 220 m i l l i o n . For f u r t h e r d e t a i l s r e g a r d i n g t h i s p lanned p r o j e c t we r e f e r t o t h e TISCO s t u d y .

For t h e p u r p o s e s o f t h i s s t u d y , w e c o n s i d e r t h a t as f a r as hand t o o l s u p p l y is concerned , t h e new p l a n t is n o t n e c e s s a r y . Ox p lough p r o d u c t i o n w i l l s t a r t t o o l a t e t o have a n impact i n t h e p e r i o d of c o n c e r n t o u s and demand can be m e t from o t h e r s o u r c e s .

5 . 3 . 4 Mangula Mechanical and Machine Tools Company (MMT)

T h i s company w a s b u i l t a s a maintenance workshop f o r t h e C h i n e s e- b u i l t Tanzania Zambia Railway. I t h a s a v e r y l a r g e p r o d u c t i o n c a p a c i t y , which is n o t u t i l i z e d f o r t h e r a i l w a y , and h a s t h e r e f o r e t a k e n up s e r i e s pro- d u c t i o n o f , among o t h e r t h i n g s , v a r i o u s i t e m s o f p o s t - h a r v e s t i n g equipment , such as maize m i l l s , r i c e h u l l e r s and c o f f e e p u l p e r s , b u t a l s o wheelbarrows. The q u a l i t y of t h e MMT p r o d u c t s i s regarded a s r a t h e r poor . MMT's

impor tance i s p r i m a r i l y a s a r e p a i r workshop. The ope- r a t i o n s a r e c a r r i e d o u t w i t h t h e a s s i s t a n c e of a team of 46 Chinese t e c h n i c i a n s .

We d i d n o t i n c l u d e MMT i n our f i e l d t r i p s .

CHAPTER SIX DISTRIBUTION OF FARM IMPLEMENTS I N TANZANIA

6 . 1 The Distribution System

U n t i l r e c e n t l y t h e s u p p l y o f farm implements (hand t o o l s and ox-drawn equ ipment ) h a s o r i g i n a t e d from two main s o u r c e s : Impor t s and p r o d u c t i o n a t t h e Ubungu Farm Implements F a c t o r y ( U F I ) . In a d d i t i o n some p r o d u c t i o n and r e p a i r of implements i s done by l o c a l b l a c k s m i t h s and i n workshops o r s m a l l i n d u s t r i e s . S i n c e 1972, UFI h a s a l s o been t h e s o l e i m p o r t e r o f farm implements , g i v i n g it a monopoly p o s i t i o n i n n a t i o n a l s u p p l y . U n t i l 1980 t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n c h a n n e l s f o r farm implements were r a t h e r l o o s e l y d e f i n e d p r o v i d i n g o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r p r i - v a t e , c o o p e r a t i v e as w e l l a s government u n i t s t o p a r t i - c i p a t e .

The i n c r e a s i n g b a l a n c e o f payment problem h a s had a marked impact on t h e q u a n t i t y and t h e s t r u c t u r e o f n a t i o n a l i m p o r t s . Farm implements were a f f e c t e d d i r e c t - l y t h r o u g h c u t s i n i m p o r t s of f i n i s h e d implements and i n d i r e c t l y t h r o u g h r e d u c t i o n s i n i m p o r t s of raw m a t e r i a l s , s p a r e p a r t s and f u e l f o r p r o d u c t i o n . UFI r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s c l a i m t h a t 1979 was t h e l a s t y e a r i n which farm implements were amply s u p p l i e d t o t h e n a t i o n a l marke t . l

The i n c r e a s i n g s h o r t a g e s o f b a s i c cornmoditions l e d t o t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f conf inement p o l i c i e s b a s e d on t h e R e g u l a t i o n o f Trade Act ( 1 9 8 0 ) . The conf inement i n - c l u d e d 31 l i n e s o f commodities, i n c l u d i n g some farm implements . The o b j e c t i v e was t o s e c u r e an e q u i t a b l e

1 A comparison of c o s t s of i m p o r t a t i o n t o c o s t s of p r o d u c t i o n i n Tanzania i s g i v e n i n Appendix 3 .

n a t i o n a l d i s t r i b u t i o n i n a p e r i o d of mounting supply problems. The p o l i c y a l s o gave i n s t r u c t i o n s on t h e u se of d i s t r i b u t i o n channe l s . However, t h e confinement d i r e c t i v e s were only p a r t i a l l y adhered t o . Th i s l e d t h e Na t iona l Execut ive Committee (NEC) of t h e P a r t y , CCM, t o appo in t a t a s k f o r c e t o i n v e s t i g a t e t h e causes f o r t h e uneven and d e c l i n i n g supply of farm implements. I t s f i n d i n g s were t h a t UFI, c o n t r a r y t o d i r e c t i v e s , c h a n e l l e d s u b s t a n t i a l amounts of implements though bo th p r i v a t e and i t s own o u t l e t s . Hence t h e confinement was r e i n f o r c e d f o r t h e 1983/84 season . I n A p r i l 1983, UFI was s p e c i f i c a l l y i n s t r u c t e d t o r o u t e a l l implements th rough RTCs . RTCs were t o l d t o d i s t r i b u t e s o l e l y th rough t h e i r own o u t l e t s o r th rough c o o p e r a t i v e o r v i l l a g e shops. Farm implements were f u r t h e r t o be denoted a s s ~ e c i f i e d i t ems which means t h a t t h e y were no t t o be found i n p r i v a t e shops. The confinement was expanded t o i n c l u d e most implements imported o r produced by UFI.

The t y p e s and q u a n t i t i e s of farm implements t o be d i s t r i b u t e d by UFI t o v a r i o u s r eg ions a r e determined by t h e Nat iona l A l loca t ion Committee ( N A C ) . NAC makes d e c i s i o n s on a l l o c a t i o n s on t h e b a s i s of requi rements f o r each reg ion a s r epo r t ed by r e g i o n a l a u t h o r i t i e s . The procedure i s a s fo l l ows . The Regional A g r i c u l t u r a l O f f i c e r s ( R A D O ) compile t h e r e g i o n a l requi rements on t h e b a s i s of v i l l a g e d a t a . They then c o n s u l t wi th r e l e v a n t r e g i o n a l a u t h o r i t i e s and t h e r eg iona l RTCs i n t h e r e g i o n a l development committee. R T C s forward t h e r e g i o n a l f i g u r e s t o t h e Board of I n t e r n a l Trade ( B I T ) , t h e p a r e n t o r g a n i z a t i o n of RTC, which a c t s a s s e c r e t a r y t o t h e Nat iona l A l loca t ion Committee. BIT i n a d d i t i o n c o l l e c t s in format ion about l i k e l y supply , imports and product ion . Based on t h i s , BIT makes a proposa l f o r r e g i o n a l a l l o c a t i o n s , which i s forwarded t o t h e NAC for t h e f i n a l d e c i s i o n . The proposed a l l o c a t i o n s a r e r e g i o n a l pe rcen tages of t o t a l supply t o t h e v a r i o u s r eg ions . These pe rcen tages were worked o u t when confinement p o l i c i e s were in t roduced and t h e y a r e a d j u s t e d a n n u a l l y i f neces sa ry . The NAC i s n o t bound by t h e BIT p roposa l , b u t may make amendments.

Once the NAC has reached its final decision on allocations, the results are conveyed to BIT, regional RTCs and UFI. The actual dispatches from UFI are supposed to correspond to orders from regional RTCs on the allocated amounts. Once the allocations reach the regions, the responsibilityof BIT as overseer of the distribution process ceases. The regional distribution of implements follows from decisions of allocation committees at regional, district, and divisional levels.

6 . 2 D i s t o r t i o n s i n t h e RTCDis t r ibu t ion System

In our investigation of this distribution system based on confinement and allocations, various distortions were identified. The major ones are:

Inflated regional requirements: This is a response to the fact that farm implements have become increasingly scarce and that allocations are made on the basis of reported requirements. An inflated requirement is thus hoped to give some assurance for a favourable allocation.

In order to assess the validity of this claim, let us look at how requirements are built up and whether possible control or adjustment mechanisms exist. The process of data compilaton starts at the village level, Village secretaries fill in forms about the type and quantities of various implements required. It has been difficult to verify whether there is a standard method for collection of data on village level. The quality of the data will depend upon the ability of the collectors, their attitudes and relations to peasants. It is, however, likely that village officials try to secure the best possible supply of implements for their respective villages. Hence there is a tendency for inflated village requirement figures. In our opinion the major causes for inflation of requirements are found at this level.

The RADOs compile the district requirements submitted by the DADOs (District Agricultural Officer). There are

s e v e r a l i n d i c a t i o n s t h a t r e q u i r e m e n t s a t l e a s t f o r some t y p e s o f implements a r e s c a l e d down a t t h e r e g i o n a l l e v e l . Th i s is s e e n main ly t o be done by t h e RADOs i n c o n s u l t a t i o n w i t h t h e RTC r e g i o n a l manager. The R A D O s , g i v e n t h e i r c e n t r a l m e d i a t i n g r o l e i n t h e r e g i o n s , a r e s e e n t o b e more i n c l i n e d t o p r o v i d e c o r r e c t r a t h e r t h a n i n f l a t e d f i g u r e s . The RTC managers ' p e r s p e c t i v e on re- q u i r e m e n t s is more based on t h e e x p e c t e d l i k e l y e f f e c- t i v e demand r a t h e r t h a n on p e r c e i v e d needs . B I T a l s o s c r u t i n i z e s r e g i o n a l r e q u i r e m e n t s . I f t h e f i g u r e s a r e t h o u g h t t o be unreasonab ly low o r h i g h i n r e l a t i o n t o p o p u l a t i o n and a g r i c u l t u r a l p r a c t i c e s , e t c . , BIT may amend them o r n o t i f y NAC about t h e s u s p i c i o n . I n s p i t e of some s c a l i n g down of v i l l a g e r e q u i r e m e n t s on r e g i o n a l o r p o s s i b l y n a t i o n a l l e v e l , t h e y a r e , i n o u r o p i n i o n , f r e q u e n t l y i n f l a t e d . The d e g r e e may v a r y b e t - ween r e g i o n s and it i s i m p o s s i b l e t o make a w e l l - founded e s t i m a t e on t h e n a t i o n a l s c a l e o f i n f l a t i o n of f i g u r e s .

Amendments made by t h e N a t i o n a l A l l o c a t i o n Committe ( N A C ) : I n our i n t e r v i e w s we a r e informed a b o u t two p o s s i b l e t y p e s o f NAC amendments of r e g i o n a l r e q u i r e- ments . The f i r s t , more c o r r e c t i v e t h a n d i s t o r t i v e , happens when t h e g a p between r e p o r t e d requ i rement and t h e BIT proposed a l l o c a t i o n is e x c e s s i v e . NAC w i l l t h e n r a i s e t h e f i n a l a l l o c a t i o n t o a p e r c e i v e d r e a s o n a b l e l e v e l . A second t y p e , more d i s t o r t i v e i n c h a r a c t e r , i s m o t i v a t e d by economic o r p o l i t i c a l r e a s o n s . For i n- s t a n c e , t h e NAC may g i v e p r e f e r e n c e i n a l l o c a t i o n s t o e x p o r t c r o p growing r e g i o n s due t o t h e b a l a n c e of payment s i t u a t i o n , and low p r i o r i t y t o non- export c r o p growing a r e a s . Amendments may a l s o s tem from t h e view t h a t some r e g i o n s have more p o l i t i c a l weight t h a n o t h e r s . For t h e 1 9 8 3 / 8 4 s e a s o n i n p a r t i c u l a r Mwanza r e g i o n seems t o have been g i v e n f a v o u r a b l e a l l o c a t i o n s which may be based on b o t h e x p o r t c r o p o r i e n t a t i o n and p o l i t i c a l impor tance . I n a d d i t i o n Arusha, K i l i m a n j a r o , I r i n g , Mbeya, Rukwa, Ruvuma and Mara r e g i o n s a r e s e e n t o be f a v o u r e d .

UFI d e l i v e r i e s do n o t c o r r e s p o n d t o RTC o r d e r s : Lack of cor respondence between RTC o r d e r s and UFI d e l i v e r i e s and l e a k a g e s of implements t o p r i v a t e t r a d e r s l e d t h e

NEC t o a p p o i n t a probe commit tee i n t o UFI a c t i v i t i e s . I t s f i n d i n g s l e d - i n A p r i l 1983 t o t h e s a c k i n g o f t h e g e n e r a l manager and t h e marke t ing manager o f UFI and r e i n f o r c e d conf inement . However, even i n t h e months t o come l a r g e d i s c r e p a n c i e s occured between UFI d e l i v e r i e s and RTC o r d e r s . ( F o r t h o s e c a s e s where RTC o r d e r s were n o t s u b m i t t e d , d i s c r e p a n c i e s occured between d e l i v e r i e s and a l l o c a t i o n s . ) I n August 1983 t h e M i n i s t r y of I n d u s t r i e s found it n e c e s s a r y t o r e p e a t t h e i n s t r u c - t i o n s t o UFI t o d i s p a t c h a c c o r d i n g t o o r d e r s o r a l l o c a- t i o n s . I n September a new Genera l Manager was a p p o i n t- e d . Hence, it is l i k e l y t h a t t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n system h a s o p e r a t e d a c c o r d i n g t o e x p e c t a t i o n s o n l y f o r a few months. T h i s makes e v a l u a t i o n of t h e sys tem a s s u c h r a t h e r d i f f i c u l t . Maybe t h e f o c u s s h o u l d b e p u t on e x p l a n i n g why i t s implementa t ion was s o s e v e r e l y o b s t r u c t e d .

Untimely d e l i v e r i e s from UFI: There a r e many examples o f l a t e d e l i v e r i e s from UFI, i .e . , implements do n o t a r r i v e i n t i m e a t r e g i o n a l RTCs t o be d i s t r i b u t e d t o v i l l a g e s h o p s . The demand f o r implements i n c r e a s e s r a p i d l y a t t h e beg inn ing of t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l s e a s o n , be ing v e r y low i n t h e o f f- s e a s o n . T h i s s e a s o n a l demand p a t t e r n r e q u i r e s t h a t implements a r e d i s p a t c h e d from UFI d u r i n g t h e o f f- s e a s o n i n o r d e r f o r t i m e l y a r r i v a l a t r e t a i l o u t l e t s . There a r e s e v e r a l r e a s o n s f o r t h e numerous d e l a y s r e g i s t e r e d and t h e y o p e r a t e a t d i f f e - r e n t l e v e l s . De lays , may r e s u l t from p r o d u c t i o n problems o r p a t t e r n s o f UFI, from d e l a y s i n t h e r e p o r t i n g and a l l o c a t i i o n sys tem and from t r a n s p o r t problems.

C r e d i t and f i n a n c i a l problems: The s e a s o n a l demand p a t t e r n f o r farm implements r e q u i r e s bu i ld- up of s t o c k s i n RTCs i n t h e o f f- s e a s o n . A s RTCs a r e s h o r t o f f u n d s i n t h i s p e r i o d , RTCs r e q u i r e c r e d i t from UFI i n o r d e r t o a s s u r e a t i m e l y f low of implements t o t h e r e g i o n s . Th is h a s caused s e r i o u s problems f o r UFI due t o c o n t i - nuous accumula t ion o f RTC d e b t s .

The c r e d i t problem is a l s o l i n k e d t o i n t r a - r e g i o n a l d e l i v e r i e s . The r e- i n f o r c e d conf inement made RTC se l l o n l y t h r o u g h i t s own o u t l e t s o r v i l l a g e shops . However, due t o poor payment performance of v i l l a g e s h o p s , RTCs

have refused to sell on credit. Village shops now have to pay cash on delivery. Allocated stocks may thus pile up in RTCs on district or regional levels and hence not reach the consumers. The establishment of divisional cooperative shops (Muungano shops) in some regions may ease this problem because RTCs have shown willingness to extend credit and train their personnel.

Lack of customer orientation of RTCs: The confinement policies made RTCs' role in national distribution even more paramount. It implied expansion of rules and regu- lations which made management tasks more cumbersome. Claims that RTCs lack customer orientation are seen to be based partly on an increasing workload unmatched by improvements on the personnel side. However, several observations indicate that RTCs could operate more efficiently and with more customer orientation than at present even at the existing level of resource availability. The tremendous range of commodities handled by RTCs undoubtdely gives limited possibility to pay proper attention to procurement and marketing of all lines of products. The goods are not displayed at RTC shops, they lie in stock in central godowns, some of them incomplete and rusting.

6.3 Stock Position in October 1983

One way of assessing the system for regional distribution of farm implements is to look at the level of stocks in regional RTC central godowns. An efficient distribution system would imply low stocks of implements at this level due to the immediate onset of the agricultural season. Implements should hence be available at retail outlets at district, division and village levels. The stock position in regional RTC central godowns for 5 regions visited was the following in October 1983:

T a b l e 6 . 1 RTC S t o c k P o s i t i o n , C e n t r a l Reg iona l Godowns, Oc tober 1 9 8 3 ( u n i t s )

Sources: V i s i t s t o regional RTC, W t . 1983 Note: n.a. = no account

Ox-ploqhs F l a t s h a r e s Landside Trek Chains Drag Wheel Bol t s & M t s Ridger S

Ox- cultivators Harrows P l a n t e r s Ox Spanners

Hoes 7 1 / 2 l b s - 3 1 b s - Forked

Machetes - Curved 16" - S t r a i g h t 18"

Axes T 1 / 2 1bs - 3 1bs Shovels Rake S

Grass S lashers Pick Axes S i c k l e s Mattocks

I n a few r e g i o n s we a l s o p h y s i c a l l y i n s p e c t e d r e g i o n a l RTC s t o c k s . In our o p i n i o n t h e r e seemed t o be f a i r l y good cor respondence between r e p o r t e d f i g u r e s and a c t u a l s t o c k s .

Regarding animal-drawn equipment RTC s t o c k s a r e g e n e r a l l y a t a low l e v e l , however t h e f i g u r e s i n d i c a t e a few m i s a l l o c a t i o n s . The s t o c k o f p l o u g h s i n f o u r of t h e r e g i o n s is v e r y low compared t o t o t a l a l l o c a t i o n s . K i l i m a n j a r o i s an e x c e p t i o n a s t h e s t o c k i s about t h r e e t i m e s t h e a l l o c a t i o n . E v i d e n t l y K i l i m a n j a r o i s unab le t o d i s t r i b u t e i t s a l l o c a t i o n , which i m p l i e s t h a t it i s

M n z a

61 1 n i l n i l 492

n i l 456 144

9 n i l

n .a.

43.000 n i l n i l

38 n i l

n i l n i l n i l n i l 200

n.a . n.a. n.a.

Shinyanga

774 n i l n i l 163

3.000 62

171 70

n i l n.a.

n i l 33.537

n i l

6.480

792 n i l n i l

2.313 1.688 1.320

n.a.

Arusha

n i l n i l n i l n i l

n.a. n i l 11

4 n i l

n.a.

22.360 n i l

n i l n i l

96 n i l 144

1 .g86 n i l

n .a. n.a.

Kilimanjaro

1 -500 n i l n i l n i l

n.a. n i l

12 n i l n i l

5.760

14.740 5.436

n i l n i l

n i l n i l

1.404 n i l

1 .g44 4.152

920 1.752

Singida

14 360 n i l 404

n i l 53 6 0 26

n i l n i l

5.620 7.800

n i l

5.964

81 8 1.817 1.052

n i l n i l 950

3.120 2.200

Total

1.899 360 n i l

1.059

3.000 57 1 398 109 n i l

5.760

127.057 5.436

12.482

3.523 2.456

144 6.433 6.790 5.360 3.952

t o o h i g h . F l a t s h a r e s , t r e k c h a i n s and l a n d s i d e s a r e i n h i g h demand among o x- c u l t i v a t o r s . The low s t o c k s r e f l e c t b o t h e x t r e m e l y low s u p p l i e s from UFI as w e l l a s e f f i c i e n t d i s t r i b u t i o n by RTCs of whatever i s r e c e i v- e d . Drag whee l s , a l s o i n h i g h demand, a r e n o t i n s t o c k e x c e p t f o r Shinyanga. The l a r g e s t o c k h e r e i s a r e c e n t a r r i v a l which h a s n o t y e t been d i s t r i b u t e d . The g e n e r a l s t o c k p o s i t i o n r e g a r d i n g d r a g wheels c l e a r l y shows a low s u p p l y s i t u a t i o n . For r i d g e r s , c u l t i v a t o r s and harrows t h e s t o c k s a r e more e v e n l y d i s t r i b u t e d , b u t a t a r e l a t i v e l y low l e v e l . RTCs have informed u s t h a t t h e s e i t e m s a r e slow-moving and t h e y a r e main ly k e p t a t c e n t r a l r e g i o n a l godowns. RTCs emphasise t h a t many of t h e s e i t e m s a r e d e l i v e r e d by UFI w i t h o u t a l l o c a t i o n o r o r d e r . For RTCs t h e y t i e up c a p i t a l and some of them have t a k e n i n i t i a t i v e s t o r e t u r n them t o UFI o r o t h e r r e g i o n s where demand may e x i s t . A g r i c u l t u r a l e x t e n s i o n p e o p l e i n t h e f i e l d i n d i c a t e , however, t h a t t h e r e would be a l i m i t e d marke t f o r t h e s e i t e m s i f RTCs d i s t r i b u t e d them t o d i s t r i c t and d i v i s i o n a l l e v e l s . For ox p l a n t e r s t h e r e a r e no s t o c k s , h a r d l y any demand and no supp- l i e s . Ox s p a n n e r s a r e o n l y i n s t o c k i n K i l i m a n j a r o . The q u a n t i t y i n d i c a t e s an a d d i t i o n a l m i s a l l o c a t i o n t o t h i s r e g i o n .

A l l r e g i o n s have some s t o c k s of h o e s , b u t i n f o r m a t i o n o b t a i n e d shows t h a t t h i s is main ly due t o r e c e n t a r r i - v a l s e x c e p t f o r Mwanza's s t o c k o f 2 1 /2 l b hoes . A s soon a s t r a n s p o r t i s a v a i l a b l e d i s t r i b u t i o n t o d i s t r i c t , d i v i s i o n and v i l l a g e shops ( i f f u n d s a r e a v a i l a b l e ) w i l l o c c u r . The s t o c k s a r e n o t s e e n t o r e f l e c t i n e f f i c i e n c e s on t h e p a r t o f RTCs. Forked hoes a r e m a i n l y u t i l i z e d i n K i l i m a n j a r o , which e x p l a i n s t h e s t o c k p o s i t i o n i n o t h e r r e g i o n s .

There a r e v e r y uneven s t o c k s of m a t c h e t s ; none i n t h r e e r e g i o n s and a b o u t 6000 i n Shinyanga and S i n g i d a . In S i n g i d a a m i s a l l o c a t i o n is l i k e l y t o have occured as p e o p l e i n t h i s r e g i o n p r e f e r t o use t h e long- handled b i l l - h o o k ( h e n g o ) , l o c a l l y made by b l a c k s m i t h s . The s t o c k s o f a x e s a r e low f o r a l l r e g i o n s e x c e p t S i n g i d a . Here t h e hengo may a l s o supplement t h e a x e i n t r e e c u t t i n g . For g r a s s s l a s h e r s , p i c k a x e s , s i c k l e s and

m a t t o c k s s t o c k s a r e uneven b u t r e l a t i v e l y h i g h . Our in- f o r m a t i o n i n d i c a t e s t h a t most of t h e s e i t e m s a r e wrong- l y a l l o c a t e d . They a r e slow-moving and hence t i e up c a p i t a l f o r RTCs.

A l t o g e t h e r t h e October 1983 s t o c k p o s i t i o n i n d i c a t e s t h a t RTCs a r e d i s t r i b u t i n g implements r e c e i v e d f a i r l y e f f i c i e n t l y . The s t o c k s of fas t- moving i t e m s l i k e p loughs and hoes a r e r e l a t i v e l y low and most i t e m s a r e i n t h e p r o c e s s of b e i n g d i s t r i b u t e d . For some animal- drawn equipment t h e RTCs c o u l d have done a b e t t e r job of promotion. The s low movement of r i d g e r s , c u l t i v a t o r s and harrows may be c o n d i t i o n e d e i t h e r by i n a p p r o p r i a t e d e s i g n s ( c u l t i v a t o r s and h a r r o w s ) , h i g h p r i c e s ( h a r r o w s ) o r incomple te d e l i v e r i e s ( a l l t h r e e t y p e s ) . Some of t h e hand t o o l s a r e wrongly a l l o c a t e d and RTC c a n n o t b e blamed f o r r e l a t i v e l y h i g h s t o c k s of t h e s e i t e m s . Thus it i s our c o n c l u s i o n t h a t RTCs do n o t r e p r e s e n t a t p r e s e n t a major b o t t l e n e c k i n t h e d i s t r i - b u t i o n sys tem. However, an e f f e c t i v e c o n s t r a i n t on d i s t r i b u t i o n from RTCs o u t t o t h e r u r a l a r e a s i s t h e v e r y poor m a n a g e r i a l and f i n a n c i a l p o s i t i o n of v i l l a g e and Muungano shops .

6 . 4 The T a n g a n y i k a Farmer ' S A s s o c i a t i o n (TFA)

The o n l y farm implements d i s t r i b u t i o n system of some impor tance i n a d d i t i o n t o RTCs i s t h e Tanganyika Farmers ' A s s o c i a t i o n (TFA) , ' TFA was e s t a b l i s h e d a s a

1 ) AISCO, a n o t h e r company under t h e BIT umbre l l a , a l s o h a s a r o l e i n s u p p l y t o t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l s e c t o r . The company, which p r e s e n t l y h a s o n l y t h r e e o u t l e t s , i n I r i n y a , Mwanza and Tanga, h a s main ly been d e a l i n g w i t h s u p p l y of f e r t i l i z e r s , c h e m i c a l s , t r a c t o r s , t r a c t o r- d r a w n equipment , and p o s t - h a r v e s t i n g equipment. I n r e g i o n s w i t h o u t AISCO b r a n c h e s , RTC o p e r a t e s AISCO1s a c t i v i t i e s , For t h e s e a s o n 1983 /84 AISCO h a s , however, a l s o s t a r t e d t o s e l l hand t o o l s and ox equipment . AISCO m a i n l y buys a t sub- wholesale p r i c e from RTC and s e l l s a t f i x e d r e t a i l p r i c e . AESCO i s a t l i b e r t y t o buy from any s o u r c e , i n c l u d- i n g p r o d u c e r s l i k e UFI and ZZK, AISCO's d i s t r i b u t i o n o f hand t o o l s and ox equipment i s q u i t e l i m i t e d and main1.y an appendage t o t h e RTC sys tem i n a few r e g i o n s ,

s e p a r a t e e n t i t y i n 1955 when branch ing o f f from t h e Kenya Farmers ' A s s o c i a t i o n . TFA i s a s h a r e h o l d e r coope- r a t i v e based on i t s members, t o d a y a b o u t 3000, b u t t h e i r number is i n c r e a s i n g f a s t . P r i o r t o 1980 member- s h i p was l i m i t e d f o f a r m e r s p o s s e s s i n g fa rms of more t h a n 50 a c r e s . S i n c e t h e n t h i s h a s been reduced t o 5 a c r e s . Each member is o b l i g e d t o buy 10 s h a r e s , e a c h c o s t i n g TShs 5. Th is g i v e s no room f o r i n f l u e n c i n g t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n t h r o u g h s h a r e h o l d i n g . Membership is a l s o open t o v i l l a g e s , b u t o n l y a few have y e t become mem- b e r s .

Today, TFA i s o r g a n i z e d i n a n o r t h e r n and s o u t h e r n zone. The h e a d q u a r t e r s is l o c a t e d i n Arusha and n o r t h e r n b r a n c h e s i n c l u d e Moshi and d e p o t s i n Kara tu and O l d e a n i . The s o u t h e r n zone h a s o u t l e t s i n I r i n g a , Mbeya, Njombe, Tukuyu and Mafinga (opened l a t e 1 9 8 3 ) . I n Dodoma a b r a n c h w i l l be e s t a b l i s h e d d u r i n g 1984 f o l l o w i n g a P r e s i d e n t i a l d i r e c t i v e .

TFA u n i t s f u n c t i o n a s r e t a i l o u t l e t s open t o anybody. However, when commodities a r e i n s h o r t s u p p l y , members a r e g i v e n p r i o r i t y . A t t h e end of e a c h f i n a n c i a l y e a r , t h e p r o f i t i s d i s t r i b u t e d t o members a c c o r d i n g t o pur- c h a s e s ( 1 0 % o f p u r c h a s e s up t o 1981, s i n c e t h e n 1 5 % ) . Members a r e a l lowed t o purchase on 30 days c r e d i t whi le non-members must pay c a s h . P r e v i o u s l y TFA a l s o awarded a s u b s t a n t i a l amount of long- term c r e d i t s t o i t s m e m- b e r s . T h i s l o a n fund h a s , however, d i m i n i s h e d con- s i d e r a b l y due t o f i n a n c i a l p r e s s u r e s .

TFA h a n d l e s a wide range of a g r i c u l t u r a l i n p u t s and implements , l i k e c h e m i c a l s ( o b t a i n e d b o t h from n a t i o n a l p r o d u c e r s and i m p o r t s ) , farm implements ( h o e s and p loughs from UFI and Z Z K , p loughs , s h a r e s and o x- c a r t wheel s e t s from Themi, s h a r e s from MAFOTCO, t r e k c h a i n s , e t c , ) and v a r i o u s commodities fom SIDO e s t a t e s , NMC ( a n i m a l f e e d ) and BEHESCO ( w i r e ) . C o n s i d e r a b l e amounts of t h e commodities handled were p r e v i o u s l y imported d i r e c t l y by TFA. For i n s t a n c e , s p a r e s f o r t r a c t o r s were s u p p l i e d t h r o u g h such a r rangements . During r e c e n t y e a r s , however, a l l TFA a p p l i c a t i o n s f o r impor t l i c e n s e s have been t u r n e d down. The l a s t impor t

c r e d i t l i n e e n j o y e d w a s a l o a n v a l u e d TShs 2.8 m i l l i o n f rom IBRD f o r i m p o r t s o f c h e m i c a l s and s p a r e s i n 1980.

TFA s ta tes t h a t t h e d e t e r i o r a t i o n i n s u p p l y o f f a rm implemen t s began t o b e s e r i o u s l y f e l t a l r e a d y i n 1981. Dur ing 1983 TFA e x p e r i e n c e d f u r t h e r p r o b l e m s o f pro- c u r e m e n t f rom n a t i o n a l p r o d u c e r s d u e t o t h e c o n f i n e m e n t p o l i c y . TFA was a f f e c t e d b e c a u s e it was c o n s i d e r e d a p r i v a t e u n i t . By August 1983 , TFA h a d made advance pay- m e n t s w o r t h TShs 5 . 7 m i l l i o n t o s e v e r a l p a r a s t a t a l s (UFI , NMC and BEHESCO) b u t g o o d s were o n l y s l o w l y o r p a r t i a l l y s u p p l i e d . From UFI no g o o d s were r e c e i v e d t h r o u g h o u t 1983. A gove rnmen t d i r e c t i v e i s s u e d i n l a t e 1983 e x e m p t s , however , TFA f rom t h e c o n f i n e m e n t r e g u l a- t i o n s o f OF1 p r o d u c t s , which may improve t h e s u p p l y s i t u a t i o n i n 1984.

T o t a l t u r n - o v e r f o r TFA is a b u t TShs 120 m i l l i o n a n n u a l l y . The main b u l k o f sales i s r e l a t e d t o v a r i o u s a g r i c u l t u r a l i n p u t s , c h e m i c a l s and p e s t i c i d e s . The v a l u e o f sales o f f a r m implemen t s t o t a l l e d TShs 8 .4 m i l l i o n i n 1981/82 and w a s e x p e c t e d t o b e a t t h e same l e v e l f o r 1982/83 i n s p i t e o f t h e moun t ing s u p p l y prob- l e m s . Volume r e d u c t i o n s a r e , however , compensa ted f o r by r e t a i l p r i c e i n c r e a s e s which a r e g e n e r o u s l y awarded b y t h e N a t i o n a l P r i c e Commission. TFA i s e f f i c i e n t l y r u n and c o n s e q u e n t l y s t i l l e n j o y s r e l a t i v e l y l a r g e p ro- f i t s , which a r e p a r t l y p a s s e d on t o t h e members.

I n o u r o p i n i o n TFA p l a y s a u s e f u l r o l e b o t h as a com- p l e m e n t and c o m p e t i t o r t o t h e RTC d i s t r i b u t i o n s y s t e m . I t is o f v i t a l i m p o r t a n c e t o P n c o u r a g e a t l ea s t a l i m i t e d number o f d i s t r i b u t i o n c h a n n e l s i n o r d e r t o i n - c r e a s e e f f i c i e n c y and a c c o r d i n g l y t h e a v a i l a b i l i t y o f commodi t i e s a t r e a s o n a b l e p r i c e s t o t h e f a r m e r s .

6 . 5 C r e d i t and P r i c e s

C r e d i t s f o r hand t o o l s and ox- equipment a r e h a r d l y a v a i l a b l e t o f a r m e r s i n T a n z a n i a e x c e p t f o r I r i n g a and t o a lesser e x t e n t Arusha r e g i o n . I n I r i n g a , EEC h a s c h a n n e l l e d c r e d i t t h r o u g h TRDB t o v i l l a g e s f o r ox-

equipment , p loughs , r i d g e r s , c u l t i v a t o r s and har rows . C r e d i t f o r o x- c a r t s h a s been approved b u t i s n o t y e t d i s t r i b u t e d . I n t h e p e r i o d June 1982 t o November 1983, l o a n s o f a b o u t TShs 1.4 m i l l i o n had been g i v e n t o 45 v i l l a g e s i n t h e r e g i o n ( e x c l u d i n g c r e d i t f o r ox- c a r t s ) . No down-payment w a s r e q u i r e d and repayment was t o t a k e t h r e e y e a r s a t 8.5% i n t e r e s t and a three- months p e r i o d o f g r a c e . The c r e d i t scheme h a s l e d t o t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f 1008 p l o u g h s , 148 r i d g e r s , 197 c u l t i v a - t o r s and 87 harrows i n t h e above-mentioned p e r i o d . Cre- d i t s schemes have a l s o e x i s t e d f o r s e a s o n a l i n p u t s a d m i n i s t e r e d by TRDB. TRDB/USAID h a s a l s o e s t a b l i s h e d a c r e d i t l i n e t o v i l l a g e s f o r t h e p u r c h a s e s o f maize m i l l s i n a number of r e g i o n s .

I n I r i n g a r e g i o n t h e repayment r a t e s f o r t h e ox-equipment l o a n s a r e s a t i s f a c t o r y and much b e t t e r t h a n f o r t h o s e r e l a t e d t o l o a n s f o r s e a s o n a l i n p u t . By A p r i l 1983 t h e l o a n- r e c e i v i n g v i l l a g e s o f Njombe d i s t r i c t were even w e l l ahead of t h e repayment s c h e d u l e w h i l e t h o s e i n Mufindi and I r i n g a d i s t r i c t had reached a b o u t 40%. By t h e end of t h e l o a n p e r i o d (December 1983) TRDB e x p e c t e d t h e r a t e t o i n c r e a s e t o a b o u t 75% f o r t h e l a t t e r two d i s t r i c t s . The e x p e r i e n c e from I r i n g a may i n d i c a t e t h a t p r o v i s i o n of c r e d i t f o r p u r c h a s e of ox- equipment w i l l y i e l d s a t i s f a c t o r y r a t e s of repayment.

However, as s t a t e d by t h e wel l- informed Regiona l Oxeni- z a t i o n O f f i c e r : " I t i s v e r y e a s y f o r t h e f a r m e r s t o a c c e p t implements on c r e d i t " . Very few c u l t i v a t o r s and v i r t u a l l y no har rows have been s o l d by t h e Oxeniza t ion p r o j e c t on c a s h t e r m s , even though t h e c u l t i v a t o r s were cheap . There i s a danger t h a t c r e d i t e x t e n s i o n of f u l l packages of ox-equipment - some of which is of poor d e s i g n , i n a p p r o p r i a t e , of l i m i t e d u t i l i t y o r unab le t o e n s u r e economic r e t u r n s on t h e r e a l i n v e s t m e n t made - may f o r c e t h e f a r m e r s i n t o long- term i n d e b t e d n e s s . Th i s h a s been t h e r e s u l t of s i m i l a r schemes i n a number o f West A f r i c a n c o u n t r i e s , n o t a b l y t h e Gambia and Upper V o l t a .

The p r i c e s of farm implements , e x- f a c t o r y , sub-whole- s a l e and r e t a i l , a r e f i x e d by t h e N a t i o n a l P r i c e Commission. I n 1983 t h e r e t a i l p r i c e i n c r e a s e s f o r

common farm implements were, on a v e r a g e , h i g h e r t h a n t h e o f f i c i a l r a t e o f i n f l a t i o n o f a b o u t 30%, b u t f o r r i d g e r s , c u l t i v a t o r s and harrows t h e p r i c e i n c r e a s e was 200%. Such a p r i c e p o l i c y t e n d s t o j e o p a r d i z e t h e government o b j e c t i v e of i n c r e a s i n g t h e a v a i l a b i l i t y of farm implements i n r u r a l a r e a s . These p r i c e i n c r e a s e s f o r common farm implements may s t e m from h i g h e r produc- t i o n c o s t s and from upward movements i n impor t p r i c e s . The N a t i o n a l P r i c e Commission is and h a s been generous t o p r o d u c e r s by f i x i n g s a l e s p r i c e s s o t h a t t h e l e a s t e f f i c i e n t p r o d u c t i o n u n i t i s a b l e t o cover t o t a l pro- d u c t i o n c o s t . Through such p r i c e s e t t i n g , i n e f f i c i e n - c i e s i n management and p r o d u c t i o n and t h e c o n c o m i t t a n t c o s t i n c r e a s e s a r e p a s s e d on t o t h e consumers , t h e f a r m e r s . There i s a c c o r d i n g l y a need t o r e v i s e p o l i c i e s i n o r d e r t o improve c o n s i s t e n c y . Regarding import of improved ox-drawn implements , we do n o t b e l i e v e t h a t t h e i n c r e a s e s i n r e t a i l p r i c e s r e f l e c t h i g h e r import p r i c e s .

6.6 Future Distribution System

During our s t u d y we were u n a b l e t o c o l l e c t much i n f o r - mat ion on d i s t r i b u t i o n o u t s i d e t h e r e g u l a t e d sys tem c o n s i s t i n g o f RTCs and TFA. We have observed t h a t p r i - v a t e shops o f f e r hand t o o l s , hoes and m a t c h e t s a t p r i c e s which a r e TShs 10-20 above o f f i c i a l p r i c e s . Excess ive b l a c k market p r i c e s f o r hand t o o l s a r e n o t t h e o r d e r of t h e day s i n c e t h e March 1983 crackdown, p a r t l y because of an improved s u p p l y s i t u a t i o n . Th is s u p p o r t s our p r e v i o u s c o n c l u s i o n t h a t t h e s h o r t a g e of hand t o o l s i s n o t as d e s p e r a t e a s t h e o f f i c i a l demand f i g u r e s i n d i c a t e . For ox- equipment, p l o u g h s , s h a r e s and o t h e r p lough s p a r e s a s w e l l a s t r e k c h a i n s , t h e b l a c k marke t p r i c e s a r e c o n s i d e r a b l y h i g h e r t h a n t h e o f f i c i a l p r i c e s . Th i s c o n f i r m s t h a t s h o r t a g e s a r e more s e v e r e f o r t h e s e c a t e g o r i e s of implements.

Based on t h e s u p p l y of a g r i c u l t u r a l implements and s t o c k s i n t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n sys tem, our c o n c l u s i o n is t h a t t h e sys tem a p p e a r s t o f u n c t i o n a c c e p t a b l y w e l l f o r t h e 1983/84 a g r i c u l t u r a l s e a s o n . There i s a l o t of un- c e r t a i n t y , however, a b o u t t h e f u t u r e .

I t i s c l e a r l y s t a t e d , b o t h i n t h e A g r i c u l t u r a l Develop- ment P o l i c y and i n t h e Co- operat ive S o c i e t i e s ' A c t , t h a t d i s t r i b u t i o n on t h e l o c a l l e v e l o f farm i n p u t s , such a s implements , s h a l l b e hand led by t h e co- opera- t i v e s o c i e t i e s i n t h e f u t u r e . A s soon a s t h e p r imary s o c i e t i e s a r e f u n c t i o n a l t h e y w i l l t a k e o v e r t h e r o l e o f t h e v i l l a g e shops i n t h i s a r e a . I t a p p e a r s a l s o t o be t h e long- term p o l i c y t h a t c o- o p e r a t i v e un ions w i l l be t h e r e g i o n a l d i s t r i b u t o r s .

I t is n o t p o s s i b l e f o r t h e team t o e x p r e s s any o p i n i o n on t h e t ime- hor izon f o r such t r a n s f e r of r e s p o n s i b i l i - t ies . We do, however, f o r e s e e a l o t o f d i s c u s s i o n b e f o r e t h e m a t t e r of r e g i o n a l d i s t r i b u t o n h a s been r e s o l v e d .

The A g r i c u l t u r a l P o l i c y s t a t e s t h a t t h e M i n i s t r y o f A g r i c u l t u r e i n t e n d s t o s u p e r v i s e a s i n g l e body, which w i l l be r e s p o n s i b l e f o r n a t i o n a l d i s t r i b u t i o n . I t h a s been s u g g e s t e d t h a t a new t r a d i n g o r g a n i z a t i o n s h o u l d be set up f o r t h i s purpose . I t was n o t p o s s i b l e f o r us t o a s c e r t a i n t h e s t a t u s of t h i s s u g g e s t i o n , b u t it a p p e a r s t h a t f o r t h e moment it h a s been s h e l v e d .

BIT a p p e a r s t o work under t h e assumpt ion t h a t f o r y e a r s t o come, R T C s w i l l m a i n t a i n t h e i r r o l e a t l e a s t i n some r e g i o n s . BIT i s a l s o p l a n n i n g t o i n s e r t AISCO a s an i n t e r m e d i a t r y between UFI and RTCs . AISCO's f u n c t i o n would b e t o f i n a n c e s t o c k s ( t h e r e h a s been some d i f f i - c u l t y f o r UFI t o o b t a i n payment from RTCs, b u t t h i s m a t t e r h a s r e c e n t l y been r e s o l v e d by NBC e x t e n d i n g f u r t h e r c r e d i t t o UFI) , and t o a r r a n g e t r a n s p o r t a t i o n t o t h e r e g i o n s . There i s one m e r i t i n t h i s p r o p o s a l (which is p r e s e n t l y s u b m i t t e d t o t h e C a b i n e t ) a s it would i n v o l v e Z Z K ' S p r o d u c t i o n i n t h e a l l o c a t i o n sys tem, which d o e s n o t seem t o be t h e c a s e a t p r e s e n t . On t h e o t h e r hand, adding AISCO i n t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n c h a i n i s l i k e l y t o l e a d t o a d d i t i o n a l over- head c o s t s charged t o t h e end consumer.

Many s t u d i e s and o f f i c i a l s t a t e m e n t s ( s u c h a s t h e Agri- c u l t u r a l Development P o l i c y ) p o i n t t o t h e e f f i c i e n c y of TFA a s a model f o r t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of implements. TFA

is, however, only established in four regions having only few district outlet. But its advantage is that it is much more consumer-oriented in its sales policies than other organisations. Our discussions also indicat- ed that it is quite possible that certain exceptions may be allowed in the confinement of RTCs, i.e. to enable other organization like RIDEP's to handle certain farm implements.

Our general conclusion as far as distribution is concerned, is that the distribution chain should be as short as possible. We find the confinement system to have limited advantages when shortages are not critical and we are of the opinion that if manufacturers are able to finance distribution, they should be allowed to trade freely with any outlet that provides acceptable service to the consumers. On the other hand, donors should refrain from imposing conditions which introduce specific distribution channels. RIDEPs should be given preferential status to the extent that they are able to get unproportionately large quantities for certain regions. There is an adequate distribution network at present, which should be allowed to develop on the basis of competition between RTCs, TFA and, in the future, the cooperative unions. Such a system has as a natural corrolary, proper market assessments for the most efficient distribution.

LISTOFREFERENCES

A. Government o f T a n z a n i a Documents

URT/Minis t ry o f A g r i c u l t u r e :

- ( 1 9 8 2 ) T a n z a n i a N a t i o n a l Food S t r a t e g y . Main r e p o r t . N a t i o n a l Food S t r a t e g y p r o j e c t , DSM, J u n e 1982 s e c o n d d r a f t ( R e s t r i c t e d c i r c u l a t i o n ) .

- ( 1 9 8 3 ) The A g r i c u l t u r a l P o l i c y o f T a n z a n i a .

- ( 1 9 8 4 ) M i n i s t r y o f A g r i c u l t u r e ( K i l i m o ) ( 1 9 8 4 ) . L o c a l M a n u f a c t u r e a n d A v a i l a b i l i t y o f Ox-drawn Imple- m e n t s and Improved Hand T o o l s i n c l u d i n g o t h e r Farm Mach ine ry a n d Equipment . S c r e e n i n g l i s t . DSM.

URT/Ministry o f I n d u s t r i e s :

- ( 1 9 8 2 ) C e n t r e f o r A g r i c u l t u r a l M e c h a n i z a t i o n a n d R u r a l T e c h n o l o g y (CAMARTEC). F u n c t i o n a l R o l e a n d Ope- r a t i o n a l P o l i c y , DSM.

URT/Ministry o f C u l t u r e a n d Youth :

- ( 1 9 7 6 ) Jembe n i Mali - Kuza Ufundi w a j a d i , e n d e l e z a n c h i y e t u , T a n z a n i a P u b l i s h i n g h o u s e , DSM.

B . T a n z a n i a n I n s t i t u t i o n s

SIDO ( 1 9 8 3 ) , P r o j e c t p r o p o s a l s f o r m a n u f a c t u r e o f Farm Implemen t s i n S i n g i d a , DSM.

MEIDA ( 1 9 8 3 ) , C a p a c i t i e s w i t h i n MEIDA f o r t h e manu- f a c t u r i n g o f f a r m i m p l e m e n t s ( 4 t h November, 19831 , DSM.

CAMARTEC ( 1 9 8 3 1 , P u b l i c R e l a t i o n s b r o c h u r e , Arusha .

UAC ( 1 9 8 2 1 , Uyole A g r i c u l t u r a l C e n t r e A g r i c u l - t u r a l E n g i n e e r i n g R e s e a r c h D e p a r t m e n t , p r o g r e s s r e p o r t 1981/82 , Mbeya,

RDD S u r v e y ( 1 9 7 6 ) , ~ i p o t i y a k a m a t i ya uchunguz i w a m a h i t a j i ya Zana za K i l i m o , DSM.

C , C o n s u l t a n t s ' R e p o r t s

TISCO ( 1 9 8 0 1 , Marke t S u r v e y o f A g r i c u l t u r a l Imp lemen t s i n T a n z a n i a , DSM. Made f o r NDC.

TISCO ( 1 9 8 3 ) , Farm Implemen t s P l a n t Mwanza, DSM ( D r a f t r e p o r t ) . Made f o r NDC.

The N a t i o n a l I n d u s t r i a l Development C o r p o r a t i o n L t d , I n d i a ( 1979-1 9 8 0 ) . Ubungo Farm Implemen t s L t d . P r o d u c t up- grad ing s t u d y . Made f o r NDC.

S t e h a g e n - A r e f a l k ( 1 9 8 2 1 , R e h a b i l i t a t i o n p r o p o s a l - Farm Implemen t s T a n z a n i a . Made f o r SIDA.

K i h e r i l e - H u r t i g (NDC) ( 1 9 8 3 1 , Farming Imp lemen t s . Made f o r NDC.

Merryman - Weiler ( 1 9 8 2 ) , I n p u t M a r k e t i n g S t u d y o f t h e Mbeya Region . Mbeya RIDEP R e p o r t No 39 .

Whitcombe - Miles ( 1 9 8 1 ) , The e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f t h e Cent re f o r A g r i c u l t u r a l ~ e c h a n i z a t i o n a n d R u r a l Techno- l o g y

Croon ( 1 9 8 2 ) , Some s e l e c t e d i s s u e s i n A g r i c u l t u r a l Development i n Mbeya Region . Mbeya RIDEP R e p o r t No 46.

Dagg ( 1 9 7 8 1 , FAO/Kilimo Agro- Mechan iza t ion S u r v e y r 1976-78. Made f o r t h e M i n i s t r y o f A g r i c u l t u r e , DSM.

A g r a r und H y d r o t e c h n i k ( 1 9 8 0 1 , A g r i c u l t u r a l Development P r o j e c t . I r i n g a Region P h a s e I I , 1981-85. P r o j e c t D o s s i e r , EDF/URT.

P h i l l i p s and Z a c h a r i a h ( 1 9 8 0 ) , S t r a t e g y a n d Programme f o r Deve lop ing t h e A g r i c u l t u r a l a n d S m a l l I n d u s t r i a l Equipment S e c t o r s i n R u r a l T a n z a n i a . Commonwealth Fund f o r T e c h n i c a l C o o p e r a t i o n , Londoq.

SIDA ( 1 9 7 6 1 , Development o f S m a l l I n d u s t r i e s i n T a n z a n i a . R e p o r t and programme p r o p o s a l b y a Swedish c o n s u l t a n c y t eam.

U N I D O ( 1 9 8 3 1 , E v a l u a t i o n o f P r o j e c t US/URT/77/03: " C o n s o l i d a t i o n o f V i l l a g e P r o d u c t i o n o f A g r i c u l t u r a l Imp lemen t s by L o c a l B l a c k s m i t h s " . R e p o r t f rom Consul- t a n t M i s s i o n 2 1 . March t o 1 8 A p r i l 1983.

D. O t h e r R e p o r t s

M a r i k i (NDC) ( 1 9 8 3 ) : R e h a b i l i t a t i o n o f UFI, DSM 1983 .

SIDA - M i n i s t r y o f I n d u s t r i e s ( 1 9 8 3 ) : R e p o r t f rom t h e S e v e n t h Annual J o i n t I n d u s t r y S e c t o r Review, F e b r u a r y 14- 28, 1983.

Wortman ( 1 9 8 3 1 , E x t e n s i o n and T r a i n i n g A c t i v i t i e s f o r t h e 1983/8 4 s e a s o n . PMO/RIDEP, S h i n y a n g a .

IFAD ( 1 9 8 3 : R e p o r t o f t h e G e n e r a l I d e n t i f i c a t i o n M i s s i o n t o t h e U n i t e d R e p u b l i c o f T a n z a n i a (December 1 9 8 3 ) . ( D r a f t - l i m i t e d d i s t r i b u t i o n ) .

FAO ( 1 9 6 9 ) : Farm Implemen t s f o r A r i d a n d T r o p i c a l R e g i o n s , Rome.

Miiller ( 1 9 7 7 1 , P r o m o t i o n o f R u r a l Implement M a n u f a c t u r e i n T a n z a n i a . U N I D O , V ienna .

C o l l e g e o f A g r i c u l t u r a l E n g i n e e r i n g , Pun j a b A g r i c u l- t u r a l U n i v e r s i t y ( 1 9 8 3 1 , B r i e f s on human-powered and a n i m a l drawn improved f a r m e q u i p m e n t . Ludh iana , I n d i a .

K j a r b y ( 1 9 8 3 , b) , "The Farm Implemen t s S e c t o r f o r Animal D r a u g h t Power i n T a n z a n i a " . C e n t r e f o r Develop- ment R e s e a r c h P r o j e c t P a p e r s D. 8 3.1 5 , Copenhagen. ( D r a f t , l i m i t e d c i r c u l a t i o n ) .

Kienbaum B e r a t u n g e n ( 1 9 7 6 ) , D e m o n s t r a t i o n M a n u f a c t u r i n g P l a n t R e p o r t . U N I D O p r o j e c t T F / ~ ~ F / 7 4 / 0 0 9 .

Rao ( 1 9 7 5 ) , R e p o r t o n A g r i c u l t u r a l Imp lemen t s a n d Mach ine ry P r o d u c t i o n a n d M a i n t e n a n c e . FAO/UNIDO p r o j e c t U~T/74/006/A/OL/12, DSM.

E. R e s e a r c h r e p o r t s and b o o k s

Chambers ( 1 9 8 0 1 , Rap id R u r a l A p p r a i s a l : R a t i o n a l e a n d R e p e r t o i r e . Development P a p e r No 1 5 5 , IDS, S u s s e x .

C o l l i n s o n ( 1 977 , " D i a g n o s i n g t h e need f o r new t e c h n o- l o g y " . I n Commonwealth S e c r e t a r i a t ( 1 9 7 7 ) : R u r a l Tech- n o l o g y Meet f o r E a s t , C e n t r a l a n d S o u t h e r n A f r i c a , London.

Dumont ( 1 9 8 0 ) , L ' ~ f r i q u e E t r a n g l e e , S e u i l , P a r i s .

Havnev ik ( 1 9 8 0 ) , Economy a n d O r g a n i z a t i o n i n R u f i j i D i s t r i c t . The Case o f C r a f t s a n d E x t r a c t i v e A c t i v i - t i e s . BRALUP R e s e a r c h P a p e r No 6 5 . U n i v e r s i t y o f Dar es Salaam.

~ ~ d 6 n ( 1 9 8 0 ) , Beyond Ujamaa i n T a n z a n i a , Heinemann, London.

K iyenze ( 1 9 8 1 1 , " T r a d i t i o n a l H a n d i c r a f t s and t h e Pro- cess o f S m a l l- S c a l e I n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n i n W e s t e r n Bagamoyo", i n J ipemoyo . Development and C u l t u r e R e s e a r c h 4 , 1981. P u b l i c a t i o n o f t h e F i n n i s h N a t i o n a l Commission f o r UNESCO No 1 8 .

Kjarby (1983 , 1 ) P r o b l e m s a n d C o n t r a d i c t i o n s i n t h e Development o f O x - c u l t i v a t i o n i n T a n z a n i a . R e s e a r c h R e p o r t No 6 6 , S c a n d i n a v i a n I n s t i t u t e o f A f r i c a n S t u d i e s , Uppsa l a .

L i v i n g s t o n e ( 1 9 7 0 ) , R e s u l t s o f a R u r a l S u r v e y : The Owner sh ip o f D u r a b l e Goods i n T a n z a n i a n R u r a l House- h o l d s a n d some I m p l i c a t i o n s f o r R u r a l I n d u s t r y . ERB P a p e r 7 0 . 1 , U n i v e r s i t y o f Dar es Sa laam.

MacPherson ( 1 9 7 5 1 , F i r s t S t e p s i n V i l l a g e Mechaniza- t i o n . T a n z a n i a n P u b l i s h i n g House, Dar es Salaam.

Miller ( 1 9 8 0 ) , L i q u i d a t i o n o r C o n s o l i d a t i o n o f I n d i g e- n o u s T e c h n o l o g y . Development R e s e r a c h S e r i e s No 1 . Aalborg U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s .

P e r k i n s ( 1 9 7 8 ) , S m a l l S c a l e I n d u s t r y i n Rukwa Reg ion : S u r v e y , A n a l y s i s a n d Recommendat ions . B r a l u p R e s e a r c h R e p o r t No 28 . U n i v e r s i t y o f Dar es Salaam.

S t a r k e y ( 1 9 8 1 ) , Farming w i t h Work Oxen i n S i e r r a Leone . M i n i s t r y o f A g r i c u l t u r e & F o r e s t r y , Government P r i n t i n g D e p a r t m e n t , F ree town .

W i l l i a m s ( 198 1) , The World Bank a n d t h e P e a s a n t P rob lem. I n Heye r , R o b e r t s & W i l l i a m s ( e d s ) ( 1 9 8 1 ) : R u r a l Development i n T r o p i c a l A f r i c a . MacMil lan , London.

AGRICULTURAL POLICY OF TANZANIA

APPENDIX 1

The f o l l o w i n g a r e t h e s t a t e m e n t s i n t h e A g r i c u l t u r a l P o l i c y , which a p p l y t o t h i s s t u d y :

The p o l i c y s t a t e s ( p . 8 ) t h a t t h e dominant mode o f a g r i c u l t u r e i n Tanzan ia i s i n d i v i d u a l p e a s a n t produc- t i o n . But , "Farming i n t h e v i l l a g e s needs moderniza- t i o n ; i n t h e m a j o r i t y o f c a s e s it is s t i l l c a r r i e d on a c c o r d i n g t o t r a d i t i o n a l p r a c t i c e s , w i t h o u t t a k i n g a d v a n t a g e of modern knowledge o r modern t o o l s . The jembe, t h e panga, and t h e shoka - a l l hand t o o l s - s t i l l dominate p r o d u c t i o n methods now". The p o l i c y goes on t o s t a t e ; ( p . 1 1 ) : " I n c r e a s i n g t h e o u t p u t and t h e e f f i c i e n c y of a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t i o n i n t h e v i l l a g e s i s c e n t r a l t o i n c r e a s e d n a t i o n a l o u t p u t " .

The s t r a t e g i e s adop ted t o a c h i e v e t h i s a r e f o r m u l a t e d on p . 18 and i n c l u d e : " a ) I n c r e a s e d p r o d u c t i o n of b o t h s t a p l e food c r o p s and a p p r o p r i a t e market c r o p s by expanded a c r e a g e where t h i s is f e a s i b l e w i t h e x i s t i n g o r a v a i l a b l e t o o l s , and by i n c r e a s e d y i e l d s t h r o u g h t h e a d o p t i o n of modern methods of c r o p o r an imal husbandry. The move from hand t o o l s t o more advanced animal-drawn implements must b e phased i n w i t h any expanded a c r e a g e " .

" C 1 The I n t r o d u c t i o n o f improved a g r i c u l t u r a l t o o l s and implements f o r use on t h e V i l l a g e and t h e Block and Homestead f a r m s , w i t h s p e c i a l r e f e r e n c e t o t h e u s e of animal-drawn implements , and a move t o t h e t r a c t o r o r o t h e r m e c h a n i s a t i o n a f t e r management c a r e , and s e r v i c - i n g problems have been p lanned f o r " . On Crop P r o d u c t i o n t h e f o l l o w i n g i s s t a t e d ( p . 3 3 ) : "The immediate o b j e c t i v e s w i l l b e t h e achievement of n a t i o n a l food s e l f - s u f f i c e n c y , a s w e l l a s s u f f i c i e n t a g r i c u l t u r a l o u t p u t t o meet t h e expanding needs of our i n d u s t r i a l s e c t o r , and t o p r o v i d e i n c r e a s e d e a r n i n g s from e x p o r t c r o p s " . ... "But n o t h i n g can a l t e r t h e f a c t t h a t t h e major t a s k i s t o move t h e p e a s a n t f a r m e r s from r e l i a n c e on hand t o o l s t o t h e use of an imal o r mechani- c a l l y a s s i s t e d implements and a t t h e same t i m e t o con- v i n c e them t h a t s e t t l e d a g r i c u l t u r e ( a s d i s t i n c t from t h e p r e - v i l l a g i s a t i o n p a t t e r n of s h i f t i n g a g r i c u l t u r e ) demands improved husbandry p r a c t i c e s " .

A f u r t h e r r e a s o n f o r s h i f t i n g from hand t o o l s is g i v e n i n p . 38: " i t i s t o reduce t h e back- breaking l a b o u r

i n v o l v e d i n dependence on t h e hand-hoe t h a t t h e Govern- ment i n t e n d s t o p u t s o much emphasis on t h e use o f an imal o r o t h e r power a s s i s t e d implements" .

The A g r i c u l t u r a l p o l i c y g o e s on t o s t a t e Government ' s s u p p o r t f o r A g r i c u l t u r a l Research A c t i v i t i e s , a s w e l l a s f o r e x t e n s i o n a c t i v i t i e s , t o e n a b l e e x t e n s i o n workers o p p o r t u n i t y t o " g i v e o r a r r a n g e t r a i n i n g i n t h e use of new t e c h n i q u e s and improved implements" .

C e n t r a l t o t h e p r e s e n t s t u d y a r e t h e s t a t e m e n t s made under t h e head ing A g r i c u l t u r a l Mechan isa t ion :

" 5 2 . A g r i c u l t u r a l . machinery and equipment w i l l b e imported o n l y on t h e b a s i s of t e c h n i c a l e v a l u a t i o n and t e s t i n g done under t h e c l o s e s u p e r v i s i o n of t h e M i n i s t r y of A g r i c u l t u r e . Loca l manufac tu re , e s p e c i a l l y of hand t o o l s and an imal powered implements, w i l l be s t e p p e d up". ... "The t e s t i n g o f loca l ly- made p r o t o- t y p e s and of manufactured i t e m s , w i l l , however, r e v e r t t o t h e c o n t r o l o f t h e M i n i s t r y o f A g r i c u l t u r e .

5 3 . The demand f o r improved hand t o o l s and animal-drawn implements is c u r r e n t l y growing v e r y f a s t , and t h e Government i n t e n d s t o make e v e r y e f f o r t t o expand pro- d u c t i o n of such goods. In a d d i t i o n t o t h e n a t i o n a l f a c t o r i e s i n Dar e s Salaam and Mbeya ( a n p o s s i b i l y o t h e r s l a t e r ) , SIDO w i l l b e urged t o be more a c t i v e i n h e l p i n g t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t of l o c a l manufac tu r ing . D i s t r i c t Development C o r p o r a t i o n s w i l l be urged t o pa r- t i c i p a t e i n t h i s work, and c o- o p e r a t i v e and s m a l l p r i - v a t e p r o d u c e r s a l s o have a r o l e t o p l a y . The o b j e c t i v e i s t o have a l l t h e s e p r o d u c t i o n i t e m s e a s i l y a v a i l a b l e f o r p u r c h a s e by v i l l a g e s and p e a s a n t s and t o d e v e l o p r e p a i r f a c i l i t i e s i n t h e v i l l a g e s t h e m s e l v e s .

5 4 , Where c a t t l e and/or donkeys a r e a v a i l a b l e , t h e use of a n i m a l s f o r a g r i c u l t u r a l work w i l l be encouraged and ox o r donkey c a r t s f o r i n t e r n a l v i l l a g e and f o r l o c a l t r a n s p o r t a t i o n w i l l a l s o be emphasized. F u r h e r , it i s i n t e n d e d g r a d u a l l y t o i n t r o d u c e t h e s e a n i m a l s i n t o new p a r t s of t h e c o u n t r y , t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e a p p r o p r i a t e t e c h n i c a l packages which w i l l e n a b l e v i l l a g e s t o look a f t e r them and g e t maximum b e n e f i t from them, Thus, w h i l e t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f an imal p loughs w i l l b e i n c r e a s- ed and t h e i r use promoted, it i s a l s o i n t e n d e d t o e x t e n d t h e range of animal-drawn a g r i c u l t u r a l implements t o cover t h e work o f h a r r o w i n g , p l a n t i n g , and weeding, Ox and donkey c a r t s w i l l be promoted t o d e a l w i t h problems of c o l l e c t i n g and t r a n s p o r t i n g manure t o t h e f i e l d s , of c o l l e c t i n g f i r e w o o d , o f moving c r o p s from t h e f i e l d s t o t h e v i l l a g e s t o r e s , e t c , Such c a r t s w i l l r educe t h e p h y s i c a l b u r d e n s o f p e a s a n t s and

v i l l a g e workers , and a l s o make p o s s i b l e o p e r a t i o n s n e c e s s a r y f o r good husbandry which a r e n o t p r a c t i c a b l e w h i l e a l l goods a r e c a r r i e d on t h e heads o r backs o f women and men. Animal t r a n s p o r t a t i o n w i t h i n t h e v i l l a g e i s a l s o more economic t h a n dependence on l o r r i e s o r t r a c t o r s , q u i t e a p a r t from t h e f r e q u e n t s h o r t a g e o f d i e s e l f u e l " .

A p i v o t a l a s p e c t i n t r y i n g t o assist f a r m e r s i n improv- i n g t h e i r p r o d u c t i o n i s t h e Farm I n p u t Supply and Del i- v e r y System. I n t h i s r e g a r d t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l p o l i c y s t a t e s :

" 75 . T h e d e l i v e r y of a g r i c u l t u r a l i n p u t s and equipment a t t h e r i g h t t i m e , i n t h e r e q u i r e d q u a n t i t i e s , and a t l o w e s t p o s s i b l e c o s t s , is a n e s s e n t i a l e lement i n any p l a n t o i n c r e a s e o u t p u t . The f o l l o w i n g a r e among t h e measures which w i l l be t a k e n a s r a p i d l y a s p o s s i b l e t o e n s u r e t h a t t h e s e goods a r e a v a i l a b l e when t h e farmer needs them:

a ) On t h e b a s i s of i n f o r m a t i o n c o l l e c t e d from t h e u s e r s , t h e M i n i s t r y o f A g r i c u l t u r e w i l l a n n u a l l y produce a c a l e n d a r showing t h e t y p e and q u a n t i t y of i n p u t s needed i n t h e d i f f e r e n t r e g i o n s , and g i v i n g a d i s t r i b u - t i o n d e l i v e r y t i m e- t a b l e f o r a l l l e v e l s . The M i n i s t r y w i l l a l s o c o- o r d i n a t e and moni to r t h e s u p p l y and d i s t r i b u t i o n of a g r i c u l t u r a l i n p u t s , and of a g r i c u l - t u r a l implements of a l l t y p e s .

b ) A s i n g l e body under t h e s u p e r v i s i o n of t h e M i n i s t r y of A g r i c u l t u r e w i l l have t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r s e e i n g t h a t a l l a g r i c u l t u r a l i n p u t s a r e made a v a i l a b l e t o t h e f a r m e r s a t c o n v e n i e n t p l a c e s . I t w i l l d e a l w i t h p l a n t and c r o p p r o t e c t i o n c h e m i c a l s , s e e d s , i r r i g a t i o n pumps, f e n c i n g w i r e s , f e r t i l i z e r s , animal-powered implements and c a r t s , hand t o o l s , and a l l o t h e r forms of goods r e q u i r e d by t h e fa rmer i n t h e c o u r s e of e f f i c i e n t pro- d u c t i o n . T.F.A. w i l l be t a k e n a s a model. The new body w i l l have zona l d e p o t s which w i l l l i n k up w i t h Co- o p e r a t i v e Unions, a s w e l l a s w i t h t h e Farmerss S e r v i c e C e n t r e s which t h e Company w i l l i t s e l f be r e s p o n s i b l e f o r opening and runn ing a t s t r a t e g i c c e n t r e s .

c ) Tanzan ian m a n u f a c t u r e r s and/or s u p p l i e r s ( e . g . , TANSEED) of a g r i c u l t u r a l i n p u t s w i l l be r e s p o n s i b l e f o r f i n a n c i n g t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of t h e goods t o r e g i o n a l l e v e l . They may s e l l t h r o u g h t h e new A g r i c u l t u r a l Supp- l i e s Company o r d i r e c t t o Co- operat ive Unions and l a r g e commercial f a rms .

d ) Co- opera t ive u n i o n s w i l l be r e s p o n s i b l e f o r d i s t r i - b u t i o n downwards from t h e r e g i o n a l l e v e l and f o r

delivering the inputs to the peasants and small farmers through Primary Co-operative Societies and/or village shops.

e) The work of distributing and financing agricultural inputs will be separated".

RAPID RURAL APPRAISAL SURVEY METHODOLOGY

APPENDIX 2

A f t e r a s h o r t i n t r o d u c t o r y v i s i t t o t h e R e g i o n a l Deve- lopmen t D i r e c t o r (RDD, now R e g i o n a l E x e c u t i v e D i r e c t o r , RED) d i s c u s s i o n s were h e l d w i t h t h e R e g i o n a l A g r i c u l- t u r a l Development O f f i c e r (RADO), o f t e n w i t h h i s s t a f f p r e s e n t , e . g . , D i s t r i c t A g r i c u l t u r a l Development Of f i - cers ( D A D O ' s a n d R e g i o n a l o r D i s t r i c t M e c h a n i z a t i o n O f f i c e r s ( R M O ' s o r D M O ' s ) . I t was o f t e n f o u n d a d v a n t a- g e o u s f i r s t t o i n t e r v i e w manage r s o f R e g i o n a l T r a d i n g Companies (RTC ' s ) and Tanganyn ika F a r m e r s A s s o c i a t i o n (TFA) t o r e c o r d m a r k e t i n g s ta t i s t ics , v i s i t t h e godowns f o r i n s p e c t i o n o f imp lemen t s and t o d i s c u s s u s e r s ' p r e- f e r e n c e s , r e g i o n a l r e q u i r e m e n t s and demand f o r f a r m implemen t s . S i m i l a r d i s c u s s i o n s were h e l d w i t h RADO a n d DAD0 s t a f f , and g e n e r a l i n f o r m a t i o n was o b t a i n e d on s o i l c o n d i t i o n s , l i f e s p a n and wear & t ear o f imple- m e n t s , h o u s e h o l d r e q u i r e m e n t s , c r o p o r l o c a l s p e c i f i c t o o l s , u s a g e p a t t e r n , e t c . R e c e n t c e n s u s s ta t i s t ics on ox- equipment were r e c o r d e d and e f f o r t s t o i n t r o d u c e improved i m p l e m e n t s were d i s c u s s e d . R e g i o n a l SIDO o f f i c e s were v i s i t e d t o d i s c u s s small-scale i n d u s t r i e s a n d r u r a l b l a c k s m i t h s , i n c l u d i n g i d e n t i f y i n g v i l l a g e s w i t h b l a c k s m i t h s .

A s r e g a r d s t h e s e l e c t i o n o f d i s t r i c t s and v i l l a g e s f o r t h e s u r v e y , w e were c o n s t r a i n e d b y s h o r t a g e o f p e t r o l and t i m e , b u t w e d i d manage t o g e t o f f t h e main r o a d s and i n t o o y t l y i n g areas and d i s t r i c t s i n Mwanza, Arusha , I r i n g a a n d Mbeya, and t o some e x t e n t a l s o i n S i n g i d a . S t i l l t h e r e is , w e b e l i e v e , a n upward b i a s i n t h e s e l e c t i o n o f v i l l a g e s i n t h e s e n s e t h a t p r o b a b l y as many as 50% o f t h e s e were n e a r main r o a d s , n e a r D iv i- s i o n a l a d m i n i s t r a t i v e c e n t r e s o r h a d r u r a l b l a c k s m i t h s - s i n c e w e had t o combine v i s i t s t o b l a c k s m i t h s w i t h i n t e r v i e w i n g f a r m e r s . C o n s i d e r i n g t h e s e f a c t o r s , i n - c l u d i n g r e l a t i v e l y f a v o u r a b l e t r a n s p o r t o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r r o a d- s i d e v i l l a g e s , t h e c o n d i t i o n s o f t h e r e c o r d e d t o o l i n v e n t o r i e s , b o t h i n q u a l i t a t i v e and q u a n t i t a t i v e terms, was no d o u b t above a v e r a g e .

I f s u f f i c i e n t t i m e and f u e l i s a v a i l a b l e , a more appro- p r i a t e method o f s e l e c t i o n would b e random s e l e c t i o n o f d i s t r i c t s and o f d i s t r i c t v i l l a g e s . S h o r t o f t h i s t ime- consuming method, somebody w i t h a " f r e e hand" c o u l d p o i n t o u t v i l l a g e s on a map w i t h s h a d e d e y e s , r a t h e r t h a n b e i n g g u i d e d by p e o p l e o r o f f i c i a l s w i t h l o c a l knowledge , wh ich b y i t s v e r y n a t u r e t e n d s t o b e b i a s e d .

A RADO, D A D 0 o r P lann ing O f f i c e member o f s t a f f accom- p a n i e d u s t o g u i d e us and i n t r o d u c e us t o t h e v i l l a g e l e a d e r s h i p . I n some c a s e s d i v i s i o n a l and ward o f f i c i a l s were c a l l e d on as w e l l . Another e x p e c t e d b i a s cropped up when househo lds were s e l e c t e d . Although we t o o k t i m e and e f f o r t t o e x p l a i n t h a t w e wanted t o i n t e r v i e w a v e r a g e f a r m e r s , v i l l a g e l e a d e r s had a t e n d e n c y t o f i n d above a v e r a g e f a r m e r s , sometimes t o such an e x t e n t t h a t we d e c l i n e d t o i n t e r v i e w them. And sometimes it d i d n o t h e l p even when we p o i n t e d o u t , t h a t above a v e r a g e f a r m e r s would t e n d t o show t o o l i n v e n t o r i e s i n a b e t t e r c o n d i t i o n , which would make us c o n c l u d e t h a t t h e r e was no problem i n t e r m s o f farm implements , and t h a t t h e r e w a s c o n s e q u e n t l y no need f o r s u p p o r t t o i n c r e a s e d pro- d u c t i o n and s u p p l y .

The b i a s was a l s o made worse by o u r own need f o r i n t e r - viewing plough-owning househo lds . On t h e o t h e r hand, t h e r e i s o f t e n a h i g h e r i n t e n s i t y i n t h e use of farm implements i n h o u s e h o l d s w i t h l a r g e r a v e r a g e s , s o t h a t t h e r a t e of wear ing i s i n c r e a s e d . However, d u r i n g a l- most a l l i n t e r v i e w s , a number o f ne ighbour ing f a r m e r s were p r e s e n t , and consensus was s o u g h t on a v e r a g e t o o l i n v e n t o r y , usage p a t t e r n , l i f e span and household r e q u i r e m e n t s .

Some v i l l a g e l e a d e r s d i d , however, a c c e p t our s e l e c t i o n c r i t e r i a and i n R u f i j i , S i n g i d a , Nzega, Hanang, Moshi R u r a l , Njombe and Tukuyu d i s t r i c t s we d i d g e t a v e r a g e and a few below a v e r a g e household i n t e r v i e w s - which h e l p s t o g e t an i d e a of t h e range of i n v e n t o r i e r s b e t - ween above and below a v e r a g e househo ld . A t a l l l e v e l s of our v i s i t s and a t a l l household i n t e r v i e w s , t h e purpose of t h e s t u d y was e x p l a i n e d i n d e t a i l . The i n t e r - views were conduc ted w i t h o u t a n i n t e r p r e t e r i n S w a h i l i . I n some c a s e s t h e wives were i n t e r v i e w e d and i n s e v e r a l c a s e s t h e y were p r e s e n t and were e i t h e r a s k e d q u e s t i o n s on t h e i r v iews , o r t h e y j o i n e d i n t h e d i s c u s s i o n s t h e m s e l v e s .

A f t e r t h e o b l i g a t o r y , i n t r o d u c t o r y e x p l a n a t i o n , we a s k e d f o r a l l t o o l s and implements t o be b rought o u t f o r i n s p e c t i o n , even o l d and unused o n e s - which i n some i n s t a n c e s prompted n e i g h b o u r s t o b r i n g t h e i r s a s w e l l . We t h e n s t a r t e d o u t w i t h t h e b i g g e s t o r newest h o e , checked i t s brand name, weight and make (whe ther round-eyed, t a n g e d o r b lacksmi th- made) , i t s age o r when it w a s bought , f o r how much and where. The o r d e r of t h e q u e s t i o n s asked is i m p o r t a n t h e r e , and t h e p r i c e s were used as a check a g a i n s t age o r t h e p l a c e o f p u r c h a s e , whether a n RTC v i l l a g e shop ( o f f i c i a l p r i c e ) o r a p r i - v a t e s h o p ( f r e e o r b l a c k market p r i c e ) . Year, r e a s o n f o r , p l a c e and c o s t o r r e p a i r s were asked . The s t a t e of wear and t e a r was e i t h e r measured w i t h t a p e o r a s s e s s - e d . I t is an a d v a n t a g e t o know t h e l e n g t h and wid th of

v a r i o u s implements b e f o r e h a n d . F i n a l l y , q u e s t i o n s were a s k e d a b o u t who used it i n t h e househo ld , when it was p a s s e d o v e r t o a more j u n i o r member, and f o r which farm a c t i v i t i e s is w a s used .

The whole p r o c e d u r e , which t a k e s a b o u t 5 m i n u t e s f o r one implement, w a s r e p e a t e d f o r a l l implements , a l- though v e r y o l d t o o l s were recorded i n l e s s d e t a i l . We b e l i e v e t h a t we d i d n o t s e e a l l h a r v e s t i n g k n i v e s found i n t h e househo ld . The f a r m e r s g e n e r a l l y have v e r y s h a r p memory on age o f t o o l s , p u r c h a s e p r i c e s , e t c . A s r e g a r d s p loughs we a l s o asked a b o u t whether and when v a r i o u s p a r t s had been r e p l a c e d .

F i n a l l y , a v e r a g e c r o p s grown, c u l t i v a t i o n r a t e p e r p lough and t h e number o f wives i n t h e household were recorded . I t would b e even b e t t e r t o r e c o r d t h e number of a d u l t a b l e b o d i e d p e r s o n s . The whole i n t e r v i e w g e n e r a l l y t o o k 1-1.5 h o u r s , depending on t h e g roup d i s - c u s s i o n - t o which s h o u l d b e added walking and t r a n s p o r t t i m e .

S ix r u r a l b l a c k s m i t h s i tes , worked by g r o u p s o r i n d i v i - d u a l s m i t h s were v i s i t e d . T h e i r t o o l i n v e n t o r i e s were i n s p e c t e d and recorded a s w e l l , i n c l u d i n g implements undergoing manufac tu r ing o r r e p a i r work. Q u e s t i o n s were asked a b o u t o r i g i n of m a t e r i a l u s e d , p r i c e , whether t h e t o o l s were se l f- made o r purchased , number of c r a f t s m e n and a p p r e n t i c e s a c t i v e a t t h e s i t e , t i m e used t o o b t a i n raw m a t e r i a l t o produce common implements and t o market t h e p r o d u c t s , i n c l u d i n g t h e i r p r i c e .

The main c o n s t r a i n t i n t h e t r a d e was n e i t h e r marke t ing nor t h e t o o l i n v e n t o r y , w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n o f f i l e s . The most s e v e r e problem was t h e i n c r e a s i n g d i f f i c u l t y i n f i n d i n g raw m a t e r i a l . An a t t e m p t was made t o a s s e s s p r i c e s a t which t h e b l a c k s m i t h s would be p r e p a r e d t o p u r c h a s e s u i t a b l e p i e c e s of raw m a t e r i a l , and whether such a p r o c e s s of p r o d u c t i o n would be economical . How- e v e r , t h e s e a r e h y p o t h e t i c a l q u e s t i o n s - e s p e c i a l l y f o r o l d b l a c k s m i t h s - and t h e answers g i v e n c a n n o t a lways be t a k e n a t f a c e v a l u e , a l t h o u g h many of them d i d seem r e a l i s t i c .

Three D i v i s i o n a l RTC o u t l e t s , 5 v i l l a g e s h o p s , 4 p r i - v a t e shops and 7 r e g i o n a l o r d i v i s i o n a l market p l a c e s were v i s i t e d t o check o u t on t h e fo rmal and i n f o r m a l marke t ing of farm i m p l e m w t s , consumer p r e f e r e n c e s , p r i c e s , s h o r t a g e s , e t c . I n most v i l l a g e s q u e s t i o n s on t h i s were a l s o a d d r e s s e d t o f a r m e r s and v i l l a g e s e c r e - t a r i e s . A s r e g a r d s RTC o u t l e t s and v i l l a g e s s h o p s , s t o c k s o r t h e l a c k o f them were checked, and shop pur- c h a s e s , s a l e s , p r i c e s , margin and l i q u i d i t y p o s i t i o n w a s r e c o r d e d . The p o s i t i o n of v i l l a g e shops i n t e r m s of farm implements d i s t r i b u t i o n i s g e n e r a l l y v e r y poor and a c o n s t r a i n t on s u p p l y t o t h e v i l l a g e s .

SOME NOTES ON THE COSTS OF I MP ORTAT I ON

APPENDIX 3

A s w e a re c o n c e r n e d i n t h i s r e p o r t w i t h s u p p l y i n g Tan- z a n i a n p e a s a n t s w i t h t h e i r r e q u i r e m e n t s o f f a r m imple- m e n t s a t t h e l o w e s t p o s s i b l e c o s t , w e must a l s o con- s i d e r i m p o r t a t i o n as a n a l t e r n a t i v e t o l o c a l produc- t i o n .

B e f o r e t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f UFI a l l f a rm implemen t s , w i t h some few e x c e p t i o n s ( e . g . , m a i z e m i l l s ) and e x c l u d i n g b l a c k s m i t h- p r o d u c e d i m p l e m e n t s , were impor t- e d . I m p o r t a t i o n had a n e g a t i v e e f f e c t on t h e volumes p r o d u c e d b y b l a c k s m i t h s .

The e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f l o c a l p r o d u c t i o n u n i t s w a s b a s e d more on t h e p o l i c y o f s e l f - r e l i a n c e , t h a n on p r o p e r e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e c o s t - e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f s u c h p r o d u c t i o n i n c o m p a r i s o n t o i m p o r t s . T h i s r e s u l t e d , as r e p o r t e d b y P h i l l i p s and Z a c h a r i a h and IFAD, i n m a n u f a c t u r e r u n n i n g a t a l o s s . U F I ' s p r o f i t m a r g i n on i m p o r t e d p r o d u c t s s u b s i d i z e d l o c a l m a n u f a c t u r e . P h i l l i p s and Z a c h a r i a h c o n c l u d e d t h a t c o m p a r a t i v e a d v a n t a g e s were t o b e found i n t h e m a n u f a c t u r e o f b u l k y items, s u c h as g r a i n m i l l s , and i n a s s e m b l y o f s e m i- f i n i s h e d p r o d u c t s ( e . g . , p l o u g h s ) r a t h e r t h a n i n m a s s- p r o d u c t i o n o f items l i k e h o e s , a x e s and m a t c h e t s . A t t h e a c h i e v e d p r o d u c t i o n l e v e l s a t UFI, P h i l l i p s and Z a c h a r i a h d i d n o t c o n s i d e r l o c a l p r o d u c t i o n j u s t i f i e d even i f shadow p r i c e s were u s e d . IFAD, a p p l y i n g t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l 15% l o c a l p r e- f e r e n c e m a r g i n , came t o t h e same c o n c l u s i o n .

These two r e p o r t s b a s e t h e i r c o n c l u s i o n s on t h e f o l l o w- i n g 1978 f i g u r e s :

UFI e x c o s t c i f c o s t c i f f a c t o r y e x c h i n a e x U K p r i c e R e t a i l p r i c e

3 l b r /e h o e TShs 15.39 TShs 18 .49 TShs 19 .25 TShs 25.10

For c o m p a r a t i v e p u r p o s e s , w e show be low t h e 1983 f i g u r e s f o r t h e same i t e m :

Z Z K Ex UF I manuf ac- f a c -

c o s t c i f c o s t c i f f a c t o r y t u r i n g t o r y R e t a i l e x I n d i a ex UK c o s t CO st p r i c e p r i c e

3 l b TShs TSh S TShs TSh S TShs TShs r / e hoe 28 29.16 33.30 42.79 47.06 54.90

(We do n o t have a c c e s s t o a r e c e n t q u o t e from PRC, b u t it c a n b e assumed t h a t it w i l l be s l i g h t l y l e s s (1-2 TShs) t h a n t h e I n d i a n p r i c e . )

We have based t h e comparison on c o s t i n g s p rov ided t o u s by UFI and Z Z K . ( A s f a r a s UFI i s concerned , t h e f i g u r e i s i n l i n e a l s o w i t h t h e Stehagen r e p o r t . )

We can t h u s c o n c l u d e t h a t as f a r as t h i s p a r t i c u l a r i t e m is concerned , UFI i s s t i l l n o t c o m p e t i t i v e w i t h world market p r i c e s , and t h a t a margin o f 25% h a s t o be accorded t o make it c o m p e t i t i v e . However, it must be r e c o g n i z e d t h a t t h e c o s t s t o U F I , and i n much h i g h e r d e g r e e t o Z Z K , a r e based on low c a p a c i t y u t i l i z a t i o n l e v e l s , and f u r t h e r m o r e t h a t t h e o v e r v a l u e d Tanzanian c u r r e n c y works a g a i n s t l o c a l p r o d u c t i o n i n such a com- p a r i s o n . ( T h i s would a f f e c t a shadow p r i c e computa- t i o n .

A h i g h e r r a t e o f c a p a c i t y u t i l i z a t i o n would i n our view j u s t i f y a d e c i s i o n t o c o n t i n u e l o c a l p r o d u c t i o n o f hoes .

We do n o t have compara t ive f i g u r e s f o r a x e s , t h e impor t c o s t ( c i f ) of which is p r e s e n t l y TShs 36, compared t o a maximum ex . f a c t o r y p r i c e o f TShs 65.58.

The impor t c o s t comparison made f o r m a t c h e t s i n d i c a t e d t h a t Cotex c o s t s ( a s s u b m i t t e d t o t h e n a t i o n a l P r i c e Commissioner) were 189% above t h e quo ted c i f p r i c e . A s i z e a b l e r e d u c t i o n i n c o s t s would t h u s be n e c e s s a r y t o make Cotex c o m p e t i t i v e w i t h impor t s .

On t h e o t h e r hand, i f raw m a t e r i a l s a r e assumed t o b e t h e main f o r e i g n c u r r e n c y c o s t (equipment e t c be ing regarded as "sunk" c o s t s ) , we f i n d t h a t l o c a l manufac tu re r e p r e s e n t s a c o n s i d e r a b l e f o r e i g n exchange s a v i n g :

i m p o r t raw m a t e r i a l c o s t s c i f UFI Z Z K Cotex

3 l b r / e hoe 2 8 14.90 22.48

16" matche t 14.62 10.30

Ploughs a r e a s l i g h t l y d i f f e r e n t m a t t e r . I t h a s been s t a t e d t o u s by NDC and UFI t h a t it i s c h e a p e r t o i m- p o r t s e m i- f i n i s h e d p loughs from I n d i a , t h a n t o manufac- t u r e t h e p loughs from raw m a t e r i a l s a s t h e I n d i a n government s u b s i d i z e s I n d i a n m a n u f a c t u r e r s . The c o s t comparison, based on UFI December 1 9 8 3 f i g u r e s , does n o t b e a r t h i s s t a t e m e n t o u t . L o c a l l y manufactured p loughs would b e 1 8 % cheaper i n raw m a t e r i a l s , and 19% more e x p e n s i v e i n manufac tu r ing c o s t g i v i n g t o t a l d i r e c t c o s t s which a r e t h e same ( w i t h i n TShs 3 ) f o r t h e two p loughs . I t a p p e a r s t o us t h a t t h i s may be a s h i f t - i n g of manufac tu r ing c h a r g e s t o t h e s e m i- f i n i s h e d plough.

The f o l l o w i n g f i g u r e s have been c o l l e c t e d on t h e volumes o f i m p o r t a t i o n . The 1 9 7 9 f i g u r e s a r e quo ted from t h e TISCO marke t s u r v e y 1980, t h e remaining f i g u r e s a r e p rov ided by UFI. The 1 9 8 3 f i g u r e is a p lanned f i g u r e w i t h d e d u c t i o n s made i n r e s p e c t o f c e r- t a i n o r d e r s t h a t w i l l n o t be f u l f i l l e d .

I m p o r t a t i o n Volumes ( t h o u s a n d p c s ) 1 9 7 9 1 9 8 0 1981 1 9 8 2 1983

pp---

Hoes 223 1 9 5 9 195 2 0 1 9 7 2 8 Axes 292 106 3 6 8 2 - Matche t s 1226 7 1 5 175 6 6 8 - Ploughs - 3.6 - 20.7 35.51 Plough s h a r e s n/a - - 3 0 130

1 ) f i n i s h e d + s e m i- f i n i s h e d

U n t i l UFI and ZZK have been a b l e t o r e h a b i l i t a t e t h e i r o p e r a t i o n s t o t h e o u t p u t l e v e l s s u g g e s t e d , which may t a k e 1 t o 2 y e a r s , t h e r e i s a demand g a p , which w i l l have t o be m e t by i m p o r t s of h o e s , p loughs and plough s p a r e p a r t s .

Whether l o c a l manufac tu re of a x e s , s h o v e l s , r a k e s , e t c , , i s j u s t i f i e d from c o s t e f f i c i e n c y and s a v i n g f o r e i g n exchange p o i n t s of view remains t o be demon- s t r a t e d , and s h o u l d i n e a c h c a s e b e demons t ra ted b e f o r e f u n d s a r e expended f o r equipment and raw m a t e r i a l s f o r s u c h p r o d u c t i o n .

This book deals with major issues related to hand- and ox-drawn farm implements for different farming systems and ecological areas in Tanzania, It is based on field visits in some ten Tanzanian regions during the second half of 1983, the most intense crisis period in Tanzania. Hence the study may shed some light on the relative importance of problems related to production and distribution of basic farm implements as an element of the crisis.

The study includes a survey of the types of farm implements used and preferred by Tanzanian peasants. The structure and conditions of the different levels of production and repair of farm implements in Tanzania, village blacksmiths, small-, medium- and large scale production, are investigated.

Introduction and development of new farm implements are analysed through the different existing approaches to technology dissemination examplified by case studies of among other institutions, CAMARTEC, Uyole Agricultural Centre and the Regional Oxenisation Project in Iringa. It is found that most technology development is rather irrelevant to peasant needs. The argument is raised that such development must be conditioned on a close relation between the users and the assisting bodies. Ideas are put forward as t o how to improve relevant technology development for small scale farmers.

The field survey undertaken also provides the basis for establish- ing demand estimates for most hand- and ox-drawn implements in Tanzania for 1983184 and the years ahead. The structure and functioning of the distribution system for farm implements are also analysed.

The study is concerned about ways and means to assist and improve critical activities of peasant fanning in Tanzania, including supply of relevant implements, raw materials for local village production and repair of implements, and how to improve village connected transport through increased production of good quality ox-carts.

Published by Scandinavian Institute of African Studies P 0 Box 1703 5-751 47 UPPSALA, Sweden ISBN 91-71 06-290-d