Low Input Production Systems: Innovations in Mechanization for

Food Security in Asia by

Gajendra Singh Indian Agricultural Research Institute

New Delhi, India and

Peeyush Singh Asian Institute of Technology, Thailand

Email: prof.gsingh@gmail.com

Feeding growing population Alleviating poverty Protecting environment Responding to Climate

Change

Feeding growing population Alleviating poverty Protecting environment Responding to Climate

Change

Hunger and malnutrition Reduced economic growth Political instability Damages to environment

Hunger and malnutrition Reduced economic growth Political instability Damages to environment

Globally, 870 M people are chronically hungry (FAO, 2012)

Two-thirds of the World’s under nourished people lived in the Asia and the Pacific region (FAO, 2013)

13% of the population in the Asia and the Pacific region were hungry and malnourished during 2010-2012 (FAO, 2012)

Global Challenges and food security

World need to feed 2 billion more people by 2050

Global food demand would increase by 60% by 2050 (OECD-

FAO, 2012)

Agricultural development is the most effective ways for addressing food security challenges

1% growth in Agricultural Economy fuels a 6% increase in spending by the poorest 10% of population (World Bank, 2008)

• In monetary value terms the agrarian activities of the region have

considerably shifted

• Cereals, fruits & vegetables and livestock production continue to be

the main activities of the agricultural sector

Agricultural Development in the AP Region

Percent Composition of Agricultural Output (constant $) for Asian Countries, 1970 and 2010 (Source: Soni (2014) calculation based on data from Briones and Felipe (2013))

Changing Dietary Habits:

• Asian economies are undergoing major transformation

• Rapid economic growth has led to high growth in individual incomes in most countries in the region

• There is a shift in consumer preferences toward increasingly diversified, safe and high-value food products

• Increasing demand for high-quality packaged and branded foods caused by the phenomenal growth of supermarkets and hypermarkets in the urban centers

are putting pressure on the existing

Agricultural on-farm production and post-production systems in the region

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Shares in Agricultural Output by Country, Developing Asia, 2010 (Source: Soni (2014) calculation based on data from Briones and Felipe (2013))

Cereal yield Several factors affect national average of cereal yield –

Topography; Climate; Technology; Soil constraints

(2 - 2.5 t/ha) Timor-Leste, Nepal;

(2.6 - 3 t/ha) Pakistan, India, Cambodia, Thailand;

(3 - 4.5 t/ha) Philippines, Sri Lanka, DPRK, Myanmar, Malaysia, Lao PDR, Bangladesh;

(4.5 - 5 t/ha) PNG, Indonesia, Japan;

(5 - 7 t/ha) Viet Nam, China and ROK

3.7 t/ha World average

(2 - 2.5 t/ha) Timor-Leste, Nepal;

(2.6 - 3 t/ha) Pakistan, India, Cambodia, Thailand;

(3 - 4.5 t/ha) Philippines, Sri Lanka, DPRK, Myanmar, Malaysia, Lao PDR, Bangladesh;

(4.5 - 5 t/ha) PNG, Indonesia, Japan;

(5 - 7 t/ha) Viet Nam, China and ROK

3.7 t/ha World average

Many countries of the Asia and the Pacific region continue (esp. lower-middle to low income) to grapple with numerous constraints – Modern technology adoption; Poor infrastructure; Weak human resource capacity

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a Cereal Yield: Decadal average

1960-70 1970-80 1980-90 1990-00 2000-11

Average of cereal yield over decades (Source: Soni (2014) calculation based on data from FAOSTAT and World Bank, 2013)

Cereal yield, measured as kilograms per hectare of harvested area includes:wheat, rice,

maize, barley, oats, rye, millet, sorghum, buckwheat and mixed grains. Production data

on cereals relate to crops harvested for dry grain only.

Agricultural Mechanization in the Asia and the Pacific Region Mechanization is a powerful tool for achieving sustainable

agricultural production

From sustainability perspective the Agricultural Mechanization debate revolves around two aspects:

Impacts of continuous &

improper use of technology

on environment and

natural resources

Impacts of continuous &

improper use of technology

on environment and

natural resources

Feasibility and impact of using higher levels of

farm power

Feasibility and impact of using higher levels of

farm power

The experience of the Asia and the Pacific Region shows higher mechanization of processing and irrigation than the mechanization of crop husbandry and harvesting operations

Countries across the Region differ widely with respect to how they use Farm Power

Since 1990s, the use of Draught Animal Power (DAP) as a power source in Asian agriculture has declined considerably

In India, number of draft animals declined from 85 M (1975) 53 M (2005) 18 M (by 2030) [Singh, 2013]

In Bangladesh, since 1980s cyclones killed huge number of draft animals, they were replaced by 2WT

In China, by 2025 the draft animals will be completely replaced by 2WT and 4 WT [Renpu, 2014]

Draft animals-based designs of tillage implements are still being used on tractors; - the only difference being more number of tines/discs

Tractor (4WT+2WT) use intensity

(Units per 1000 ha of arable land)

Harvesters-Threshers use intensity

(Units per 1000 ha of arable land)

Bangladesh BGD 63.32 2012 38.29 2012

Bhutan BTN 0.90 2000

Cambodia KHM 18.19 2010 3.83 2010

China CHN 195.16 2010 10.45 2010

India IND 36.42 2011 3.03 2008

Indonesia IDN 4.66 2010 16.54 2000

Japan JPN 453.21 2000

DPRK DPRK 27.91 2003

ROK ROK 169.93 2008 58.22 2003

Lao PDR LAO 0.77 2003

Malaysia MYS 62.44 2011 21.50 2011

Myanmar MMR 23.47 2012 3.83 2011

Nepal NPL 27.30 2011 39.07 2010

Pakistan PAK 23.95 2010 0.07 2000

Papua New Guinea PNG 5.89 2002 32.41 2002

Philippines PHL 11.70 2008 14.96 2011

Sri Lanka LKA 17.92 2007 0.01 2003

Thailand THA 186.05 2008 4.80 2008

Timor-Leste TLS 0.77 2003

Viet Nam VNM 76.92 2009 35.69 2003

Machinery use intensity (per 1000 ha arable land)

Source: Soni (2014) calculation based on data from World Bank (2013) and FAOSTAT (2013)

Activity Viet Nam

(2011)

Indonesia

(2010)

Bangladesh

(2010)

Philippines (2009)

Rice and Corn

China 2009

(overall)

India 2008

(overall)

Cambodia

(2011)

Soil preparation upland crops 65

Soil preparation for rice

cultivation 72 38 75 Medium to High

Rice planting ~0 ~0 Low

Rice weeding ~0 20 Low

Rice pest and disease control 100 90

Active irrigation for rice 85 50 60

Transport in agriculture and

rural 66

Rice drying in summer- autumn

season in Mekong River Delta

region

38.7 15

Rice harvesting 15 ~0 10 Low

Rice threshing 84 21 Medium to High

Rice milling 95 100 High

Land preparation, plowing 66 23 63

Sowing 41 21

Harvesting 35

Total Mechanization Level 46

Mechanization rate (%) in agricultural production activities

Sources: Soni (2014) calculations based on: CSAM Country Report – Viet Nam (2012); CSAM Country Report – Indonesia

(2012); CSAM Country Report – Bangladesh (2012); CSAM Country Report – Philippines (2012); CSAM Country

Report – China (2012); CSAM Country Report – India (2012); Soni and Ou (2010); Justice and Biggs (2013); UN-

APCAEM Country Report – Cambodia (2011).

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Production of tractors (4-wheel)

1961 880 Tractors

1970 20,000 Net importer upto 1976

1980 71,000 Exports started: Africa

1990 140,000 Exports grew upto 7,000/year

2000 256,000 Exports grew upto 50,000/year

2010 560,000 USA, Malaysia,Turkey, South

2011 630,000 Asian and African countries

2012 579,000 Exports more than 60,000 tractors

2013 690,000 Exports about 65,000 tractors

Of global production of tractors India produces

more than 1/3rd of total tractors and more than

50% of <60 hp category.

India is the biggest producer of tractors in world. Mahindra is #1 company producing tractors worldwide.

Trend in Farm Power Availability in India

Share of agricultural worker & draught animals came down from

60.8% in 1971-72 to 10.1% in 2012-13

Share of agricultural worker & draught animals came down from

60.8% in 1971-72 to 10.1% in 2012-13

Common custom hire services

Transportation: 4WT and 2WT trailer: all countries;

Animal carts: Nepal, Cambodia, Laos

Milling: Engine and motor: all countries

Water pumping: Engine, motor, 2WT pump: most countries

Threshing (Wheat): 4WT thresher: India, China, Pakistan,

Nepal

Threshing (Rice): 4WT and 2WT thresher: most countries;

Threshing (Diesel engines): Thailand

Harvesting (Wheat): Combine harvester: China, India,

Pakistan

Harvesting (Rice): Combine harvester: China, Malaysia,

India, Thailand, Sri Lanka

Common custom hire services

Tillage (Dry): 4WT: most countries

Tillage (Wet): 2WT: most countries

Land leveling: 4WT laser leveler: India,

Pakistan, Cambodia

Seeding: 4WT seed drill: China, India,

Pakistan

Transplanting (Rice): China, India

Maize shelling: India, Bangladesh

Harvesting (Sugarcane): Thailand, India

Examples: In China Combine Service Enterprises(CSEs) in 2011 were operating in 12 provinces. They shifted from Chinese Futian combines to more reliable Japanese Kubota combines. CSEs have evolved in small co-operatives of 5-10 CSEs for maintenance and coordination. Combines are upto 8 months away from home.

In India combine service providers travel upto 600 kms over a period of 2 months to harvest mainly wheat crop.

Technical issues

Decline in Productivity Growth Growth in rice yields has fallen from 2.2% (1970-90) 0.8% (1990-2000) (IRRI)

Land available for rice production is declining as land around urban areas is being converted for other uses such as for housing and industry

Declining water availability for cultivation as demand by industrial and municipal users is growing rapidly

Changing source of farm power: In most countries, rapid change

from animate (animal and human) to mechanical, with increasing use of 2WT/4WT, irrigation pumps (diesel/electric), and post-harvest & processing equipment

Key issue is to plan and facilitate the transition while addressing socio-economic, technical and environmental concerns

Key issue is to ensure that the new power source can be optimally utilized by the farmer on his/her own and/or through rental systems on/off-farm

Some countries are transitioning rapidly from low hp to high hp tractors; technical and socio-economic consequences of this rapid change need to be carefully researched and documented

Food safety and Quality issues: Competitiveness of the agricultural

sector is greatly influenced by the status of its technological developments and food safety concerns.

Key issue is that the Sustainable Agricultural Mechanization will need to go beyond the on-farm productivity, and to include the post-harvest systems and the entire food chain

In a number of cases it favors the use of new and improved technologies: Precision farming; Controlled environment agriculture; Traceability; Bulk packaging and processing equipment

Key issue is also to ensure the safety and health of agricultural workers: Improved hygiene of work place; Ergonomics; GAP

Importance of agriculture in employment and GDP of selected countries in the Asia and Pacific (Sources: Soni (2014) calculations based on: World Development Indicators 2012; The World Factbook, 2012)

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10-years Average Agricultural value added (% of GDP) (Source: Soni(2014) calculation based on data from World Bank, 2013) Note: for 2010- series, data from year 2010 until the recent

available year 2012 or 2013 is used

In general, the agricultural value added (%) has been declining over the years in the

selected AP countries

Most of the Asian farms are SMALL, and getting SMALLER

87% of the World’s 500 M small farms (<2ha) are in the Asia and the Pacific Region

Average size of operated area (actual area cultivated) per holding in the AP Region varies widely from as low as 0.4 ha to 4 ha

Five countries in the Region host about 70% of the small farms globally (China- 198 M, India- 98 M, Bangladesh- 24 M, Indonesia- 22 M, Viet Nam- 10 M)

Secure Land Tenure is essential for successful programs in Agricultural Mechanization, which also enables farmer to get credit/loan for buying machinery

Farm size, Farmers and Farmer capacity

Percent of agricultural holdings Average size of

operated area

per holding (ha)

Under 0.5 ha Under 1 ha Under 2 ha

Number Operated

Area Number

Operated

Area Number

Operated

Area

China (2) 83.2 n.a. 92.9 n.a. 97.8 n.a. 0.7

India 42.7 7.7 62.9 18.7 81.8 38.9 1.3

Indonesia n.a. n.a. 74.82 n.a. 88.73 n.a. 0.79

Bangladesh 76.18 23 86.68 41.2 98.33 83.6 0.40

Viet Nam 67.1 n.a. 84.2 n.a. 94.6 n.a. 0.71

Pakistan 19.5 1.8 36.1 5.8 57.6 15.5 3.1

Thailand (4) 2.64 n.a. 24.05 n.a. 51.8 n.a. 3.16

Philippines 20.2 2.4 40.1 8.7 68.1 25.8 2

Myanmar (1) 14.9 0.7 33.4 5.5 56.6 19 2.5

Nepal 47.3 14.7 74.2 38.9 91.7 68.7 0.8

Sri Lanka (3) 17.3 7.8 33.9 26.3 n.a. n.a. 0.5

Cambodia 35.6 12.7 65.00 37.9 84.40 70.2 4.01

RoK 36 n.a. 62 n.a. 84.1 n.a. 1.43

Lao PDR n.a. n.a. 35.1 12.8 70.4 42.8 1.6

Southeast Asia n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. 1.36

South and Southwest Asia n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. 1.27

North and Central Asia n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. 19.47

East Asia n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. 0.60

Pacific Islands n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. 2.40

Developed Countries n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. 156.97

Asia Pacific n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. 2.87

Distribution of small farm holdings in Asia and the Pacific

Compiled from information retrieved from: 2000 World Census of Agriculture (2005); APCAS (2010); Department of Agricultural Extension (2001); OAE

(2013); OECD (2008); CDRI (2001); FAO-RAP (2012)

India 1971 1991 1995 2001

2.3 1.6 1.4 1.3 Indonesia 1973 1993 2000

1.1 0.9 0.8 Nepal 1992 2002

1 0.8 Pakistan 1971 1989 2000

5.3 3.8 3.1 Philippines 1971 1991 2000

3.6 2.2 2

Trends in average size of operated farm land per

holding (ha)

Sources: Nagayets (2005); APCAS (2010)

Demographic trends Much of the growth in world population occurs in Asia

By 2025, the AP region would need 20% more than the 2000’s production

equivalent of adding 2-3 Mha/year of new land at current average yield levels

Such land is NOT available, and production should come from increased yields and reduced post-harvest losses

Less labor will be available for farming, esp youngsters migrate to cities

Rising rural-wages will necessitate labor-saving options (i.e. Farm mechanization)

Increasing Feminization of agriculture: More men migrating to cities than women Gender specific interventions in mechanization programs

Ageing Rural Population: Young and educated youth are migrating to cities; several country reports point to an increasing aging rural mass

Futuristic agricultural system would need young, educated and tech-savvy farmers

Urbanization A number of countries in the AP

Region are more than 50% urbanized

By 2030, all the countries with large populations will have crossed 50% urbanization mark

Urbanization presents both an opportunity as well as threat to Ag sector

Opportunity: huge market opportunities for food and Ag products in cities

Threat: Less people to work at rural farms

Region

Urban

population

(2010)

Urbanization

rate, p.a. (2010-

2015e)

World 50.50% 1.85

Bangladesh 28% 3.10

China 47% 2.30%

India 30% 2.40%

Indonesia 44% 1.70%

Korea, N. 60% 0.60%

Korea, S. 83% 0.60%

Malaysia 72% 2.40%

Nepal 19% 4.70%

Pakistan 36% 3.10%

PNG 13% 2.90%

Philippines 49% 2.30%

Sri Lanka 14% 1.10%

Thailand 34% 1.80%

Timor Leste 28% 5%

Viet Nam 30% 3% Sources: World Development Indicators (2012); The World

Factbook (2012)

Environmental issues

Inappropriate mechanization inputs may lead to

Accelerating soil erosion

Soil compaction

Promoting over-use of chemical inputs

Land degradation

Salinization of irrigated areas

Over extraction of ground water

Threat of Climate Change

Agriculture is responsible for about 30% of the total greenhouse gas emissions

Rice-based production systems in most developing Asian countries are highly vulnerable to Climate Change risks

‘Delta countries’ i.e. Viet Nam and Bangladesh being most vulnerable to sea-level rise, floods and erratic weather

Agriculture is considered to be the largest user of the fresh water, which draws about 70% of the available fresh water on earth.

AP Region has only 38% of total world renewable water resources.

Water use in agriculture

Annual Water Withdrawal (<35%) Malaysia; (60-65%) ROK, Japan, China; (75-90%) DPRK, Indonesia, Philippines, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Thailand, India; (90-95%) Timor-Leste, Lao PDR, Pakistan, Cambodia, Bhutan, Viet Nam; (95-100%) Nepal.

Annual Water Withdrawal (<35%) Malaysia; (60-65%) ROK, Japan, China; (75-90%) DPRK, Indonesia, Philippines, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Thailand, India; (90-95%) Timor-Leste, Lao PDR, Pakistan, Cambodia, Bhutan, Viet Nam; (95-100%) Nepal.

Lower water withdrawal, on one side refers to better water productivity, while on the other side it may also indicate relative availability/capacity of irrigation infrastructure and equipment

Electricity used in agriculture in the AP Region include electric pumps for irrigation, electric motor for driving stationery power threshers, tread mills, local artisans in workshop, lighting, fencing, drying, grinding, and processing.

Annual electricity consumption in agriculture per unit of arable land varies widely across the AP Region. Though it is affected by not only the rural-electrification, but also farmers’ choices/convenience in selecting source of power

(15-30 kWh/ha) Indonesia, Thailand, Nepal, Lao PDR; (145-275 kWh/ha) Viet Nam, Malaysia, PNG, Bangladesh, Philippines; (430-875 kWh/ha) Pakistan, India, China;

(15-30 kWh/ha) Indonesia, Thailand, Nepal, Lao PDR; (145-275 kWh/ha) Viet Nam, Malaysia, PNG, Bangladesh, Philippines; (430-875 kWh/ha) Pakistan, India, China;

Electricity use in agriculture

Sustainable Agricultural

Mechanization

Sustainable production

intensification

Optimum use of farm inputs

Environmental friendly

agricultural management

Conclusion

Thank You Prof.gsingh@gmail.com