long-term memory dr. claudia j. stanny exp 4507 memory & cognition spring 2009
TRANSCRIPT
Long-Term Memory
Dr. Claudia J. StannyEXP 4507
Memory & Cognition
Spring 2009
Overview
• Types of Long Term Memory• Relation between encoding and retrieval• Encoding processes and their
consequences• Retrieval strategies• Autobiographical memory
Claudia J. Stanny 2
Long Term Memory: Ebbinghaus (1885) Long-term Retention Functions
Claudia J. Stanny 3
Types of Long Term Memory
Claudia J. Stanny 4
Distinctive Characteristics of LTMOrganization of information
• Schemas
Capacity
Duration• Bahrick: permastore
Encoding – impact on retention
Retrieval mechanisms• Forgetting: availability versus accessablity
Claudia J. Stanny 5
Encoding Strategies: Levels of Processing
Craik & Lockhart (1972)Orienting tasks assigned at study to induce
different levels of processing• Shallow processing (physical features of stimuli)
Does the word contain an E or a G?Is the word presented in capital or lower case letters?
• Intermediate processingWrite down a word that begins with the same sound.
• Deep processing (semantic encoding)Rate words on your perception of their PLEASANTNESS (1 = UNPLEASANT 7 = PLEASANT)
Claudia J. Stanny 6
Recognition performance for words processed at different levels
Data from EXP 3082 (2002) 7Claudia J. Stanny
Variations on Deep Processing
What kinds of processing “count” as deep processing?
Distinctive encoding• Encoding differs or makes a stimulus stand out• Isolation effects; unique encodings
Elaborate encoding• Create a code that includes multiple aspects• Complex codes; many connections to other
representations
Claudia J. Stanny 8
Self-Reference Effect
Processing task:
Does this word relate to you?
Recognition performance is as good as for a semantic processing task
Biggest improvement seen when participants think the word does apply to them (46%) than when it does not (34%)
Claudia J. Stanny 9
Generation EffectSlamecka & Graf (1978)
What is the effect of processing depth when you generate the code yourself versus when you have the coding given to you?
Read Condition• Shallow: SAVE – CAVE• Deep: SEA – OCEAN
Generate Condition• Shallow: SAVE – C____ (rhyme) CAVE• Deep: SEA – O_____ (synonym) OCEAN
Claudia J. Stanny 10
Encoding Specificity
Match between cues encoded at study and cues available during retrieval
Claudia J. Stanny 11
Emotion, Mood and Memory
Pollyanna Principle
Rate of forgetting for pleasant & unpleasant events
Mood-dependent congruence
Mood-dependent memory (encoding specificity)
Claudia J. Stanny 12
Retrieval from LTM
Types of Retention Tasks
Explicit Memory Tasks• Aware that memory is being used/tested• Subjective experience of intentional use of
memory
Implicit Memory Tasks• Task is perceived as a problem-solving task or
other cognitive challenge
Claudia J. Stanny 13
Comparing Memory Tasks
Explicit Memory TasksRecall
Cued recall
Recognition tests
yes/no recognition
multiple choice tests
Implicit Memory TasksWord completion task
V__L__A__E
Word stem completion task
OC __ __ __
Repetition priming (RT tasks)
Lexical decision task
Anagram solving
LVGEALI → _______
Claudia J. Stanny 14
Evidence for different types of LTM
Dissociation of performance on explicit and implicit memory tasks
Variables improve performance on explicit memory but do not influence implicit memory performance• Depth of processing
Variables improve implicit memory performance but do not influence explicit memory• Benefits of number of repetitions
Note: some variables have the same effect on both types of task (proactive interference)
Claudia J. Stanny 15
Effect of LOP on performance on an implicit and an explicit memory task
Claudia J. Stanny 16
Shallow processing task• Does the word have a B
or a P?
Deep processing task• Rate the word on its
pleasantness (1 – 7)
Implicit memory test• Anagram task
Explicit memory test• Free recall Data: EXP 4507L Spring 2006
Amnesia
Differences in performance by amnesiacs on implicit and explicit memory tasks
Claudia J. Stanny 17
How do experts differ from novices?Amount of knowledge in area of expertiseQuality of organization of information in LTM
• More efficient encoding of new information• More successful retrieval of information
Differences in cognitive strategies used• Chunking and organization of new material• Identifying distinctive characteristics of stimuli• Procedures used to solve problems
Better metacognition about processing• Judgments about task difficulty• Monitoring progress on a problem
Claudia J. Stanny 18
Expertise is Context-SpecificExpertise emerges from extensive deliberate
practice in a particular domain• 10 years of deliberate practice required (Ericsson, 2003)
Expertise in one domain does not make one an expert in every domain• Superior memory performance in one area of
expertise does not generalize to superior memory performance in general
• Problem identification and efficient solution is also domain-specific
Claudia J. Stanny 19
Autobiographical Memory
Special case of episodic memory
Memory for events of our personal life
Interaction with semantic memory:• Role of schemas in autobiographical recall• Consistency bias
Source monitoring• Identifying the origin of a memory or belief
Claudia J. Stanny 20
Recall of autobiographical memories across the life span (Rubin, 1997)
Claudia J. Stanny 21
Reminiscence Bump
Infantile Amnesia
Forgetting Function
Flashbulb MemoriesHighly detailed episodic memories of an eventContain many autobiographical details
• Source information for the news of the event• Detailed contextual information
Where you were, what you were doing, who you talked to, what your emotional response was, etc.
Are flashbulb memories special?Do they include errors seen in other memories?Are they subject to forgetting like other memories?
Claudia J. Stanny 22
Eyewitness Memory
Estimator Variables• Characteristics of the witness or witnessed event known to
have an influence on accuracy of witness recollections
System Variables• Characteristics of the legal / investigative process known
to have an influence on accuracy of witness recollections
Variables that produce memory distortions• Misleading questioning• Post-Information effects
23Claudia J. Stanny
Factors that influence the accuracy of eyewitness memoryDelays between the event and recallIntrusions related to misinformationReconstructive nature of memory
Schema-based intrusions
Social pressure Demand characteristics of questioning the encourage
production of more information or a specific answer
Positive feedback following identifications during lineups increases confidence without increasing accuracy
Claudia J. Stanny 24