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RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

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Gas exchange is the interchange of O2 andCO2 between an organism and its

environment.

It is also called respiration

Gas exchange is essential because energy

metabolism requires O2 and produces CO2

MECHANISMS OF GAS EXCHANGE

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RESPIRATION

Four Distinct Events

1. Breathing (pulmonary ventilation)

2. External respiration: exchange of O2

and CO2 between lungs andbloodstream

3. Transport of gases via the cardiovascular

system

4. Internal respiration: exchange of CO2and O

2between cells and bloodstream

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ORGANS OF THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

UPPER RESPIRATORY

TRACT

Nose

Pharynx

Larynx Trachea

LOWER RESPIRATORY

TRACT Bronchial tree

Alveoli

Lungs

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Bronchi (singularbronchus) - left and

right

Bronchioles - smallerdivisions of thebronchi

Bronchioles end in

small air sacs calledalveoli - 500 million;one squamous celllayer thick

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Lungs: 2 unequal

lobes

Covered in amembrane called the

pleura

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Pulmonary

vein

Capillaries

Pulmonary

artery

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Capillary

O2

CO2

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Breathing = ventilation

Two stages:

1. Inspiration

2. Expiration

Diaphragm and

intercostal muscles

contract, thoracic cavity

enlarges

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Breathing Ventilates the Lungs

Inhalation: Diaphragm contracts (moving

downwards); causing rib cage, chest cavity,

and lungs to expand.

Exhalation: Diaphragm relaxes (moving

upwards); causing rib cage, chest cavity, and

lungs to contract.

Breathing is controlled by centers in the

nervous system to keep up with body’s

demands.

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INHALATION

EXHALATION

Copyright Pearson Prentice Hall

Rib cage

lowers

Air Exhaled

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How breathing is controlled?


Breathing is controlled bythe medulla oblongata -monitors carbon dioxide inthe blood.

As carbon dioxideincreases, nerve impulsesmake the diaphragmcontract, bringing air intothe lungs.

The higher the carbondioxide level, the strongerthe impulses.

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Hemoglobin is a protein in red blood cells

– carries most of the oxygen in the blood

– buffers the pH of blood and carries some CO2

Figure 22.10B

Hemegroup

Ironatom

Polypeptide chain

O2 loaded

in lungs

O2 unloadedin tissues

O2

O2

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Most CO2 in the bloodcombines with water to

form carbonic acid

– The H2CO3 (carbonic

acid) breaks down to

form H+ and HCO3-

(bicarbonate ions)

Figure 22.11A

TISSUE CELL

CO2 produced

INTERSTITIAL

FLUID CO2

CO2

CO2

BLOOD

PLASMA

WITHIN

CAPILLARY

Capillary

wall

H2O

H2CO3

Carbonic acid

RED

BLOOD

CELL

HCO3 – + H+

Hemoglobin

picks up

CO2 and H+

Bicarbonate

HCO3 –

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Most CO2 is transported

to the lungs in the form

of bicarbonate ions

Figure 22.11B

ALVEOLAR SPACE IN LUNG

CO2

CO2

H2O

H2CO3

HCO3 – + H+

Hemoglobin

releases

CO2 and H+

HCO3 –

CO2

CO2

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NERVOUS SYSTEM

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NERVOUS SYSTEM

Controls and coordinates all the functions of the body

D I V I S I O N S:I. Anatomical Divisions

A. Central Nervous System (CNS) – brain and spinal cordB. Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) – nerves and sensoryreceptors

II. Functional Divisions – carries impulses

A. Sensory – sensory receptors to CNSB. Motor – CNS to effectors, glands, muscles

1. Somatic - voluntary

2. Autonomic – involuntary; either sympathetic orparasympathetic

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NEURON

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Synapse

synapse

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Types of NeuronsSensory (or afferent) neurons: send information

from sensory receptors (e.g., in skin, eyes, nose,tongue, ears) TOWARD the central nervoussystem.

Motor (or efferent) neurons: send informationAWAY from the central nervous system tomuscles or glands.

Interneurons: send information BETWEENsensory neurons and motor neurons. Mostinterneurons are located in the central nervoussystem.

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http://inside.salve.edu/walsh/cns_pns.jpg

http://inside.salve.edu/walsh/cns_pns.jpghttp://inside.salve.edu/walsh/cns_pns.jpg

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Central Nervous System (CNS)

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Protections for the CNS

MENINGES Dura Mater (outer layer) - consists of connective

tissues, blood vessels, and nerves.

Arachnoid Layer (middle layer) - elastic and

weblike

Pia Mater (inner layer) - contains nerves and blood

vessels

Cerebrospinal fluid - a clear watery liquid, which separates

the middle and inner layers

Acts as shock absorber

Exchange of nutrients between blood and nervous

system

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The Brain

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A. Cerebrum

Largest part of thebrain

Thinking

Memory is stored

Movements arecontrolled

Impulses from thesenses areinterpreted.

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frontal

temporal occipital

parietal

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B. Cerebellum

Responsible for the

coordination of

muscles and isthe center of

balance

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2003-2004

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C. Medulla Oblongata

Center of heart

beat, respiration,

and other

involuntary

actions

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Thalamus – receives messages from sensoryreceptors; relays information to proper regions

of cerebrum

Hypothalamus – regulates hunger, thirst,

fatigue, anger…

* Control of pituitary for endocrine function

C. Diencephalon

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Pons

Pituitary gland

Hypothalamus

Cerebrum

Medulla oblongata Spinal cord

Cerebellum

Pineal gland

Thalamus

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The Spinal Cord

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Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

Connects body to brain &spinal cord

12 pairs of cranial nerves

31 pairs of spinal nervesBundles of sensory and motor

neurons held together byconnective tissue

Two Divisions

Somatic AutonomicParasympathetic

Sympathetic

http://www.christopherreeve.org/Research/Research.cfm?ID=178&c=21

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Divisions of the PNS1. Somatic Nervous System

Controls voluntary actions

Made up of the cranial and spinal nerves that go

from the CNS to the skeletal muscles

2. Autonomic Nervous System

Controls involuntary actions (not under

conscious control) such as heart rate, breathing,digestion, and glandular functions

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SYMPATHETIC PARASYM

2003-2004

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Endocrine System

- Hormones- Homeostasis

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Homeostasis

maintaining internal balance in the body organism must keep internal conditions stable

even if environment changes

also called “dynamic equilibrium”

Example: body temperature

humans:

too cold = shiver

too warm = sweat

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Maintaining homeostasis

high

low

hormone 1

lowersbody condition

hormone 2

gland

specific body condition

raisesbody condition

gland

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Regulation

hypothalamus

“master nerve control

center ”

receives information from

nerves around body

about internal conditions

communicates with

pituitary gland

“master gland”

releases many hormones

sexual development, growth,

milk production, pain-relief

hormones hormones

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Regulation by chemical messengers

Neurotransmitters released by neurons Hormones release by endocrine glands

axon

endocrine gland

receptor proteins

target cell

receptor proteins

hormone carriedby blood

neurotransmitter

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Endocrine System

Composed of glands which secrete

chemical signals (hormones) into blood

Hormones cause changes in other parts

of body growth hormones

sex hormones response hormones

metabolism hormones

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Why are HORMONES needed?

COMMUNICATION:

chemical messages from one

body part to cells in other

parts of body

COORDINATION:

communication needed

to coordinate whole body

maintaining HOMEOSTASIS growth hormones

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GLANDS

HORMONES

Pineal - melatonin Pituitary - many

hormones: mastergland

Thyroid - thyroxine Adrenal - adrenaline

Pancreas - insulin,glucagon

REPRODUCTIVE:

Ovary - estrogen

Testes - testosterone

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Pituitary gland hormones

Sex & reproductive hormones• FSH follicle stimulating hormone

• stimulates egg & sperm production

• LH luteinizing hormone

• stimulates ovaries & testes• prepares uterus for fertilized egg

• oxytocin• stimulates childbirth contractions

• releases milk in nursing mothers

• prolactin• milk production in nursing mothers

hormones hormones

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2003-2004

Pituitary gland and Hypothalamus serve to link the nervous

system other glands and metabolic functions.

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2003-2004

Thyroid and Parathyroid help regulate calcium metabolism

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Thyroid and Parathyroid help regulate calcium metabolism

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liver

pancreas

liver

blood sugar level(90mg/100ml)

insulin

bodycells takeup sugarfrom blood

liver storessugar

reducesappetite

glucagon

pancreas

liverreleasessugar

triggershunger

high

low

Endocrine System Control: Blood sugar

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2003-2004

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2003-2004

Pancreas helps regulate blood glucose

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Pancreas helps regulate blood glucose

Insulin from Beta cells reduce blood sugar

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