Lockes Philosophy: Empiricism 1. Historical Context of Lockes time: A.Beginnings of the Capitalism industrial revolution in England. B.Political situation of Europe. 2. Philosophical context: A.Epistemology in Greek times and Middle Ages B.Rationalism in continental Europe: Descartes, Leibniz. C.Scientific revolution: Kepler, Galileo, Copernico D.England Empiricism: Locke, Berkley, Hume and Newton 3. Lockes Philosophy: E.Epistemology: British Empiricism F.Political liberalism. G.More empiricists: skepticism as consequence. H.Kant: Newton in philosophy. M. Torres History of Western Philosophy. IES Campo San Alberto, Noia 1 Weate, J. and Lawman, Peter A Young persons guide to philosophy Some texts adapted from Wikipedia Europe in the 16 th centuryEurope in the 17th century M. Torres History of Western Philosophy. IES Campo San Alberto, Noia 2 England: Historical context. The English Civil War was a series of armed conflicts and political machinations which took place between Parliamentarians and Royalists from 1642 until The first (16421645) and second (16481649) civil wars pitted the supporters of King Charles I against the supporters of the Long Parliament, while the third war of (16491651) saw fighting between supporters of King Charles II and supporters of the Rump Parliament. The Civil War ended with the Parliamentary victory at the Battle of Worcester on 3 September The Civil War led to the trial and execution of Charles I, the exile of his son Charles II and the replacement of the English monarchy with the Commonwealth of England (16491653) and then with a Protectorate (16531659): the personal rule of Oliver Cromwell. The monopoly of the Church of England on Christian worship in England came to an end, and the victors consolidated the already-established Protestant Ascendancy in Ireland. Constitutionally, the wars established a precedent that British monarchs could not govern without the consent of Parliament although this would not be cemented until the Glorious Revolution later in the century. Charles II was the restored House of Stuart King of England in 1660, shortly after Cromwell's death. M. Torres History of Western Philosophy. IES Campo San Alberto, Noia 3 Scientific revolution: Astronomy In the history of science, the Scientific Revolution was a period when new ideas in physics, astronomy, biology, human anatomy, chemistry, and other sciences led to a rejection of doctrines that had prevailed from Ancient Greece through the Middle Ages, and laid the foundation of modern science. According to the majority of scholars, the Scientific Revolution began with the publication of two works that changed the course of science in 1543 and continued through the late 17th century: Nicolaus Copernicus's De revolutionibus orbium coelestium (On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres) and Andreas Vesalius's De humani corporis fabrica (On the Fabric of the Human body). Key ideas and scientists that emerged from the 16th and 17th centuries: Nicolaus Copernicus (14731543) published On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres in 1543, which advanced the heliocentric theory of cosmology. Andreas Vesalius (15141564) published De Humani Corporis Fabrica (On the Fabric of the Human Body) (1543), which discredited Galen's views. He found that the circulation of blood resolved from pumping of the heart. He also assembled the first human skeleton from cutting open cadavers. Franciscus Vieta ( ) published In Artem Analycitem Isagoge(1591), which gave the first symbolic notation of parameters in literal algebra. William Gilbert (15441603) published On the Magnet and Magnetic Bodies, and on the Great Magnet the Earth in 1600, which laid the foundations of a theory of magnetism and electricity. M. Torres History of Western Philosophy. IES Campo San Alberto, Noia 4 R. Osborne and R. Edner, Philosophy for beginners. Scientific revolution: Galileo Tycho Brahe (15461601) made extensive and more accurate naked eye observations of the planets in the late 1500s. These became the basic data for Kepler's studies. Sir Francis Bacon (15611626) published Novum Organum in 1620, which outlined a new system of logic based on the process of reduction, which he offered as an improvement over Aristotle's philosophical process of syllogism. This contributed to the development of what became known as the scientific method. Galileo Galilei (15641642) improved the telescope, with which he made several important astronomical discoveries, including the four largest moons of Jupiter, the phases of Venus, and the rings of Saturn, and made detailed observations of sunspots. He developed the laws for falling bodies based on pioneering quantitative experiments which he analyzed mathematically. M. Torres History of Western Philosophy. IES Campo San Alberto, Noia 5 Scientific Revolution: Newton Johannes Kepler (15711630) published the first two of his three laws of planetary motion in William Harvey (15781657) demonstrated that blood circulates, using dissections and other experimental techniques. Ren Descartes (15961650) published his Discourse on the Method in 1637, which helped to establish the scientific method. Antony van Leeuwenhoek (16321723) constructed powerful single lens microscopes and made extensive observations that he published around 1660, opening up the micro- world of biology. Isaac Newton (16431727) built upon the work of Kepler and Galileo. He showed that an inverse square law for gravity explained the elliptical orbits of the planets, and advanced the law of universal gravitation. His development of calculus opened up new applications of the methods of mathematics to science. Newton taught that scientific theory should be coupled with rigorous experimentation, which became the keystone of modern science. M. Torres History of Western Philosophy. IES Campo San Alberto, Noia 6 Empiricism versus Rationalism Rationalism or Continental philosophy: R. Descartes Leibniz, Malebranche, Spinoza. I. Kant Empiricism or English Illustration. Social Context: the great revolution. J. Locke D. Hume, I. Newton M. Torres History of Western Philosophy. IES Campo San Alberto, Noia 7 Empiriscism vs. Rationalism M. Torres History of Western Philosophy. IES Campo San Alberto, Noia 8 Diferences Descartes: World is my representation Except our own thoughts, there is nothing absolutely in our power. Rene Descartes It is not enough to have a good mind. The main thing is to use it well. Rene Descartes, 'Le Discours de la Methode,' 1637 It is only prudent never to place complete confidence in that by which we have even once been deceived. Rene Descartes, 'Meditations' M. Torres History of Western Philosophy. IES Campo San Alberto, Noia 9 Lockes biography John Locke's mother died while he was still in infancy. His father was a "country lawyer" and a captain in the Parliamentary Army during the Civil War; he died while John was still young. John Locke was elected to a life of studentship at Christ Church, Oxford. As a young man Locke cast about somewhat for a position in life. He might have become a cleric except for the fact that the authorities did not appreciate his anti-Aristotelian views that matter and life was static, was not something to which Locke could subscribe. Having studied medicine (he did not receive a degree) Locke was willing to help out those who saw him with a medical problem, indeed, he become known as "Dr Locke." In 1666, Anthony "Ashley" Cooper was referred to Locke with a medical complaint. (Ashley was Locke's senior by eleven years.) "Dr Locke" successfully operated, much to Ashley's relief, and cleaned out "an abscess in the chest." This was to be a most fortunate turn of events for Locke, for Ashley was no ordinary man, he was the first Earl of Shaftesbury, a Lord of the realm. Thus, Locke was swept into the halls of power, perched confidently on the tails of Lord Shaftesbury ( ). In 1672, Shaftesbury became the lord chancellor and Locke, his friend, was appointed to be the secretary of a very powerful Board. These were interesting historic times; political fortunes would shift in and out (more than once was Shaftesbury sent to the Tower). Locke -- he did not subscribe to the "Divine Right Theory" -- found it, at times, best to put some distance between himself and the political foes of Lord Shaftesbury; indeed, Locke, during the years , was out of the country, in France and in Holland. Upon his return to England, in 1689, Locke adopted a life style that allowed him to compile his works and make them ready for the press. Thus, we see, in 1690, the publication of Locke's two principal works: Essay Concerning Human Understanding and Two Treatises of Government. On October 28th, 1704, Locke died; he was buried in the church yard of High Laver. M. Torres History of Western Philosophy. IES Campo San Alberto, Noia 10 Lockes epistemology: signs, ideas and words. Locke was an empiricist (all knowledge comes to us through experience). "No man's knowledge here can go beyond his experience." There is no such thing as innate ideas; there is no such thing as moral precepts; we are born with an empty mind, with a soft tablet (tabula rasa) ready to be written upon by senses Experimental impressions. Beginning blank, the human mind acquires knowledge through the use of the five senses and a process of reflection. Three fields : Natural Philosophy Ethics; Doctrine of signs M. Torres History of Western Philosophy. IES Campo San Alberto, Noia 11 ObjectsSignsIdeasWords Lockes political philosophy versus Hobbes Locke's views on political philosophy are expressed in his work Two Treatises of Government. Locke defended the proposition that government rests on popular consent and rebellion is permissible when government subverts the ends (the protection of life, liberty, and property) for which it is established. Locke's First Treatise was a labored attack the political teachings of Thomas Hobbes, the author of Leviathan (1651). Locke's Second Treatise explains his theory of natural law and natural right: there does exist a rational purpose to government and one need not rely on "myth, mysticism, and mystery. the public welfare was the test of good government and the basis for properly imposing obligations on the citizens of a country. Locke maintained that the original state of nature was happy and characterized by reason and tolerance. He further maintained that all human beings, in their natural state, were equal and free to pursue life, health, liberty, and possessions; and that these were inalienable rights. Pre-social man as a moral being, and as an individual, contracted out "into civil society by surrendering personal power to the ruler and magistrates," and did so as "a method of securing natural morality more efficiently." To Locke, natural justice exists and this is so whether the state exists, or not, it is just that the state might better guard natural justice. M. Torres History of Western Philosophy. IES Campo San Alberto, Noia 12 Empiricists: Berkeley, Hume Berkeley ( ) Any knowledge of the world is to be obtained only through direct perception. Error comes about through thinking about what individuals perceive. Knowledge of the world of people, things and actions around them may be purified and perfected merely by stripping away all thought, and with it language, from their pure perceptions. From this it follows that: The ideal form of scientific knowledge is to be obtained by pursuing pure de- intellectualized perceptions. If individuals would pursue these, we would be able to obtain the deepest insights into the natural world and the world of human thought and action that is available to man. The goal of all science, therefore, is to de- intellectualize or de-conceptualize, and thereby purify, human perceptions. David Hume ( ). Criticism, cause principle: Shall we rest contented with these two relations of contiguity and succession? By no means there is a NECESSARY CONNEXION to be taken into consideration Treatise p.56 M. Torres History of Western Philosophy. IES Campo San Alberto, Noia 13 Skepticism: empiricism consequence In philosophy, skepticism refers more specifically to any one of several propositions. These include propositions about: (a) an inquiry, (b) a method of obtaining knowledge through systematic doubt and continual testing, (c) the arbitrariness, relativity, or subjectivity of moral values, (d) the limitations of knowledge, (e) a method of intellectual caution and suspended judgment. Wikipedia. M. Torres History of Western Philosophy. IES Campo San Alberto, Noia 14 Kant: Newton in philosophy. All our knowledge begins with the senses, proceeds then to the understanding, and ends with reason. There is nothing higher than reason. The Critique of Pure Reason All the interests of my reason, speculative as well as practical, combine in the three following questions: 1. What can I know? 2. What ought I to do? 3. What may I hope? The Critique of Pure Reason All thought must, directly or indirectly, by way of certain characters, relate ultimately to intuitions, and therefore, with us, to sensibility, because in no other way can an object be given to us. The Critique of Pure Reason M. Torres History of Western Philosophy. IES Campo San Alberto, Noia 15