RESPONDING

TO A

RESOURCE DISASTER:

AMERICAN LOBSTERS IN

LONG ISLAND SOUND

1999 - 2004

Chairman, 2005Jack Mattice (2000-2005)Director, New York Sea Grant InstituteStony Brook University

Chairman, 2004Emory Anderson (2000-2004)NOAA Fisheries liaison to theNOAA National Sea Grant Office (retired)

Chairman, 2000-2003Anthony Calabrese (2000-2003)Director, NOAA FisheriesMilford Laboratory (retired)

Robert Beal (2005)Atlantic States Marine Fisheries Commission

Ernest Beckwith (2000-2003)Director, Marine Fisheries DivisionCT Department of Environmental Protection

Gordon Colvin (2000-2005)Chief, Bureau of Marine ResourcesNYS Dept. of Environmental Conservation

Nick Crismale (2000-2005)Connecticut Lobster Industry Representative

Andrew F.J. Draxler (2005)NOAA Fisheries, Sandy Hook Laboratory

Joseph Finke (2000-2005)New York Lobster Industry Representative

Lisa Kline (2000-2003)Atlantic States Marine Fisheries Commission

Cover photos by John Collins, formerly with University of Connecticut Center for Instructional Mediaand Technology, courtesy of Capt. Mike Theiler, Jeanette V Fisheries, Waterford, CT.

STEERING COMMITTEE FOR LOBSTER DISEASE RESEARCH

Harry Mears (2000-2005)NOAA FisheriesNortheast Regional Office, Gloucester

Edward Monahan (2000-2005)Director, Connecticut Sea GrantUniversity of Connecticut

Carrie Selberg (2003-2004)Atlantic States Marine Fisheries Commission

Eric Smith (2003-2005)Director, Marine Fisheries DivisionCT Department of Environmental Protection

Terry Smith (2005)NOAA Fisheries liaison to theNOAA National Sea Grant Office

Mark Tedesco (2000-2005)U.S Environmental Protection AgencyLong Island Sound Study

Other Interested Parties

Nancy Balcom (2000-2005)Rapporteur, CT Sea Grant ExtensionProgram, University of Connecticut

Antoinette Clemetson (2001-2005)Rapporteur, New York Sea Grant Institute /Cornell Cooperative Extension

Ron Rozsa and Harry Yamalis (2000-2005)CT Department of Environmental ProtectionOffice of Long Island Sound Programs

RESPONDING

TO A

RESOURCE DISASTER:

AMERICAN LOBSTERS INLONG ISLAND SOUND

1999 - 2004

Nancy Balcom1 and Penelope Howell2

CTSG-06-02

1Connecticut Sea Grant, University of Connecticut2CT Dept. Environmental Protection, Marine Fisheries Division

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Executive Summary

Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

Social and Economic Impacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

Lobster Resource Impacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

Status of the Lobster Fishery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

Status of Environmental Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

Status of the Lobster Resource . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

Summary of the Research Findings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

Wrapping Up the 1999 Mortality Event . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

Future Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

Research Project Titles and Investigators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

List of Published Manuscripts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

As catches diminished and then disappeared altogether,more and more lobstermen hauled their traps and tiedup their boats; some left the fishery for good. (Credit:John Collins)

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Table 1. Breakdown of federal and state funds applied to the research, resource monitoring, and outreachcomponents of the 1999 lobster mortality event. ‘Match’ refers to non-federal monetary contributions required offederal grant recipients. For a breakdown of the economic relief expenditures, see Table 2, page 8.

In the fall of 1999, the American lobster(Homarus americanus) resource in westernLong Island Sound (Connecticut and NewYork) experienced a significant mortalityevent. State and federal landings dataindicate that prior to the die-off, bi-statecommercial lobster harvests ranged from 7to 11.7 million lbs. annually, valued at $18to $40 million. Twelve hundred residentcommercial lobster licenses were issued in1998; in 2002, fewer than 900 lobstermenremained licensed. Commercial harvests ofLIS lobsters totaled about 1. 6 million lbs.in 2004, worth slightly less than $7 million.

Documentation supplied by the two stateresource management agencies incollaboration with the commercial lobsterindustry resulted in a Department ofCommerce declaration of a ‘commercialfishery failure due to a resource disaster’.Strong bi-state Congressional support led toan appropriation of $13.9 million in disasterassistance: $7.3 million for economic reliefand $6.6 million for resource monitoring andassessment, and to support a researchinitiative to investigate the potential causes

of the mortality event. Connecticut and NewYork also contributed research support, aswell as the U.S. Environmental ProtectionAgency, Long Island Sound Office (Table 1).

Sixty-five scientists at 30 institutions andagencies nationwide participated in theresearch initiative, investigating the effectsof environmental factors, mosquito controlpesticides, and disease on the physiologyand health of American lobsters. The resultsindicate that the physiology of the lobsterswas severely stressed by sustained, hostileenvironmental conditions, driven by above-average water temperatures. A new lobsterdisease, paramoebiasis, was identified as theproximate cause of death for the majorityof lobsters examined by pathologists.Laboratory studies demonstrated that thepesticides used for mosquito control havesub-lethal or lethal effects on lobsters, basedon concentration and time of exposure;however, modeling exercises indicate it isunlikely that the concentrations ofindividual pesticides in western Long IslandSound were high enough to cause themortality event.

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BACKGROUND

During the fall of 1999, the American lobsterpopulation in Long Island Sound (LIS)suffered a significant mortality event,particularly in the western and central Sound.Calls to the Connecticut Department ofEnvironmental Protection (CT DEP ) andthe New York State Department ofEnvironmental Conservation (NYS DEC)reporting unusually high numbers of deadand dying lobsters began in late August andearly September. Bi-state (Connecticut andNew York) commercial lobster landings fromwestern LIS (west of Norwalk, CT andHuntington, NY) declined by as much as 99%from the previous year. Lobster landings atports east of Norwalk and Huntington werereduced by as much as 64 to 91%. At the sametime, lobstermen in eastern LIS (as well asRhode Island and Massachusetts) continuedto see a rise in the incidence and extent of shelldisease in lobsters, which, while apparentlyunrelated to the mortality event, raised

additional concerns about the status andhealth of the lobster resource and the LongIsland Sound commercial fishery.

During the summer and fall of 1999, themosquito-borne West Nile Virus (WNV)appeared for the first time in North America,in the New York/Connecticut region. By earlySeptember, seven human deaths had beenattributed to WNV. Control programs wereundertaken in both states to curb adult andlarval mosquito populations, to protect publichealth. The application methods and pesticidesused varied geographically and temporally,from early August to mid-October.

In late September, as the magnitude of thelobster die-off continued to grow, the CTDEP collected water samples for analysisand contracted with the University ofConnecticut to test the samples for a rangeof materials including pesticides, herbicides,PCBs, semi-volatile organic compounds,volatile organic compounds, heavy metals,and cyanide. None of the materials weredetected in the samples at concentrationsabove the detection limits of the equipment.Samples were also screened for toxicphytoplankton and bacteria by the NOAAFisheries Laboratory in Milford, CT. Nonewere found.

Lobster specimens were sent to the Universityof Connecticut for gross and histopathologicalexamination in mid-October. Pathologyreports indicated that most of the lobstersexamined were infected with parasiticamoebae, or paramoebae. The parasiticamoebae infecting much of the lobsters’nervous tissue were considered by thepathologists to be the proximate cause ofdeath of the lobsters, but it remained unclearwhether other factors played a role insuppressing any possible immune response tothe infection.

Lobsters and crabs pulled dead or dying from traps werean unwelcome but common sight during the fall of 1999in western Long Island Sound. (Credit: CT DEP)

Connecticut and New York on behalf of abi-state advisory committee, the two-daymeeting brought together lobstermen,researchers, resource managers and othersto discuss the mortality event, review theresults of preliminary assessments, shareobservations, and develop a comprehensivelist of potential causative factors for furtherinvestigation. The research prioritiesidentified included assessment of the lobsterresource, disease, anthropogenic inputs(including pesticides), and oceanographicand environmental processes.

The Atlantic States Marine FisheriesCommission (ASMFC) formalized the bi-state advisory committee by establishing itas a sub-committee of its LobsterManagement Board in August 2000. Theprimary responsibilities of the SteeringCommittee for Lobster Disease Research(SCLDR) were to guide the researchinitiative, recommend the allocation of theavailable federal funds, and report back tothe ASMFC Lobster Management Board.Appointed members represented NOAAFisheries, NOAA Sea Grant National Office,Connecticut and New York Sea Grant, theU.S. Environmental Protection Agency(EPA), ASMFC, CT DEP, NYS DEC, and theLIS lobster industry.

Under the guidance of the SCLDR andthrough a subsequent research spending planapproved by Congress, NOAA Fisheriesallocated $2.6 million to the States ofConnecticut and New York to enhance andexpand their lobster population monitoringand assessment programs (Table 1). Theremaining funds were divided among NOAAFisheries ($1 million) and the Connecticut andNew York Sea Grant programs ($3 million)

The CT DEP and the NYS DEC conducted amail survey of licensed lobstermen and seafooddealers in late 1999. The results indicated thatthe lobsters found dead in the traps were bothlegal and sub-legal in size, male and female.More small lobsters were reported dead in thewestern Sound than in the east, and onlywestern lobstermen reported severe mortalities(25-100% of a day’s catch). Most respondentsreported other animals, such as crabs andbottom fish, dead in their traps. Additionalobservations included a ‘rotten egg’ smell,and healthy-looking lobsters dying in thetanks within a day or two after delivery to thedealer.

The governors of Connecticut and New Yorkcontacted the U.S. Secretary of Commercein December 1999 requesting disasterassistance under Section 312(a) of theMagnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservationand Management Act due to the widespreadlobster die-off in LIS. Based on preliminarydata submitted by the states andinformation supplied by the lobster industry,the Secretary declared that the LIS lobsterfishery experienced ‘commercial fisheryfailure due to a resource disaster’ on January26, 2000. This declaration, coupled with thesupport of the Connecticut and New Yorkcongressional delegations, paved the wayfor a Congressional authorization andsubsequent appropriation of $13.9 millionfor the purposes of providing economicassistance to the lobstermen ($7.3 million)and supporting a comprehensive researcheffort investigating the potential cause(s) ofthe resource disaster ($6.6 million).

The first LIS Lobster Health Symposium washeld in Stamford, Connecticut, in April 2000.Organized by the Sea Grant programs in

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...The Long Island Soundlobster fishery experienced‘commercial fishery failure dueto a resource disaster’...

...$13.9 million in federalaid for economic relief andresearch...

to support research and extension work. Thesefederal funds were matched by nearly $2.5million in non-federal funds. The State ofConnecticut, through its LIS Research Fundmanaged by the CT DEP Office of LongIsland Sound Programs, offered an additional$1 million for research, of which $780,000 wasused (Table 1).

The State of New York appropriated $1million in 2000 for the creation and staffing ofa pathology laboratory at the Marine SciencesResearch Center, Stony Brook University(Table 1). The laboratory, a key element of anew Marine Disease Consortium establishedby the New York state legislature in responseto the lobster die-off, is already facilitating thestudy of shellfish and finfish diseases.

A nationally-competitive request for proposalswas issued by the Sea Grant programs andCT DEP in fall 2000. Researchers were askedto propose work in one of several areas:physical/chemical environment, disease,pesticides, and immunological responses tostress. Following a rigorous peer review

An initial assessment of the economic impactand human dimensions of the die-off,conducted by Human Ecology Associates inJanuary 2000, found that approximately 70%of the western Sound lobstermen surveyedhad lost 100% of their fishing income in theyear after the die-off; the remainder lost 30-90% of their income. The study noted thatbecause of the severity and suddenness of thedie-off, these lobstermen found it hard to

...significant financial,social and psychologicaldamage to the affected fishingfamilies and their communitieswas documented...

process, 18 research projects were funded,involving more than 30 institutions andagencies nationwide, and more than 65researchers and graduate students. Thesemulti-year research projects, as well as severalinitiated in subsequent years, were supportedby NOAA Fisheries, CT Sea Grant, NY SeaGrant, CT DEP, and the EPA. (See pages 18-20 for list of project titles and recipients.)

Given the nature of the problem beinginvestigated, inter-disciplinary collaborationswere strongly encouraged. Two workingmeetings of the entire research initiativecommunity were held to share and discusspreliminary results. Additional LIS LobsterHealth Symposia were held in Ronkonkoma,NY (2002) and Bridgeport, CT (2003) toprovide updates on the research initiative tolobstermen, legislators, the press and thepublic.

In October 2004 at Stony Brook University(NY), the results of the research initiative werepresented. A summary of the findings ispresented, beginning on page 13.

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switch to other fisheries or to new vocations.The report also documented significant socialand psychological damage to these fishingfamilies and their communities.

Lobstermen, lobster dealers, and seafoodrestaurants in Connecticut and New Yorkwere surveyed by telephone in 2002 to assessthe economic impact that the 1999 die-off hadon various sectors of the lobster market. Theresults indicated that the lobster dealers andseafood restaurants were able to fill theirsupply demands with lobsters from northernNew England and Canada. The socio-economic hardship resulting from the lobstermortality event was largely confined to locallobstermen and their families.

SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC IMPACTS

LOBSTER RESOURCE IMPACTS

Pre-1999 LIS lobster mortality events

Small-scale lobster mortality events in theSound during the fall are commonly reportedto CT DEP and NYS DEC. One reason forthis is that LIS is near the southern extent ofthe inshore range of this species. Even thoughlobsters are found as far south as NorthCarolina, they generally inhabit deeper,cooler, offshore waters south of Long Island.Lobsters living near the limit of their rangeare increasingly likely to be exposed to stressfulenvironmental conditions, resulting inlocalized mortality events.

Periodic abnormally-high mortality eventshave also previously occurred in the LISlobster population, including the late summerand fall in 1990 and 1991. Lobster tissues andwater samples collected by CT DEP and NYSDEC were examined. Gaffkemia (Aerococcusviridans homari), also known as wasting or redtail disease, was determined as the probable

cause. During the fall of 1993, gaffkemia wasagain the cause of an abnormally-high lobstermortality event. In the fall of 1997, CT DEPreceived reports of dead lobsters in the westernSound. However, no diagnosis could be madebecause the dead animals were not availablefor testing.

Incidences of mortality were also reported inthe fall of 1998, with the highest percentageoccurring in the western Sound, particularlyin the Greenwich and Stamford (CT) areas.Tests for the presence of gaffkemia werenegative. Lobstermen did not indicate theextent and severity of the 1998 mortality eventuntil the problem became more severe in 1999.

The 1999 LIS lobster ‘die-off’

Beginning in late summer and early fall of1999, reports of large numbers of dead anddying lobsters of all sizes came in fromlobstermen in the western Sound (Figure 1).

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Figure 1. The western basin of LIS was the principal area affected by the lobster die-off in 1999.Although dead lobsters were also reported in the central basin, the waters west of Fairfield (CT) andSmithtown/Oyster Bay (NY) were the most severely affected. Lobsters in the eastern basin suffered anincrease in the incidence of shell disease, which causes black pitting and lesions on the lobstercarapace (shell).

Figure 3. Observed percent mortality after long versus shortset time in western Long Island Sound, 1999-2002 Samplingeffort (total number of lobsters; number of long sets; numberof short sets) was (8,123; 4; 10) in 1999, (3,364; 5; 11) in2000; (12,158; 6; 27) in 2001 and (10,719; 6; 25) in 2002.Source: CT DEP and NYS DEC

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Figure 2. Average percentage of dead lobsters in commercialsea samples, July - September, 1976, 1983, 1985, and 1994-2004. Average number of ELIS lobsters examined annually =2,264; range 293-5,954. Average number of CLIS lobstersexamined in 1976, and from 2000-2004 = 2,981; range 806-6,262. Average number of WLIS lobsters examined = 2,936;range 483-5,617. Source: CT DEP and NYS DEC

Reports of dead or lethargic lobsters in centraland eastern LIS increased significantly soonthereafter. These reports prompted CT DEPand NYS DEC to start investigating possiblecauses of this die-off, and to compileinformation documenting the impact on thelobster population and the commercial fishery.

Post-1999 LIS lobster mortality events

Since 1999, occurrences of dead and dyinglobsters have been less widespread and morethoroughly documented. With thecooperation of lobstermen, CT DEPand NYS DEC staff samplecommercial catches and have recordedseasonal mortalities primarily in thefall. Observations of commercialcatches since 1976 show an increase inthe incidence of dead lobsters in recentyears, especially in the western basin(Figure 2). The incidence rate hasincreased from a very rare event(<0.5% of the observed catch) to a morecommon one (2-3% of the observedcatch), with individual trips recordingmortality rates as high as 14-46%.

One factor that explains an increase inmortality in recent years is a coast-wide

increase in seawater temperature (seeStatus of Environmental Variables,page 10). When water temperatureand observed mortality data werepaired during NY DEC and CT DEPsea-sampling trips in the westernbasin, a statistically-significant linearrelationship was evident (based uponaveraged monthly data from Augustthrough October, 1996-2004).

A second possible factor affecting lobstermortality rate is an increase in the number ofdays lobster traps are left in the water (set)between hauls in the summer. For set times offewer than 16 days, the number of deadlobsters observed during western LIS sampletrips ranged from 0.2-3.8% of the catch, whileobserved mortality rates after set times inexcess of 16 days averaged 8.4% in 1999, lessthan 1% in 2000 and 2001, and 5.7% in 2002(Figure 3). These high-mortality trips alloccurred during months of high watertemperature. Extended high summertemperatures were recorded in 1999 and 2002,with cooler temperatures recorded in 2000 and2001. This pattern suggests that thecombination of high water temperature andlong set time may be exacerbating somelocalized mortality events.

Trends in landings and effort

Total lobster landings reported in 2003 forConnecticut and New York ports dropped toits lowest figure in 25 years (1.58 million lbs.).The greatest increases and declines in the pastdecade were recorded in the western Sound(Figure 4). Total landings peaked in 1997 at ahistoric high of 11.7 million pounds, butdropped sharply to 2-4 million pounds in thefollowing three years.

The total number of traps set in the Sound byNew York and Connecticut lobstermen showsthe same pattern (Figure 5). The decline is areflection of a continuing downward trend inthe number of license holders as well as asubstantial drop in traps fished by eachlobsterman since 1999. The number of license

holders has been declining for more than adecade, but dropped by a third from 1999 to2003 in both states (746 to 506 for residentNY licenses; 419 to 286 for CT licenses).

Lobster fishery disaster economic relief

Following the declaration that the Long IslandSound lobster fishery was a federal fisherydisaster in January 2000, the U.S. Congressappropriated funds in July 2000 for disastercompensation. Through grants issued byNOAA Fisheries, the States of Connecticutand New York were each allocated $3.65million in federal disaster relief funds. Bothstates also contributed 25% more in matchingfunds to the federal grants. The purpose ofthese funds was to:

• compensate individuals forreductions in the number of lobsterscaught in the 1999 LIS fishing seasonas compared to the 1998 fishingseason, as a result of the resourcedisaster

• provide direct sustaining aid tolobstermen

• provide assistance to communitiesthat are dependent on the lobsterfishery and have suffered losses as aresult of the 1999 disaster

Lower left:Figure 5. Total number of lobster traps set inLIS each year from 1979-2003 by NY and CTlobstermen. Source: CT DEP and NYS DEC

STATUS OF THE LOBSTER FISHERY

Upper left:Figure 4. CT and NY landings in pounds byarea. Source: CT DEP and NYS DEC

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CT DECD direct assistance program

The Connecticut Department of Economic andCommunity Development (DECD), withassistance from CT DEP, prepared a grantapplication to NOAA Fisheries to providedirect assistance to Connecticut lobstermenaffected by the lobster die-off. This programhad three main components:

1) direct payments for losses and sustainingaid to lobstermen impacted by the die-off,

2) an education and job re-training initiativefor lobstermen interested in pursuing otheropportunities, and

3) a trap allocation buy-back program.

Matching the $3.65 million in federal fundswas an additional $1.2 million in state funds.Direct payments to Connecticut lobstermenwere made in two rounds (Table 2). In the firstround, $3,018,000 was distributed to 109lobstermen who had experienced a loss inlandings value between 1998 and 1999 andhad landed at least 1,500 pounds of lobster in1998, according to their logbooks. In thesecond round of payments, $629,000 inadditional funds were distributed to 152lobstermen. Of these second round payments,20% was used to supplement first roundpayments and 80% was used to providesustaining aid to qualifying lobstermen whoremained active in the fishery through 2003.

In addition, the DECD provided $119,000 tothe Governor ’s Office of WorkforceCompetitiveness to support a job retrainingprogram for lobstermen interested in makinga career change. CT DEP also reduced fishingeffort through a trap tag buy-back programtotalling $1.1 million.

NYS ESD direct assistance program

New York State’s Urban DevelopmentCorporation [d/b/a Empire State Development(ESD)], with assistance from NYS DEC,

Table 2. Compensation categories and allocations forfederal and state funds allocated for economic relief ofthe Connecticut and New York lobstermen following the1999 resource disaster.

submitted a grant application to NOAAFisheries for providing compensation to NewYork lobstermen adversely affected by thelobster die-off in 1999 as compared to theirlobster income in 1998. ESD worked closelywith the NYS DEC, the LIS Lobstermen’sAssociation, the Western Lobstermen’sAssociation, and the NY Seafood Council toensure the relief program provided equitableand appropriate aid.

Relief assistance included compensation forlost income, interest subsidy, re-training andtechnical assistance, and trap tag buy-back(or effort reduction). The first three options hadstrict eligibility criteria while the last hadbroader eligibility.

The State of New York matched the $3.65million in federal funds with $1.2 million.Originally, ESD allocated $3,017,000 of thetotal relief assistance appropriation towarddirect compensation for lost income. Eligibleapplicants for this aid were NYScommercially-licensed lobstermen, lobsterdealers, lobster bait dealers, or lobster geardealers.

To receive aid, at least 50% of a New Yorklobsterman’s gross income in 1998 and 1999had to be derived from a LIS lobster business.Their 1999 loss had to equal at least 20% oftheir 1998 LIS lobster-derived income, and lossof income had to have been at least $5,000. Atotal of $2,804,000 was disbursed to eligiblelicense holders (Table 2). The remaining

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Effort reduction program

The purpose of the trap tag allocation buy-back program was two-fold: to provideadditional compensation for lobstermenimpacted by the lobster die-off, and to reducepotential fishing effort by lowering thenumber of traps that could be fished.

In New York, the ESD allocated $1 milliontoward the reduction of fishing effort in theLIS lobster fishery. A total of 83,333 trap tagswere purchased, reaching ESD’s goal to reduceoverall lobster fishing effort by 25%. Theprogram was managed in partnership withNYS DEC which licenses the trap tags.

In Connecticut, the CT DEP administered thisprogram under a Memorandum ofUnderstanding with the DECD. Through thisprogram, 122 lobstermen relinquished 58,410allocated traps for a total payment of$1,096,000, equating an 18.6% reduction inthe total state allocation (Table 2).

$213,000 was consolidated with unspent/uncommitted funds and equitably disbursedto all license holders who had already beenapproved and awarded loss compensation ina second round of payments totaling $739,000.

Both Connecticut and New York lobstermenand dealers accumulated debt as theyweathered the fishery disaster with reducedincomes. In New York, interest subsidy grantswere made available, designed to subsidizeinterest costs on existing, eligible debt andlower interest costs by 3% per year. AlthoughESD allocated $500,000 for these grants, only$189,000 was committed. The balance wasconsolidated with unspent/ uncommittedfunds and disbursed as indicated above.

ESD subcontracted with Cornell CooperativeExtension of Suffolk County to managetraining and technical assistance. ESDallocated $350,000 for training and technicalassistance but only $133,000 was requested.The balance was consolidated with unspent/uncommitted funds as indicated previously.

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Lobstermen prepare to deploy a string of baited traps. As a conservation measure, NY and CT lobstermensold nearly 142,000 trap tags back to the states, to help reduce fishing effort for lobsters by 19 - 25%. (Credit:John Collins)

Air and water temperature

Over the past 50 years, mean air temperature(measured in NY City) has risen whilesummer water temperature in LIS hasbecome more volatile. Scientists at StonyBrook University found that the inter-annualvariation in August water temperature hasincreased in both frequency and amplitude.Bottom water temperature data, recorded byCT DEP since 1991, indicate that 1999 wasthe warmest to date (Figure 6).

Dissolved oxygen levels

The increase in nutrients flowing into theSound coincides with increasing humanpopulation and changes in land use patternsover the past 150 years. Records of organiccarbon concentrations in sediment cores fromthe central and western Sound collected byscientists at Wesleyan University show anincrease beginning around 1850. Thesenutrients fuel algal blooms in the spring andsummer. When the algae die, they sink to thebottom and decompose. As decompositionoccurs, the amount of oxygen in the bottomwater declines, in some cases to less than 3mg/l, causing hypoxic conditions. Hypoxiaforces mobile organisms to move to more

oxygenated waters, while immobile organismsendure or succumb to the stressfulenvironment.

NYC DEP monitoring data show periods ofreduced dissolved oxygen in the East Riverand western Sound since 1909; hypoxic areaswere first clearly identified in the centralSound in the mid-1950s. Hypoxia has becomea recurring phenomenon in the Sound westof Branford (CT) and Shoreham (NY) sincethe early 1980s. Hypoxic conditions typicallybegin in mid-July and end in late August orearly September.

Precipitation and run-off

Rainfall has also exhibited an increasing trendsince 1970. Freshwater run-off during rainevents has also increased as Connecticut andNew York landscapes have changed fromfarms and forests to paved urban areas. Largevolumes of fresh water reduce verticalcirculation in the Sound by acting as a cap onsaltier bottom water. Run-off also transportsa variety of non-point source pollutants intolocal water bodies and LIS, including petwaste, automobile fluids, fertilizers, herbicides,pesticides, and debris. These materials have anegative impact on water quality.

Figure 6. Annual LIS bottom water temperature averages, August - October. Source: CT DEP

STATUS OF ENVIRONMENTAL VARIABLES

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Distribution by habitat type

Lobster catches from the CT DEP TrawlSurvey were examined by a University of NewHaven researcher before and after the 1999die-off, who noted that lobster abundance inshallow waters declined sharply starting in1998. Abundance in deeper waters increasedin 1996 and 1997, due to greater survivaland movement of lobsters just below legalsize (carapace length = 50 to 80 mm) intothese sites, then dropped sharply in 1999 and2000. From 1996 to 2000, larger lobsterswere found at all depths, although theirabundance was greatest in deeper watersafter the 1999 die-off. This pattern suggeststhat bottom water temperature may affectlobster distribution. The degree of this effectvaries with lobster size.

A fishery-independent lobster trap surveyconducted by NYS DEC in western LongIsland Sound during 2003 revealed thatlobster catches dropped sharply whenbottom dissolved oxygen fell below 4 mg/land water temperature exceeded 180C. Thisdecline was noted particularly for egg-bearing females. Both the trap survey andthe CT DEP trawl survey data indicated thatthe percentage of female lobsters decreasedfrom east to west in the Sound. Between2000 and 2004, few legal-size, egg-bearingfemales were recorded in the trawl surveycatch from the Narrows region in westernLIS (Figure 1; page 5).

Movement and Genetics

Mark/recapture studies over the past 40years have shown that most lobsters in LISremain within about a 6-mile radius (10 km)of their capture site. Results of the CT DEPtagging study conducted after the die-offconcurred with these past studies. The netmovement of 75% of 1,290 recaptured

lobsters at large for more than 30 days was3 miles (5 km) or less. Lobsters tagged inthe western and central basins moved botheast and west, but few left the basin wherethey were tagged. Similarly, few lobsterstagged in the eastern basin moved to thecentral Sound and none to the west.

Eastern LIS lobsters commonly moved inand out of the Race (far eastern end of theSound; Figure 1) to and from Rhode Islandwaters. Although tagging study resultsindicate that the majority of the LIS lobsterpopulation is sedentary, about 14% arefaster-moving “colonizers” who may bemoving into newly-available habitatsthroughout the Sound.

Genetic analyses by a University ofConnecticut researcher further support theview that lobsters in the western basin havelimited contact with lobsters outside theSound. More genetic similarity was foundbetween lobsters from the eastern andcentral basins than between those two areasand the western basin. The genetic studyalso indicated limited contact betweenwestern basin lobsters and offshore AtlanticOcean lobster populations.

One-third of larval lobsters in the Sound andthe Race examined originated from offshoreadults. It is speculated that these larvaewere flushed into the Sound on floodingcurrents. Although this “offshore larvalsubsidy” may aid in stock recovery, themajority of larvae captured in all threebasins of the Sound originate from theSound’s adults. Therefore, over the longterm, stock rebuilding and stock stabilitywill depend principally on an increase in theproduction and/or survival of local adultlobsters. Although the number of larvallobsters produced annually in the Sound isunknown, recent indices of abundance

STATUS OF THE LOBSTER RESOURCE

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generated by the CT DEP Larval Survey for thewestern basin are very low compared to indicesmeasured during the past 22 years (Figure 7).The first time the indices consecutively measurednegligible numbers of larvae annually wasbetween 2002 and 2005.

Abundance Trends

Conditions throughout the Sound werefavorable for recruitment in the early 1990s,allowing the lobster stock to increase to ahistorically-high abundance. This enhancedrecruitment ended abruptly with the die-off. A similar trend was observed inRhode Island waters and offshorecanyons—catch surveys indicated thatthe abundance of small lobsters increasedthrough the 1990s, then declined torecord lows. These trends suggest thatregional environmental factors were atfirst favorable and then very unfavorablefor lobster production in the 1990s.

Fishing and Natural Mortality

Assessing the effect that the lobster fisheryhas on the LIS lobster stock is complicatedby the recent increase in natural mortalitylosses made obvious during the 1999 die-off.

Rhode Island Department ofEnvironmental Management (RIDEM) and CT DEP trawl surveydata indicate that natural mortalityincreased two to five times aboveaverage starting in 1997, andpeaked in 2001 and 2002 (Figure8). Since 1999, the lobster harvest(pounds landed) and fishing effort(number of traps fished andlicenses sold) have both decreasedsubstantially. Meanwhile, theaverage lobster caught for themarket increased in size between2001 and 2003 (compared to earlier

years), as the loss of small, sub-legal-sizedlobsters between 1999 and 2002 affected theentire population size structure.

Since 2001, indices of spawning stockabundance, recruit and harvest-sizeabundance have all declined well below the1984 to 2003 median values for the entireSouthern New England lobster stock. TheASMFC Lobster Technical AdvisoryCommittee characterized this stock as‘depleted’. This depleted state is mostpronounced for Long Island Sound. Fishingmortality is near the threshold of sustainabilitydue to the current low stock abundance.

Figure 7. Larval lobster production in Long IslandSound, from 1983 - 2005. Source: CT DEP

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Figure 8. Relative lobster abundance in Rhode Island andConnecticut trawl survey catches. Source: CT DEP and RI DEM

1985 = 1,064

The extensive research initative undertaken toinvestigate the potential cause(s) of the 1999lobster mortality event involved researchersfrom agencies and institutions across thecountry. The research projects were classifiedaccording to four general categories: physical/chemical environment, disease, pesticides andphysiological responses to stress. While the firstthree categories investgiated actual events orconditions, the latter category investigated theresponse of lobsters to various stressors for thepurpose of defining impact levels and todevelop tools to help measure lobster health.

Physical/Chemical Environment

Scientists from Wesleyan, Yale, Stony BrookUniversity, and NOAA Fisheries conductedseveral studies assessing physical andchemical environmental factors, looking athistorical trends and changes, as well as actualconditions that existed in the Sound in 1999.Key findings that directly related to the die-off included sustained, above-average, stress-inducing water temperatures, hypoxia, andtemperature stratification, followed by quickmixing of the water column caused by arapidly moving weather front. Toxic sulfidesand ammonium moving from the sedimentsinto the near-bottom water column in latesummer and early fall also acted as stressors.Driven by water temperature, these hostileenvironmental conditions placed undue stressupon the physiology of the lobsters, and mayhave been sufficient to have caused lobsterdeaths in absence of any other factors.

Paramoebiasis

At the height of the lobster mortality event in1999 (late October to early November),pathologists at the University of Connecticutdiscovered that 94% (29 of 31) of the deadlobsters they examined were infected withmicroscopic parasitic paramoebae. The

paramoebae invade and engulf nervous tissue,causing death. Later identified asNeoparamoeba pemaquidensis by scientists atthe Bigelow Laboratory in Boothbay Harbor,Maine, Woods Hole OceanographicInstitution, George Mason University, and theUniversity of Connecticut, this species waspreviously known to inhabit Long IslandSound, but not known to infect lobsters. Atthe time of the die-off, there was no evidenceof other disease-causing infectious agents.Lobsters collected weeks later (mid-Novemberto early December), exhibited only a 29%infection rate (11 of 38).

The infection rate of more than 800 lobsterscollected systematically throughout the Soundover three years following the die-off by CTDEP staff ranged from 0-14%. It is possiblethat the growth and abundance of theparamoebae in LIS in 1999 may have been inresponse to the warmer water temperatures.The parasitic amoebae infecting the nervoustissues of the lobsters were considered to bethe proximate cause of death, but other factors,such as the stressful environmental conditionsand an all-time high lobster population size,likely played significant roles in determiningthe lobsters’ susceptibility to disease in 1999.Much more remains to be discovered aboutparamoebiasis and its transmission into andbetween lobsters. Efforts to culture theparamoebae in the laboratory to studyinfectivity have been, so far, unsuccessful.

Pesticides

The concentrations of pesticides that inducedsub-lethal and lethal effects in lobsters wasdetermined experimentally for adults,juveniles and larvae by researchers at MercerUniversity, the University of Connecticut, theUniversity of California at Davis, and StonyBrook University. Three classes of pesticideswere examined: methoprene, a larvacide;

SUMMARY OF THE RESEARCH FINDINGS

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better understand how stressful conditionsaffect lobster health, such as how lobster bloodcells (hemocytes) recognize and react to thepresence of pathogens, what hormones areproduced in response to stress, and whatchanges to lobster blood chemistry areinduced by stress.

Shell Disease

Complementing the extensive researcheffort to investigate the western LIS lobsterdie-off, researchers at Stony BrookUniversity, the University of Louisiana, andthe Marine Biological Laboratory (WoodsHole, MA) studied the shell disease affectinglobsters in eastern LIS. Shell disease is causedby external bacteria that digest the mineralsin the shell (carapace) of a lobster. Thisparticular epizootic shell disease causessevere lesions and pitting on the carapace.Since lobsters routinely clean themselves,the disease often shows up on the back ofthe carapace and claws, areas they havedifficulty reaching. Sea sampling dataindicate that an increasing proportion oflobsters in eastern LIS, Rhode Island, andMassachusetts waters have shell disease, andthat individual lobsters are more severelyaffected than previously observed.

Lobsters temporarily rid themselves of shelldisease when they molt, shedding thediseased outer shells and replacing themwith new healthy ones. However, if thedisease bacteria become abundant enoughto digest holes completely through a lobstershell, then internal lesions leading to deathmay occur. Preliminary data from aUniversity of Connecticut researcher showthat female lobsters have a higher rate ofincidence of shell disease, and that affectedfemales carrying fertilized eggs under theirtails may molt prematurely, before the eggsare released into the water column.

malathion, a commonly-used pesticidetargeting adult mosquitos; and resmethrin, anewer pyrethroid pesticide targeting adultsthat is more toxic but very short-lived. Allthree pesticides were used to combat the WestNile virus outbreak in the summer and fall of1999, and all were found to have the potentialto adversely affect lobsters.

Lab studies revealed that while lobsters arerelatively unaffected by methoprene, they areconsiderably more sensitive to the effects ofmalathion than any other freshwater fish andaquatic invertebrates previously tested. Otherlaboratory studies showed that sub-lethaleffects (impairment of immune response,stress hormone production) occur at muchsmaller concentrations than lethal effects. Alleffects occurred at concentrations in parts perbillion.

While it is evident that certainconcentrations of these pesticides can killlobsters, one important question waswhether enough of the pesticides got intothe LIS water column to cause illness ordeath in the lobsters. The dispersion of theindividual pesticides over time was examinedusing two independent modeling techniques(carried out by Hydroqual, Inc. and at StonyBrook University) and very conservativeassumptions (e.g., 100% of each pesticideapplied entered the water before beginningto break down). The results indicated thatonly a few areas of the far western Soundcould have had pesticide concentrations highenough to cause sub-lethal effects in lobsters.

Physiological Responses to Stress

Scientists at Stony Brook University, theUniversity of Connecticut, the University ofCalifornia at Davis, the University ofMaryland, Cornell University, SUNYPurchase, and NOAA Fisheries provided moreanswers to the question, “What is a healthylobster?” The resulting extensive toolbox ofnew techniques and tools will help biologists

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temperature was the driving force behind asnowball effect of environmental andoceanographic factors that stressed lobsters tothe point at which their physiology could notcope with the inhospitable environmentalconditions nor mount an immune defenseagainst the paramoebae.

Under drought conditions, bottom watertemperatures were 1-20C warmer thanaverage for many months during 1998 and1999. Although this temperature increaseseems small, it exceeded the upper thermaltolerance threshold for lobsters (200C or680F), causing an increase in respirationrate. LIS lobsters are near the southern endof their inshore range in LIS, and a sustainedincrease in temperature is stressful.

From mid-July through early September,western LIS commonly experiences hypoxicconditions (an unfavorably lowconcentration of dissolved oxygen).Temperatures recorded in deepwater areasof the Sound were 210C (700F) or greater bylate summer 1999; in some shallow areas,recorded temperatures exceeded 230C(730F). As the waters warmed, the amountof dissolved oxygen in the waters lessened.Hypoxic conditions existed for about 50days in 1999, which is typical. The mostsevere period occurred the first week ofAugust and most of the hypoxia haddissipated by the third week of August,before the mortalities occurred.

Lobsters have been observed moving intodeeper cooler waters when nearshore watersget too warm. They are also known to “herd”or crowd in high numbers near margins of

As a result of extensive research and datacollection by many academic, federal, andstate agencies, substantial evidence exists thata confluence and succession of factors pushedthe Sound’s lobster population far out ofequilibrium with its environment in the fall of1999. Responding to the stress induced bysustained and increasingly hostileenvironmental conditions, the immunesystems of the lobsters were unable tocompensate, and many lobsters succumbedto disease. While the main mortality eventoccurred in 1999, the problem may have beenbuilding over several previous years. There isno way to determine now when the lobstersbegan to become infected with paramoebae,or whether the environmental conditions andcrowding due to the above-averageabundance of lobsters fostered the infection,or simply exacerbated an existing problem.

Adverse environmental conditions haveexisted previously in the Sound, but not insuch a sustained, severe and joint fashion.Based on the available information and thecollective research results to date, thepresumed sequence of events that culminatedin the lobster mortality event in 1999 is asfollows.

Scattered reports of atypical lobster mortalitybegan as early as 1997. No samples werecollected for examination, so it is unknown iflobsters were infected with paramoebiasis. In1999, sustained, above-average water

WRAPPING UP THE 1999 MORTALITY EVENT

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...responding to the stressinduced by sustained, hostileenvironmental conditions, theimmune systems of the lobsterswere unable to compensate, andmany succumbed to disease...

...sustained, above-averagewater temperature was thedriving force...

inhospitable environmental conditions.Lobster larvae, if they were present in thesesame areas at the time of exposure, may alsohave suffered. According to CT DEPsampling, larval abundance in the westernSound peaked in early July, while mostpesticide applications occurred later in thesummer and fall.

The Sound also experiences increased fluxesof ammonium and sulfide from bottomsediments into the lower water column in latesummer. These substances can create hostileconditions for lobsters and other burrowinginvertebrates in the narrow zone where thesediment and water meet, especially at hightemperatures.

The fate of the LIS lobsters in the westernSound was sealed by paramoebiasis. Eitherthe energy required to mount a sustainedimmune response to the disease took its tollon the lobsters, or the lobsters were unable tomount an adequate defense to the disease asthey were already physically stressed due tothe hostile environmental conditions. Manylobsters died as a result, and the population inthe western Sound collapsed.

hypoxic zones where the dissolved oxygenconcentration is greater than 2 mg/l, avoidingthose areas where oxygen is below thisthreshold. Because of these two factors—water temperature and hypoxia—it may beassumed that an already dense population oflobsters crowded into areas of the westernSound cool enough and oxygenated enoughto sustain them. Crowded conditions such asthese increase the likelihood of spread ofpathogens among or between animals.

By August 1999, temperature and salinitywere stratified in the water column. Late inthe month, winds from a front movingthrough the region completely mixed thewater column in a matter of hours. Warmsurface waters were brought to the bottom,and caused an additional rise in temperature.Although lobsters can endure abrupttemperature changes, these lobsters werelikely already physically weakened.

Pesticides were being applied in both states tocombat the spread of the West Nile virus,which had caused seven human deaths byearly September. Lab studies showed thatthese pesticides can have sub-lethal or lethaleffects on the various life stages of lobsters,depending on the exposure time andconcentration.

The modeling efforts to date suggest that theamount of each individual pesticide appliedis unlikely to have reached the concentrationin the Sound that laboratory studies indicateis lethal to lobsters. However, it cannot beruled out that in limited areas of the farwestern Sound, exposure to pesticides mayhave further weakened adult lobsters, makingthem even more susceptible to disease or the

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...studies showed that mosquitocontrol pesticides can have bothsub-lethal and lethal effects onlobsters...

To help study the movements of lobsters within, and in andout of Long Island Sound, lobsters were tagged andreleased. Lobstermen were encouraged to report the tagnumber, location, and date for any tagged lobster caught,and return the lobster to the water. (Credit: CT DEP)

FUTURE WORK

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At the request of the lobster industry,additional water quality modeling ‘runs’ areplanned to try and answer some additionalquestions regarding the potential exposureconcentrations and influence of pesticides inthe mortality event. The pesticide sumithrin,a pyrethroid,was not studied as part of theresearch initiative because no researchproposals were submitted to study its effects.Sumithrin should be investigated in futurestudies, in a manner similar to the studies onthe effects of malathion, methoprene, andresmethrin. Further, additional work has beeninitiated to investigate shell disease, as it isaffecting larger numbers of lobsters in thewaters off the Northeast states, raisingconcerns among resource managers andindustry members alike.

Under the auspices of the ASMFC’s LobsterFishery Management Plan, the lobsterresource in southern New England hasrecently been described as ‘depleted’. Thestock assessment report recommended thatabundance be rebuilt to the long-termaverage. A peer review of the stockassessment further recommended that thefishery mortality rate be reduced. Theserecommendations will be the basis of

ASMFC action in early 2006. The ASMFC hasfurther approved an expansion of the SteeringCommittee for Lobster Disease Research toprovide for a coordinated coastwide responseto lobster health issues.

While shell disease was not found to be thecause of the 1999 LIS lobster mortality event,research and monitoring show that eastern LISlobsters, as well as lobsters in Rhode Islandand Massachusetts waters, are experiencingincreasingly adverse affects from shell disease.A meeting at the Millstone EnvironmentalLaboratory (Waterford, CT) in 2001 broughttogether scientists and resource managersfrom throughout New England to discuss shelldisease and develop a standardized methodfor monitoring shell disease on affectedlobsters. In fall 2005, Congress appropriated$3 million for investigation of the epizooticshell disease affecting lobster stocksthroughout New England. Rhode Island SeaGrant has convened an Executive Committeeof state and federal resource managers, lobsterindustry members, scientists, and Sea Grantextension agents to oversee this new lobsterdisease research program, which will beinitiated sometime during 2006.

A lobster severely affected by shell disease.The extent of the disease is ranked by sea sam-plers according to the proportion of shell cover-age (mild, 1-10%; moderate, 11-50%; severe,> 50%). © Photo by Roxanna Smolowitz, MBL.

RESEARCH PROJECT TITLES AND INVESTIGATORS

Lobster Resource Monitoring andAssessment Projects

Connecticut Department of EnvironmentalProtection (CT DEP) Lobster ResourceMonitoring and Assessment Project

Penny Howell, CT DEP, Old Lyme, CTPhone: (860) 434-6043E-mail: Penny.Howell@po.state.ct.us

Joseph Crivello, University of ConnecticutPhone: (860) 486-5415E-Mail: Joseph.Crivello@uconn.edu

Roman Zajac, University of New HavenPhone: (203) 932-7114E-Mail: rzajac@newhaven.edu

New York State Department ofEnvironmental Conservation (NYS DEC)Lobster Resource Monitoring andAssessment Project

Kim McKown, NYS DEC, East Setauket, NYPhone: (631) 444-0444

E-mail: kamckown@gw.dec.state.ny.us

Research Initiative Projects

Monitoring of Bottom Water and SedimentConditions at Critical Stations in WesternLong Island Sound

Carmela Cuomo, Yale UniversityE-mail: carmela.cuomo@yale.eduCo-investigators: Raymond Valente, SAIC, and

Deren Dogru, Yale University

Relationship Between American LobsterMortality in LIS and Prevailing WaterColumn Conditions

Robert E. Wilson, Stony Brook UniversityPhone: (631) 632-8689E-mail: Robert.Wilson@stonybrook.eduCo-investigators: R. Lawrence Swanson and Duane E.Waliser, Stony Brook University

Environmental Change in LIS in the RecentPast

Johan Varekamp, Wesleyan UniversityPhone: (860) 685-2248E-mail: jvarekamp@wesleyan.eduCo-Investigators: Ellen Thomas, WesleyanUniversity, Mark Altabet, University ofMassachusetts, Dartmouth, Sherri Cooper, Bryn AthynCollege, and Marilyn Buchholtz ten Brink, US Geological

Survey

Effects of Environmental Stressors onDisease Susceptibility in Lobsters: AControlled Laboratory Story

Richard Robohm, NOAA Fisheries Laboratory, Milford,CT (retired)Co-Principal Investigator: Andrew F.J. Draxler, NOAAFisheries, Howard Laboratory, Sandy Hook, NJE-mail: andrew.draxler@noaa.gov

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The following research projects were funded by NOAA Fisheries, the CT and NY Sea Grant programs, the EPA,and the State of CT through the CT DEP Office of Long Island Sound Programs and Marine Fisheries Division.

In addition to the data collected during independent trawlsurveys of LIS, New York and Connecticut lobster biologistscollect data on lobsters trapped by commerciallobstermen, including size, sex, and whether or not thefemales are carrying eggs. (Credit: CT DEP)

Immunological Health of Lobsters: Assaysand Applications

Robert S. Anderson, University of Maryland.Phone: (410) 326-7247

E-mail: anderson@cbl.umces.edu

Development of Assays for the Evaluationof Immune Functions of the AmericanLobster as a Tool for Health Assessment

Sylvain De Guise, University of ConnecticutPhone: (860) 486-0850E-mail: sylvain.deguise@uconn.eduCo-investigators: Richard A. French, University ofConnecticut, and Salvatore Frasca, Jr., University ofConnecticut

Development of an Assay for PhagocyticActivity in the Immune System of Lobsters

Jan Factor, SUNY PurchasePhone: (914) 251-6659E-mail: jfactor@purvid.purchase.edu

Hormonal Responses of Lobsters to Stressesof Western LIS

Hans Laufer, University of ConnecticutPhone: (860) 486-4117E-Mail: hans.laufer@uconn.eduCo-investigators: Ernest S. Chang, University ofCalifornia, Richard French, Christopher Perkins, and LanceStewart, University of Connecticut, Michael Syslo, MAState Lobster Hatchery Research Station, MichaelTlusty, New England Aquarium, and Charles Yarish,

University of Connecticut

Stress Indicators in Lobsters: Hormones andHeat Shock Proteins

Ernest S. Chang, University of California, DavisPhone: (707) 875-2061

E-mail: eschang@ucdavis.edu

Calcinosus in LIS Lobsters During Summer2002

Alistair Dove, Cornell College of Veterinary MedicineE-Mail: alistair.dove@stonybrook.eduCo-investigators: Carl LoBue, NYS DEC, andPaul Bowser, Cornell College of Veterinary Medicine

Acute Effects of Methoprene on Survival,Cuticular Morphogenesis and ShellBiosynthesis in the American Lobster

Michael N. Horst, Mercer University School ofMedicine, Macon GAPhone: (478) 301-2558E-mail: horst_mn@mercer.eduCo-investigators: Anna N. Walker, Mercer University,Thomas G. Wilson, Colorado State University, ParshallB. Bush, University of Georgia, Timothy E. Miller,University of Maine, Ernest S. Chang, University ofCalifornia, Davis, and Robert L. Vogel, MercerUniversity School of Medicine

Determination of the Toxicity and SublethalEffects of Selected Pesticides on theAmerican Lobster

Sylvain De Guise, University of ConnecticutPhone: (860) 486-0850E-mail: sylvain.deguise@uconn.eduCo-investigators:Richard A. French, Salvatore Frasca, Jr.,and Christopher Perkins, University of Connecticut

Effects of Pesticides of Lobster Health: TraceLevel Measurements and ToxicologicalAssessment at Environmentally RealisticConcentrations

Anne E. McElroy, Stony Brook UniversityPhone: (631) 632-8488E-mail: Anne.McElroy@stonybrook.eduCo-Investigator: Bruce J. Brownawell, Stony BrookUniversity

Bacterial Assemblages Involved in theDevelopment and Progression of ShellDisease in the American Lobster

Andrei Chistoserdov, University of LouisianaPhone: (337) 482-6748E-mail: ayc6160@louisiana.eduCo-investigator: Roxanna Smolowitz, MarineBiological Laboratory, Woods Hole

Oligonucleotide-based Detection ofPathogenic Paramoeba Species

Rebecca J. Gast, Woods Hole OceanographicInstitution, Woods HolePhone: (508) 289-3209E-mail: rgast@whoi.edu

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Development of Polymerase Chain Reaction-and in situ Hybridization-based Tests forthe Specific Detection of the ParamoebaAssociated with Epizootic Lobster Mortalityby Determination of the MolecularSystematics of the Genus Paramoeba

Salvatore Frasca, Jr., University of ConnecticutPhone: (860) 486-1138E-mail: salvatore.frasca@uconn.eduCo-investigators: Richard French, and Sylvain De Guise,

University of Connecticut

Phenotypic and Molecular Identification ofEnvironmental Specimens of the GenusParamoeba Associated with LobsterMortality Events

Patrick M. Gillevet, George Mason UniversityPhone: (703) 993-1057E-mail: gillevet@ib3.gmu.eduCo-investigators: Charles J. O’Kelly, BigelowLaboratory for Ocean Sciences and Thomas A. Nerad,

American Type Culture Collection, Mannassas, VA

Infectivity of Parasitic Amoebae in Lobsters:Testing of Koch’s Postulates

Richard Robohm, NOAA Fisheries Laboratory,

Milford, CT (retired)

Effects of Temperature and Body Size onMetabolic Stress in LIS Lobsters

Glenn Lopez, Stony Brook UniversityPhone: (631) 632-8660E-mail: Glenn.Lopez@stonybrook.eduCo-investigator: Robert M. Cerrato, Stony BrookUniversity

Exposure of Lobsters to the Varied Chemicaland Biological Environment of LongIsland Sound

Andrew F.J. Draxler, NOAA Fisheries, HowardLaboratory, Sandy Hook, NJPhone: (732) 872-3054E-mail: Andrew.Draxler@noaa.govCo-investigator: Ashok Deshpande and Anthony

Paulson, NOAA Fisheries, Howard Laboratory

Application of Water Quality ModelingTechnology to the Investigation of theDecline in Long Island Sound Lobstersduring the Summer of 1999

Robin Landeck Miller, Hydroqual Inc., Mahwah, NJPhone (201-529-5151 ext. 7119E-mail: rmiller@hydroqual.com

Description of Transport and Dispersionwithin Long Island Sound during Augustand September 1999

Robert Wilson, Stony Brook UniversityPhone:(631) 632-8704

E-mail: Robert.Wilson@sunysb.eduCo-investigators: R. Lawrence Swanson and Bruce

Brownawell, Stony Brook University

Maintenance of a Paramoeba Culture andExploration of a Mitochondrial Cytochromeb Genetic Marker

Senjie Lin, University of ConnecticutPhone: (860) 405-9168

E-mail: senjie.lin@uconn.edu

The Comparative Pathology of Shell Diseasein the American and Caribbean SpinyLobsters: Characterization of Gross, LightMicroscopic and Ultrastructural Pathology

Richard French, University of ConnecticutPhone: (860) 486-5370E-mail: richard.french@uconn.eduCo-investigators: Robert Reeves, Florida StateUniversity, Salvatore Frasca, Jr., University ofConnecticut, Richard Cawthorn, Atlantic VeterinaryCollege, University of Prince Edward Island, andDonald Landers, Millstone EnvironmentalLaboratory, Waterford, CT

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*Anderson, R.S. & A. Beaven. 2005. In vitro activationof hemocytes from the American lobster, Homarusamericanus, as measured by production of reactiveoxygen species. J. Shellfish Res. 24(3):699-703

Biggers, W. J. and H. Laufer. 2004. Identification ofjuvenile hormone-active alkyphenols in the lobster,Homarus americanus, and in marine sediments. Biol.Bull. 206: 13-24.

Chang, E. S. 2005. Stressed-out lobsters: crustaceanhyperglycemic hormone and stress proteins.Integrat. Comp. Biol. 45:43-50.

*Chistoserdov, A. Y., R. Smolowitz, F. Mirasol & A.Hsu, 2005. Culture-dependent characterization ofthe microbial community associated with epizooticlesions in the American lobster, Homarus americanus.J. Shellfish Res. 24(3): 741-747

Chistoserdov A., F. Mirasol & R. Smolowitz. 2002.Characterization of microbial assemblagesinvolved in the development of shell disease in theAmerican Lobster, Homarus americanus. J Shellfish Res.21: 410

*Crivello, J. F., D. F. Landers, Jr. & M. Keser. 2005a.The contribution of egg-bearing female Americanlobster populations to lobster larvae collected inLong Island Sound by comparison of microsatelliteallele frequencies. J. Shellfish Res. 24(3): 831-839

*Crivello, D. F. Landers, Jr. & M. Keser. 2005b. Thegenetic stock structure of the American lobster(Homarus americanus) in Long Island Sound and theHudson Canyon. J. Shellfish Res. 24(3): 841-848

*Cuomo, C., R. Valente & D. Dogru. 2005. Seasonalvariations in sediment and bottom water chemistryof western Long Island Sound: implications forlobster mortality. J. Shellfish Res. 24(3):805-814

*De Guise, S., J. Maratea, E. S. Chang & C. Perkins.2005. Resmethrin immunotoxicity and endocrinedisrupting effects in the American lobster uponexperimental exposure. J. Shellfish Res. 24(3): 781-786

*De Guise, S., B. Morsey, J. Maratea, M. Goedken, I.Sidor & J. Atherton. 2005. Development of assays toevaluate cellular immune functions in the American

lobster, (Homarus americanus). J. Shellfish Res. 24(3):705-711De Guise, S., J. Maratea and C. Perkins. 2004.Malathion immunotoxicity in the American lobster(Homarus americanus) upon experimental exposure.Aquat. Tox. 66: 419-425.

*Dove, A. D. M., B. Allam, J. J. Powers & M. S.Sokolowski. 2005. A prolonged thermal stressexperiment on the American lobster, Homarusamericanus. J. Shellfish Res. 24(3):761-765

Dove, A. D. M., C. LoBue, P. Bowser and M. Powell.2004. Excretory calcinosis: a new fatal disease of wildAmerican lobsters. Dis. Aquat. Org. 58: 215-221.

*Draxler, A.F.J., R. A. Robohm, D. Wieczorek, D.Kapareiko & S. Pitchford. 2005. Effect of habitatbiogeochemicals on survival of lobsters (Homarusamericanus). J. Shellfish Res. 24(3):821-824

*Draxler, A. F. J., R. M. Sherrell, D. Wieczorek, M. G.Lavigne & A. J. Paulson. 2005. Manganeseconcentration in lobster (Homarus americanus) gills asan index of exposure to reducing conditions inwestern Long Island Sound. J. Shellfish Res. 24(3): 815-819

*Factor, J. R., K. Orban, D. H. Szarowski, G. Lin, T.LaRocca, A. Becker & K. Jacoff-Kapusta. 2005. Amethod for assessing removal of foreign particlesfrom the blood by fixed phagocytes of the Americanlobster, Homarus americanus. J. Shellfish Res. 24(3):713-717

Figler, M. H., H. V. S. Peeke, M. J. Snyder and E. S.Chang. 2004. Effect of egg removal on territoriality,amines, and stress indicators in ovigerous lobsters(Homarus americanus). Mar. Fresh. Behav. Physiol. 37:43-54.

*Howell, P., J. Benway, C. Giannini, K. McKown, R.Burgess & J. Hayden. 2005. Long-term populationtrends in American lobster (Homarus americanus) andtheir relation to temperature in Long Island Sound.J. Shellfish Res. 24(3): 849-857

*Laufer, H., N. Demir & W. J. Biggers. 2005. Responseof the American lobster to the stress of shell disease.J. Shellfish Res. 24(3): 757-760

LIST OF PUBLISHED MANUSCRIPTS

*Manuscripts are included in the LIS Lobster Research Initiative’s special issue of Journal of Shellfish Research, 24(3): October2005. The remaining manuscripts are ones that have been published and reported to date by the researchers involved in theinitiative.

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*Lin, S. & H. Zhang. 2005. Isolation of mitochondrialcytochrome B gene and development of a real-timequantitative PCR assay for detecting Neoparamoebaaestuarina. J. Shellfish Res. 24(3): 733-739*Miller, R. L., J. R. Wands, K. N. Chytalo & R. A.D’Amico. 2005. Application of water qualitymodeling technology to the investigation of thedecline in Long Island Sound lobsters (Homarusamericanus) during the summer of 1999. J. ShellfishRes. 24(3): 859-864

*Mullen, T. E., K. R. Nevis, C. J. O’Kelly, R. J. Gast & S.Frasca, Jr. 2005. Nuclear small-subunit ribosomalRNA gene-based characterization, molecularphylogeny, and PCR detection of the Neoparamoebafrom western Long Island Sound Lobster. J. ShellfishRes. 24(3): 719-731

Mullen, T., K. S. Russel, M. Tucker, J. L. Maratea, T.Burrage, C. Koerting, L. Hinkely, C. Perkins, S. DeGuise, S. J. Frasca & R. A. French. 2004.Paramoebiasis associated mass mortality ofAmerican lobster (Homarus americanus) in Long IslandSound, USA. J. Aq. An. Health 16: 29-38.

Peglar, M.T., L. A. Amaral Zettler, O. R. Anderson, T.A. Nerad, P. M. Gillevet, T. E. Mullen, S. Frasca Jr., J. D.Silberman, C. J. O’Kelly & M. L. Sogin. 2003. Twonew small-subunit ribosomal RNA gene lineageswithin the subclass Gymnamoebia. J. Eukaryot.Microbiol. 50:224-232.

*Pearce, J. & N. Balcom. 2005. The 1999 Long IslandSound lobster mortality event: findings of thecomprehensive research initiative. J. Shellfish Res.24(3): 691-697

*Robohm, R. A., A. F. J. Draxler, D. Wieczorek, D.Kapareiko & S. Pitchford. 2005. Effects ofenvironmental stressors on disease susceptibilityin American lobsters: a controlled laboratory study.J. Shellfish Res. 24(3): 773-779

*Smolowitz, R., A.Y. Chistoserdov, & A. Hsu. 2005. Apathological description of epizootic shell diseasein the American lobster, Homarus americanus. J.Shellfish. Res. 24(3): 749-756

Smolowitz, R., A. Hsu, E. Summers and A.Chistoserdov. 2002. Lesions associated with recentepizootic shell disease in Homarus americanus on theNortheast coast. J. Shellfish Res. 21:412.

Spees, J. L., S. A. Chang, D. L. Mykles, M. J. Snyder,and Chang, E. S. 2003. Molt cycle-dependentmolecular chaperone and polyubiquitin geneexpression in lobster. Cell Stress Chaperones 8:258-264.

Spees, J. L., S. A. Chang, M. J. Snyder, and Chang, E. S.2002. Thermal acclimation and stress in theAmerican lobster, Homarus americanus: equivalenttemperature shifts elicit unique gene expressionpatterns for molecular chaperones and ubiquitin.Cell Stress Chaperones 7:97-106.

Spees, J. L., S. A. Chang, M. J. Snyder, and Chang, E. S.2002. Osmotic induction of stress-responsive geneexpression in the American lobster, Homarusamericanus. Biol. Bull. 203:331-337.

Valente, R. & C. Cuomo. 2005 Did multiple sediment-associated stressors contribute to the 1999 lobstermass mortality event in western Long Island Sound,USA? Estuaries 28(4):529-540.

*Walker, A. N., P. Bush, T. Wilson, E. Chang, T. Miller& M. N. Horst. 2005. Metabolic effects of acuteexposure to methoprene in the lobster, Homarusamericanus. J. Shellfish Res. 24(3): 787-794

Walker, A. N., Bush, P., Puritz, J., Wilson, T., Chang,E. S., Miller, T., Holloway, K. and Horst, M. N. 2005.Bioaccumulation and metabolic effects of theendocrine disruptor methoprene in the lobster,Homarus americanus. Integr. Comp. Biol. 45:118-126.

*Wieczorek, D. & A. F. J. Draxler. 2005. A method forexposing lobsters to multiple simulated habitatbiogeochemicals and temperatures. J. Shellfish Res.24(3): 767-771

*Wilson, R. E. and R. L. Swanson. 2005. A perspectiveon bottom water temperature anomalies in LongIsland Sound during the 1999 lobster mortalityevent. J. Shellfish Res. 24(3): 825-830

*Wilson, R. E., H. Crowley, B. Brownawell & R. L.Swanson. 2005. Simulations of transient pesticideconcentrations in Long Island Sound for latesummer 1999 with a high resolution coastalcirculation model. J. Shellfish Res. 24(3): 865-875

*Zulkosky, A. M., J. P. Ruggieri, S. A. Terracciano, B. J.Brownawell & A. E. McElroy. 2005. Acute toxicity ofresmethrin, malathion, and methoprene to larvaland juvenile American lobsters (Homarus americanus)and analysis of pesticide levels in surface watersafter ScourgeTM, AnvilTM, and AltosidTM application.J. Shellfish Res. 24(3): 795-804

For copies of symposia materials or to purchase the Journal ofShellfish Research special issue, contact New York Sea Grant(Antoinette Clemetson; aoc5@cornell.edu) or Connecticut SeaGrant (Nancy Balcom; nancy.balcom@uconn.edu). The LISLobster Health / Research Initiative web address is:

www.seagrant.sunysb.edu/LILobsters22