literary theory and schools of criticism_purdue owl

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https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/owlprint/722/ 1/28

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Contributors:AllenBrizee,J.CaseTompkins,LibbyChernouski.Summary:

Thisresourcewillhelpyoubegintheprocessofunderstandingliterarytheoryandschoolsofcriticismandhowtheyareusedintheacademy.

LiteraryTheoryandSchoolsofCriticismIntroduction

Averybasicwayofthinkingaboutliterarytheoryisthattheseideasactasdifferentlensescriticsusetoviewandtalkaboutart,literature,andevenculture.Thesedifferentlensesallowcriticstoconsiderworksofartbasedoncertainassumptionswithinthatschooloftheory.Thedifferentlensesalsoallowcriticstofocusonparticularaspectsofaworktheyconsiderimportant.

Forexample,ifacriticisworkingwithcertainMarxisttheories,s/hemightfocusonhowthecharactersinastoryinteractbasedontheireconomicsituation.Ifacriticisworkingwithpostcolonialtheories,s/hemightconsiderthesamestorybutlookathowcharactersfromcolonialpowers(Britain,France,andevenAmerica)treatcharactersfrom,say,AfricaortheCaribbean.Hopefully,afterreadingthroughandworkingwiththeresourcesinthisareaoftheOWL,literarytheorywillbecomealittleeasiertounderstandanduse.

Disclaimer

Pleasenotethattheschoolsofliterarycriticismandtheirexplanationsincludedherearebynomeanstheonlywaysofdistinguishingtheseseparateareasoftheory.Indeed,manycriticsusetoolsfromtwoormoreschoolsintheirwork.Somewoulddefinedifferentlyorgreatlyexpandthe(very)generalstatementsgivenhere.Ourexplanationsaremeantonlyasstartingplacesforyourowninvestigationintoliterarytheory.Weencourageyoutousethelistofscholarsandworksprovidedforeachschooltofurtheryourunderstandingofthesetheories.

Wealsorecommendthefollowingsecondarysourcesforstudyofliterarytheory:

TheCriticalTradition:ClassicalTextsandContemporaryTrends,1998,editedbyDavidH.RichterCriticalTheoryToday:AUserFriendlyGuide,1999,byLoisTysonBeginningTheory,2002,byPeterBarry

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Althoughphilosophers,critics,educatorsandauthorshavebeenwritingaboutwritingsinceancienttimes,contemporaryschoolsofliterarytheoryhavecoheredfromthesediscussionsandnowinfluencehowscholarslookatandwriteaboutliterature.Thefollowingsectionsoverviewthesemovementsincriticaltheory.Thoughthetimelinebelowroughlyfollowsachronologicalorder,wehaveplacedsomeschoolsclosertogetherbecausetheyaresocloselyaligned.

Timeline(mostoftheseoverlap)

MoralCriticism,DramaticConstruction(~360BCpresent)Formalism,NewCriticism,NeoAristotelianCriticism(1930spresent)PsychoanalyticCriticism,JungianCriticism(1930spresent)MarxistCriticism(1930spresent)ReaderResponseCriticism(1960spresent)Structuralism/Semiotics(1920spresent)PostStructuralism/Deconstruction(1966present)NewHistoricism/CulturalStudies(1980spresent)PostColonialCriticism(1990spresent)FeministCriticism(1960spresent)Gender/QueerStudies(1970spresent)



MoralCriticismandDramaticConstruction(~360BCpresent)Plato

InBookXofhisRepublic,Platomayhavegivenusthefirstvolleyofdetailedandlengthyliterarycriticism.ThedialogbetweenSocratesandtwoofhisassociatesshowstheparticipantsofthisdiscussionconcludingthatartmustplayalimitedandverystrictroleintheperfectGreekRepublic.Richterprovidesanicesummaryofthispoint:"...poetsmaystayasservantsofthestateiftheyteachpietyandvirtue,butthepleasuresofartarecondemnedasinherentlycorruptingtocitizens..."(19).

OnereasonPlatoincludedtheseideasinhisSocraticdialogbecausehebelievedthatartwasamediocrereproductionofnature:"...whatartistsdo...isholdthemirroruptonature:Theycopytheappearancesofmen,animals,andobjectsinthephysicalworld...andtheintelligencethatwentintoitscreationneedinvolvenothingmorethanconjecture"(Richter19).Soinshort,ifartdoesnotteachmoralityandethics,thenitisdamagingtoitsaudience,andforPlatothisdamagedhisRepublic.

Giventhiscontroversialapproachtoart,it'seasytoseewhyPlato'spositionhasanimpactonliteratureandliterarycriticismeventoday(thoughscholarswhocritiqueworkbasedonwhetherornotthestoryteachesamoralarefewvirtuemayhaveanimpactonchildren'sliterature,however).

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Aristotle

InPoetics,Aristotlebreakswithhisteacher(Plato)intheconsiderationofart.Aristotleconsiderspoetry(andrhetoric),aproductivescience,whereashethoughtlogicandphysicstobetheoreticalsciences,andethicsandpoliticspracticalsciences(Richter38).BecauseAristotlesawpoetryanddramaasmeanstoanend(forexample,anaudience'senjoyment)heestablishedsomebasicguidelinesforauthorstofollowtoachievecertainobjectives.

Tohelpauthorsachievetheirobjectives,Aristotledevelopedelementsoforganizationandmethodsforwritingeffectivepoetryanddramaknownastheprinciplesofdramaticconstruction(Richter39).Aristotlebelievedthatelementslike"...language,rhythm,andharmony..."aswellas"...plot,character,thought,diction,song,andspectacle..."influencetheaudience'skatharsis(pityandfear)orsatisfactionwiththework(Richter39).Andsohereweseeoneoftheearliestattemptstoexplainwhatmakesaneffectiveorineffectiveworkofliterature.

LikePlato,Aristotle'sviewsonartheavilyinfluenceWesternthought.ThedebatebetweenPlatonistsandAristotelianscontinued"...intheNeoplatonistsofthesecondcenturyAD,theCambridgePlatonistsofthelatterseventeenthcentury,andtheidealistsoftheromanticmovement"(Richter17).Eventoday,thedebatecontinues,andthisdebateisnomoreevidentthaninsomeofthediscussionsbetweenadherentstotheschoolsofcriticismcontainedinthisresource.



Formalism(1930spresent)FormFollowsFunction:RussianFormalism,NewCriticism,NeoAristotelianism

Formalistsdisagreedaboutwhatspecificelementsmakealiterarywork"good"or"bad"butgenerally,Formalismmaintainsthataliteraryworkcontainscertainintrinsicfeatures,andthetheory"...definedandaddressedthespecificallyliteraryqualitiesinthetext"(Richter699).Therefore,it'seasytoseeFormalism'srelationtoAristotle'stheoriesofdramaticconstruction.

Formalismattemptstotreateachworkasitsowndistinctpiece,freefromitsenvironment,era,andevenauthor.Thispointofviewdevelopedinreactionto"...formsof'extrinsic'criticismthatviewedthetextaseithertheproductofsocialandhistoricalforcesoradocumentmakinganethicalstatement"(699).Formalistsassumethatthekeystounderstandingatextexistwithin"thetextitself,"(..."thebattlecryoftheNewCriticaleffort..."andthusfocusagreatdealon,youguessedit,form(Tyson118).

Forthemostpart,Formalismisnolongerusedintheacademy.However,NewCriticaltheoriesarestillusedinsecondaryandcollegelevelinstructioninliteratureandevenwriting(Tyson115).

Typicalquestions:

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Howdoestheworkuseimagerytodevelopitsownsymbols?(i.e.makingacertainroadstandfordeathbyconstantassociation)Whatisthequalityofthework'sorganicunity"...theworkingtogetherofallthepartstomakeaninseparablewhole..."(Tyson121)?Inotherwords,doeshowtheworkisputtogetherreflectwhatitis?Howarethevariouspartsoftheworkinterconnected?Howdoparadox,irony,ambiguity,andtensionworkinthetext?Howdothesepartsandtheircollectivewholecontributetoornotcontributetotheaestheticqualityofthework?Howdoestheauthorresolveapparentcontradictionswithinthework?Whatdoestheformoftheworksayaboutitscontent?Isthereacentralorfocalpassagethatcanbesaidtosumuptheentiretyofthework?Howdotherhythmsand/orrhymeschemesofapoemcontributetothemeaningoreffectofthepiece?

Hereisalistofscholarsweencourageyoutoexploretofurtheryourunderstandingofthistheory:

RussianFormalism

VictorShklovskyRomanJakobsonVictorErlichRussianFormalism:HistoryDoctrine,1955YuriTynyanov

NewCriticism

JohnCroweRansomTheNewCriticism,1938I.A.RichardsWilliamEmpsonT.S.EliotAllenTateCleanthBrooks

NeoAristotelianism(ChicagoSchoolofCriticism)

R.S.CraneCriticsandCriticism:AncientandModern,1952ElderOlsonNormanMacleanW.R.KeastWayneC.BoothTheRhetoricofFiction,1961



PsychoanalyticCriticism(1930spresent)

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SigmundFreud

PsychoanalyticcriticismbuildsonFreudiantheoriesofpsychology.Whilewedon'thavetheroomheretodiscussallofFreud'swork,ageneraloverviewisnecessarytoexplainpsychoanalyticliterarycriticism.

TheUnconscious,theDesires,andtheDefenses

Freudbeganhispsychoanalyticworkinthe1880swhileattemptingtotreatbehavioraldisordersinhisViennesepatients.Hedubbedthedisorders'hysteria'andbegantreatingthembylisteningtohispatientstalkthroughtheirproblems.Basedonthiswork,Freudassertedthatpeople'sbehaviorisaffectedbytheirunconscious:"...thenotionthathumanbeingsaremotivated,evendriven,bydesires,fears,needs,andconflictsofwhichtheyareunaware..."(Tyson1415).

Freudbelievedthatourunconsciouswasinfluencedbychildhoodevents.Freudorganizedtheseeventsintodevelopmentalstagesinvolvingrelationshipswithparentsanddrivesofdesireandpleasurewherechildrenfocus"...ondifferentpartsofthebody...startingwiththemouth...shiftingtotheoral,anal,andphallicphases..."(Richter1015).Thesestagesreflectbaselevelsofdesire,buttheyalsoinvolvefearofloss(lossofgenitals,lossofaffectionfromparents,lossoflife)andrepression:"...theexpungingfromconsciousnessoftheseunhappypsychologicalevents"(Tyson15).

Tysonremindsus,however,that"...repressiondoesn'teliminateourpainfulexperiencesandemotions...weunconsciouslybehaveinwaysthatwillallowusto'playout'...ourconflictedfeelingsaboutthepainfulexperiencesandemotionswerepress"(15).Tokeepallofthisconflictburiedinourunconscious,Freudarguedthatwedevelopdefenses:selectiveperception,selectivememory,denial,displacement,projection,regression,fearofintimacy,andfearofdeath,amongothers.

Id,Ego,andSuperego

Freudmaintainedthatourdesiresandourunconsciousconflictsgiverisetothreeareasofthemindthatwrestlefordominanceaswegrowfrominfancy,tochildhood,toadulthood:

id"...thelocationofthedrives"orlibidoego"...oneofthemajordefensesagainstthepowerofthedrives..."andhomeofthedefenseslistedabovesuperegotheareaoftheunconsciousthathousesJudgment(ofselfandothers)and"...whichbeginstoformduringchildhoodasaresultoftheOedipuscomplex"(Richter10151016)

OedipusComplex

FreudbelievedthattheOedipuscomplexwas"...oneofthemostpowerfullydeterminativeelementsinthegrowthofthechild"(Richter1016).Essentially,theOedipuscomplexinvolveschildren'sneedfortheirparentsandtheconflictthatarisesaschildrenmatureandrealizetheyarenottheabsolutefocusoftheirmother'sattention:"theOedipuscomplexbeginsinalatephaseofinfantilesexuality,betweenthechild'sthirdandsixthyear,andittakesadifferentforminmalesthanitdoesinfemales"(Richter1016).

Freudarguedthatbothboysandgirlswishtopossesstheirmothers,butastheygrowolder"...theybegintosensethattheirclaimtoexclusiveattentionisthwartedbythe

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mother'sattentiontothefather..."(1016).Children,Freudmaintained,connectthisconflictofattentiontotheintimaterelationsbetweenmotherandfather,relationsfromwhichthechildrenareexcluded.Freudbelievedthat"theresultisamurderousrageagainstthefather...andadesiretopossessthemother"(1016).

Freudpointedout,however,that"...theOedipuscomplexdiffersinboysandgirls...thefunctioningoftherelatedcastrationcomplex"(1016).Inshort,Freudthoughtthat"...duringtheOedipalrivalry[betweenboysandtheirfathers],boysfantasizedthatpunishmentfortheirragewilltaketheformof..."castration(1016).Whenboyseffectivelyworkthroughthisanxiety,Freudargued,"...theboylearnstoidentifywiththefatherinthehopeofsomedaypossessingawomanlikehismother.Ingirls,thecastrationcomplexdoesnottaketheformofanxiety...theresultisafrustratedrageinwhichthegirlshiftshersexualdesirefromthemothertothefather"(1016).

Freudbelievedthateventually,thegirl'sspurnedadvancedtowardthefathergivewaytoadesiretopossessamanlikeherfatherlaterinlife.Freudbelievedthattheimpactoftheunconscious,id,ego,superego,thedefenses,andtheOedipuscomplexeswasinescapableandthattheseelementsofthemindinfluenceallourbehavior(andevenourdreams)asadultsofcoursethisbehaviorinvolveswhatwewrite.

FreudandLiterature

Sowhatdoesallofthispsychologicalbusinesshavetodowithliteratureandthestudyofliterature?Putsimply,somecriticsbelievethatwecan"...readpsychoanalytically...toseewhichconceptsareoperatinginthetextinsuchawayastoenrichourunderstandingoftheworkand,ifweplantowriteapaperaboutit,toyieldameaningful,coherentpsychoanalyticinterpretation"(Tyson29).Tysonprovidessomeinsightfulandapplicablequestionstohelpguideourunderstandingofpsychoanalyticcriticism.

Typicalquestions:

Howdotheoperationsofrepressionstructureorinformthework?Arethereanyoedipaldynamicsoranyotherfamilydynamicsareworkhere?Howcancharacters'behavior,narrativeevents,and/orimagesbeexplainedintermsofpsychoanalyticconceptsofanykind(forexample...fearorfascinationwithdeath,sexualitywhichincludesloveandromanceaswellassexualbehaviorasaprimaryindicatorofpsychologicalidentityortheoperationsofegoidsuperego)?Whatdoestheworksuggestaboutthepsychologicalbeingofitsauthor?Whatmightagiveninterpretationofaliteraryworksuggestaboutthepsychologicalmotivesofthereader?Arethereprominentwordsinthepiecethatcouldhavedifferentorhiddenmeanings?Couldtherebeasubconsciousreasonfortheauthorusingthese"problemwords"?


HaroldBloomATheoryofPoetry,1973PoetryandRepression:RevisionismfromBlaketoStevens,1976PeterBrooksJacqueLacanTheEgoinFreud'sTheoryandintheTechniqueofPsychoanalysis,1988"TheAgencyoftheLetterintheUnconsciousorReasonSinceFreud"(fromcrits:ASelection,1957)

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JaneGallopReadingLacan,1985JuliaKristevaRevolutioninPoeticLanguage,1984MarshallAlcornChangingtheSubjectinEnglishClass:DiscourseandtheConstructionsofDesire,2002

CarlJung

JungiancriticismattemptstoexploretheconnectionbetweenliteratureandwhatCarlJung(astudentofFreud)calledthecollectiveunconsciousofthehumanrace:"...racialmemory,throughwhichthespiritofthewholehumanspeciesmanifestsitself"(Richter504).Jungiancriticism,closelyrelatedtoFreudiantheorybecauseofitsconnectiontopsychoanalysis,assumesthatallstoriesandsymbolsarebasedonmythicmodelsfrommankindspast.

Basedonthesecommonalities,Jungdevelopedarchetypalmyths,theSyzygy:"...aquaternioncomposingawhole,theunifiedselfofwhichpeopleareinsearch"(Richter505).ThesearchetypesaretheShadow,theAnima,theAnimus,andtheSpirit:"...beneath...[theShadow]istheAnima,thefemininesideofthemaleSelf,andtheAnimus,thecorrespondingmasculinesideofthefemaleSelf"(Richter505).

Inliteraryanalysis,aJungiancriticwouldlookforarchetypes(alsoseethediscussionofNorthropFryeintheStructuralismsection)increativeworks:"Jungiancriticismisgenerallyinvolvedwithasearchfortheembodimentofthesesymbolswithinparticularworksofart."(Richter505).Whendealingwiththissortofcriticism,itisoftenusefultokeepahandbookofmythologyandadictionaryofsymbolsonhand.

Typicalquestions:

Whatconnectionscanwemakebetweenelementsofthetextandthearchetypes?(Mask,Shadow,Anima,Animus)Howdothecharactersinthetextmirrorthearchetypalfigures?(GreatMotherornurturingMother,Whore,destroyingCrone,Lover,DestroyingAngel)Howdoesthetextmirrorthearchetypalnarrativepatterns?(Quest,NightSeaJourney)Howsymbolicistheimageryinthework?Howdoestheprotagonistreflecttheheroofmyth?Doestheheroembarkonajourneyineitheraphysicalorspiritualsense?Isthereajourneytoanunderworldorlandofthedead?Whattrialsorordealsdoestheprotagonistface?Whatistherewardforovercomingthem?


MaudBodkinArchetypalPatternsinPoetry,1934CarlJungTheArchetypesandtheCollectiveUnconscious.Vol.9,Part1ofCollectedWorks.2nded.Trans.R.F.C.Hull,1968BettinaKnappMusic,ArchetypeandtheWriter:AJungianView,1988RicahrdSuggJungianLiteraryCriticism,1993


Thisresourcewillhelpyoubegintheprocessofunderstandingliterarytheoryand

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schoolsofcriticismandhowtheyareusedintheacademy.

MarxistCriticism(1930spresent)WhomDoesitBenefit?

BasedonthetheoriesofKarlMarx(andsoinfluencedbyphilosopherGeorgWilhelmFriedrichHegel),thisschoolconcernsitselfwithclassdifferences,economicandotherwise,aswellastheimplicationsandcomplicationsofthecapitalistsystem:"Marxismattemptstorevealthewaysinwhichoursocioeconomicsystemistheultimatesourceofourexperience"(Tyson277).

TheoristsworkingintheMarxisttradition,therefore,areinterestedinansweringtheoverarchingquestion,whomdoesit[thework,theeffort,thepolicy,theroad,etc.]benefit?Theelite?Themiddleclass?AndMarxistscriticsarealsointerestedinhowthelowerorworkingclassesareoppressedineverydaylifeandinliterature.

TheMaterialDialectic

TheMarxistschoolfollowsaprocessofthinkingcalledthematerialdialectic.Thisbeliefsystemmaintainsthat"...whatdriveshistoricalchangearethematerialrealitiesoftheeconomicbaseofsociety,ratherthantheideologicalsuperstructureofpolitics,law,philosophy,religion,andartthatisbuiltuponthateconomicbase"(Richter1088).

Marxassertsthat"...stablesocietiesdevelopsitesofresistance:contradictionsbuildintothesocialsystemthatultimatelyleadtosocialrevolutionandthedevelopmentofanewsocietyupontheold"(1088).Thiscycleofcontradiction,tension,andrevolutionmustcontinue:therewillalwaysbeconflictbetweentheupper,middle,andlower(working)classesandthisconflictwillbereflectedinliteratureandotherformsofexpressionart,music,movies,etc.

TheRevolution

Thecontinuingconflictbetweentheclasseswillleadtoupheavalandrevolutionbyoppressedpeoplesandformthegroundworkforaneworderofsocietyandeconomicswherecapitalismisabolished.AccordingtoMarx,therevolutionwillbeledbytheworkingclass(othersthinkpeasantswillleadtheuprising)undertheguidanceofintellectuals.Oncetheeliteandmiddleclassareoverthrown,theintellectualswillcomposeanequalsocietywhereeveryoneownseverything(socialismnottobeconfusedwithSovietorMaoistCommunism).

Thoughastaggeringnumberofdifferentnuancesexistwithinthisschoolofliterarytheory,Marxistcriticsgenerallyworkinareascoveredbythefollowingquestions.

Typicalquestions:

Whomdoesitbenefitiftheworkoreffortisaccepted/successful/believed,etc.?Whatisthesocialclassoftheauthor?Whichclassdoestheworkclaimtorepresent?Whatvaluesdoesitreinforce?Whatvaluesdoesitsubvert?

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Whatconflictcanbeseenbetweenthevaluestheworkchampionsandthoseitportrays?Whatsocialclassesdothecharactersrepresent?Howdocharactersfromdifferentclassesinteractorconflict?


KarlMarx(withFriedrichEngels)TheCommunistManifesto,1848DasKapital,1867"ConsciousnessDerivedfromMaterialConditions"fromTheGermanIdeology,1932"OnGreekArtinItsTime"fromAContributiontotheCritiqueofPoliticalEconomy,1859LeonTrotsky"LiteratureandRevolution,"1923GeorgLukcs"TheIdeologyofModernism,"1956WalterBenjamin"TheWorkofArtintheAgeofMechanicalReproduction,"1936TheodorW.AdornoLouisAlthusserReadingCapital,1965TerryEagletonMarxismandLiteraryCriticism,CriticismandIdeology,1976FredericJamesonMarxismandForm,ThePoliticalUnconscious,1971JrgenHabermasThePhilosophicalDiscourseofModernity,1990



ReaderResponseCriticism(1960spresent)WhatDoYouThink?

Atitsmostbasiclevel,readerresponsecriticismconsidersreaders'reactionstoliteratureasvitaltointerpretingthemeaningofthetext.However,readerresponsecriticismcantakeanumberofdifferentapproaches.Acriticdeployingreaderresponsetheorycanuseapsychoanalyticlens,afeministslens,orevenastructuralistlens.Whatthesedifferentlenseshaveincommonwhenusingareaderresponseapproachistheymaintain"...thatwhatatextiscannotbeseparatedfromwhatitdoes"(Tyson154).

Tysonexplainsthat"...readerresponsetheoristssharetwobeliefs:1)thattheroleofthereadercannotbeomittedfromourunderstandingofliteratureand2)thatreadersdonotpassivelyconsumethemeaningpresentedtothembyanobjectiveliterarytextrathertheyactivelymakethemeaningtheyfindinliterature"(154).Inthisway,readerresponsetheorysharescommongroundwithsomeofthedeconstructionistsdiscussedinthePoststructuralareawhentheytalkabout"thedeathoftheauthor,"orherdisplacementasthe(author)itarianfigureinthetext.

Typicalquestions:

Howdoestheinteractionoftextandreadercreatemeaning?

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Whatdoesaphrasebyphraseanalysisofashortliterarytext,orakeyportionofalongertext,tellusaboutthereadingexperienceprestructuredby(builtinto)thattext?Dothesounds/shapesofthewordsastheyappearonthepageorhowtheyarespokenbythereaderenhanceorchangethemeaningoftheword/work?Howmightweinterpretaliterarytexttoshowthatthereader'sresponseis,orisanalogousto,thetopicofthestory?Whatdoesthebodyofcriticismpublishedaboutaliterarytextsuggestaboutthecriticswhointerpretedthattextand/oraboutthereadingexperienceproducedbythattext?(Tyson191)


PeterRabinowitzBeforeReading,1987StanleyFishIsThereaTextinThisClass?TheAuthorityofInterpretiveCommunities,1980ElizabethFreundTheReturnoftheReader:ReaderResponseCriticism,1987DavidBleichNormanHollandTheDynamicsofLiteraryResponse,1968LouiseRosenblattWolfgangIserTheImpliedReader:PatternsofCommunicationinProseFictionfromBunyantoBeckett,1974HansRoberJauss



StructuralismandSemiotics(1920spresent)Note:Structuralism,semiotics,andpoststructuralismaresomeofthemostcomplexliterarytheoriestounderstand.Pleasebepatient.

LinguisticRoots

Thestructuralistschoolemergesfromtheoriesoflanguageandlinguistics,anditlooksforunderlyingelementsincultureandliteraturethatcanbeconnectedsothatcriticscandevelopgeneralconclusionsabouttheindividualworksandthesystemsfromwhichtheyemerge.Infact,structuralismmaintainsthat"...practicallyeverythingwedothatisspecificallyhumanisexpressedinlanguage"(Richter809).Structuralistsbelievethattheselanguagesymbolsextendfarbeyondwrittenororalcommunication.

Forexample,codesthatrepresentallsortsofthingspermeateeverythingwedo:"theperformanceofmusicrequirescomplexnotation...oureconomicliferestsupontheexchangeoflaborandgoodsforsymbols,suchascash,checks,stock,andcertificates...sociallifedependsonthemeaningfulgesturesandsignalsof'bodylanguage'andrevolvesaroundtheexchangeofsmall,symbolicfavors:drinks,parties,dinners"(Richter809).

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PatternsandExperience

Structuralistsassertthat,sincelanguageexistsinpatterns,certainunderlyingelementsarecommontoallhumanexperiences.Structuralistsbelievewecanobservetheseexperiencesthroughpatterns:"...ifyouexaminethephysicalstructuresofallbuildingsbuiltinurbanAmericain1850todiscovertheunderlyingprinciplesthatgoverntheircomposition,forexample,principlesofmechanicalconstructionorofartisticform..."youareusingastructuralistlens(Tyson197).

Moreover,"youarealsoengagedinstructuralistactivityifyouexaminethestructureofasinglebuildingtodiscoverhowitscompositiondemonstratesunderlyingprinciplesofastructuralsystem.Inthefirstexample...you'regeneratingastructuralsystemofclassificationinthesecond,you'redemonstratingthatanindividualitembelongstoaparticularstructuralclass"(Tyson197).

StructuralisminLiteraryTheory

Structuralismisusedinliterarytheory,forexample,"...ifyouexaminethestructureofalargenumberofshortstoriestodiscovertheunderlyingprinciplesthatgoverntheircomposition...principlesofnarrativeprogression...orofcharacterization...youarealsoengagedinstructuralistactivityifyoudescribethestructureofasingleliteraryworktodiscoverhowitscompositiondemonstratestheunderlyingprinciplesofagivenstructuralsystem"(Tyson197198).

NorthropFrye,however,takesadifferentapproachtostructuralismbyexploringwaysinwhichgenresofWesternliteraturefallintohisfourmythoi(alsoseeJungiancriticismintheFreudianLiteraryCriticismresource):

1. theoryofmodes,orhistoricalcriticism(tragic,comic,andthematic)2. theoryofsymbols,orethicalcriticism(literal/descriptive,formal,mythical,and

anagogic)3. theoryofmyths,orarchetypalcriticism(comedy,romance,tragedy,

irony/satire)4. theoryofgenres,orrhetoricalcriticism(epos,prose,drama,lyric)(Tyson240).

PeirceandSaussure

Twoimportanttheoristsformtheframework(hah)ofstructuralism:CharlesSandersPeirceandFerdinanddeSaussure.Peircegavestructuralismthreeimportantideasforanalyzingthesignsystemsthatpermeateanddefineourexperiences:

1. "iconicsigns,inwhichthesignifierresemblesthethingsignified(suchasthestickfiguresonwashroomdoorsthatsignify'Men'or'Women'

2. indexes,inwhichthesignifierisareliableindicatorofthepresenceofthesignified(likefireandsmoke)

3. truesymbols,inwhichthesignifier'srelationtothethingsignifiediscompletelyarbitraryandconventional[justasthesound/kat/orthewrittenwordcatareconventionalsignsforthefamiliarfeline]"(Richter810).

TheseelementsbecomeveryimportantwhenwemoveintodeconstructioninthePostmodernismresource.Peircealsoinfluencedthesemioticschoolofstructuralisttheorythatusessignsystems.

SignSystems

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Thedisciplineofsemioticsplaysanimportantroleinstructuralistliterarytheoryandculturalstudies.Semioticians"...appl[y]structuralistinsightstothestudyof...signsystems...anonlinguisticobjectorbehavior...thatcanbeanalyzedasifitwerealanguage"(Tyson205).Specifically,"...semioticsexaminesthewaysnonlinguisticobjectsandbehaviors'tell'ussomething.

Forexample,thepictureoftherecliningblondbeautyintheskintight,blackvelvetdressonthebillboard...'tells'usthatthosewhodrinkthiswhiskey(presumablymale)willbeattractiveto...beautifulwomenliketheonedisplayedhere"(Tyson205).Lastly,Richterstates,"semioticstakesofffromPeirceforwhomlanguageisoneofnumeroussignsystemsandstructuralismtakesofffromSaussure,forwhomlanguagewasthesignsystemparexcellence"(810).

Typicalquestions:

Usingaspecificstructuralistframework(likeFrye'smythoi)...howshouldthetextbeclassifiedintermsofitsgenre?Inotherwords,whatpatternsexistwithinthetextthatmakeitapartofotherworkslikeit?Usingaspecificstructuralistframework...analyzethetext'snarrativeoperations...canyouspeculateabouttherelationshipbetweenthe...[text]...andtheculturefromwhichthetextemerged?Inotherwords,whatpatternsexistwithinthetextthatmakeitaproductofalargerculture?Whatpatternsexistwithinthetextthatconnectittothelarger"human"experience?Inotherwords,canweconnectpatternsandelementswithinthetexttoothertextsfromotherculturestomapsimilaritiesthattellusmoreaboutthecommonhumanexperience?Thisisaliberalhumanistmovethatassumesthatsinceweareallhuman,weallsharebasichumancommonalitiesWhatrulesorcodesofinterpretationmustbeinternalizedinorderto'makesense'ofthetext?Whatarethesemioticsofagivencategoryofculturalphenomena,or'text,'suchashighschoolfootballgames,televisionand/ormagazineadsforaparticularbrandofperfume...orevenmediacoverageofanhistoricalevent?(Tyson225)


CharlesSandersPeirceFerdinanddeSaussureCourseinGeneralLinguistics,1923ClaudeLviStraussTheElementaryStructureofKinship,1949"TheStructuralStudyofMyth,"1955NorthropFryeAnatomyofCriticism:FourEssays,1957NoamChomskySyntacticStructures,1957AspectsoftheTheoryofSyntax,1965RolandBarthesCriticalEssays,1964Mythologies,1957S/Z,1970Image,Music,Text,1977UmbertoEcoTheRoleoftheReader,1979



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PostStructuralism,Deconstruction,Postmodernism(1966present)Note:Structuralism,semiotics,andpoststructuralismaresomeofthemostcomplexliterarytheoriestounderstand.Pleasebepatient.

TheCenterCannotHold

Thisapproachconcernsitselfwiththewaysandplaceswheresystems,frameworks,definitions,andcertaintiesbreakdown.Poststructuralismmaintainsthatframeworksandsystems,forexamplethestructuralistsystemsexplainedintheStructuralistarea,aremerelyfictitiousconstructsandthattheycannotbetrustedtodevelopmeaningortogiveorder.Infact,theveryactofseekingorderorasingularTruth(withacapitalT)isabsurdbecausethereexistsnounifiedtruth.

Poststructuralismholdsthattherearemanytruths,thatframeworksmustbleed,andthatstructuresmustbecomeunstableordecentered.Moreover,poststructuralismisalsoconcernedwiththepowerstructuresorhegemoniesandpowerandhowtheseelementscontributetoand/ormaintainstructurestoenforcehierarchy.Therefore,poststructuraltheorycarriesimplicationsfarbeyondliterarycriticism.

WhatDoesYourMeaningMean?

Byquestioningtheprocessofdevelopingmeaning,poststructuraltheorystrikesattheveryheartofphilosophyandrealityandthrowsknowledgemakingintowhatJacquesDerridacalled"freeplay":"Theconceptofcenteredstructure...iscontradictorilycoherent...theconceptofcenteredstructureisinfacttheconceptofafreeplaywhichisconstituteduponafundamentalimmobilityandareassuringcertitude,whichisitselfbeyondthereachofthefreeplay"(qtd.inRichter,878879).

Derridafirstpositedtheseideasin1966atJohnsHopkinsUniversity,whenhedeliveredStructure,Sign,andPlayintheDiscourseoftheHumanSciences:"Perhapssomethinghasoccurredinthehistoryoftheconceptofstructurethatcouldbecalledan'event,'ifthisloadedworddidnotentailameaningwhichitispreciselythefunctionofstructuralorstructuralistthoughttoreduceortosuspect.Butletmeusethetermeventanyway,employingitwithcautionandasifinquotationmarks.Inthissense,thiseventwillhavetheexteriorformofaruptureandaredoubling(qtd.inRichter,878).Inhispresentation,Derridachallengedstructuralism'smostbasicideas.

CanLanguageDoThat?

PoststructuraltheorycanbetiedtoamoveagainstModernist/Enlightenmentideas(philosophers:ImmanuelKant,RneDescartes,JohnLocke,etc.)andWesternreligiousbeliefs(neoPlatonism,Catholicism,etc.).AnearlypioneerofthisresistancewasphilosopherFriedrichNietzsche.Inhisessay,OnTruthandLiesinanExtramoralSense(1873),Nietzscherejectseventheverybasisofourknowledgemaking,language,asareliablesystemofcommunication:Thevariouslanguages,juxtaposed,showthatwordsareneverconcernedwithtruth,neverwithadequateexpression...(248).

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Belowisanexample,adaptedfromtheTysontext,ofsomelanguagefreeplayandasimpleformofdeconstruction:

Time(noun)flies(verb)likeanarrow(adverbclause)=Timepassesquickly.

Time(verb)flies(object)likeanarrow(adverbclause)=Getoutyourstopwatchandtimethespeedoffliesasyouwouldtimeanarrow'sflight.

Timeflies(noun)like(verb)anarrow(object)=Timefliesarefondofarrows(oratleastofoneparticulararrow).

So,poststructuralistsassertthatifwecannottrustlanguagesystemstoconveytruth,theverybasesoftruthareunreliableandtheuniverseoratleasttheuniversewehaveconstructedbecomesunraveledordecentered.Nietzscheuseslanguageslipasabasetomoveintotheslipandshiftoftruthasawhole:Whatistruth?truthsareanillusionaboutwhichithasbeenforgottenthattheyareillusions...(OnTruthandLies250).

ThisreturnsustothediscussionintheStructuralistarearegardingsigns,signifiers,andsignified.Essentially,poststructuralismholdsthatwecannottrustthesign=signifier+signifiedformula,thatthereisabreakdownofcertaintybetweensign/signifier,whichleaveslanguagesystemshopelesslyinadequateforrelayingmeaningsothatweare(returningtoDerrida)ineternalfreeplayorinstability.

What'sLeft?

Importanttonote,however,isthatdeconstructionisnotjustabouttearingdownthisisacommonmisconception.Derrida,in"SignatureEventContext,"addressedthislimitedviewofpoststructuraltheory:"Deconstructioncannotlimitorproceedimmediatelytoaneutralization:itmustpracticeanoverturningoftheclassicaloppositionandageneraldisplacementofthesystem.Itisonlyonthisconditionthatdeconstructionwillprovideitselfthemeanswithwhichtointerveneinthefieldofoppositionsthatitcriticizes,whichisalsoafieldofnondiscursiveforces"(328).

Derridaremindsusthatthroughdeconstructionwecanidentifytheinbetweensandthemarginalizedtobegininterstitialknowledgebuilding.

ModernismvsPostmodernism

Withtheresistancetotraditionalformsofknowledgemaking(science,religion,language),inquiry,communication,andbuildingmeaningtakeondifferentformstothepoststructuralist.WecanlookatthisdifferenceasasplitbetweenModernismandPostmodernism.Thetablebelow,excerptedfromtheoristIhabHassan'sTheDismembermentofOrpheus(1998),offersusawaytomakesenseofsomedifferencesbetweenmodernism,dominatedbyEnlightenmentideas,andpostmodernism,aspaceoffreeplayanddiscourse.

Keepinmindthateventheauthor,Hassan,"...isquicktopointouthowthedichotomiesarethemselvesinsecure,equivocal"(Harvey42).Thoughpoststructuralismisuncomfortablewithbinaries,Hassanprovidesuswithsomeinterestingcontraststoconsider:

ModernismvsPostmodernism

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Modernism Postmodernismromanticism/symbolism paraphysics/Dadaismform(conjunctive,closed) antiform(disjunctive,open)purpose playdesign chancehierarchy anarchymastery/logos exhaustion/silenceartobject/finishedwork/logos process/performance/antithesiscentering absencegenre/boundary text/intertextsemantics rhetoricmetaphor metonymyroot/depth rhizome/surfacesignified signifiernarrative/grandehistoire antinarrative/petitehistoiregenital/phallic polymorphous/androgynousparanoia schizophreniaorigin/cause differencedifference/traceGodtheFather TheHolyGhostdeterminacy interdeterminacytranscendence immanence

PostStructuralismandLiterature

Ifwearequestioning/resistingthemethodsweusetobuildknowledge(science,religion,language),thentraditionalliterarynotionsarealsothrownintofreeplay.Theseincludethenarrativeandtheauthor:

Narrative

Thenarrativeisafictionthatlocksreadersintointerpretingtextinasingle,chronologicalmannerthatdoesnotreflectourexperiences.Postmoderntextsmaynotadheretotraditionalnotionsofnarrative.Forexample,inhisseminalwork,NakedLunch,WilliamS.BurroughsexplodesthetraditionalnarrativestructureandcritiquesalmosteverythingModern:moderngovernment,modernmedicine,modernlawenforcement.OtherexamplesofauthorsplayingwithnarrativeincludeJohnFowlesinthefinalsectionsofTheFrenchLieutenant'sWoman,Fowlesstepsoutsidehisnarrativetospeakwiththereaderdirectly.

Moreover,grandnarrativesareresisted.Forexample,thebeliefthatthroughsciencethehumanracewillimproveisquestioned.Inaddition,metaphysicsisquestioned.Instead,postmodernknowledgebuildingislocal,situated,slippery,andselfcritical(i.e.itquestionsitselfanditsrole).Becausepoststructuralworkisselfcritical,poststructuralcriticsevenlookforwaystextscontradictthemselves(seetypicalquestionsbelow).

Author

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Theauthorisdisplacedasabsoluteauthor(ity),andthereaderplaysaroleininterpretingthetextanddevelopingmeaning(asbestaspossible)fromthetext.InTheDeathoftheAuthor,RolandBarthesarguesthattheideaofsingularauthorshipisarecentphenomenon.BarthesexplainsthatthedeathoftheauthorshattersModernistnotionsofauthorityandknowledgebuilding(145).

Lastly,hestatesthatoncetheauthorisdeadandtheModernistideaofsingularnarrative(andthusauthority)isoverturned,textsbecomeplural,andtheinterpretationoftextsbecomesacollaborativeprocessbetweenauthorandaudience:...atextismadeofmultiplewritings,drawnfrommanyculturesandenteringintomutualrelationsofdialogue...butthereisoneplacewherethismultiplicityisfocusedandthatplaceisthereader(148).Barthesendshisessaybyempoweringthereader:Classicalcriticismhasneverpaidanyattentiontothereader...thewriteristheonlypersoninliteratureitisnecessarytooverthrowthemyth:thebirthofthereadermustbeatthecostofthedeathoftheAuthor(148).

Typicalquestions:

Howislanguagethrownintofreeplayorquestionedinthework?Forexample,notehowAnthonyBurgessplayswithlanguage(RussianvsEnglish)inAClockworkOrange,orhowBurroughsplayswithnamesandlanguageinNakedLunch.Howdoestheworkundermineorcontradictgenerallyacceptedtruths?Howdoestheauthor(oracharacter)omit,change,orreconstructmemoryandidentity?Howdoesaworkfulfillormoveoutsidetheestablishedconventionsofitsgenre?Howdoestheworkdealwiththeseparation(orlackthereof)betweenwriter,work,andreader?Whatideologydoesthetextseemtopromote?Whatisleftoutofthetextthatifincludedmightunderminethegoalofthework?Ifwechangedthepointofviewofthetextsayfromonecharactertoanother,ormultiplecharactershowwouldthestorychange?Whosestoryisnottoldinthetext?Whoisleftoutandwhymighttheauthorhaveomittedthischaracter'stale?


Theorists

ImmanuelKant"AnAnswertotheQuestion:WhatisEnlightenment?",1784(asabaselinetounderstandwhatNietzschewasresisting)FriedrichNietzscheOnTruthandLiesinanExtramoralSense,"1873TheGayScience,1882ThusSpokeZarathustra,ABookforAllandNone,1885JacquesDerrida"StructureSignandPlayintheDiscourseofHumanSciences,"1966OfGrammatology,1967"SignatureEvenContext,"1972RolandBarthes"TheDeathoftheAuthor,"1967DeleuzeandGuattari"Rhizome,"1976JeanFranoisLyotardThePostmodernCondition,1979MicheleFoucaultTheFoucaultReader,1984StephenToulminCosmopolis,1990MartinHeideggerBasicWritings,1993PaulCilliersComplexityandPostmodernity,1998

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IhabHassanTheDismembermentofOrpheus,1998FromPostmodernismtoPostmodernity:TheLocal/GlobalContext,2001

PostmodernLiterature

WilliamS.BurroughsNakedLunch,1959AngelaCarterBurningYourBoats,storiesfrom19621993(firstpublishedasacollectionin1995)KathyAckerBloodandGutsinHighSchool,1978PaulAusterCityofGlass(volumeoneoftheNewYorkCityTrilogy),1985(asagraphicnovelpublishedbyNeonLit,adivisionofAvonBooks,1994)LynneTillmanHauntedHouses,1987DavidWojnarowiczTheWaterfrontJournals,1996



NewHistoricism,CulturalStudies(1980spresent)It'sAllRelative...

Thisschool,influencedbystructuralistandpoststructuralisttheories,seekstoreconnectaworkwiththetimeperiodinwhichitwasproducedandidentifyitwiththeculturalandpoliticalmovementsofthetime(MichelFoucault'sconceptofpistme).NewHistoricismassumesthateveryworkisaproductofthehistoricmomentthatcreatedit.Specifically,NewHistoricismis"...apracticethathasdevelopedoutofcontemporarytheory,particularlythestructuralistrealizationthatallhumansystemsaresymbolicandsubjecttotherulesoflanguage,andthedeconstructiverealizationthatthereisnowayofpositioningoneselfasanobserveroutsidetheclosedcircleoftextuality"(Richter1205).

AhelpfulwayofconsideringNewHistoricaltheory,Tysonexplains,istothinkabouttheretellingofhistoryitself:"...questionsaskedbytraditionalhistoriansandbynewhistoricistsarequitedifferent...traditionalhistoriansask,'Whathappened?'and'Whatdoestheeventtellusabouthistory?'Incontrast,newhistoricistsask,'Howhastheeventbeeninterpreted?'and'Whatdotheinterpretationstellusabouttheinterpreters?'"(278).SoNewHistoricismresiststhenotionthat"...historyisaseriesofeventsthathavealinear,causalrelationship:eventAcausedeventBeventBcausedeventCandsoon"(Tyson278).

Newhistoricistsdonotbelievethatwecanlookathistoryobjectively,butratherthatweinterpreteventsasproductsofourtimeandcultureandthat"...wedon'thaveclearaccesstoanybutthemostbasicfactsofhistory...ourunderstandingofwhatsuchfactsmean...is...strictlyamatterofinterpretation,notfact"(279).Moreover,NewHistoricismholdsthatwearehopelesslysubjectiveinterpretersofwhatweobserve.

Typicalquestions:

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Whatlanguage/characters/eventspresentintheworkreflectthecurrenteventsoftheauthorsday?Aretherewordsinthetextthathavechangedtheirmeaningfromthetimeofthewriting?Howaresucheventsinterpretedandpresented?Howareevents'interpretationandpresentationaproductofthecultureoftheauthor?Doesthework'spresentationsupportorcondemntheevent?Canitbeseentodoboth?Howdoesthisportrayalcriticizetheleadingpoliticalfiguresormovementsoftheday?Howdoestheliterarytextfunctionaspartofacontinuumwithotherhistorical/culturaltextsfromthesameperiod...?Howcanweusealiteraryworkto"map"theinterplayofbothtraditionalandsubversivediscoursescirculatinginthecultureinwhichthatworkemergedand/ortheculturesinwhichtheworkhasbeeninterpreted?Howdoestheworkconsidertraditionallymarginalizedpopulations?


MichelFoucaultTheOrderofThings:AnArcheologyoftheHumanSciences,1970Language,Countermemory,Practice,1977CliffordGeertzTheInterpretationofCultures,1973"DeepPlay:NotesontheBalineseCockfight,"1992HaydenWhiteMetahistory,1974"ThePoliticsofHistoricalInterpretation:DisciplineandDeSublimation,"1982StephenGreenblattRenaissanceSelfFashioning:FromMoretoShakespeare,1980PierreBourdieuOutlineofaTheoryofPractice,1977HomoAcademicus,1984TheFieldofCulturalProduction,1993



PostColonialCriticism(1990spresent)HistoryisWrittenbytheVictors

Postcolonialcriticismissimilartoculturalstudies,butitassumesauniqueperspectiveonliteratureandpoliticsthatwarrantsaseparatediscussion.Specifically,postcolonialcriticsareconcernedwithliteratureproducedbycolonialpowersandworksproducedbythosewhowere/arecolonized.Postcolonialtheorylooksatissuesofpower,economics,politics,religion,andcultureandhowtheseelementsworkinrelationtocolonialhegemony(westerncolonizerscontrollingthecolonized).

Therefore,apostcolonialcriticmightbeinterestedinworkssuchasDanielDefoe'sRobinsonCrusoewherecolonial"...ideology[is]manifestinCrusoe'scolonialistattitudetowardthelanduponwhichhe'sshipwreckedandtowardtheblackmanhe'colonizes'andnamesFriday"(Tyson377).Inaddition,postcolonialtheorymight

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pointoutthat"...despiteHeartofDarkness's(JosephConrad)obviousanticolonistagenda,thenovelpointstothecolonizedpopulationasthestandardofsavagerytowhichEuropeansarecontrasted"(Tyson375).PostcolonialcriticismalsotakestheformofliteraturecomposedbyauthorsthatcritiqueEurocentrichegemony.

AUniquePerspectiveonEmpire

SeminalpostcolonialwriterssuchasNigerianauthorChinuaAchebeandKenyanauthorNgugiwaThiong'ohavewrittenanumberofstoriesrecountingthesufferingofcolonizedpeople.Forexample,inThingsFallApart,AchebedetailsthestrifeanddevastationthatoccurredwhenBritishcolonistsbeganmovinginlandfromtheNigeriancoast.

RatherthanglorifyingtheexploratorynatureofEuropeancolonistsastheyexpandedtheirsphereofinfluence,AchebenarratesthedestructiveeventsthatledtothedeathandenslavementofthousandsofNigerianswhentheBritishimposedtheirImperialgovernment.Inturn,Achebepointsoutthenegativeeffects(andshiftingideasofidentityandculture)causedbytheimpositionofwesternreligionandeconomicsonNigeriansduringcolonialrule.

Power,Hegemony,andLiterature

Postcolonialcriticismalsoquestionstheroleofthewesternliterarycanonandwesternhistoryasdominantformsofknowledgemaking.Theterms"firstworld,""secondworld,""thirdworld"and"fourthworld"nationsarecritiquedbypostcolonialcriticsbecausetheyreinforcethedominantpositionsofwesternculturespopulatingfirstworldstatus.Thiscritiqueincludestheliterarycanonandhistorieswrittenfromtheperspectiveoffirstworldcultures.So,forexample,apostcolonialcriticmightquestiontheworksincludedin"thecanon"becausethecanondoesnotcontainworksbyauthorsoutsidewesternculture.

Moreover,theauthorsincludedinthecanonoftenreinforcecolonialhegemonicideology,suchasJosephConrad'sHeartofDarkness.WesterncriticsmightconsiderHeartofDarknessaneffectivecritiqueofcolonialbehavior.Butpostcolonialtheoristsandauthorsmightdisagreewiththisperspective:"...asChinuaAchebeobserves,thenovel'scondemnationofEuropeanisbasedonadefinitionofAfricansassavages:beneaththeirveneerofcivilization,theEuropeansare,thenoveltellsus,asbarbaricastheAfricans.Andindeed,Achebenotes,thenovelportraysAfricansasaprehistoricmassoffrenzied,howling,incomprehensiblebarbarians..."(Tyson374375).

Typicalquestions:

Howdoestheliterarytext,explicitlyorallegorically,representvariousaspectsofcolonialoppression?Whatdoesthetextrevealabouttheproblematicsofpostcolonialidentity,includingtherelationshipbetweenpersonalandculturalidentityandsuchissuesasdoubleconsciousnessandhybridity?Whatperson(s)orgroupsdoestheworkidentifyas"other"orstranger?Howaresuchpersons/groupsdescribedandtreated?Whatdoesthetextrevealaboutthepoliticsand/orpsychologyofanticolonialistresistance?Whatdoesthetextrevealabouttheoperationsofculturaldifferencethewaysinwhichrace,religion,class,gender,sexualorientation,culturalbeliefs,and

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customscombinetoformindividualidentityinshapingourperceptionsofourselves,others,andtheworldinwhichwelive?Howdoesthetextrespondtoorcommentuponthecharacters,themes,orassumptionsofacanonized(colonialist)work?Aretheremeaningfulsimilaritiesamongtheliteraturesofdifferentpostcolonialpopulations?HowdoesaliterarytextintheWesterncanonreinforceorunderminecolonialistideologythroughitsrepresentationofcolonializationand/oritsinappropriatesilenceaboutcolonizedpeoples?(Tyson378379)


Criticism

EdwardSaidOrientalism,1978CultureandImperialism,1994KamauBrathwaiteTheHistoryoftheVoice,1979GayatriSpivakInOtherWorlds:EssaysinCulturalPolitics,1987DominickLaCapraTheBoundsofRace:PerspectivesonHegemonyandResistance,1991HomiBhabhaTheLocationofCulture,1994

Literatureandnonfiction

ChinuaAchebeThingsFallApart,1958NgugiwaThiong'oTheRiverBetween,1965SembeneOusmanGod'sBitsofWood,1962RuthPrawerJhabvalaHeatandDust,1975BuchiEmechetaTheJoysofMotherhood,1979KeriHulmeTheBonePeople,1983RobertsonDaviesWhat'sBredintheBone,1985KazuoIshiguroTheRemainsoftheDay,1988BharatiMukherjeeJasmine,1989JillKerConwayTheRoadfromCoorain,1989HelenaNorbergHodgeAncientFutures:LearningfromLadakh,1991MichaelOndaatjeTheEnglishPatient,1992GitaMehtaARiverSutra,1993ArundhatiRoyTheGodofSmallThings,1997PatrickChamoiseauTexaco,1997



FeministCriticism(1960spresent)S/he

Feministcriticismisconcernedwith"...thewaysinwhichliterature(andotherculturalproductions)reinforceorunderminetheeconomic,political,social,andpsychologicaloppressionofwomen"(Tyson).Thisschooloftheorylooksathowaspectsofour

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cultureareinherentlypatriarchal(maledominated)and"...thiscritiquestrivestoexposetheexplicitandimplicitmisogynyinmalewritingaboutwomen"(Richter1346).Thismisogyny,Tysonremindsus,canextendintodiverseareasofourculture:"Perhapsthemostchillingexample...isfoundintheworldofmodernmedicine,wheredrugsprescribedforbothsexesoftenhavebeentestedonmalesubjectsonly"(83).

Feministcriticismisalsoconcernedwithlessobviousformsofmarginalizationsuchastheexclusionofwomenwritersfromthetraditionalliterarycanon:"...unlessthecriticalorhistoricalpointofviewisfeminist,thereisatendencytounderrepresentthecontributionofwomenwriters"(Tyson8283).

CommonSpaceinFeministTheories

Thoughanumberofdifferentapproachesexistinfeministcriticism,thereexistsomeareasofcommonality.ThislistisexcerptedfromTyson:

1. Womenareoppressedbypatriarchyeconomically,politically,socially,andpsychologicallypatriarchalideologyistheprimarymeansbywhichtheyarekeptso

2. Ineverydomainwherepatriarchyreigns,womanisother:sheismarginalized,definedonlybyherdifferencefrommalenormsandvalues

3. Allofwestern(AngloEuropean)civilizationisdeeplyrootedinpatriarchalideology,forexample,inthebiblicalportrayalofEveastheoriginofsinanddeathintheworld

4. Whilebiologydeterminesoursex(maleorfemale),culturedeterminesourgender(masculineorfeminine)

5. Allfeministactivity,includingfeministtheoryandliterarycriticism,hasasitsultimategoaltochangetheworldbypromptinggenderequality

6. Genderissuesplayapartineveryaspectofhumanproductionandexperience,includingtheproductionandexperienceofliterature,whetherweareconsciouslyawareoftheseissuesornot(91).

Feministcriticismhas,inmanyways,followedwhatsometheoristscallthethreewavesoffeminism:

1. FirstWaveFeminismlate1700searly1900's:writerslikeMaryWollstonecraft(AVindicationoftheRightsofWomen,1792)highlighttheinequalitiesbetweenthesexes.ActivistslikeSusanB.AnthonyandVictoriaWoodhullcontributetothewomen'ssuffragemovement,whichleadstoNationalUniversalSuffragein1920withthepassingoftheNineteenthAmendment

2. SecondWaveFeminismearly1960slate1970s:buildingonmoreequalworkingconditionsnecessaryinAmericaduringWorldWarII,movementssuchastheNationalOrganizationforWomen(NOW),formedin1966,coherefeministpoliticalactivism.WriterslikeSimonedeBeauvoir(Ledeuximesexe,1972)andElaineShowalterestablishedthegroundworkforthedisseminationoffeministtheoriesdovetailedwiththeAmericanCivilRightsmovement

3. ThirdWaveFeminismearly1990spresent:resistingtheperceivedessentialist(overgeneralized,oversimplified)ideologiesandawhite,heterosexual,middleclassfocusofsecondwavefeminism,thirdwavefeminismborrowsfrompoststructuralandcontemporarygenderandracetheories(seebelow)toexpandonmarginalizedpopulations'experiences.WriterslikeAliceWalkerworkto"...reconcileit[feminism]withtheconcernsoftheblackcommunity...[and]thesurvivalandwholenessofherpeople,menandwomen

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both,andforthepromotionofdialogandcommunityaswellasforthevalorizationofwomenandofallthevarietiesofworkwomenperform"(Tyson97).

Typicalquestions:

Howistherelationshipbetweenmenandwomenportrayed?Whatarethepowerrelationshipsbetweenmenandwomen(orcharactersassumingmale/femaleroles)?Howaremaleandfemalerolesdefined?Whatconstitutesmasculinityandfemininity?Howdocharactersembodythesetraits?Docharacterstakeontraitsfromoppositegenders?Howso?Howdoesthischangeothersreactionstothem?Whatdoestheworkrevealabouttheoperations(economically,politically,socially,orpsychologically)ofpatriarchy?Whatdoestheworkimplyaboutthepossibilitiesofsisterhoodasamodeofresistingpatriarchy?Whatdoestheworksayaboutwomen'screativity?Whatdoesthehistoryofthework'sreceptionbythepublicandbythecriticstellusabouttheoperationofpatriarchy?Whatroletheworkplayintermsofwomen'sliteraryhistoryandliterarytradition?(Tyson)


MaryWollstonecraftAVindicationoftheRightsofWomen,1792SimonedeBeauvoirLedeuximesexe,1972JuliaKristevaAboutChineseWomen,1977ElaineShowalterALiteratureofTheirOwn,1977"TowardaFeministPoetics,"1979DeborahE.McDowell"NewDirectionsforBlackFeministCriticism,"1980AliceWalkerInSearchofOurMother'sGardens,1983LillianS.Robinson"TreasonoutText:FeministChallengestotheLiteraryCanon,"1983CamilePagliaSexualPersonae:TheAndrogyneinLiteratureandArt,1990



GenderStudiesandQueerTheory(1970spresent)Gender(s),Power,andMarginalization

Genderstudiesandqueertheoryexploreissuesofsexuality,power,andmarginalizedpopulations(womanasother)inliteratureandculture.Muchoftheworkingenderstudiesandqueertheory,whileinfluencedbyfeministcriticism,emergesfrompost

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structuralinterestinfragmented,decenteredknowledgebuilding(Nietzsche,Derrida,Foucault),language(thebreakdownofsignsignifier),andpsychoanalysis(Lacan).

Aprimaryconcerningenderstudiesandqueertheoryisthemannerinwhichgenderandsexualityisdiscussed:"Effectiveasthiswork[feminism]wasinchangingwhatteacherstaughtandwhatthestudentsread,therewasasenseonthepartofsomefeministcriticsthat...itwasstilltheoldgamethatwasbeingplayed,whenwhatitneededwasanewgameentirely.Theargumentposedwasthatinordertocounterpatriarchy,itwasnecessarynotmerelytothinkaboutnewtexts,buttothinkabouttheminradicallynewways"(Richter1432).

Therefore,acriticworkingingenderstudiesandqueertheorymightevenbeuncomfortablewiththebinaryestablishedbymanyfeministscholarsbetweenmasculineandfeminine:"Cixous(followingDerridainOfGrammatology)setsupaseriesofbinaryoppositions(active/passive,sun/moon...father/mother,logos/pathos).Eachpaircanbeanalyzedasahierarchyinwhichtheformertermrepresentsthepositiveandmasculineandthelatterthenegativeandfeminineprinciple"(Richter14331434).

InBetweens

Manycriticsworkingwithgenderandqueertheoryareinterestedinthebreakdownofbinariessuchasmaleandfemale,theinbetweens(alsofollowingDerrida'sinterstitialknowledgebuilding).Forexample,genderstudiesandqueertheorymaintainsthatculturaldefinitionsofsexualityandwhatitmeanstobemaleandfemaleareinflux:"...thedistinctionbetween"masculine"and"feminine"activitiesandbehaviorisconstantlychanging,sothatwomenwhowearbaseballcapsandfatigues...canbeperceivedasmorepiquantlysexybysomeheterosexualmenthanthosewomenwhowearwhitefrocksandglovesandlookdowndemurely"(Richter1437).

Moreover,Richterremindsusthataswelearnmoreaboutourgeneticstructure,thebiologyofmale/femalebecomesincreasinglycomplexandmurky:"eventhephysicaldualismofsexualgeneticstructuresandbodilypartsbreaksdownwhenoneconsidersthoseinstancesXXYsyndromes,naturalsexualbimorphisms,aswellassurgicaltranssexualsthatdefyattemptsatbinaryclassification"(1437).

Typicalquestions:

Whatelementsofthetextcanbeperceivedasbeingmasculine(active,powerful)andfeminine(passive,marginalized)andhowdothecharacterssupportthesetraditionalroles?Whatsortofsupport(ifany)isgiventoelementsorcharacterswhoquestionthemasculine/femininebinary?Whathappenstothoseelements/characters?Whatelementsinthetextexistinthemiddle,betweentheperceivedmasculine/femininebinary?Inotherwords,whatelementsexhibittraitsofboth(bisexual)?Howdoestheauthorpresentthetext?Isitatraditionalnarrative?Isitsecureandforceful?Orisitmorehesitantorevencollaborative?Whatarethepolitics(ideologicalagendas)ofspecificgay,lesbian,orqueerworks,andhowarethosepoliticsrevealedin...thework'sthematiccontentorportrayalsofitscharacters?Whatarethepoetics(literarydevicesandstrategies)ofaspecificlesbian,gay,orqueerworks?Whatdoestheworkcontributetoourknowledgeofqueer,gay,orlesbian

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experienceandhistory,includingliteraryhistory?Howisqueer,gay,orlesbianexperiencecodedintextsthatarebywriterswhoareapparentlyhomosexual?Whatdoestheworkrevealabouttheoperations(socially,politically,psychologically)homophobic?Howdoestheliterarytextillustratetheproblematicsofsexualityandsexual"identity,"thatisthewaysinwhichhumansexualitydoesnotfallneatlyintotheseparatecategoriesdefinedbythewordshomosexualandheterosexual?


LuceIrigaraySpeculumoftheOtherWoman,1974HlneCixous"TheLaughoftheMedussa,"1976LauraMulvey"VisualPleasureandNarrativeCinema,"1975"AfterthoughtsonVisualPleasureandNarrativeCinema,"1981MicheleFoucaultTheHistoryofSexuality,VolumeI,1980EveKosofskySedgwickEpistemologyoftheCloset,1994LeeEdelman"Homographies,"1989MichaelWarnerJudithButler"ImitationandGenderInsubordination,"1991



EcocriticismEcocriticismisanumbrellatermunderwhichavarietyofapproachesfallthiscanmakeitadifficulttermtodefine.AsecocriticLawrenceBuellsays,ecocriticismisanincreasinglyheterogeneousmovement(1).But,simplyput,ecocriticismisthestudyoftherelationshipbetweenliteratureandthephysicalenvironment(Glotfeltyxviii).Emerginginthe1980sontheshouldersoftheenvironmentalmovementbeguninthe1960swiththepublicationofRachelCarsonsSilentSpring,ecocriticismhasbeenandcontinuestobeanearthcenteredapproach(Glotfeltyxviii)thecomplexintersectionsbetweenenvironmentandculture,believingthathumancultureisconnectedtothephysicalworld,affectingitandaffectedbyit(Glotfeltyxix).Ecocriticismisinterdisciplinary,callingforcollaborationbetweennaturalscientists,writers,literarycritics,anthropologists,historians,andmore.Ecocriticismasksustoexamineourselvesandtheworldaroundus,critiquingthewaythatwerepresent,interactwith,andconstructtheenvironment,bothnaturalandmanmade.Attheheartofecocriticism,manymaintain,isacommitmenttoenvironmentalityfromwhatevercriticalvantagepoint(Buell11).Thechallengeforecocriticsiskeep[ing]oneeyeonthewaysinwhichnatureisalways[]culturallyconstructed,andtheotheronthefactthatnaturereallyexists(Gerrard10).Similartocriticaltraditionsexamininggenderandrace,ecocriticismdealsnotonlywiththesociallyconstructed,oftendichotomouscategorieswecreateforreality,butwithrealityitself.

FirstandSecondWaves

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SeveralscholarshavedividedEcocriticismintotwowaves(Buell)(Glotfelty),recognizingthefirstastakingplacethroughouttheeightiesandnineties.Thefirstwaveischaracterizedbyitsemphasisonnaturewritingasanobjectofstudyandasameaningfulpractice(Buell).Centraltothiswaveandtothemajorityofecocriticsstilltodayistheenvironmentalcrisisofourage,seeingitasthedutyofboththehumanitiesandthenaturalsciencestoraiseawarenessandinventsolutionsforaproblemthatisbothculturalandphysical.Assuch,aprimaryconcerninfirstwaveecocriticismwastospeakfornature(Buell11).Thisis,perhaps,whereecocriticismgaineditsreputationasanavowedlypoliticalmodeofanalysis(Gerrard3).Thiswave,unlikeitssuccessor,kepttheculturaldistinctionbetweenhumanandnature,promotingthevalueofnature.

Thesecondwaveisparticularlymoderninitsbreakingdownofsomeofthelongstandingdistinctionsbetweenthehumanandthenonhuman,questioningtheseveryconcepts(Gerrard5).Theboundariesbetweenthehumanandthenonhuman,natureandnonnaturearediscussedasconstructions,andecocriticschallengetheseconstructions,asking(amongotherthings)howtheyframetheenvironmentalcrisisanditssolution.Thiswavebroughtwithitaredefinitionofthetermenvironment,expandingitsmeaningtoincludebothnatureandtheurban(Buell11).Outofthisexpansionhasgrowntheecojusticemovement,oneofthemorepoliticalofecocriticismbranchesthatisraisinganawarenessofclass,race,andgenderthroughecocriticalreadingoftext(Bressler236),oftenexaminingtheplightofthepoorestofapopulationwhoarethevictimsofpollutionareseenashavinglessaccesstonatureinthetraditionalsense.

Thesewavesarenotexactlydistinct,andthereisdebateoverwhatexactlyconstitutesthetwo.Forinstance,someecocriticswillclaimactivismhasbeenadefiningfeatureofecocriticismfromthebeginning,whileothersseeactivismasadefiningfeatureofprimarilythefirstwave.Whiletheexactfeaturesattributedtoeachwavemaybedisputed,itisclearthatEcocriticismcontinuestoevolveandhasundergoneseveralshiftsinattitudeanddirectionsinceitsconception.

TropesandApproaches

Pastoral

Thistrope,foundinmuchBritishandAmericanliterature,focusesonthedichotomybetweenurbanandrurallife,isdeeplyentrenchedinWesternculture(Gerrard33).Attheforefrontofworkswhichdisplaypastoralismisageneralidealizationofthenatureandtheruralandthedemonizationoftheurban.Often,suchworksshowaretreatfromcitylifetothecountrywhileromanticizingrurallife,depictinganidealizedruralexistencethatobscurestherealityofthehardworklivinginsuchareasrequires(Gerrard33).GregGerrardidentifiesthreebranchesofthepastoral:ClassicPastoral,characterizedbynostalgia(37)andanappreciationofnatureasaplaceforhumanrelaxationandreflectionRomanticPastoral,aperiodaftertheIndustrialRevolutionthatsawruralindependenceasdesirableagainsttheexpansionoftheurbanandAmericanPastoralism,whichemphasize[d]agrarianism(49)andrepresentslandasaresourcetobecultivated,withfarmlandoftencreatingaboundarybetweentheurbanandthewilderness.

Wilderness

Aninterestingfocusformanyecocriticsisthewaythatwildernessisrepresentedin

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literatureandpopularculture.Thisapproachexaminesthewaysinwhichwildernessisconstructed,valued,andengaged.RepresentationsofwildernessinBritishandAmericanculturecanbeseparatedintoafewmaintropes.First,OldWorldwildernessdisplayswildernessasaplacebeyondthebordersofcivilization,whereinwildernessistreatedasathreat,aplaceofexile(Gerrard62).ThistropecanbeseeninBiblicaltalesofcreationandearlyBritishculture.OldWorldwildernessisoftenconflatedwithdemonicpracticesinearlyAmericanliterature(Gerrard62).NewWorldwilderness,seeninportrayalsofwildernessinlaterAmericanliterature,appliesthepastoraltropeoftheretreattowildernessitself,seeingwildernessnotasaplacetofear,butasaplacetofindsanctuary.TheNewWorldwildernesstropehasinformedmuchoftheAmericanidentity,andoftenconstructsencounterswiththewildernessthatleadtoamoreauthenticexistence(Gerrard71).

Ecofeminism

Asabranchofecocriticism,ecofeminismprimarilyanalyzestheinterconnectionoftheoppressionofwomenandnature(Bressler236).Drawingparallelsbetweendominationoflandandthedominationofmenoverwomen,ecofeministsexaminethesehierarchical,genderedrelationships,inwhichthelandisoftenequatedwiththefeminine,seenasafertileresourcesandthepropertyofman.Theecofeminismapproachcanbedividedintotwocamps.Thefirst,sometimesreferredtoasradicalecofeminism,reversesthepatriarchaldominationofmanoverwomanandnature,exaltingnature,thenonhuman,andtheemotional(Gerrard24).Thisapproachembracestheideathatwomenareinherentlyclosertonaturebiologically,spiritually,andemotionally.Thesecondcamp,whichfollowedthefirsthistorically,maintainsthatthereisnosuchthingasafeminineessencethatwouldmakewomenmorelikelytoconnectwithnature(Gerrard25).Ofcourse,ecofeminismisahighlydiverseandcomplexbranch,andmanywritershaveundertakenthejobofexaminingthehierarchicalrelationshipsstructuredinourculturalrepresentationsofnatureandofwomenandotheroppressedgroups.Inparticular,studiesregardingracehavefollowedinthistrend,identifyinggroupsthathavebeenhistoricallyseenassomehowclosertonature.ThewayNativeAmericans,forinstance,havebeendescribedasprimitiveandportrayedasdwellinginharmonywithnature,despitefactstothecontrary.Gerrardoffersanexaminationofthistrope,callingittheEcologicalIndian(Gerrard120).Similarstudiesregardingrepresentationsandoppressionofaboriginalshavesurfaced,highlightingthemisconceptionsofthesepeoplesassomehowbehindEuropeans,needingtoprogressfromanaturaltoacivilizedstate(Gerrard125).

TypicalQuestions

Takinganecocriticalapproachtoatopicmeansaskingquestionsnotonlyofaprimarysourcesuchasliterature,butaskinglargerquestionsaboutculturalattitudestowardsanddefinitionsofnature.Generally,ecocriticismcanbeappliedtoaprimarysourcebyeitherinterpretingatextthroughanecocriticallens,withaneyetowardsnature,orexamininganecocriticaltropewithinthetext.Thequestionsbelowareexamplesofquestionsyoumightaskbothwhenworkingwithaprimarysourceandwhendevelopingaresearchquestionthatmighthaveabroaderperspective.

Howisnaturerepresentedinthistext?Howhastheconceptofnaturechangedovertime?Howisthesettingoftheplay/film/textrelatedtotheenvironment?Whatistheinfluenceonmetaphorsandrepresentationsofthelandandtheenvironmentonhowwetreatit?

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Howdoweseeissuesofenvironmentaldisasterandcrisesreflectedinpopularcultureandliteraryworks?Howareanimalsrepresentedinthistextandwhatistheirrelationshiptohumans?Howdotherolesorrepresentationsofmenandwomentowardstheenvironmentdifferinthisplay/film/text/etc.Whereistheenvironmentplacedinthepowerhierarchy?Howisnatureempoweredoroppressedinthiswork?Whatparallelscanbedrawnbetweenthesufferingsandoppressionofgroupsofpeople(women,minorities,immigrants,etc.)andtreatmentoftheland?Whatrhetoricalmovesareusedbyenvironmentalists,andwhatcanwelearnfromthemaboutourculturalattitudestowardsnature?

Therearemanymorequestionsthanthesetobeasked,andalargevarietyofapproachesalreadyexistthatareaskingdifferentquestions.Dosomeresearchtocheckonthestateofecocriticaldiscussioninyourownareaofinterest!

FurtherResources

Therearemanymoreapproachestoanalyzinginteractionsbetweencultureandnature,manyofwhichareinterdisciplinary.ThefollowingtextsarerecommendedtohelpyoustartexploringotheravenuesofEcocriticsm.

TheoryandCriticism

LawrenceBuellTheEnvironmentalImagination:Thoreau,NatureWriting,andtheFormationofAmericanCulture(1995)andToxicDiscourse,1998CharlesBresslerLiterarycriticism:anintroductiontotheoryandpractice,1999CheryllGlotfeltyandHaroldFrommTheEcocriticismReader:LandmarksinLiteraryEcology,(1996)GregGarrardEcocriticism,2004DonnaHaraway"ACyborgManifesto:Science,Technology,andSocialistFeminismintheLateTwentiethCentury,"(1991)ISLE:InterdisciplinaryStudiesinLiteratureandEnvironment(Journal)JosephMakusTheComedyofSurvival:literaryecologyandaplayethic,(1972)LeoMarxTheMachineintheGarden:TechnologyandthePastoralIdealinAmerica,(1964)RaymondWilliamsTheCountryandTheCity,(1975)

Literature&LiteraryFigures

EdwardAbbey

DesertSolitaire:ASeasonintheWilderness(1968)AppalachianWilderness(1970)TheMonkeyWrenchGang(1975)

MaryHunterAustin

TheLandofLittleRain(1903)

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RachelCarson

SilentSpring(1962)

AldoLeopold

ASandCountyAlmanac:AndSketchesHereandThere(1949)

JohnMuir

AThousandMileWalktotheGulf(1916)StudiesintheSierra(1950)

HenryDavidThoreau

Waldenor,LifeintheWoods(1854)

WilliamsWordsworth

LyricalBallads,withaFewOtherPoems(1798)LyricalBallads,withOtherPoems(1800)

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