(FCE- Grammar) Linking Words

(FCE- Grammar) Linking Words

Linking words show the logical relationship between sentences or parts of a sentence.

1. Positive Addition

and (, )And is used to connect words or phrases. And may be used to connect two independent clauses. Steve and his friends are coming to dinner.

He is waving his arms and shouting at us.

It was raining hard, and there was a strong wind.

2.

both... and (... )

either.....or (....)

both/either/neither +of

( , , )

Affirmative Agreement

either ( )

too (, - )

Negative Agreement

neither ( )

either (, - )

both -

We use both , neither, either when we are talking about two things.

Two subjects connected by both.....and take a plural verb. Both + noun + and + noun.

Do not use both /both...and... in negative sentences. Use neither / neither...nor...

Either/neither of are singular if they are not used with or or nor.

either + noun + or + plural noun + plural verb

either + noun + or + singular noun + singular verb

both

either + of

neither

the/these/ my/your...+noun

When we use both/ either

/neither with of you always need the, these, those, my, our, his....You cannot say both of restaurants; you have to say both of the restaurants / both of these restaurants. Both my mother and my sister are here.

Both restaurants are very good.

Neither restaurant is expensive.

We can go to either restaurant.

The research project will take both time and money.

Either John or his friends are going to the beach today.

Either John or Bill is going to the beach today.

Both of these restaurants are very good.

Neither of the restaurants we went to was (were-Am.E.) expensive.

Neither of them came to the meeting.

We can go to either of those restaurants.

Neither of the books is exactly what I want.

If either of you takes a vocation now , we will not be able to finish the work.

We accepted neither offer.

There were chairs on either side of the table.

3.

too (, )

also()

as well ( )

as well as ( , ..... .......)

either (=

Also, as well, too are used with a similar meaning.

subject + negative verb + either (instead of too / also)

As well and too come at the end of the clause when you are adding something to a list of things that you gave in the previous sentence. But also comes in the middle of a clause: before the verb , after an auxiliary, modal or to be.

Also /Too / As well are not used with two negative statements ( use either)

Bill likes golf and Tom likes golf too.

Bill would enjoy a game and Tom would too.

I havent seen him either.

He didnt like the book; I didnt either.

She doesnt smoke. She doesnt drink either.

Frank speaks French. He also speaks German.

I can also play the piano.

We have also decided to get a new car.

Im going to get bread, cheese, tea, and sugar. Can you get some milk as well?

Shes got a car as well as a motorbike.

4.

besides( )

anyway ( )

moreover( )

what is more ( )

in addition (to) ( , )

furthermore( , )

These expressions are used to add information to what has already been said.

Anyway / Besides are used at the beginning of a sentence when you have given one reason for doing smth and you want to add another.

Besides = in addition to

Moreover / furthermore / in addition = also. They are used at the beginning of a sentence to add a more important fact than the one that you gave in the previous sentence.

In addition to / besides are used as prepositions. They are followed by an object, not a clause.

I hate asking for a pay rise. Anyway, theres no point.

I dont really need a new car. Besides, I cant afford one.

The city provides many cultural opportunities. It has an excellent art museum. Moreover / Furthermore/ In addition , it has a fine symphony orchestra.

The city provides many cultural opportunities. In addition to / Besides an excellent art museum, it has a fine symphony orchestra.

Besides doing the cooking I look after the garden.

5. Negative Addition

neither... nor...(.....)

nor ( )

not only...but also.... ( .... ...)

neither ( , )Nether...nor / not only...but also... + singular noun + singular verb

Nether...nor / not only...but also... + plural noun + plural verb

Neither takes an affirmative verb. Neither John nor his friends are going to the beach today.

Neither John nor Bill is going to the beach today.

Not only my mother but also my sister is here.

Not only my sister but also my parents are here.

6. Contrast

while ( )

whereas ( )

While and whereas are used to show clear contrast between two subjects within one sentence. They are followed by a clause. Mary is rich, while John is poor.

Mary is rich, whereas John is poor.

Whereas Mary is rich, John is poor

John loves playing outdoors all day, while / whereas Harry likes playing computer games.

7.

but ()

yet ( , , )

still ( , )

but...anyway

but... still

yet... stillBut is used to join two words or phrases when the second one has the opposite meaning.

They show contrast (unexpected result) It was cold, but I went swimming anyway.

It was cold , but I still went swimming .

It was cold, yet I still went swimming.

Mary is rich, but John is poor.

8.

Although ()

even though ( )

though

becausebecause is used to express expected results; even though is used to express unexpected results.

Although is followed by a clause and a comma. After Although we use a subject + verb.

Even though is stronger than although.

Although cant be at the end of a sentence; though- can.

We use though to mean however at the end of a sentence. Think of although as before the fact and however as after the fact. Even though / Although / Though it was cold, I went swimming.

Because I wasnt tired, I didnt go to bed.

We went out although it was raining.

Even though I wasnt tired, I went to bed.

Although he studied very hard, he didnt pass the exam.

He didnt finish the job, even though he worked all night.

The room is very small. Its quite comfortable though.

9.

in spite of ( )

despite ( )

despite the fact that....

in spite of the fact that....

in spite of / despite + Ving

in spite of / despite + noun

in spite of / despite + pronoun

in spite of = despite

I went swimming despite / in spite of the cold weather.

I went swimming despite the fact that / in spite of the fact that the weather was cold.

Despite / In spite of her excellent qualifications , Carol didnt get the job.

Despite / In spite of having excellent qualifications , Carol didnt get the job.

10.

on the other hand ( )

Use this at the beginning of a sentence when you have just mentioned one side of an argument And you are going to mention the opposite side. Mary is rich. John, on the other hand, is poor.

Nuclear power is relatively cheap. On the other hand, you could argue that its not safe.

11.

however (, )

nevertheless ( )

nonetheless ( )However and nevertheless link contrasting ideas in two different sentences. It was cold. Nevertheless , I went swimming.

I like him very much. However / Nevertheless, we are very different.

12. Giving Examples

for example ()

for instance ()for example = for instance

These expressions introduce particular examples to illustrate what has been said.

e.g. = for example

e.g. = exempli gratia (Latin)

e.g. -AmE

eg - BrE There are many interesting places to visit in the city. For example, the botanical garden has numerous displays of plants from all over the world.

There are many interesting places to visit in the city. The art museum, for instance, has an excellent collection of modern paintings.

such as ( )

like (, )

especially()

in particular( )such as = for example I prefer to wear casual clothes, such as jeans and a sweatshirt.

Some countries, such as Brazil and Canada, are big.

13. Cause/ Reason

as ( )

since (, )

As / since = because, and they can begin a sentence; they are followed by a clause. Since Monday is a holiday, we dont have to go to work.

Since you are a good cook and Im not, you should cook the dinner.

As it was a public holiday, all the shops were shut.

As they live near us, we see them quite often.

14.

because (of) ( , , -)

due to (-, )Because introduces an adverb clause; it is followed by a subject and verb. Because of / due to are phrasal prepositions ; they are followed by a noun object. Because the weather was cold, we stayed home.

Because of the cold weather, we stayed home.

Due to the cold weather, we stayed home.

Due to the fact that the weather was cold, we stayed home.

We stayed home because of / due to the cold weather.

now that ( , )now that = because now

Now that is used for present causes of present or future situations. Now that the semester is over ( =because the semester is now over) , Im going to rest a few days and then take a trip.

Jack lost his job. Now that hes unemployed, he cant pay his bills.

15.

for this reason ( )

as a result (of) ( )

as a result of smth. = because of smth

Use as a result of to say what made something happen.

Use the simple/good/obvious reason (that) to explain why something happened Hundreds of people lost their homes as a result of the war.

Con died as the result of a heart attack.

We cant take you all, for the simple reason that there isnt enough room in the car.

16. Condition

if /whether()

whether or not

even if = even though

Whether or not expresses the idea that neither this condition nor that condition matters; the result will be the same. Even if gives the idea that a particular condition does not matter. The result will not change. Im going to go swimming tomorrow whether or not it is cold. (or : whether it is cold or not)

Ive decided to go swimming tomorrow. Even if the weather is cold. Im going to go swimming.

You must go tomorrow if you are ready.

You must go tomorrow even if you arent ready.

17.

in case ( )

in case of (

in the event thatIn case / in the event that express the idea that something probably wont happen , but it might. It means if by chance this should happen.

In case is followed by a present /past tense or should.

(do not use will after in case)

In case of... = if there is...

Ill be at my uncles house in case you (should) need to reach me.

In the event that you (should) need to reach me, Ill be at my uncles house.

I always slept by the phone in case he rang during the night. = I always slept by the phone because (I knew) he might ring during the night.

We bought some food in case Tom came.

In case of fire, please leave the building as quickly as possible. =if there is a fire.

18.

only if ( )

unless ( ..., )unless = if...not = except if

unless + affirmative verb =

if + negative

We often use unless in warnings: (Well be late unless we hurry.)

Ill go swimming tomorrow unless its cold.

Dont tell Sue what I said unless she asks you. (= except if she asks you)

Ill go swimming tomorrow if it isnt cold.

Youll get wet unless you take your umbrella.

Unless you start at once youll be late = If you dont start at once youll be late.

19.

otherwise (, )

or (else) (, , )Otherwise expresses the idea if the opposite is true, then there will be a certain result.

Or else and Otherwise have the same meaning. I always eat breakfast. Otherwise , I get hungry during class.

Youd better hurry. Otherwise, youll be late.

Take your umbrella. Otherwise, youll get wet.

I always eat breakfast, or (else) I get hungry during class.

Take your umbrella, or (else) youll get wet.

20.

provided (that) / providing (that) ( )

as /so long as ( , )

on condition (that) ( )

Provided that can replace if when there is a strong idea of limitation or restriction (mainly used with permission)

Provided / Providing - only if a particular thing happens or is done.

As / so long as is used before saying the conditions that will make something else happen or be true. You can camp here provided you leave no mess.

Provided you pay me back by Friday, Ill lend you the money.

Its a lot easier to get good marks on a short -answer question, providing you do it well.

My parents dont care what job I do as long as Im happy.

They spoke on condition that their names would not be used in the article.

21.

as if / as though ( , ) Like is followed by a noun object or a clause. As if /as though are followed by a clause. Usually the idea following as if/ as though is untrue. In this case, verb usage is similar to that in conditional sentence. It looks like rain.

It looks as if it is going to rain.

It looks as though it is going to rain.

It looks like it is going to rain (informal)

She talked to him as if he were a child.

He acted as though he had never met her.

22. Purpose

in order to (, )

in order that( , )

so that ( , )

in case ( , , )In order to is used to express purpose, it answers the question Why?. It is followed by a verb.

So that also expresses purpose. It has the same meaning as in order to. So that is often used instead of in order to when the idea of ability is being expressed. Can is used in the adverb clause for a present/future meaning. So that I can buy = in order to be able to buy. Could is used after so that in past sentences.

In order that = so that

in case + present tense = because this may happen/ because this will happen

in case + past tense = because this might happen /because this would happen He came here in order to study English.

I turned off the TV in order to enable my roommate to study in peace and quiet.

I turned off the TV so (that) my roommate could study in peace and quiet.

Im going to cash a check so that I can buy my textbooks.

I cashed a check so that I could buy my textbooks.

I turned off the TV in order that my roommate could study in peace and quiet.

I dont let him climb trees in case he tears his trousers.

I carry a spare wheel in case I have a puncture.

I always kept candles in the house in case there was a power cut.

23. Effect / Result

such/so... that( )such ....that = so.... that

such + adjective + noun + that

so + adjective/adverb + that

so...that is used with many, few, much, and little. It was such nice weather that we went to the zoo.

The weather was so nice that we went to the zoo.

It was such good coffee that I had another cup.

It was such a foggy day that we couldnt see the road.

The coffee was so hot that I cant drink it.

Im so hungry that I could eat a horse.

She speaks so fast that I cant understand her.

She made so many mistakes that she failed the exam.

24.

consequently (, )

therefore ()

so (, )

Therefore and consequently mean as a result . They connect the ideas between two sentences. They have several positions and are separated from the rest of the sentence by commas.

So ( meaning therefore, as a result ) connects two sentences. So has only one possible position: between the two sentences. Al didnt study. Therefore, he failed the test.

Al didnt study. Consequently, he failed the test.

=..... He, therefore, failed the test.

=....He failed the test, therefore.

Al didnt study, so he failed the test.

25. Time.

when () When = at that time When I arrived, he was talking on the phone.

When was in Chicago, I visited the museums.

When I see him tomorrow, I will ask him.

26.

while ( , )

as ( , , )

While / as = during that time

We use as when two things happen at the same time. While I was studying, the phone rang.

While I was walking home, it began to rain.

As I was walking home, it began to rain.

George arrived as Sue left.

27.

after ( )

before ( )

A present tense, not a future tense is used in time-clause.

After and before are commonly used in the following expressions:

shortly after/ before;

a short time after/ before;

a little while after / before;

not long after / before;

soon after

After she graduates, she will get a job.

After she (had) graduated, she got a job.

I will leave before he comes.

I (had) left before he came.

28.

as soon as ( )

once (-, , )as soon as / once = when one event happens, another event happens soon afterward. As soon as it stops raining, we will leave.

Once it stops raining, we will leave.

by the time ( )by the time = one event is completed before another event ( usually Past Perfect or Future Perfect) By the time he arrived, we had already left.

By the time he comes, we will have already left.

since ( )since = from that time to the present. Ever since adds emphasis. The Present Perfect is used in the main clause. I havent seen him since he left this morning.

Ive known her ever since I was a child.

until/till ( )until / till = to that time and then no longer. Till is used more in speaking than in writing; it is generally not used in formal English. We stayed there until we finished our work.

We stayed there till we finished our work.

As long as / so long as

( , )as long as / so long as =

during all that time , from beginning to end I will never speak to him again as long as I live.

I will never speak to him again so long as I live.

29.

whenever( , )

every time ( )whenever = every time that something happens.

Whenever is used:

as a conjunction (connecting two clauses);

as an adverb

every time = whenever something happens ; when one thing happens, something else always happens. Whenever I see her, I say hello.

Every time I see her, I say hello.

Whenever I smiled, he smiled back.

Whenever have I been cruel to you?

Whenever I hear that song , I think of you.

We cant keep calling the doctor every time you get a headache.

My neck hurts every time I move.

the first time ( )

the last time ( )

the next time ( )The first time / the last time / the next time refer to a particular occasion. The first time I went to New York, I went to an opera.

I saw two plays the last time I went to New York.

The last time we met you promised to join me on a trip to Beijing.

The next time I go to New York, Im going to see a ballet.

30. Place

where (, )

wherever ( , ),

Where can be used:

as a relative adverb (introducing a relative clause);

as a conjunction (connecting two clauses)

Wherever can be used as a conjunction (connecting two clauses)

I know a place where you can hide.

Ive hidden the money where no one will find it.

She was followed by press photographers wherever she went.

31. Exception

except (for) ( , , )

apart from (, , )

Except is used for introducing the only thing , person, or fact that is not included in your main sentence; it is like saying without, or minus.

Apart from is used:

except for someone or something.

in addition to someone/something We havent told anyone except Leslies dad.

I like all musical instruments except the violin.

I dont know much about the man, except that hes a fool.

Everything was perfect except for the weather.

I hardly know anyone in the village apart from William and you.

Apart from the violin, he plays the piano and the flute. (=besides the violin......)

I like all musical instruments apart from the violin. (=.........except the violin)

32. Relatives

who (, )

whom ( , )

whose( , )

which (, , )

that (, )

who/whom/whose/which/

that are used to introduce relative clauses. They are called relative pronouns or relatives.

for people: who/that/whom/whose

for animals/things:

which/that/whose

Shes the woman (who/ whom /that) I saw on TV last night.

Thats the dog whose owner was arrested.

Thats the shop whose windows were smashed.

This is the house (which/that) we live in.

His wife, who is French, speaks three languages.

33. Listing points/Events

to begin with / to start with ( , , ....)

first / firstly / first of all ( )

to continue (...)

then (, )

to begin with - is used for introducing the first thing in a list of things you are going to say.

first / firstly / first of all introduce the first item in a list or sequence. The next item is normally introduced by then or secondly.

Why were you annoyed? - Well, to begin with, I hadnt even invited her.

First, open all the windows. Then turn off the gas and, if necessary , call an ambulance.

First(ly) , we need somewhere to live. Second(ly), we need to find work. And third(ly)........

34. Summarising

in conclusion ( )

to conclude ( )

finally/ lastly( , )

in summary ( , )

to sum up ( )

on the whole ( , )

all in all ( , , )

altogether ( , )

in short (, )

To introduce a concluding statement, use in conclusion, by way of conclusion, or to conclude.

Finally/lastly are used at the beginning of a sentence to introduce the last point in a speech, reply, essay, etc.

In summary is used at the end of a talk or piece of writing for introducing a short statement that gives only basic information.

Sum up = to give a summary of something

On the whole is used for talking about the general situation.

All in all is used for showing that you are considering every aspect of something.

Altogether / in short are used for introducing a summary of what you have just said. In conclusion, Id like to say that everybody should be able to work if they want to.

To conclude, Id like to say that everybody should read the book.

Finally, Id like to consider the economic arguments.

Lastly, Id like to thank you all for coming and wish you a safe journey home.

In summary, nobody knows where the disease originated.

Ill sum up briefly and then well take questions.

It was a pretty good conference on the whole.

All in all, I think it has been a very successful conference.

The weather was great and the people were friendly- altogether a perfect trip.

Inflation is down, spending is up. In short, the economy is in good shape.