lingua inglese i · •basic concepts of linguistics •the current state of english: english...
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LINGUA INGLESE I
VALENTINA PIUNNO
A.A. 2019/2020
CANALE E-O
Introducing English Linguistics
Elenco dei temi affrontatiPRIMA PARTE
• Alphabet Division
• Lingua inglese I (A-D)• Docente: Montini II SEM.
• Lingua inglese I (E-O)• Docente: Piunno I SEM.
• Lingua inglese I C (P-Z)• Docente: Ciambella I SEM.
Introducing English Linguistics AA 2019/2020
General information
General information
• Timetable
• Lingua inglese I B - Piunno (E-O)
• Thursdays 17-19 room T01• Fridays 11-13 room T02
10th October – 20th December
Introducing English Linguistics AA 2019/2020
Attendance is not compulsory, but highly recommended
• Office hours and room
• Valentina Piunno
• Thursdays 15.30-17.00 (II floor, room 205)
• It may change!!!
• Always check the website http://www.lettere.uniroma1.it/users/valentina-piunno
Introducing English Linguistics AA 2019/2020
General information
• Contacts
Websitehttp://www.lettere.uniroma1.it/users/valentina-piunnoThis is where all information pertinent to this class is posted.
Introducing English Linguistics AA 2019/2020
General information
• Required textbooks• Further readings
Introducing English Linguistics AA 2019/2020
General information
• Required textbooks
1) Lesley Jeffries
Discovering language.The Structure of Modern English
LondonPalgrave MacMillan, 2006
Introducing English Linguistics AA 2019/2020
General information
• Required textbooks
2) Howard Jackson, Etienne Zé Amvela
Words, Meaning and Vocabulary.An Introduction to Modern EnglishLexicology
2nd Edition, LondonContinuum International, 2007
Chapters 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
Introducing English Linguistics AA 2019/2020
General information
• Required textbooks
3) Charles F. Meyer
Introducing English Linguistics
CambridgeCambridge University Press 2009
Chapter 2
Copisteria Jasmine Bookshop (Via dei Reti 11)
Introducing English Linguistics AA 2019/2020
General information
• Required textbooks
3) Laurel J. Brinton & Donna M. Brinton
The linguistic structure of modernEnglish
Amsterdam/PhiladelphiaJohn Benjamins Publishing, 2010
Chapter 11 (section 2.3 excluded)
Introducing English Linguistics AA 2019/2020
General information
Copisteria Jasmine Bookshop (Via dei Reti 11)
• Further readings
1) Laura PinnavaiaIntroduzione alla linguisticaingleseRoma, Carocci, 2015
(highly recommended)
Introducing English Linguistics AA 2019/2020
General information
• Basic concepts of linguistics• The current state of English: English world-wide• English as a Germanic language: introduction to genealogical and typological
classification of English • Morphology
• the structure of words, morpheme, inflection, derivation & other word-formation processes• Syntax
• the phrase and the structure of sentences • clause functions and information structure
• The analysis of texts • coherence & cohesion, context
• Lexicon• the origin of English, the notion of «word», word classes, relations between words
• Semantics• the meaning of words, meaning relations
• Pragmatics• Phonetics and phonology
Course outline
Introducing English Linguistics AA 2019/2020
Basic concepts of linguistics
• References:• Required textbooks
• Discovering language (Lesley Jeffries) à chapter 7
• Further readings (recommended, but not compulsory)• The Handbook of Linguistics, M. Aronoff & J. Rees-Miller, John Wiley
& Sons, 2017, pp. xiii-xv• Linguistics Student's Handbook, L. Bauer, Edinburgh University
Press, 2007, pp. 3-18• Nuovi fondamenti di linguistica, Raffaele Simone, McGraw Hill, 2013,
pp. 1-37.
Introducing English Linguistics AA 2019/2020
Basic concepts of linguistics
LINGUISTICS§ Linguistics is the scientific study of Language (in general) and communication.§ Linguistics is a descriptive discipline§ Subfields of linguistics§ Interdisciplinary studies involving linguistics
LANGUAGE§ Language is a communication system of signs§ Linguistic signs are bilateral (signifier and signified)§ Differences between animal and human language
HUMAN LANGUAGE FEATURES§ Arbitrariness§ Duality of patterning§ Open-endedness (creativity)§ Displacement/stimulus-freedom
Introducing English Linguistics AA 2019/2020
Subfields of linguistics (LEVELS OF ANALYSIS)
LINGUISTICS
PHONETICSThe study of
speech sounds and their acoustic
properties
PHONOLOGYThe study of the speech sounds
used in a particular language
MORPHOLOGYThe study of
word structure
SYNTAXThe study of
sentence structure
SEMANTICSThe study of
linguistic meaning
PRAGMATICSThe study of language use (language in
context)
LEXICOLOGYThe study of the lexicon (simple and complex
words)
Introducing English Linguistics AA 2019/2020
Interdisciplinary branches of Linguistics
q LINGUISTIC TYPOLOGY (How languages can be analyzed and classified according to their structural and functional features)
q HISTORICAL LINGUISTICS (How languages change over time)
q SOCIOLINGUISTICS(How languages vary socially)
q ANTHROPOLOGICAL LINGUISTICS(The study of language in its cultural context)
Interdisciplinary studies involve two or more academic disciplines which are considered distinct. The most common interdisciplinary branches of Linguistics are:
Linguistics Student's HandbookL. Bauer
Introducing English Linguistics AA 2019/2020
Interdisciplinary branches of Linguisticsq AREAL LINGUISTICS
(The features of linguistic structure that tend to characterise a particular geographical area
q LEXICOGRAPHY(The principles that underlie the process of compiling dictionaries)
q PSYCHOLINGUISTICS(What happens in people’s heads as they use language)
q NEUROLINGUISTICS(How language is processed and stored in the brain)
q LANGUAGE ACQUISITION (How people learn languages as their first or second language)
q COMPUTATIONAL LINGUISTICS (The use of computers in the analysis of linguistic behavior and the human languages)
Linguistics Student's HandbookL. Bauer
Introducing English Linguistics AA 2019/2020
English world-wide
• References:• Required textbooks
• Introducing English Linguistics (C.F. Meyer 2009), Chapter 2
Introducing English Linguistics AA 2019/2020
The world languages• Many languages àfew speakers• A small subset à widely spoken
Introducing English Linguistics AA 2019/2020
World languages Introducing English LinguisticsC.F. Meyer 2009
Most commonly spoken languages in the world
Introducing English Linguistics AA 2019/2020
English world-wide§ English status as a world language: “global language”
§ a reflection of historic and economic developments, ICT development, globalisation and internationalisation
§ Functions of English§ (native language (ENL),§ second language (ESL),§ foreign language (EFL)
§ Regional varieties & Standard English
§ Received Pronunciation
Introducing English Linguistics AA 2019/2020
The comparative method• Three kinds of linguistic and non-linguistic evidence
• A. Cognate vocabulary• B. Grammatical similarities• C. Historical/archeological information
Introducing English Linguistics AA 2019/2020
The comparative method• A. Cognate vocabulary
• important for determining what the parent language might have lookedlike.• vocabulary representing common human experiences is compared
• E.g. Body part nouns, Pronouns, Seasons, Verbs of existence
words from Germanic languages words from other Indo-European languages
GRIMM’S LAW à Indo-European /p/ became /f/ in GermanicCf. father, Vater, padre, pére
Introducing English Linguistics AA 2019/2020
The comparative method
B. Grammatical similarities
• Grammatical features on N or Adj• Case• Number• Gender
C. Historical/Archeological information
• non-linguistic evidence
• E.g. evidence about• when and where speakers of PIE lived• migrations
Introducing English Linguistics AA 2019/2020
Typological classification of languages and of EnglishIntroduction to genealogical and typological classification of English
§ Classifications according to:
§ morphological features:§ Isolating, agglutinative, fusional, polysynthetic languages
• Some languages exhibit characteristics of more than one type• What about English?
• Old English à was a typically fusional language• Modern English à increasingly isolating
§ syntactic features (order of the subject (S), verb (V) and object (O))
§ phonological features (according to sounds)
Introducing English Linguistics AA 2019/2020
Word structure & Inflection
References:
Required textbooks
• Discovering language (Lesley Jeffries)à chapter 3
• Words, meaning and vocabulary (Howard Jackson & Etinne ZéAmvela)
à chapter 4
Introducing English Linguistics AA 2019/2020
English word structure - morphology§ Morpheme as the smallest unit of meaning in the language (form and
meaning)§ bound morphemes (-ness, -ly, -s, -est) § free morphemes (dark)
§ monomorphemic or simplex words (e.g. dark, tall, boy)§ polymorphemic or complex words (e.g. darkness)
Word structure
Introducing English Linguistics AA 2019/2020
Morpheme§ The smallest meaningful linguistic unit and therefore the smallest linguistic sign.§ Larger than the phoneme (the smallest identifiable unit of speech which can
make, but not carry meaning) and smaller than the word § Morphemes usually have an identifiable meaning
§ The morpheme consists of a class of variants, the allomorphs§ different forms that a morpheme can take § are phonologically, grammatically or lexically conditioned.
e.g. {Plural}� Allomorphs of the plural morpheme
§ Phonological conditioning à regular plural allomorphs /z/, /s/, /iz/ (thevariations in pronunciation involve morphemes, so they are consideredallomorphs of the plural morpheme)
§ Grammatical contitioning à Irregular sheep§ Lexical conditioning à Irregular woman – women
Word structure
Introducing English Linguistics AA 2019/2020
Inflection• Inflection
• à is the process by which the main lexical word classes (noun,verb, adjective and adverb) in English acquire regular endings• to form particular grammatical structures• to produce alternative grammatical forms of words
• Inflectional morphemes• are all suffixes in English§ regular, in both form and meaning§ apply to all the members of a word class, but with some significant
irregular exceptions§ do not change the class of the word, but alter the grammatical form
• Is English a highly inflected language?
Introducing English Linguistics AA 2019/2020
• VERBS• {third person singular} morpheme -s• {past tense} morpheme -ed • {past participle} morpheme -ed (-en)• {progressive} morpheme -ing
• ADJECTIVES• {comparative } -er• {superlative } -est
• NOUNS• {plural form} à for countable nouns (free+bound morphemes, e.g. sisters)• {2 possessive forms} à free+bound morphemes
• bound morpheme added to the singular form (e.g. sister’s) • bound morpheme added to the plural form (e.g. sisters’)
Inflectional morphemes
Introducing English Linguistics AA 2019/2020
Derivation
References:
Required textbooks
• Discovering language (Lesley Jeffries)à chapter 3
• Words, meaning and vocabulary (Howard Jackson & Etinne ZéAmvela)
à chapter 4
Introducing English Linguistics AA 2019/2020
Inflection vs Derivation• Talk• Talks• Talked• Talking
• Talk • Talker
Different forms of the same word
Different words for semantic and
syntactic reasons
Inflection Derivation
Introducing English Linguistics AA 2019/2020
Inflection vs Derivation• Derivation
• is the process by which words have a morpheme added that changes• their meaning • often their class too
• creates new vocabulary items• less regular• some groups of words with shared semantic features that have
similar derivations
• Inflection• leads to the formation of alternative grammatical forms• highly productive
Introducing English Linguistics AA 2019/2020
Inflection vs Derivation• Derivational morphemes
• Do not attach to words in a very regular way• Can be either prefixes or suffixes• A word can contain many derivational affixes• Derivational affixes may change or not the word class• Derivational suffixes always precede the inflectional suffixes
• E.g. payments payV + -ment + -s
• Inflectional morphemes• Can only be suffixes• A word can contain only one inflectional affix• Inflectional affixes don’t change the word class• Always at the end of a word
Introducing English Linguistics AA 2019/2020
• Patterns of derivation
• Class-changing derivational affixes• Mainly suffixes• Each word class has distinct patterns of derivation
• NOUNS • Nominalizers
• VERBS• Verbalizers
• ADJECTIVES• Adjectivizers
• ADVERBS• Adverbializers
• Class-mantaining derivational affix• Change the meaning but not the word class• Mainly prefixes
Derivation
Introducing English Linguistics AA 2019/2020
Compounding
References:
Required textbooks
• Discovering language (Lesley Jeffries)à chapter 3
• Words, meaning and vocabulary (Howard Jackson & Etinne ZéAmvela)
à chapter 4
Introducing English Linguistics AA 2019/2020
Compounding• Semantic features
• Unpredictable and arbitrary (e.g. dirty work vs *clean work)• Phonological features
• Specific pattern of stress: one syllable in the first element will receiveprimary stress, and one syllable in the second element secondary stress
• Syntactic features• Word order• Interruptibility• Modification• Inflectibility
• Morpho-syntactic & semantic features• Head & Modifier
• Syntactic features (inflection, lexical category)• Semantic features
• Endocentric (subordinate_1_head vs coordinate_2_heads)• Exocentric compounds
• Lexical features: different patterns, depending on the PoS (e.g. N+N, Adj+N)
Introducing English Linguistics AA 2019/2020
Word formation processes
References:
Required textbooks
• Words, meaning and vocabulary (Howard Jackson & Etinne ZéAmvela)
à chapter 4
Introducing English Linguistics AA 2019/2020
Conversionq Conversion may involve: q A change within the same word class
• Uncountable nouns à countable• Intransitive verbs à transitive verbs
q A change from one word class to another• NOUN à VERB to cage, to bottle, to water, to gesture• VERB à NOUN a call, a guess, a spy
q Multiple changes of word classes• E.g. down
• PàV (to down), PàN (ups and downs), PàA (the level is down)
q A whole phrase• PHRASE à NOUN (A forget-me-not, A has been, A don’t know)• PHRASE à ADJECTIVE (A Monday morning feeling)
Introducing English Linguistics AA 2019/2020
Stress• Any change in spelling or pronunciation
• E.g. STRESS• à the impression of more energy in the articulation of the stressed
syllable, which usually results in its sounding louder and longer thanother syllables
• Sometimes a change in the stress pattern distinguishes the wordclass• E.g. NOUNS VERBS
‘contract con’tract‘import im’port‘permit per’mit
• The stress is a derivational affix (NOT conversion!)
Introducing English Linguistics AA 2019/2020
Blending
• The merging of two (often) longer words to form a new one • The first part of the first element is added to the second part of
the second element• fusion of their meanings
• E.g. brunch < Breakfast + Lunchglocal < Global + Localinfotainment < Information + EntertainmentBrexit < Britain + Exit
Also telescope words or portemanteau words
Introducing English Linguistics AA 2019/2020
Shortening• CLIPPING
• E.g. • Lab < laboratory à beginning• Plane < airplane à end• Phone < telephone à end• Flu < influenza à middle
BACKFORMATION• A presumed affix, which is in fact not truly an affix,
is removed• Analogy with other formations
• televise < television, editor < edit, babysit < babysitter
Introducing English Linguistics AA 2019/2020
Shortening• Initialism
• ALPHABETISMS UK < United Kingdom• ACRONYMS NATO < North Atlantic Treaty Organization
• Aphetic forms• The omission of the initial unstressed syllable• ‘cause < because
Introducing English Linguistics AA 2019/2020
Word classesReferences:
Required textbooks
• Discovering language (Lesley Jeffries)à chapter 3
• Words, meaning and vocabulary (Howard Jackson & Etinne ZéAmvela)
à pp. 21-22
Introducing English Linguistics AA 2019/2020
Word classes• Lexical words
• Nouns, Verbs, Adjectives, Adverbs
• Content words à they carry the meaning of a sentence
• Very large• Open-ended
• new nouns being invented all the time (technology and science, fashion)
• Grammatical words• Conjunctions, Prepositions,
Pronouns, Determiners, (Auxiliaries)• Function words à grammatical
information• Very small classes (closed classes)• Very slow to change
distinguished according to Morphological & Syntactic features
Introducing English Linguistics AA 2019/2020
• Noun
• Morphological properties• Plural suffix (Countable nouns)• Possessive morpheme ’s• Specific derivational suffixes: -ism, -hood, -ment
• Syntactic features• a noun is the ‘head’ of a noun phrase• it can occur after a definite or indefinite article or a determiner• may have a number of adjectives between the article and the noun
• Syntactic function in the clause• Subject: The crocodile (ate my hat)• Object: (The president announced) his plans• Complement: (This substance is) refined sugar• Adverbial: Every night (they sing a song)• Adjectival: world happiness report
Introducing English Linguistics AA 2019/2020
Verbs• Semantics
• Lexical verbs
• Modal verbs
• Auxiliary verbs
+ lexical meaning- grammatical meaning
- lexical meaning+ grammatical meaning
FULL/HEAVY VERBS
LIGHT VERBS
Introducing English Linguistics AA 2019/2020
VerbsLexical or full verbsq Depending on the context in which they occur• Intransitive
• SUBJ-VERB à do not require an Object to follow them
• Transitive• SUBJ-VERB-OBJà require an Object to complete them
• Ditransitive• SUBJ-VERB-OBJ1-OBJ2
à John sent his brother the letterà require the presence of two objects (Direct and Indirect)
Introducing English Linguistics AA 2019/2020
VerbsLexical or full verbsq Depending on the clause structures in which they typically occur
q verb complementation à require complementation with specific phrases
• Verbs with compulsory adverbials• The meaning relates the subject to time/space
• E.g. • The teacher put the books away/in the cupboard• The festival lasts for a week/all week
• Intensive (or copular) verbs • à require a single complement
à VERB + ADJ/NOUN/PP à an intrinsic connection between the Subject and the
Complement• Bill became a teacher / Carrie is tall à equivalence• there is a tree à existence
Introducing English Linguistics AA 2019/2020
• Adjectives• Morphological features
• Gradable• comparative and superlative forms (big, bigger, biggest)• regularly have preceding intensifying adverbs (totally awful)
• Non-gradable adjectives• meanings which cannot be modified by adverbs
• E.g. colour, material or nationality
• Functional features• Attributive and predicative functions
• Adverbs• Form (single word, prepositional phrases)• Function: Adjective modifier, Verb modifier, Sentence modifier
Introducing English Linguistics AA 2019/2020
Grammatical word classes• Functions:
• To make explicit the links between lexical words• To create the context in which the lexical words can operate
successfully.
• Auxiliary & modal verbs• Dummy do• Progressive be• Passive be• Perfective have• Modals & (epistemic and deontic) modality
Introducing English Linguistics AA 2019/2020
• Pronouns• Syntactic function
• they can be subjects, objects and complements• Textual function
• They substitute for more complex nouns and noun phrases in order to make the language more efficient and avoid repetition
• ‘anaphoric’ reference and ‘cataphoric’ reference
• Determiners• Syntactic distribution
• Determiners (before the noun or the adjective)• Predeterminers (specify quantity in the noun which follows them)
• Semantic properties• Define the head noun in certain ways in relation to the context
and the speaker
Introducing English Linguistics AA 2019/2020
• Prepositions• Single word
• in, on, under, over, through, by, near, for, to, of• Complex prepositions
• because of, next to, as well as, in addition to, with respect to
• Conjunctions• Coordinating & Subordinating
Introducing English Linguistics AA 2019/2020
SyntaxPhrases
References:
Required textbooks
• Discovering language (Lesley Jeffries)à chapter 4
Introducing English Linguistics AA 2019/2020
• PHRASE• Structure: head (obligatory) + modifiers (optional)
• the head • is semantically the most important element• cannot be omitted• can sometimes be pronominalised
• NOUN PHRASES• Structure:
• Recursion & embedded structures • à relative clauses• à PPs
• Parsing and representation
Appositive NounsNon-finite clauseSome AdjectivesSome Adverbs
Introducing English Linguistics AA 2019/2020
• VERB PHRASE• No recursion• Restriction on the sequence of modals, auxiliaries & lexical verbs
• ADJECTIVE PHRASE• Form (Simple unit: single word; Complex unit: complement)• Function
• premodifier of the head noun in a noun phrase • complement of intensive verbs
• ADVERB PHRASE • Form: single word• Functions (adverbial in a clause structure, adjective premodifier)
• PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE• Form: P+NP• Main functions
• noun phrase postmodifier , adjective postmodifier, adverbial clause element
Introducing English Linguistics AA 2019/2020
SyntaxClauses & Sentences
References:
Required textbooks
• Discovering language (Lesley Jeffries)à chapter 5
Introducing English Linguistics AA 2019/2020
• Clauses à a grammatical unit consisting of clause elements (usually a subject and a predicator)
• Clauses combine together to make complex sentences• Utterances• Clause elements in English
• Subject (Subj)• Function: Actor• Form: NP, Subordinate clause:• Distribution: Usually precedes the predicator; no subject in imperative structures
and subordinate clauses
• Predicator (Pred)• Form: few forms• Function: what is said about the S; Action, state, process• Distribution: normally follows the subject
• Object (Obj)• Function: the element affected by the verb, object that is not affected but
created by the action of the verb• Form: NP, clause• Distribution: after the predicator
Introducing English Linguistics AA 2019/2020
• Indirect Object (IO)• Function: Beneficiary• Form: a noun phrase or a pronoun• Distribution: precedes the direct object or placed into an adverbial (PP)
• Complement (Comp) • Form: NP, ADJ_P• Function: used to complete what we know about something or somebody
already mentioned (S or O)• Distribution: subject complements after the verb, object complements after
the object
• Adverbial (Adv)• Form: ADV_P, PP, NP• Function: describes the circumstances in which the process of the clause
takes place; expresses modality• Distribution:
• Adjuncts: They have a potential for mobility that the other clause elements lack• Compulsory Adverbials: after the predicator
Introducing English Linguistics AA 2019/2020
Form and function relationships
Form FunctionNoun phrase Subject, Object, Adverbial, ComplementVerb phrase PredicatorAdjective phrase ComplementAdverb phrase AdverbialPrepositional phrase Adverbial Clause Subject, Object
Introducing English Linguistics AA 2019/2020
Seven basic clause structures
• Kernel sentences (simple clauses)• Basic structures which underlie most of the sentences in English
• SP: They ran• SPO: They played music• SPC: The journey was a nightmare/terrible• SPA: Mr Stevens went to London• SPOO: Philip sent me a present• SPOC: My mum made me an artist/artistic• SPOA: The conductor placed his baton on the music stand
Introducing English Linguistics AA 2019/2020
Clauses & SentencesInformation structureText & Context
References:
Required textbooks
• Discovering language (Lesley Jeffries)à chapter 5à chapter 7 (pp. 182-187)
Introducing English Linguistics AA 2019/2020
Clauses• Coordination & Subordination
• A) Coordination • does not change the structure, but simply adds some content to it• Two units are given equal status
• à coordination of words/phrases• à coordination of two whole clauses
• B) Subordination• à Embedding of phrases (e.g. NP: Postmodifying PPs, premodifying
Nouns)• à Embedding of clauses
• In the NP (relative clauses)• At the level of a clause element (noun clauses (S, O, C), adverb clauses
(adjuncts))
Introducing English Linguistics AA 2019/2020
Information structure• The normal clause in English • à the new information tends to occur towards the end of the
clause
• There are some ways of altering the information focus of clauses = placing one clause element in a focal position• A) Fronting• B) Cleft sentence• C) Transformations (e.g. passive)
Introducing English Linguistics AA 2019/2020
Text & text analysis• Text and discourse analysis is about how
• sentences combine to form texts. • texts work across boundaries of single sentences to form whole
stretches of language
• Coherence • à is the way in which ideas in a text are linked logically
• Cohesion • the linking mechanism between sentences • serves to make sure that a text is not simply a random series of
unconnected sentences• à is the way in which different parts of a text may refer to each other
(linking devices, pronouns, etc).
Introducing English Linguistics AA 2019/2020
Cohesive linksCohesive links
• are textual rather than contextual
• make an explicit connection between the sentences in a text.
• Six different groups:• Repetition• Reference• Substitution• Ellipsis• Conjunction• Lexical cohesion
Introducing English Linguistics AA 2019/2020
Context
References:
Required textbooks
• Discovering language (Lesley Jeffries)à pp. 190-192
Introducing English Linguistics AA 2019/2020
Context• The language we use is affected by the people we interact with, our status in particular
situations, our recent experiences, our place of origin, our political, religious or social outlook
• Some of these factors are described by sociolinguistics, dialectology, pragmatics,conversation analysis and stylistics
• One aspect of meaning that is both textual and contextual in nature:
• Deixis is one feature of reference that is so pervasive and significant in terms of textualmeaning
• Function à to make direct links with the situational context of the speaker or writer
• Form à is textually based in English (e.g. adverbs of place (e.g. here and there)
Introducing English Linguistics AA 2019/2020