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Volume 19, Number 4, 2011

LIGHT & ENGINEERING

Znack Publishing House, Moscow

ISSN 0236-2945

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Editor-in-Chief: Julian B. Aizenberg

Associate editor: Sergey G. Ashurkov

Editorial Board: Lyudmila V. Abramova Alexander T. OvcharovArtyom E. Ataev Leonid B. PrikupetsVictor V. Barmin Vladimir M. PyatigorskyVladimir P. Budak Anna G. ShakhparunyantsAndrey A. Grigoryev Alexei K. SolovyovAlexei A. Korobko Raisa I. StolyarevskayaDmitry O. Nalogin Alexander I. Tereshkin

Konstantin A. Tomsky

Moscow, 2011

Foreign Editorial Advisory Board:Lou Bedocs, Thorn Lighting Limited, United KingdomWout van Bommel, Philips Lighting, the NetherlandsPeter R. Boyce, Lighting Research Center, the USAMarc Fontoynont, Ecole Nationale des Travaux Publics de l'Etat (ENTPE), FranceLuciano Di Fraia, University of Naples, ItalyDietrich Gall, Institut für Lichttechnik und Technische Optik, Ilmenau, GermanyFranz Hengstberger, National Metrology Institute of South AfricaWarren G. Julian, University of Sydney, AustraliaZeya Krasko, OSRAM Sylvania, USARoss McCluney, Florida Solar Energy Center, USAEvan Mills, Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, USAHiroshi Nakamura, Kyushu University, JapanHans-Joachim Richter, TRILUX-LENZE GmbH + Co KG, GermanyLucia R. Ronchi, Higher School of Specialization for Optics, University of Florence, ItalyJanos Schanda, University of Veszprem, HungaryNicolay Vasilev, Sofi a Technical University, BulgariaJennifer Veitch, National Research Council of Canada

LIGHT & ENGINEERING(Svetotekhnika)

CONTENTS

VOLUME 19 NUMBER 4 2011

LIGHT & ENGINEERING(SVETOTEKHNIKA)

Galina S. Mun, Nikolai I. Shumakov, and Natalia V. ShuryginaThe Architecture and Illumination of Sretensky Boulevard Metro Station 5

Leonid G. NovakovskyTrain Illumination is a Key Problem of Forming Underground Light Medium 10

Leonid P. Varfolomeyev Design Quality of Illumination Devices with Light Emitting Diodes and Practical Fields of Their Application 26

Alexander A. Bogdanov and Alexei E. MokhnatkinInnovative LED-Based Solutions 36

Maxim E. Reunov Lighting Equipment with ZERS Light Emitting Diodes for Street, Industrial and Architectural Illumination 44

Sergei A. Borovkov Philips Lighting’s Experience in the Application of Light Emitting Diodes for Lighting in Various Facilities 48

Igor K. SergeevProspective Developments of UOMZ Production Association Open Society in the Field of Lighting Devices with Light Emitting Diodes 59

Jennifer Tracy and Evan MillsIlluminating the Pecking Order in Off-Grid Lighting 67

Roman FuchsNew Light Sources and their Requirements on Refl ector Materials 77

Alexander V. LeonidovConcerning Photoreceptors of the Path of the Human Body Circadian Rhythm Control 81

Tatayna B. Gorshkova, Victor I. Sapritsky, and Raisa I. StolyarevskayaMetrological Basis of Light Measurements in Russia 84

Igor M. KozlovAutomatic Control of Illumination in Apartments 94

Tatyana S. Vasilyeva and Yuri V. Nazarov The Lighting Design of Clothes 99

Contents #1 107Contents #2 108Contents #3 109

Scientifi c EditorsSergey G. Ashurkov Raisa I. Stolyarevskaya

Style EditorMarsha Vinogradova

Art and CAD EditorAndrey M. Bogdanov

Editorial Offi ce:VNISI, Rooms 327 and 334 106 Prospekt Mira, Moscow 129626, Russia Tel: +7.495.682.26.54 Tel./Fax: +7.495.682.58.46 E-mail: [email protected] http://www.svetotekhnika.com

Znack Publishing House P.O. Box 648, Moscow, 101000, Russia Tel./Fax: +7.495.361.93.77

© Svetotekhnika, 2009© Znack Publishing House, 2009

Moscow Power Engineering Institute Press

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Light & Engineering SvetotekhnikaVol. 19, No. 4, pp. 5-9, 2011 No. 4, 2011, pp. 4-7

The fi rst architectural projects of Sretensky Boul-evard station started to appear in the early nineties. Because of the economic situation in the country at that time, it was impossible to keep up the design project, but fi nally after many years the design say, light, if artifi cial.

What main ideas were used in developing the de-sign? Firstly, it was addressing to the heritage of its founding fathers, the architects of the fi rst line of the Moscow underground, Dushkin, Colly, Ladovsky, Fomin, Chechulin and Shchusev. Their legacy com-mands a lot of respect. The idea of continuing the traditions of the Moscow underground is refl ected in the ensemble confi guration of the new objects in their modern interpretation, in the use of decora-tive and artistic elements of the highest quality. All elements of the interiors are hi-tech and esthetically represent modern day levels. Marble, granite, gabbro and stainless steel are used for the facing.

Decorative ‘umbrellas’ of glass-reinforced plas-tic for water protection are installed over the vaults of the station middle and platform halls, in change unit halls and on vaults of escalator tunnels.

The platform hall of the station is a three-neve construction with a middle hall of 9.5 m in diameter and two side halls with boarding platforms of 8.5 m diameter. Between the side and middle halls, there are passages 3.2 m wide.

A spacious light middle hall (Fig. 1) is built ac-cording to classical architectural traditions. A com-plicated rhythm of metal gantries and marble nich-es, quiet granite fl oors, white as though luminous vaults, fanciful pylons, complex illumination sys-

ABSTRACT

The article presents an essay about architectural features and illumination of the Moscow metro sta-tion (station system) Sretensky Boulevard from the architects of this station.

Keywords: Moscow metro (underground), sta-tion, Sretensky Boulevard, middle hall, side halls, escalators, passages, lobby, luminaires, fl uorescent lamps, white light emitting diodes

ARCHITECTURE

Sretensky Boulevard metro station (station sys-tem) is located in one of the most complicated trans-port town-building unit under Turgenevskaya square in Moscow. It forms a triangle with Turgenevskaya and Chistye Prudy stations and has interchanges with these stations. The station lobby adjoins an un-derground pedestrian crossing, as well as common lobby of Turgenevskaya and Chistye Prudy stations.

The station is located in the historical city centre among architecture memorials from the XVIII-XX centuries, including: ET CETERA theatre building, Lukoil Company, Central Post Offi ce and ground lobby of Chistye Prudy station. Turgenevskaya square adjoins Myasnitsky street, prospekt of Acad-emician Sakarov, Sretensky and Chistoprudny Boul-evards and square of Myasnitsky gate. The location of Sretensky Boulevard station makes high demands on the quality and nature of its architecture.

This deep station of pier type in cast iron tubing lining is located at a depth of 60 m.

THE ARCHITECTURE AND ILLUMINATION OF SRETENSKY BOULEVARD METRO STATION

Galina S. Mun, Nikolai I. Shumakov, and Natalia V. Shurygina

Metrogiprotrans Open Society, Moscow E-mail: [email protected]

Light & Engineering Vol. 19, No. 4

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underground, is transferred from Chistye Prudy station to a new specially prepared site.

The side halls of the station (Fig. 2) are saturated with fan-ciful architectural inventions, cheering-up the space. Conver-sations about the priority of rails, cross ties, wires and on construc-tion methods, which are impor-tant as well, are sidelined here because they have an indirect re-lation to architecture.

Sretensky Boulevard station turned out to be surprisingly im-aginative and sincere, it became a subject of artistic debate. It has provided a cause to talk about high underground architecture.

2. ILLUMINATION

2.1. Platforms / Middle hall

The general illumination of the middle hall is per-formed using cornice luminaires. Invisible to pas-sengers, they represent a modular system of illumi-nation with fl uorescent lamps (FL) Т5 and specular refl ectors. Due to asymmetric distribution of light falling to the white vault of the central hall, it is uni-formly illuminated over all its plane and serves as a refl ecting surface.

In order to illuminate the art compositions, light-ing devices of directional light are installed in the

tem evoke a heartfelt response from passengers, in-cluding architects. Following the laws of the genre, each niche is fi lled with objects of monumental art. Art components are arranged in a uniform compo-sition: life of Boulevard ring in all its variety: stat-ues of Pushkin, Timiryazev, Griboedov interspersed with memorials of architecture and small-sized ob-jects. These images are interlaced with trees and clouds, penetrated with human fi gures, and one can recognize familiar silhouettes in some of them. The technology of the compositions accomplishment is complex and multi-plane: etched ferrous metal with polishing and painting. The statue of S.M. Ki-rov created by a well-known Soviet sculptor M.G. Manizer is part of a huge art heritage of the Moscow

Fig. 1. Middle hall views

Fig. 2. Views of side halls


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station, it is a safety component: immediately after train stop, the luminous strip of light goes out. And this is a visual signal inviting to enter cars.

2.3. Passages to metro stations Chistye Prudy and Turgenevskaya

Passages to Chistye Prudy and Turgenevskaya stations deserve separate attention (Fig. 4). Being original due to unusual confi guration, at which a vis-ible boundary between walls and fl oor is unavaila-ble, they have also obtained a complex illumination system. Luminaires of extruded aluminum profi le with white diffusing grids installed on wall support arms, are smoothly replaced with pendant luminaires in cundies forming almost a closed system.

2.4. Escalators

The escalators are illuminated with a new model of support escalator luminaires (Fig. 3), where light does not blind passengers. Light sources are two compact FLs of 80 W power. They are not visible from the top or bottom. The supports of the lumi-naires are made thin as much as possible, and their light optical part is located at a height not easily ac-cessible to passengers. To be easily serviceable, cas-es of the luminaires can rotate by 90 degrees.

2.5. Lobby

The station lobby is illuminated using a most complicated system of continuous luminous lines

middle hall pylons. Three lighting modules with MHLs of 35 and 75 W power are united in one hous-ing organically blending with the general architec-tural composition. Thanks to a small scattering angle and cardan method of fi xing, these lighting devices completely fulfi lled their task and illuminated metal compositions according to the intention.

In the passages between the side and middle halls, luminaires of cylindrical confi guration with FLs Т5 are installed for illumination of information boards and to compensate for the lack of illumina-tion in the passages.

2.2. Platforms / Side halls

Some of luminaires which are used in the side halls (ceiling luminaires) are integral parts of the vault, and other ones accentuate the boundary of the platform edge.

A feature of the ceiling luminaires is the avail-ability of two reflectors primary and secondary ones that allow complete excluding ring FLs be-ing light sources out of the visual fi eld. Each lumi-naire is fi xed on a graceful support arm installed on a panel with a niche of ovoid type. In this case the luminaire and the panel were developed as a uniform structure which as a whole is a successful example of a state-of-the art solution.

For visual accentuation of the platform edge, a luminous strip of luminaires with white light emit-ting diodes (LED) is applied. A glass cover of 20 mm thickness ensures their high loading ability. Light from these luminaires not only decorates the

Fig. 3. Views of escalators


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to small power consumption (9 W/ m), to high protection level (IP 66) and wide working temperature interval from – 40 to +50˚ C, these luminaires can be applied not only indoors but also outside. They are almost maintenance-free, have a vandal-protected structure, and their luminous fl ux is controlled using a dimmer located in a remote transformer cabinet.

2.6. Underground pedestrian crossing

When reconstructing the illumination of the underground passage existing for a long time and adjoining the station, it was necessary to replace old luminaires with new ones without exceeding set power

limits. This task was solved using luminaires with two Т5 FLs and a special hatch in the case (for easy service). It was possible to achieve a greater illumi-nance at the same power consumption.

2.7. Additional information

New luminaires for underground is a result of teamwork of architects and designers of Metro-giprotrans Open Society and of bps Company (the manufacturer of the luminaires). Choice of appear-ance and design of the luminaires is a priority to the architect, and a primary task of the manufacturing company is ensuring energy effi ciency, high reliabil-ity, acceptable cost, etc.

Especially high demands are made of under-ground luminaires. After light source is selected and

crossing the ceiling space in three directions and di-viding the ceiling into many triangles. The lighting system is based on rectangular profi les of extruded aluminum equipped with modules of Т5 FLs located with an overlap and covered with matte acrylic dif-fusers (Fig. 5).

Hand-railings of stainless steel with built-in white LEDs are installed on staircases of the lobby. Simplicity and reliability of the structure and high protection level (IP54) allow installing these hand-railings not only indoors but also on external stair-cases at station exits.

To mark beginnings and ends of staircase fl ights, luminous stripes of luminaires with LED modules built-in in fl oor are made. Cases of the luminaires are manufactured from stainless steel, and LED modules are encapsulated with polyurethane resin. Thanks

Fig. 4. Passage to Chistye Prudy station

Fig. 5. Lobby views (a ceiling part)


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luminaire appearance is determined to be blended or-ganically with the broader artistic concept of the sta-tion, the specialists face the problem of lighting sys-tem linkage to architectural structures, development of fi xing units, embedded parts and support arms. Often serial models of luminaires undergo consider-able changes and are added with special structural el-ements, or absolutely new luminaires are developed for specifi c tasks. A necessary requirement to all el-ements of luminaires is a possibility of adjustment, alignment and fi tting on-site, because at underground objects just as at other construction objects, devia-

tions from design sizes take place as well, and ease in mounting and in service are a priority.

The achievement of an architecturally corre-spondence and functional illumination systems is the primary goal, which is only achieved as a result of close contact and cooperation between architects, designers and light engineers.

The authors are grateful to architects co-authors of Sretensky Boulevard station

Ya.V. Mun, N.S. Trusilova, and to artist I.L. Lubennikov.

Galina S. Mun is an architect. She is graduated from the Moscow Architectural Institute (MArhI) in 1977 and at present main architect of the architectural department of Metrogiprotrans Open Society, author and co-author of many architectural objects, including 12 stations of the Moscow underground. Many objects designed by her, have been recognized at national and international competitions, festivals, and shows. Projects of Mayakovskaya stations (second exit) and of Ljublinsko-Dmitrovskaya line, including Sretensky Boulevard station as well (she directly designed a platform section of the station) have been awarded Gold and Silver diplomas of International Festival “Zodchestvo”

Nikolai I. Shumakov, an architect.He is graduated from the MArhI in 1977. At present, he is the main architect and the chief of the architectural department of Metrogiprotrans Open Society, author and co-author of many metro (underground) stations both in Moscow (more than 14) and in other cities, and also author of the fi rst cable-braced bridge in Moscow (which received the higher award of the Union of Moscow architects “Golden section”), of an air terminal system “Vnukovo-1”, etc., member of the Union of architects of the Russian Federation, Academic of the Russian Academy of Arts, professor of the International Academy

of Architecture, Honoured architect of the Russian Federation. Many objects created under his leadership, are recognized at national and at international competitions, festivals, and shows. In particular, projects of Vorobevy gory, Park Pobedy, Mayakovskaya (second exit) stations and of Lyublinsko-Dmitrovskaya line, including Sretensky Boulevard station (where he directly supervised main space-planning work), have been awarded by Silver diplomas of the International Festival “Zodchestvo”

Natalia V. Shurygina, an architect. She is graduated from the Moscow Architectural Institute (MArhI) in 1977. At present she is Deputy Chief of the architectural department of Metrogiprotrans Open Society, author and co-author of many architectural objects, including more than 10 metro stations. Projects of Lyublinsko-Dmitrovskaya line stations, including Sretensky Boulevard station as well (where she fulfi lled a work package on acceptance of architectural-and-planning solution of the all station volume), were awarded a gold diploma of the international festival “Zodchestvo”, and Zhivopisny bridge with a built-in restaurant was

awarded with the prize of Moscow in literature and art fi eld (Architecture section). It was also awarded with the higher award of the Union of Moscow architects “Golden section”

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vals, are only switched on at night after traffi c ceas-es, and illuminate maintenance works. So the track is normally only illuminated by trains (Fig. 1).

Track illumination using IDs installed on the leading car infl uences the entire illumination sys-tem of the underground [1]. The reason for this that the driver’s vision, when moving in a tunnel, adapts to the very faint illumination created in the tunnel by the headlights as autonomous IDs (Fig. 2). Un-characteristically low current standards for exter-nal IDs are evidence of this: «… 1.0 lx at a distance of 305 m from the car of both board headlights at the rail head level …». This is due to the fact that the illumination system has been maintained at a low level of technical capability since its develop-ment in 1935.

However, the illumination level on station plat-forms is much higher, because it is driven by pas-senger safety requirements, and so the driver’s eyes must adapt quickly when pulling into a station. This

ABSTRACT

The advantages of using light emitting diode light sources in newly developed illumination devices for underground trains on the Moscow Metro (head-lamp-clusters, ceiling luminaires for cars and driv-ers’ cabins) are described. The early achievements of PHAROS-ALEF Joint-Stock Company in this respect are presented.

Keywords: underground, station, car, driver’s cab, headlight, headlamp-cluster, illumination de-vices (ID), luminaire, lamp, light source, HIL, xenon MHL, fl uorescent lamp, light emitting diode (LED), adaptive system.

1. DEVICES FOR TRACK ILLUMINATION

Stationary illumination devices in underground tunnels of the Moscow Metro, installed at 6 m inter-

TRAIN ILLUMINATION IS A KEY PROBLEM OF FORMING UNDERGROUND LIGHT MEDIUM

Leonid G. Novakovsky

PHAROS-ALEF Joint-Stock Company, Moscow Е-mail: [email protected]

Light & Engineering SvetotekhnikaVol. 19, No. 4, pp. 10-25, 2011 No. 4, 2011, pp. 8-14, 16-21

Fig. 1. A tunnel view with autonomous illumination by underground car headlights (a) and by tunnel luminaire stationary illumination (b)


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fortable light medium and improve the appearance and perception of the decorative architectural fea-tures of the halls (Fig. 3). The latter appeared to be only possible for pier-style stations. It should be noted that earlier [2] the levels of Ep = 40 − 50 lx and of Eh = 65−85 lx were considered to be suffi -cient. It is diffi cult to agree with this, because most of halls have considerably dimmer illumination than natural daylight average levels, and because the ad-justment for the visual apparatus passing from a light medium to a dark one is rather long and as-sociated with discomfort, all leading to reduced passenger safety. However, the authors of publica-tion [2], in their following article [3] even considered levels of Eh = 400 lx and Eh = 200 lx as appropri-ate. This only confi rms their subjective approach to

process repeats every 4−5 minutes and as a result leads not only to excessive fatigue and to provokes eye complaints prematurely, but also signifi cantly reduces the traffi c safety level.

As a result, a low luminance level for driver adaptation in tunnels has made it necessary to set different illuminance levels in various areas of the station: a lowered level on platforms (Еp) [1] (Ta-ble 1) and a raised level in station halls (Еh). Firstly, it was necessary to reduce illuminance level differ-ence between the track in tunnels from leading car headlights at 20 m distance (Еt = 6 − 10 lx), and on platforms (Ep = 40 − 45 lx) in order to somehow en-sure driver working capacity. Secondly, there was a need to increase the illuminance of halls with rare exceptions (Eh =100 − 250 lx), to ensure a com-

Table 1. Illuminance levels in various areas of station space

№ STATION TYPE Illuminance, lx

hall(Еh)

platform (Еp) Еh/Еp

1 Partizanskaya (columned) 70 70 1.0

2 Semyonovskaya (pier) 113* 152 0.74

3 Electrozavodskaya (pier) 240 40–70 4.0

4 Baumanskaya (pier) 70 40–50 1.7

5 Kurskaya radial (pier) 42 34–37 12

6 Ploschad Revolutsii (pier) 100 55 19

7 Arbatskaya (pier) 90 47 19

8 Voljskaya (one-vaulted) 30 30 10

9 Lyublino (one-vaulted) 250 70 3.5

10 Tulskaya (one-vaulted) 100 90 1.1

Fig. 2. Nature of a tunnel illumination by train headlights:a – light beam of headlights orientation diagram relative to the road surface in the vertical plane; b – traditional headlight

illuminance distribution in the vertical plane


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The illuminance measurements performed in the Moscow underground confi rm the all of the above (Table 1).

The results given above make it possible to con-clude the following:

– The projects of all stations set a minimum pos-sible difference (4–6 times) between Еt of autono-mous IDs and Ep;

– The projects of all pier stations unfortunately set a difference between Ep and Eh (1.7–4 times), which is suffi cient to cause discomfort;

– Complying with the ratios above does not al-low raising Eh over 120 lx and Ep over 50 lx without negative impact both on drivers, and on passengers.

Hence, in order to exclude a negative effect of il-lumination, it is necessary to ensure a reasonable equalisation of Eh, Ep and Еt. Certainly, Eh and Ep values for every station can be bespoke, set in rea-sonable limits corresponding to their architectural features. The illumination system should be dynam-ic, and train IDs should play the role of a master link in it to adapt visual apparatus of the driver for his/her work to be comfortable.

For example, equalisation of Eh and Ep has al-ready been partly implemented on the Kharkov under-ground [9], but a very low Еt level naturally leads to a negative result, which is excessive fatigue of drivers.

standardisation, which is also evidenced by subjec-tive qualitative evaluations of illumination, which were considered as an appropriate method in some other works [4 − 6].

It is obvious that there is no compromise when setting standard illuminance in tunnels and on plat-forms, which in the fi rst case is dictated by condi-tions of economic feasibility, i.e. using minimum power input, and in the second case, by passenger safety with support of an acceptable illuminance level avoiding the painful readaptation of the driv-er’s eyes. As a result, platform illumination, where possible, is essentially fainter than in halls, and this causes discomfort for passengers and makes it al-most impossible to appropriately illuminate decora-tive architectural features. It must be mentioned here that standards for the illuminance of underground functional areas as well as of their ratios are absent from the main standard document [7]. There are only various recommendations [8] on illuminance in operating areas (300 lx), waiting areas (200 lx) and in entrance halls (150 lx) of railway (not under-ground) stations, which is close but not completely appropriate. However these standard values are be-ing ignored anyway.

The existing illumination level of these areas is apparently a result of experimental research.

Fig. 3. Illuminances taken into consideration in station and tunnel spaces: Еh, – on the average in a hall, Ep, – on a platform, Еt – on a track. Types of stations: pier (a) and one-vaulted (b)

Fig. 4. Principle of the blinding effect of headlight refl ected light


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Along with lighting characteristics of an illu-mination system itself, the problem can be effi -ciently solved by adjusting the headlight beam cor-rectly. An analysis of train headlights showed that the overwhelming majority are adjusted incorrectly (Fig. 5).

As results, there are dramatic decrease of the vis-ibility distance (to 70 %) and blinding of the passen-gers standing on the platform. The main cause of the blinding effect on passengers and drivers is not the headlight illuminance level but diffusion angle of the horizontal plane of the beam.

This can be proven by using calculations of blind-ness factor Cf according to an expression from arti-cle [11]. These evaluations show that increase of a beam diffusion angle by one degree with an invari-able illuminance formed by a headlight on the track in front of the driver, raises Сf by 20–25 %, whereas increase of luminous intensity twice with invariable diffusion angle, increases Сf by 13 % only due to a raised luminance of the adaptation fi eld. It means that when designing head lamp clusters, it is neces-sary to narrow the diffusion angle of the light beam as much as possible without fear of luminous inten-sity increase.

A similar conclusion is suggested when analysing the mechanism of blinding passengers on a platform (Fig. 6). Adjustment of the light beam appears to be a dominating factor, because it predetermines light refl ection from the wall plane to the passengers. And if the diffusion angle of the beam is large, the prob-ability and degree of blinding is higher than with small diffusion angles of the light beam.

Modernisation of the train illumination system should take into consideration the described con-cepts, ensuring a perfection of underground illumi-nation system as a whole, namely:

A reasonable question arises: is Eh, Ep and Еt equalisation possible at all? The answer is yes: it is possible, and with a decrease in power consumption.

At the same time the modernisation process is supported by recent standard parameters dictated by sight physiology research [10].

The currently used standard illuminance parame-ter of 1 lx, which determines in essence Еt level cor-responding to the illuminance on the rail head from two headlights at a distance of 305 m, can hardly be satisfactory, because it does not correspond in any way to the standard criterion «critical illuminance Ecr» used when standardising external IDs of vehi-cles. Consequently, in accordance with contempo-rary concepts, the level of the specifi ed Еt should be not less than 5 lx [10], i.e. it should equal the conditions of object identifi cation in the road (light and other signals as well as signs illuminated with headlights).

Another problem of ID operation in a tunnel is blinding from the refl ected light of headlights. The light is refl ected off the ribs of the cover tubing of a tunnel vault and caused by redundancy of diffu-sion angle of the light beam in the horizontal plane. And this redundancy is caused by use of automobile headlights with a horizontal plane diffusion angle of 30 о as head IDs for underground cars. This leads not only to an ineffi cient use of luminous fl ux of the light sources (the light mainly falls on tunnel walls with tunnel diameter of about 6 m), but also results in the uncomfortable refl ection, causing surplus il-luminance of the driver’s eyes (Fig. 4) and blinding of the driver. Taking into consideration the repeating appearance of the ribs, the blinding effect is a pulsat-ing one, which aggravates its negative consequences (the psychological blinding effect).

Fig. 5. Incorrect adjustment of headlights


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• Two head lamp-clusters containing two light optic parts each, with xenon MHLs («xenon» au-tolamps) of D class with the HIL Н1 socle and with protection glass without diffusion elements;

• Two headlights of large diameter, 1930 s de-sign modernised for use with xenon MHLs;

• Two light emitting diode lamp-clusters, origi-nal design.

1.1. Head lamp-clusters with halogen incandescent lamps

Traditional headlights of the Soviet period cars, which have been used in new cars (Fig. 7), contain HILs of АКГ 24–70 type (Н1) in combination with a lower beam optics with 170 mm outlet hole diam-eter, which ensure in mass production an average Ep value not exceeding 0.43 lx at a standard dis-tance of 305 m. Using these traditional headlights, and taking into account necessary spares, demands at least four headlights on each side, of which two will be working at a time, but even in this case Еt total value (0.43×4) does not exceed 1.76 lx that is lower than Ecr = 5 lx value. It should be noted here that because of low effi ciency of these IDs, the requirement for their duplication in new cars is gen-erally ignored, as it was ignored with old types of cars, where such a possibility was provided for by the structure (see, e.g. Fig. 6), but the desire to increase Еt forces operatives to switch on the all IDs at once.

Besides, as has already said, automobile car headlights have a large diffusion angle of the light beam in the horizontal plane: 30 о. And this, when operating in an underground tunnel of about 6 m di-ameter, leads to an unreasonable illumination of the tunnel vault (Fig. 4) and to light refl ection from tub-ing ribs with a relatively small distance to the driver (6 m and more) that forms illuminance level at the

• Increase of track illuminance at a distance of 305 m up to the standard level of 5 lx;

• Guarantee the possibility to adjust the head-light light beam without additional technological operations (ahead of the car, without the need to dismantle);

• Highest possible narrowing of the ID light beam diffusion angle.

These requirements can be met using differ-ent methods of light beam formation. Comparison of these methods, taking into account the limitations of the car structure, will suggest the most appropri-ate method.

Our analysis covered the following options:• Two head lamp-clusters containing two light

optic parts of high beam each, equipped with HILs of Н1 class (a traditional structural version);

Fig. 6. Principle of blinding passengers on a platform by train headlights: a – traditional headlights; b – head-

lights with light emitting diodes of a small radiation angle

Fig. 7. Versions of the traditional autonomous system of track illumination by car headlights


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essary for elimination of a blind hole in the image (Fig. 9). Therefore light incidence on the tunnel sur-face occurs far enough from the driver’s eyes, at a distance of more than 310 m, that essentially reduc-es illuminance at his/her eyes to 0.3 lx, practically eliminating the blinding effect.

A disadvantage of this solution was that the radia-tion angle of the lamp φ0 was more than angle φ, and this led to going out of direct lamp radiation and ac-cordingly, to blinding of the passengers on the plat-form. In order to eliminate this disadvantage, shield-ing had to be applied to direct rays in the headlights. Besides, the dimensions and style of these headlights were inappropriate to modern cars.

Due to use of automobile headlight standard op-tics of different times in underground cars, design-ers of underground cars created a certain stereotype of the headlight dimensions. Therefore, one problem when designing headlights for new cars, became the necessity to place them within old dimensions, that in turn assumed installation of D class xenon MHLs with light openings of 170 mm diameter in the high light optic part of the headlights. As design and op-erational experience has showed, this forms the av-erage value of ЕТ ≈ 1 lx at a standard distance of 305 m. So, using the traditional head lamp-cluster with 2 headlights on each board, in which one headlight of every board should work, can only provide total

driver’s eyes more than 2 lx, i.e. twice at least ex-ceeding the admissible by blindness.

The luminous fl uxes of these IDs falls by 30–40 % in 2–3 years of operation, which corresponds to Еt ≈ 1.06 lx. This worsens working conditions of the driver reducing traffi c safety signifi cantly. Although the measured service life of HILs is 2,000 h, as a result of a raised shock load in the process of rail vehicles movement, it decreases to approximately 1,000 h. Replacement of these lamps with a subse-quent adjustment, is labour-intensive and operating costs for 10 years is about 74,000 rubles.

1.2. Head lamp-clusters with xenon MHLs

These IDs appeared in the Moscow underground as a result of development of a retro headlight by PHAROS-ALEF Joint-Stock Company (Fg. 8) for a retro car reconstructed for the 75th anniversary of the Russian underground. The primary goal of this was an attempt to fi ll an old form with a new content.

The retro headlight cluster has provided a wide enough and convenient adjustment from ahead of the car, with refl ectors of a small coverage angle (φ = 80о), total, of two headlights, Еt ≈ 3.6 lx; it has prac-tically eliminated blinding of the driver, because light beam of each retro headlight was convergent due to lamp luminous body axial defocusing nec-

Fig. 8. Headlight modernisation when reconstructing underground cars from the 1930 s:a – a retro car view; b – a retro headlight view; c – luminous intensity distribution of the retro headlight with a xenon MHL

Fig. 9. Formation of a headlight light beam by a parabolic refl ector


16

sides the high lighting characteristics, this gives a number of clear advantages.

PHAROS-ALEF Joint-Stock Company has ac-cumulated a wealth of experience in developing IDs with light emitting diodes, which can work continu-ously for many years [12]. This allowed the com-pany to design and make headlights ready for batch production. These headlights ensure the Еt higher than 2.5 lx at the normalised distance and conse-quently at least the desired 5 lx from both board headlights, with a complete absence of blinding. The blinding is avoided by the fact that maximum diffu-sion angle of the light beam does not exceed 6о. Tak-ing into consideration the horizontal plane adjust-ment necessary for a composite effects of the two headlights light beams, illuminance at the driver’s eyes is no more than 0.2 lx, which does not cause blinding.

The possibility to control illuminance is especial-ly important when moving into stations and into tun-nels. It ensures the solution of at least two problems: elimination of blinding passengers on the platform, and avoiding the need of driver vision adaptation.

The latter is achieved by adding a specially de-veloped high frequency (HF) power supply and an LED control unit to the structure.

The advantages of such an approach are obvious, because the above mentioned HF unit built in the block-headlight is intended for onboard power sup-ply of 80 V voltage and ensures current stabilisation

Еt up to 2 lx, which is lower than the minimum 5 lx.

Illuminance on the driver’s eyes, which causes the blinding effect, will exceed 3.5 lx, which is on the verge of painful perception.

This effect can be avoided using a transparent dif-fuser without diffusion prisms, as was made in the retro car headlights. In this case the diffusion angle of the horizontal plane light beam is negative (con-vergent light beam), and the blinding effect is min-imal (illuminance at the driver’ eyes is no more than 0.3 lx). Such a structure of the diffusers al-lows reaching a big enough Еt equal to 3.4 lx, from two boards, at a normalised distance. But this value is still less than the necessary 5 lx.

In this case service life of the lamps and of the ignition unit is 2,500 h. The raised shock load does not reduce the service life of these lamps as there is no incandescent fi lament to damage. However to replace a lamp, the ID must be dismantles and the replacement carried out from behind, than again has to be gathered and adjusted. It is obvious that opera-tional costs in this case will be higher than when us-ing HILs: they will equal 310,000 rub. and more for 10 years of operation.

1.3. Head lamp-clusters with LED

Use of high power white LED in vehicle IDs changes the situation fundamentally, because, be-

Fig. 10. Layouts of the used illumination versions of platforms and tracks of Ploschad Revolutsii (a), Baumanskaya (b), Tretyakovskaya (c), Octyabrskaya and Mitino (d) stations of the Moscow underground


17

than three times. This in turn will allow increasing Ep up to 150–180 lx and so will make it practically equal to Eh. Taking into consideration the possibility of the head lamp-cluster light adjustment, the control system allows automatic and smooth changing level of the achieved illumination depending on the illu-mination nature of a station space that is determined by its decorative features. In this way the train illu-mination system is transformed into an adaptive one.

It is important to provide the possibility of de-signing ID structures of any confi guration, because it will allow a reconsideration of the traditional im-age of the train car, which is growing tired.

As the modernisation of the cars did not assume changes to the structure, it was decided to keep at this stage the traditional confi guration of niches for IDs. But even in this case, one can see that a compar-atively small area of the light opening of an ID with LEDs allows solving the stylistic problem in a radi-cally different way: to change confi guration of the new headlight so that it will better combine with the shape of the car (Fig. 11).

The headlight in Fig. 11 contains 24 LEDs united by an edge shell ring into a single unit 1 in the form of three lines displaced from each other and of a round 60 mm diameter lamp 2 adjoining them, with red LEDs. The head lamp-cluster is designed for cooling both by counter air fl ow, and using a radia-tor. For this purposes, it is supplied with an air inlet 3 with mechanical and waterproof fi lters 4 and 5 in-

and luminous fl ux control of the LEDs. This unit has essentially smaller size and cost than the stationary car power unit intended for HIL power supply with 24 V voltage and not allowing supporting a stable current value.

With the HF units, blinding of passengers on a platform is eliminated by decrease in luminous fl ux of the LEDs that is carried out automatical-ly before the train comes to a station, as has al-ready been said above. The degree of illuminance decrease determined in the test process, should ex-clude blinding of passengers and support adaptation luminance of the driver’s vision eliminating the need for adaptation.

According to Table 1, Ep does not exceed 40 lx. Station IDs are located either on the platform lat-eral surface side, or on the ceiling surface over the platform plane (Fig. 10). With due regard for partial shielding of the track by the platform itself and for a greater distance to the track from IDs, this leads as a result to a considerable decrease in track illumi-nance to values close to 18–20 lx when increasing light incidence angle.

Taking into account light distribution features of the head lamp-cluster (Fig. 10), maximum Еt will be reached at a distance of 120–150 m, and its value will be equal to 28–32 lx when working two head-lights. In this case, adaptation luminance Lad for the driver, which is formed by train IDs, will be equal to 10–12 cd/m2, i.e. will exceed the current value more

Fig. 11. Appearance and light distribution of a head lamp-cluster with a light-emitting diode light source (as an assembly):a – front view; b –rear view; c – two head lamp-clusters on the car; d – head lamp-cluster luminous intensity distribution


18

However this method practically solved the main problem: alignment of Lad of the driver’s vision in the station tunnel-platform-hall system.

Therefore, when designing headlights, the rela-tive effi ciencies and possibilities of these versions should be compared.

1.4. Evaluation of the product effi ciency

It is clear that effi ciency of a product is deter-mined by its main characteristics and by the possi-bility to maintain them during the service life. The following characteristics are important: lighting pa-rameters; service life; operational cost; illumination controllability when coming to a station or entering a tunnel, as well as when passing an opposing train; a possibility to develop IDs of various geometrical confi gurations; dimensions.

When determining the effi ciency as a ratio of the product parameters sum to their implementation cost [13, 14] on the basis of the design evaluations given in the full text of the article, making an un-equivocal conclusion on the appropriateness of us-ing a certain structure type according to p. 1.1–1.3 appears to be possible. These evaluations (see, e.g., Fig. 12) show an essential advantage of the light emitting diode structure, if their advantages are ful-ly exploited.

Comparative tests of traditional head lamp-clus-ters and of the head lamp-cluster with light emit-ting diodes of the structure suggested by PHA-ROS-ALEF Joint-Stock Company, have con-fi rmed that the proposed LED approach achieves

stalled at the input. Air circulation through the head lamp-cluster case is carried out by a fan 6. As it was already noted, stability of the lighting characteris-tics and illuminance control are ensured using au-tonomous power supply 7 and a built-in control unit.

The block-headlight is installed in the car niche on three adjustable ball joints allowing adjustment of the light beam relative to the rail head from the front without any installation procedures that is also important from the operational point of view.

The light optic part of the headlight is made tight so as to completely exclude its operation costs dur-ing the whole service life (10 years). During further operation, the head lamp-cluster will not be replaced as a whole, but its lighting and optical parts only.

Disadvantages block-headlight of this structure include:

• The necessity of including a cooling system as a fan built in the radiator to form a counter air fl ow, and consequently to arrange a protection against ex-traneous fi rm particles and water. This slightly rais-es the price of the product and also raises its oper-ating costs;

• Direct blinding of the driver of an opposing train when passing, is possible (a rare but occurring situation).

The fi rst disadvantage can be avoided by reduc-ing the number of LEDs and using the radiator only for cooling them. The second disadvantage can be avoided by adding an illuminance detector to the il-lumination control system (this raises the price of the system, though not signifi cantly), or by reducing the number of LEDs (and accordingly the illuminance).

Fig. 12. Comparison of headlight illumination systems of various structures by quality parameter R and by use effi ciency parameter G:

� – of four headlights with HILs Н1 of 175 mm diameter;� – the same with xenon MHLs D2 S;

� – of two headlights with MHLs D2 S of 210 mm diameter;� – of two headlights with light emitting diodes of a low power with a radiator cooling;

� – of two headlights with light emitting diodes of a middle power with an air forced and radiator cooling


19

riors. Unfortunately, current IDs and light installa-tions (LIs) with these IDs are not always suitable for this purpose.

The essence of the problem is in the following (Fig. 14): illuminance level ensured by current IDs, in the check points of the car, is about 100–110 lx in old style cars and about 500 lx in new style cars. Leaving the car, a passenger fi nds himself/herself on the platform with Ep of about 40 lx (Table 1), sub-stantially lower, and this causes an unacceptable dis-comfort and is accompanied by a long process of the visual adaptation for about ten minutes with consid-erable loss of luminous sensitivity [15].

a comfortable lighting medium in all areas of the underground.

As can be seen in Fig. 13, a substantial growth in the visibility distance and of the driver’s visual apparatus Lad takes place when using the described ID with LEDs. When passing stations, the following is observed: 1) there is no discomfort when coming to a station with a relatively high illumination level; 2) the discomfort decreases when passing stations with a high illumination level, which is formed by IDs in-stalled on the platform in the transition areas.

The presented analysis shows that use of LED-light sources allows creating a more effective illumi-nation systems at a lower power consumption with improved lighting, stylistic, ergonomic and econo-mic characteristics. These advantages and the result-ant improvement in traffi c safety, solve the main, previously unsolved problems of illumination level alignment in all functional underground areas. And this creates preconditions of ideal illumination both in respect of health and safety of the personnel and passengers, and from the point of view of architec-tural illumination of stations.

2. INNER ILLUMINATION OF CARS

The primary problem associated with the inter-nal illumination of underground cars is to provide a comfortable and safe light medium in their inte-

Fig. 13. Sites of a tunnel illuminated with traditional head lamp-clusters with HILs of 70 W power and with the proposed head lamp-clusters with light emitting diodes:

a – a direct site, four traditional headlights; b – a direct site, head lamp-clusters with light emitting diodes of PHAROS-ALEF Joint-Stock Company structure; c – a turn, four traditional headlights; d – a turn, head lamp-clusters with light emit-

ting diodes of PHAROS-ALEF Joint-Stock Company structure

Fig. 14. Schematic illuminance change in the car-platform system


20

er). These 30 CLs ensured a uniform illuminance distribution. Disadvantages of this structure were as follows: increase of service time compared with the previous version, because closed CLs often needed to be opened and closed (because of the low reli-ability and short service life of ILs), and they still did not ensure a comfortable illuminance level (no more than 100 lx), despite an increased light source power (up to 60 W).

The modernisation of E type cars in 1970, after which they became EG type cars (Fig. 1), did not address their internal illumination and all the above mentioned disadvantages. These cars still operate now in some cities.

In the late 1970 s the fi rst drive towards energy saving illumination technologies began. The un-derground did not stand still. The fi rst car of 81–717/714 type (Fig. 18), in which FLs appeared, went to the lines in 1978. In this car of 81–717/714 type (Fig. 17), 12 CLs were installed in a straight-line layout at the car centre, each with two FLs of 40 W power.

The main disadvantages inherent in IDs with FLs, such as ripples (light blinking), recycling and dis-

Taking into consideration that with new block-headlights containing LEDs (p. 1.3), Ep can reach 180–200 lx, interior illuminance level between 300–500 lx, can be kept.

As this takes place, another important problem obviously arises: the problem of economic effi cien-cy. Effi ciency analysis of IDs used for interior illu-mination of underground car, will help to resolve this problem.

Illuminance at a passenger seat in a car of 1935 design (Fig. 15), is formed by ceiling luminaires (CL) with ILs of 40 W power and is equal to about 100 lx which is slightly lower than normal for to-day. CLs with chromatic temperature of about 3,000 K ensure a uniform enough light distribution due to a great number of luminaires (24 pieces) and an ac-ceptable colour rendition (Ra ≈ 0.85).

Disadvantages of such an illumination system are: relatively low illuminance; CLs of an open type with unprotected (i.e. injury potential) light sources which have a low reliability and short service life.

Chronologically, the next underground car was the E type (1959–1969). Opened CLs here were re-placed with closed ones (Fig. 16) (ILs of 60 W pow-

Fig. 15. Appearance of the A car (1934–1976), reconstruction

Fig. 16. Appearance of the E car (1959–1969) before reconstruction (a) and after reconstruction (b) (from 1970 up to the present day it is named EG car)


21

have blinking effect in case of proper power supply and are not sensitive to pulse loads.

In order to directly replace the currently used fl uorescent lamps, PHFAROS-ALEPH Joint-Stock Company specially developed an extended light-emitting diode lamp (LEDL) for underground car illumination (Fig. 19). This lamp has a uniform dif-

posal restrictions due to mercury content, irrational use of luminous fl ux and presence of reactive load, were compounded by disadvantages specifi c to use in underground cars: additional diffusers and a trans-former raising voltage (from 80 to 220 V), hypersen-sitivity for pulse loads reducing FL service life, etc.

A disadvantage of internal illumination of this car type is CL installation in one line that causes an illu-minance decrease towards the sides of the car (over passenger seats). And on failure of a CL (Fig. 18,) illumination level of the considerable car part at ei-ther sides of the failed CL sharply falls.

In subsequent structural developments, the dis-advantages connected with CL location were taken into consideration. Instead of the central row, two rows of CLs located directly over the seats appeared. As this took place, CL discrete location in the 81–718/719 cars (development of 1992) (Fig. 18a,) in the «Yausa» cars (1999) (Fig. 18b,) and in the «Rusich» cars (Fig. 18c,) was replaced with a con-tinuous. But this naturally did not eliminate other disadvantages connected with FLs themselves.

The situation has radically changed with the emergence of LED sources, which do not have the main disadvantages of FLs.

Besides luminaires with LEDs have a wide enough spectrum and a greater service life than FLs, do not require special recycling conditions, do not

Fig. 17. Appearance of the 81–717/714 car (1978 – up to the present day)

Fig. 18. Appearance of cars 81–718/719 (a), 81–720 «Yauza» (b) and 760 «Rusich» (c)

Fig. 19. Extended light-emitting diode lamp with a built-in source of secondary power supply developed by PHAROS-

ALEF Joint-Stock Company:a – appearance; b – geometrical and connecting sizes


22

3. DRIVER’S CAB ILLUMINATION

The light climate in a driver’s cab, which to a large extent infl uence driver’s fatigue and therefore transportation safety, is ensured at least by condi-tions and level of his/her vision adaptation in the following situations: transition from light medium to dark (entering a tunnel); transition from dark me-dium to light (entering a station) and when blinding both by own headlight light refl ected from the vault of a tunnel, and by direct light of headlights of an opposing train.

Today all these conditions in essence predeter-mine current illuminance ratios Eh/Ep (Table 1) and Ep + Еdc/Еt [1], where Еdc is a certain normalised il-luminance in the driver’s cab.

An analysis of the specifi ed conditions shows that one cannot optimise them only by using headlights, because each of them assumes its own mechanism of response to irritation of the visual apparatus. For example, entrance into a tunnel being a transition from light medium to dark, is accompanied by a slow accommodation process and requires lumi-nance increase anticipating start of the movement, while exit from a tunnel to a platform, i.e. transition from dark area to light, is accompanied by a relative-ly fast adaptation that allows pre-emptive weaken-ing light of the headlights and so eliminates blinding of the passengers on the platform.

The blinding mechanism acts in another way. As has already been noted, blinding of a driver in the middle hall-platform-train-tunnel system is caused by light of his/her own headlights refl ected from the tunnel vault and by light of opposing train headlights. And taking into consideration that in a head lamp-cluster with light emitting diodes (p. 1.3), it was pos-sible to essentially reduce light beam diffusion angle to 6 о in the horizontal plane and thereby to practical-

fuse radiation along the length. Its chromatic tem-perature is 3,250 K.

The main differences of this LEDL from the FL, are a smaller power consumption due to a greater luminous effi cacy: 80 lm/W against 50 lm/W, and a more suitable radiation angle in the cross plane: ap-proximately 120 о.

Besides, the developed LEDL has a built-in source of secondary power supply ensuring it’s func-tioning with onboard circuit of 80 V voltage, which excludes the necessity to have in the CL a compart-ment with a voltage transformer, and this according-ly eliminates «inter lamp» dark areas (Fig. 20). The data given in Table 2 allows concluding that the new CL version for underground cars surpasses the old one by use effi ciency no less than by 25 %.

This clearly shows that use of extended LED lamps allows not only to reach illuminance levels up to 300–500 lx but also solving the main problem, which is to align as much as possible illuminance in all active spaces of the underground, and to do so cost-effectively.

Fig. 20. Rows of ceiling luminaires in a car:left number – luminaires with fl uorescent lamps; right

row – luminaires with extended light-emitting diode lamps

Fig. 21. Appearance and overall dimensions of a ceiling luminaire with light emitting diodes of PHAROS-ALEF Joint-Stock Company structure


23

nation system should be adaptive. For this purpose, it should have a built-in detector or several detec-tors of external illumination controlling luminous fl ux and light distribution of headlights when pass-ing, as well as to control illumination levels of the cabin (at eyes-high of the driver and at the control panel) when coming to a platform and into a tunnel. An analysis shows that an acceptable discomfort level is ensured with a horizontal illuminance at the driver’s eyes of approximately 100 lx, of which 70 lx are due to inner illumination and 30 lx are due to block headlights, and with vertical illuminance at the control panel of no more than 50–70 lx.

As this takes place, the CL structure with a con-trol system should not only assist to form a comfort-able light medium, but also be economically sound both from the energy saving point of view, and on the service life side, i.e. to ensure minimum opera-tional costs.

Taking all of this into account, PHAROS-ALEF Joint-Stock Company has designed a built-in CL (Fig. 22) of no more than 20 W power, of no more than 15 mm height, with the sides size of 300×300 mm, with chromatic temperature of 3,600 K and dif-fuse radiation. Power supply of the CL is carried out using onboard circuit of 80 V voltage.

ly exclude the blinding effect of light of own head-lights, the unique factor causing the blinding, re-mains strong enough illumination by opposing train headlights. It is possible to lower the arising discom-fort by means of forming high enough Lad. For this purpose, driver’s cab inner illumination is used.

This task in driver’s cabs of underground cars, which were manufactured until 2000, two luminaires performed: the one located on the back wall of the cab and the other one located on the ceiling. Total il-luminance at the control panel formed in such a way, was equal to 30 lx [1].

Obviously this value completely ensured forming of a necessary Lad level when passing an opposing train with the traditional illumination system, which provided illuminance at driver’s eyes no more than 10−20 lx. The value of 30 lx appears to be suffi cient for driver adaptation upon entering a station, because at present, Ep in the overwhelming majority of cases does not exceed 50 − 70 lx (Table 1). Increase of Еt and Ep inevitably leads to the necessity to increase Lad of driver’s eyes that can be provided by a com-bined effect of the driver’s cab CL and of the own headlights. Besides, in order to eliminate the blind-ing effect of the headlights of an opposing train and of external illumination of the platform, this illumi-

Table 2. Some characteristics of the car ceiling luminaire with a light-emitting diode lamp and of the traditional fl uorescent lamp analogue it replaced

№ Characteristics

Lamp type

fl uorescent light-emitting diode

1. Chromatic temperature, К 4,200 3,250

2. Lamp service life, h 16,000 40,000

3. Power, W 48.2 22.4

4. Power supply voltage, V 24 80

5. Power supply built into the luminaire built into the luminaire

6. Cost of the secondary power supply source, rub. 2, 000 350

7. Operational cost (lamp replacement) for 10 years, rub. 54 000 18 000

8. Availability of inter lamp dark areas yes no

9. Lamp reparability non-repairable repairable

10. Special conditions of recycling yes no

11. Blinking yes no

12. Lamp cost, rub. 100 2,500


24

Table 3. Characteristics of current and proposed by PHAROS-ALEF Joint-Stock Company versions of ceiling luminaires (CL) for driver’s cab

№ Characteristics

CL structure type

now used(with a fl uorescent

lamp)

proposed(with light emitting

diodes)

1 Maximum possible illuminance in the cabin, lx 100 150

2 Necessary CL number 2 1

3 CL power, W 22 15

4 Controllability of the Illumination level no yes

5 Power supply voltage, V 24 80

6 Blinking effect yes no

7 Light source service life, h 18,000 40,000

8 Presence hazardous elements when operating yes no

9 Individual set of illuminance level no yes

10 Special conditions for utilisation yes no

11 Utilisation cost, rbl. 5.0 -

12 Operational costs for 10 years, rbl. 12,000 -

13

Dimensions, cm, no more:HeightWidthLength

50110330

103030

14 CL price, rbl. 400 1,500

Fig. 22. Possible placing of a ceiling luminaire of a driver’s cab and fl ow chart of the adaptive illumination control:a – plan of driver’s cabin illumination; b – fl ow chart of the adaptive illumination control: 1, 1’; 2, 2’ – headlights with control units accordingly; 3, 3’ – a ceiling luminaire with the control unit accordingly; 4, 4’ – photodetectors of external

illumination; 4’’– a photodetector of inner illumination; 5 – individual adjustment unit


25

5. Schepetkov N.I. About illumination of a station of the Tashkent underground// Svetotekhnika. 1987. № 1, pp. 17–19.

6. Belyakova O. V., Verzhbitsky Z.M., Volotskoi N.V. Illumination of a station of the Leningrad un-derground of V.I. Lenin// Svetotekhnika. 1980. № 7, pp. 20 –23.

7. СП.2.5.1337–03. Sanitary rules of operation of undergrounds.

8. СП.2.5.1198–03. Sanitary rules of passenger transportation arrangement of railway transport.

9. Gavrilov P. V., Garkovets A.M., SadovenkoA.I. Illumination of a metro station in Kharkov// Sve-totekhnika. 1980. № 7, pp. 23–24.

10. Levitin K.M.. Car traffi c safety in conditions of a limited visibility// Мoscow: Transport, 1979.

11. Ostrovsky M. A. Technique of external illu-mination of cities// In the book: «Outcoms of science and engineering», «Lighting and infra-red engineer-ing» series. V. 3. Moscow: VINITI, 1973, pp. 5–147.

12. Novakovsky L.G., Miras J-P., Funtuanon M. Illumination of «Mona Liza» – new light solutions// Svetotekhnika. 2005. № 5, pp. 28 –33.

13. Panov. V.P. «The role of economic evalua-tions in measurement of integral quality of prod-ucts»// In the book: «Product quality measurement». Under the editorship of A.V. Glichev. Мoscow: Pub-lishing House of Standards, I971, pp. 186–202

14. Novakovsky L.G.. Evaluation of car head-light effi ciency by technical and economic criteria. Moscow// Works of the Scientifi c and Research In-stitute of Autodevices. 1982, pp. 42–72.

15. Karamani A.G. Night sight or how to see in the dark. URL: http://www.ada.ru/guns/hunting/darkness/index.htm (addressing date: 20.05.2011).

This CL is installed in a niche of the driver’s cab-in ceiling (Fig. 23) that eliminates the presence of in-jury hazards structural elements and avoids patches of light on the windscreen.

A unit of built-in photodetectors of adaptive mode illumination system (two from the front and one from the behind) is placed behind the wind-screen at a level of the driver’s eyes.

The photodetectors in due time is signaling for weakening or strengthening the block head-lights lumious intensity and for changing the cabin illumination.

As can be seen from Table 3, CL use effi ciency of the proposed structure combined with the control system of driver’s cab illumination, is higher than with the illumination system used currently.

CONCLUSIONS

The proposed approach to solving the problem of increasing underground illumination effi ciency by using of light emitting diodes in newly developed IDs for trains (head lamp-cluster, CLs for cars, and for driver’s cab), allows manufacturing adaptive il-lumination systems, which along with simultaneous reduction of power consumption, provide: a decrease of driver’s eyes fatigue; improved visibility in tun-nels; elimination of driver blinding by passing train headlights, etc., as well as a possibility of a uniform illumination of the whole station space. The lat-ter in its turn, will raise the quality of illumination of underground architectural and decorative features, improve comfort and safety of passengers and work safety of attendants.

REFERENCES

1. Loseva E.I., Solomatina N.M., Sosnova T.L., Tikhonov A.I., Frid Yu.V. Substantiation of illumi-nance levels for underground// Svetotekhnika. 1984. № 11, pp. 9–10.

2. Litterov S.M., Miloslavov Yu.K. Ilumina-tion of a station of the Moscow underground // Sve-totekhnika. 1958. № 6, pp. 7–14.

3. Litterov S.M., Miloslavov Yu.K. Illumination of new stations of the Moscow underground of V.I. Lenin// Svetotekhnika. 1958. № 9, pp. 8–10.

4. Zilivinsky D.B., Sidorova T.N., Undasynov G. N. About illumination of a station of the Moscow un-derground of V.I. Lenin. 1980// Svetotekhnika. 1958. № 7, pp. 12–16.

Leonid G. Novakovsky, Ph.D., graduated from the MAMI in 1969. The director of PHAROS-ALEF Joint-Stock Company

26

though specifi c companies remain anonymous in this article in order to avoid allegation of false advertis-ing or libel, unless their names are connected with a specifi c reference or neutral information.

Here I should note that an overwhelming majority of the exhibited IDs with LEDs left a bad impression. In particular, most luminaires with LEDs are abso-lutely incompetently designed from the lighting point of view. Almost all of them had an absolutely inad-missible glare (as the example luminaire in Fig. 11). Besides this inadmissible glare, very few of them had an acceptable light distribution. A number of compa-nies presented luminaires with LEDs for functional street and road illumination with deep or cosinusoi-dal LICs, absolutely ineffi cient for this purpose. The stand attendants of some companies did not know ei-ther the light distributions of their luminaires, or the term “LIC – luminous intensity curve”.

On the one hand, this is caused by the absence of LEDs as light sources2 in relevant national in-

1 Apparently, this is a decorative luminaire for illumination of pedestrian paths in parks. In the switched off state, it does not look bad. But I would name this lighting ugliness a “Pedestrian scarecrow”.

2 As late as in 2010, in SanPiN 2.2.1/2.1.1278–03 (Russian sanitary rules and regulations), along with thermal and discharge light sources, an absolutely new type: LED ap-peared (true, with a reservation: “In preschools, schools and vocational schools, as well as in main functional rooms of medioprophilactic institutions, one should apply dis-charge lamps and incandescent lamps”). And ibidem there is a clear requirement (p. 3.1.5): “Light devices for local

ABSTRACT

The current state of design in illumination devic-es with light emitting diode is analysed. Attention is paid to the unreliability of technical parameters declared by the manufacturers of these products. Perspective fi elds of application for light emitting diodes are specifi ed.

Keywords: light emitting diodes, illumination devices, luminous effi cacy, service life, thermal con-ditions, glare, light distribution, application

It is already fourteen years now since I began writing reviews of INTERLIGHT exhibitions for the “Svetotekhnika”, and now “Light & Engineer-ing”, journals. The exhibitions take place in Mos-cow annually. As a reviewer, I carefully examine all the stands trying not to miss new and interesting exhibits. From year to year, a growing number and variety of light emitting diodes (LED) and products with LEDs have been shown at the exhibition. At the last exhibition in November 2010, it was impos-sible to fi nd a stand on which there would be no il-lumination devices (ID) with LEDs. These devices, so prominent at the exhibition, became the focal subject of the 13th annual Moscow Day of Light En-gineering, and subsequently of this article. I apolo-gise in advance for any harsh words of judgment, al-

DESIGN QUALITY OF ILLUMINATION DEVICES WITH LIGHT EMITTING DIODES AND PRACTICAL FIELDS OF THEIR APPLICATION *

Leonid P. Varfolomeyev

Joint-Stock Company “Moscow Light House “ E-mail: [email protected]


Five papers devoted to LED luminaire design and application are presented belowOn behalt of Editorial board

* Based on report materials at the 13th seminar exhibition “Moscow Day of Light and Engineering”, March 3, 2011


27

When preparing this article, I looked over 50 test reports of luminaires with LEDs performed in the test centre of VNISI Open Company. In the docu-ments, luminous effi cacy of some of the luminaires was specifi ed to be equal to 100 lm/W and service life – to 100, 000 h, but by the test results, the lumi-nous effi cacy appeared to only be 20–70 lm/W. Only one luminaire type had luminous effi cacy of about 80 lm/W. For many types of luminaires with LEDs, the decrease in luminous fl ux after every switching on was more than 15 %, which showed insuffi cient heat removal from the LEDs that considerably re-duces the service life of the luminaires.

When designing luminaires with LEDs, many companies took the road of the least labour: they simply installed LED light sources into luminaires intended for installation of FLs (for example, into luminaires built in counterceilings of the Armstrong type). Even though now many light-emitting diode lamps for direct replacement of FLs with socles G13 or G5 are available in the market. However neither the nature of a light source light distribution, nor re-quirements for glare limitation, nor parameters of re-fl ectors, nor necessity to provide an optimum LED thermal mode, nor other requirements are taken into consideration. As a result, luminaires with unpredict-able and ineffi cient parameters appear, for example with LIC of unacceptable types for offi ce rooms with low ceilings or for high ceiling rooms.

dustry standards. Therefore there are no specifi c re-quirements for illumination devices with LEDs. But on the other hand, the emergence of these “light-ing monsters” is also connected with the fact that developers of IDs with LEDs are frequently unfa-miliar with the issues of, or even the terms, “glare” and “light distribution”, and with that their values should be adjusted in accordance with ID purposes and standard requirements.

Along with the specifi ed imperfections, insuffi -cient reliability of the “catalogue” data on products with LEDs frustrated me. Many companies categori-cally declared the service life of their IDs with LEDs as being equal up to 100,000 h, thereby misleading their consumers3.

It is obvious that such declarations break the faith in light-emitting diode products and can considera-bly interfere with a widespread introduction of IDs with LEDs. And it is signifi cant that although the declared service life is 100,000 h, the actual grant-ed warranty period usually constitutes one year, or in rare cases, two years. In Russia only one compa-ny gives a fi ve-year warranty for its IDs with LEDs, and declares the service life of these devices not at 100,000 but at a more realistic 50,000 h.

and general illumination, intended for operation with light emitting diodes, should have a protection angle excluding entering of direct radiation into fi eld of view”. But in the Building regulations SNiP 23–05–95* and in Russian stand-ards on luminaires and searchlights (6047, 7110, 8607, 8645, 15597 and 17677), LEDs as light sources are not yet present.

3 So, at the stand of the well-known Nichia I saw LEDs with a declared service life of 40, 000 h, and nearby, at another stand – a luminaire of a Russian company with the same LEDs claiming to have a service life of 80,000 h.

Fig. 1

Fig. 2


28

are in the fi nal stage. In all these documents, LEDs are considered as light sources in their own right. So we are not far off the time when luminaires with LEDs will be developed with due regard for the re-quirements of these standards.

What new aspects will be included in GOST for ID concerning luminaires with LEDs? First, for those, which are intended for general illumination of indus-trial and public buildings, not luminaire effi ciency but luminous effi cacy will be normalised. Secondly, requirements for rated values of correlated chromat-ic temperature will be introduced. Thirdly, luminous fl ux value decrease from the luminaire switching on moment till its stabilisation will be introduced. Pro-tection angles and luminance as well as dimension-al luminance limitation areas will also be specifi ed.

For external illumination IDs, LIC classifi cation with due regard for limitations of blinding effect will be introduced. Such requirements as luminaire mag-nifi cation ratio and luminaire maximum use factor will be excluded, and a minimum effi ciency value equal to 65 % will be set.

For inner illumination IDs, requirements for pro-tection angle areas and limit values of dimensional luminance with due regard for CIE and European standard requirements are introduced. For IDs with LEDs, a minimum luminous effi cacy of 65 lm/W is assigned (!).

In the new GOST, the main lighting requirements for luminaires with other (traditional) light sources

Certainly, products designed quite competently were present at the November exhibition as well but they were few and far between (Fig. 2).

Accurately formulated requirements and a strong knowledge of the envisaged product type are both necessary for designers developing a good quality product4.

However, a full set of standards concerning IDs with LEDs and LEDs themselves does not exist to-day in any country. In the USA several standards are adopted: IESNA LM 79 (photometric tests of lumi-naires), IESNA LM 80 (a test method of LEDs for luminous fl ux decrease), ANSL C78.377 (LED chro-maticity), IESNA RP-16 (terms concerning LEDs), NEMA LSD 44 (demands for sockets and connect-ing devices), and others. Standards for extrapolation methods of test results, for luminous fl ux decrease, for LED ballast, for LED sort methods (“bining”), etc. are at the development stage.

As for Russia, the new edition of the Building regulations SNiP 23–05 and GOST for IDs, which should replace GOST 17677 and some other GOSTs,

4 Naturally, this does not only apply to lighting products. When developing requirements for new products, one should take into consideration basic documents imposing certain constraints on the created product parameters. Such basic documents are state, interstate or industry standards. In our country these are GOSTs and OSTs, in the European Union countries these are EN standards, other countries have their own standards.

Fig. 3


29

ula layer and with its protection against external exposures.

Both, secondary lenses and secondary refl ectors demand a very exact location relative to the lighting body. Therefore special holders are usually applied.

At present, lens and refl ective secondary optics with wide, half-wide, cosinusoidal, deep and concen-trated LICs are manufactured. For street luminaires with LEDs, lenses with asymmetric light distribu-tion (wide in the cross plane and concentrated later-al in the longitudinal one) are made. In our country these optics is not made in bulk.

As to luminaires with LEDs glare limitation, the most simple is to provide a protection angle using structure of the luminaire case. Unfortunately, there are no requirements for the protection angle of lu-minaires with LEDs in the standards. The question about dimensional luminance of such luminaires is also very problematic, because existing methods of its calculation are hardly applicable. Application of light-diffusing materials (for example, opal or cor-rugated polymethylmethacrylate) is very effective for decreasing luminaire glare (Fig. 4). However this reduces luminous fl ux by at least 25 %. Luminaires with diffusers of microprismatic profi le have a great-er effi ciency (Figs. 5–7). Their transmission factor reaches 92 %. Luminaires with microprismatic dif-fusers look decorative but the glare decrease degree of most of them is certainly lower than of the lumi-naires with diffusers of opal polymethylmethacrylate.

Glare is completely eliminated in luminaires of refl ected light (Figs. 8, 9, 10). But they have an-other problem: effi ciency of such luminaires seldom exceeds 50 %.

For the luminaire in Fig. 11, the glare problem is solved in an original way. It is a road luminaire

will be extended to luminaires with LEDs (light dis-tribution class and LIC type). Luminaire service life (durability) will be also included in this GOST.

Requirements for LED correlated colour tem-perature are adopted. It is specifi ed that in an ID containing an LED group (including LED mod-ules), the LEDs should be “identical by chromatic characteristics”.

So, if circumstances allow, a legislative basis for development of new high-effective IDs with LEDs will appear in Russia in the not-so-distant future, po-tentially even this year.

It is known that IDs should carry out two main lighting functions: to redistribute luminous flux of the light source as necessary, and to limit its blind-ing effect. LEDs are light sources radiating in one hemisphere, and this demands a special approach to designing IDs with LEDs.

For various reasons, most high power LEDs are manufactured today with one or two versions of light distribution. Therefore to form a needed ID light dis-tribution, a secondary lens or refl ective optics is used (Fig. 3).

Secondary lenses are made of polymethylmeth-acrylate, polycarbonate or organic silicon com-pounds. Usually they are manufactured for single LEDs and LED modules. As a result, their Fresnel losses are not less than 8 %. Besides, they practical-ly never involve all LED radiation (use factor of a LED with a secondary lens optics makes 80–85 %).

Since LEDs only radiate into one hemisphere, abilities of secondary refl ective optics use in IDs with LEDs are rather limited. Those optic is of a somewhat larger size than the lens one. The refl ec-tors are made either of aluminum with a high refl ec-tion factor, or of plastic with sputtering the spec-

Fig. 4 Fig. 5


30

naires with LEDs look past the fact that LED “cata-logue” parameters correspond to almost unrealistic p–n junction temperature of 20–25 о С.

To attract clients, some companies use such a resource as LED forced operating mode. But one should take into consideration that this mode ap-preciably decreases their service life. So if with 350 mA current, a LED service life reaches 69 thousand hours, and with 1000 mA current it can be only 18 thousand hours (according to Cree).

In order to minimise the temperature of a p–n junction, it is necessary to withdraw the released heat. Radiators are used for this purpose (Fig. 15). The latter are serially manufactured by many com-panies, including ours.

So that the radiators work effectively, good ther-mal contact with the LEDs and good electric isola-tion from the LEDs are necessary. Aluminum print-ed-circuit boards with good heat conduction and electrical insulating coatings as well as heat-con-ducting pastes and mastics are used for this purpose.

with a very wide LIC and practically without a pro-tection angle. In order to eliminate glare, such lumi-naires are installed very low (1.1 metres above the ground), and neither direct, nor refl ected LED light comes into the visual fi eld of drivers and pedestrians.

In addition to secondary optics, to form a needed light distribution, the LEDs are located, for exam-ple, hypothetically speaking, on curvilinear surfaces (Figs. 12 and 13). But in this way, sometimes lumi-naires with LEDs appear to be without a protection angle, and hence with absolutely inadmissible glare (Fig. 14).

The major problem when designing luminaires with LEDs is support of needed LED thermal con-ditions. Service life and luminous effi cacy, the main parameters that determine LEDs’ superiority over other light sources, heavily depend on the p–n junc-tion temperature. Furthermore, LED chromatic tem-perature and radiation chromaticity depend on this temperature. This especially concerns white LEDs with phosphor. Meanwhile manufacturers of lumi-

Fig. 6

Fig. 8

Fig. 7

Fig. 9


31

ture not more than 25 о С and, accordingly, pay-back period of the luminaires with LEDs equal to one and a half to two years, or even one year. And the prob-lem of unreliability of light-emitting diode product parameters has a global nature (see for example, W. van Bommel’s article in the Svetotekhnika Jour-nal, № 4, 2010).

Recently, ceramic radiators have become more and more widespread. High power LEDs often also have a ceramic case.

The radiators fasten to the luminaire case, which often has a complex confi guration with a well ex-tended surface (Figs. 16 and 17).

As a rule, LED light sources (LEDs, LED mod-ules and lamps) are considered to be irreplaceable. But as mentioned above, NEMA LSD 44 standard is confi rmed in the USA (requirement for sockets and connecting devices). This standard intends to transform LEDs into replaceable light sources. Ger-man BJB Company has already developed and man-ufactured sockets for LED light sources of several types and companies (Fig. 18).

But it is time to return to our subject. Unfortu-nately, in struggle for a place under the “light-emit-ting diode sun”, many companies claim in specifi -cations and especially in advertising and informa-tion materials, service life and luminous effi cacy of products with LEDs, which are equal to those of free-standing LEDs at the p–n junction tempera-

Fig. 10

Fig. 11

Fig. 12

Fig. 13


32

LED service life values of more than 50,000 h. And for high power LED modules, they specify service life value as a rule to equal to 25,000 h and luminous effi cacy no more than 80 lm/W5.

Further, as it is known, LEDs are light sources working with a low direct voltage. Therefore to con-nect them to the power supply circuit, special bal-

5 For example, PrevaLED series LED modules being the newest development of Osram (of 11, 28 and 43 W power), have a luminous effi cacy less than 75 lm/W with a chromatic temperature of 3000–4000 K and general colour rendering index of 90. An LED lamp of the same company of 9 W power intended for direct replacement of ILs, has luminous fl ux value 700 lm and a service life 10,000 h.

An international competition under the aegis of the Department of Energy of the USA, for the development of a LED lamp for direct replacement of 60 W power ILs, is very signifi cant in this respect. The winning lamp should have luminous fl ux not less than 900 lm, power no more than 10 W, service life not less than 25,000 h, general colour ren-dering index more than 80 and power factor (cos φ) not less than 0.7. It appears from much catalogu and advertising data that these requirements are not so impossible to meet; the $10 million dollar prize is apparently already within reach of many manufacturers… But after almost two years since the announcement of this competition, in October 2010, only one application was submitted, from Philips. In addition:

• Toshiba (!) recently placed an LED lamp with rather good technical parameters for direct replacement of ILs: luminous fl ux of cold-white and warm-white light models is about 650 and 600 lm respectively; service life – 25,000 h with decrease of luminous flux to 50 %; the power is 8.4 W. However, its price is about €75.

• Recently the Department of Energy of the USA confi rmed the requirements of LED lamps for direct replacement of in-candescent lamps. Lamps with parameters lower than the following cannot be offered for sale in the USA: luminous effi cacy of 50 lm/W for the lamps with power lower than 10 W and 55 lm/W for the lamps with a higher power, Ra not less than 80 (in this case special colour rendering index R9 characterising perception of saturated red colour, should be not less than zero), power factor is equal to 0.7.

Here is an example characterising this situation. Within a known programme, “CALiPER” (USA), nine series of luminaires with LEDs tests showed that less than a third of the declared parameters cor-respond to the actual performance. Luminous fl ux decrease exceeded 30 % less than during 1000 work hours for 5 out of 26 luminaires. Even worse are results obtained at the Tomsk Polytechnic Insti-tute when testing luminaires with LEDs of differ-ent companies.

Presentation of deliberately false information in the specifi cation of a product with LEDs consid-erably spoils their market. And due to a lack of reli-able data on service life and luminous effi cacy of fi n-ished luminaires with LEDs, one cannot really esti-mate their pay-back period, or electric power saving potential. To some degree, data on the largest LED manufacturers and of the Department of Energy of the USA improve the situation. So, in the catalogs of Cree, Nichia, Osram and Philips, you do not fi nd

Fig. 14

Fig. 15


33

of many others6, these fears are unfounded. LEDs of warm-white light with a quite high quality of col-our rendering are already available. If measures to eliminate luminous fl ux ripples are taken the LEDs will be no worse than discharge light sources. Un-doubtedly, the time is not far off when the Rospot-rebnadzor confi rming the SanPiN, will remove re-strictions for LED application as light sources both in nurseries, and in medical institutions.

But a question arises: is it appropriate from the economical point of view to use LEDs as light sourc-es everywhere today? In April 2010, the Rosnano State Corporation and the Higher School of Eco-nomics issued a Road-map document “Development of the Light-Emitting Diode Industry and of General Illumination”. It contains an analysis of the current state of, and prospects for, LED production and ap-plication, drawing the following conclusions:

• Light emitting diodes for colour indicators confi dently compete with alternative products and gradually exclude them from the market;

• Light emitting diodes for active displays can compete with alternative products but the trend at present is not obvious;

• Light emitting diodes for illumination of liq-uid-crystal screens confi dently compete with alter-native products and gradually force them out from the market;

6 See, e.g. W. van Bommel articles in № 1 and 2 and E.V. Dolin’s et al article in № 1, 2011 of the Svetotekhnika Journal, as well as V. Jordan’s e.a. article in № 5, 2009 of the same Journal – Editor’s comments

lasts are required. They are an integral part of the luminaire with LEDs, and consequently the same demands should be made for their built-in versions as for LED light sources.

Ballasts should ensure not only LED power sup-ply but also electromagnetic compatibility of the luminaire and power supply circuit; that is, a cer-tain confi guration of the consumed current (absence of higher harmonics), a needed level of power fac-tor and absence of radio noises. Besides, there is one more factor, which unfortunately gets little attention: the ripples of the output current or voltage. LEDs are practically inertia-less light sources that results in il-luminance ripples at the operation surface.

Rules and requirements strictly regulate the depth of these ripples. For example, in working rooms with computers, it should be no more than 5 %. A project of the above specifi ed new GOST for IDs offers to exclude this parameter referring to the European standards. However this is not sufficient reason. The European standard EN 12464–1 “The Light-ing of Workplaces” contains a special section (№ 4) concerning illuminance ripples. It consists of the one point: Pulsation of illuminance is not permitted in rooms with long periods of occupancy.

In accordance with catalogue data of the leading companies manufacturing ballast for LEDs, ripple depth of output voltage (current) is 15–20 %. This means that ripple depth of LED luminous fl ux is the same. (!) One should pay close attention to this, be-cause by examples of FLs, especially with narrow-band phosphors, it was found that illuminance rip-ples can be harmful to health.

Furthermore, quite often we read and hear about the harmful effect of LED radiation on hu-man health: “dead light”, “bad colour rendering”, “blue danger”, etc.. In my opinion, and the opinion

Fig. 16

Fig. 17


34

of ILs with colour optical fi lters or glow-discharge tubes) by the following parameters: luminous effi ca-cy, service life, variety, colour purity and saturation, control abilities. There was a reason that a rapid in-troduction of LEDs began through architectural and artistic illumination in particular, and now a great many rather good IDs with LEDs are manufactured, including in Russia, to address this problem.

And LED application for utilitarian external il-lumination is a problem. So, luminous effica-cy of HPSLs reaches 150 lm/W, their service life (of best manufacturers) makes 28,000 h (and for two-burner types produced by General Electric and by several more companies, it makes 55,000 h). Therefore economic feasibility of transition from HPSLs to LEDs in particular is doubtful.

Indeed in living accommodation today LED lamps and luminaires with LEDs do not have ad-vantages over CFLs, and their payback period is much longer than their real service life, if cal-culated not according to the advertising claims but by the real performance parameters. However, they have an indisputable advantage, which is the absence of mercury, and with time this can outweigh other disadvantages.

LED use for illumination in offi ce and industri-al buildings is also not economically advantageous. So, at the last Frankfurt exhibition “Light + Build-ing”, in April 2010, Osram exhibited FLs “Lumilux T5” of 25 W power with luminous effi cacy of 116 lm/W (with due regard for the losses in the bal-last) and of 54 and 80 W power with a service life of 45,000 h. That is, by these key parameters, FLs

• Light emitting diodes for devices and informa-tion signs confi dently compete with alternative prod-ucts and gradually force them out from the market. Limitation of incandescent lamp circulation can ac-celerate this process;

• Light emitting diodes for vehicles confi dent-ly compete with alternative products and gradually force them out from the market;

• Light emitting diodes for external and decora-tive illumination can compete with alternative prod-ucts but full replacement is not obvious;

• Light emitting diodes for illumination cannot confi dently compete with alternative products. Intro-duction of an incandescent lamp ban will promote demand for alternative products (fl uorescent lamps) to a greater degree than for light emitting diodes, because light emitting diodes in the household sec-tor do not have advantages over fl uorescent lamps.

The last two conclusions are most interesting for light engineers. But I will allow myself to disagree with them:

• First, the conclusion is drawn about illumi-nation of the household sector only. There is no mention of the illumination of industrial and public buildings illumination, as well as about functional external illumination. But these illumination kinds are most power-consuming and strictly rated.

• Secondly, it would be correct to say “archi-tectural and artistic illumination” and not “external and decorative illumination”. At present any kind of light sources in architectural and artistic illumina-tion cannot really compete with LEDs. Colour LEDs considerably surpass colour MHLs (to say nothing

Fig. 15


35

again are overtaking. And their prices are consid-erably lower than those of LED light sources, and ballast prices for FLs and LEDs are approximately identical.

What are most prospective and economically practical fi elds of LED application today? My opi-nion is as follows:

• First of all, in warning lights (traffi c lights, road signs etc.);

• Architectural and artistic illumination;• Illumination of mines, pits and other explo-

sive rooms;• Decorating of interiors of formal rooms, where

owners are willing to pay for the superior comfort;• Emergency illumination of all kinds;• Housing and communal services (illumination

of entrances, stair landings, elevators, underground passages and other public spaces);

• Exposition and show-case illumination;• Utilitarian street illumination in settlements

in cold climate regions.LED production is one of most quickly develop-

ing branches in the economies of many countries. LED parameters constantly improve, and their price decreases rather quickly. And there is good reason to believe that LEDs are far-reaching objects.

I sincerely thank the Chief of the Illumination Facilities and Light Devices Laboratory of VNISI Open Company A. Sh. Chernyak for the provision of test reports of luminaires with LEDs, projects of the above mentioned and other new GOSTs and for help in the preparation of this report.

Leonid P. Varfolomeyev, Ph.D. He is graduated from the Moscow Power Institute in 1959, specializing in “Light engineering and light sources”. Many years he was a head of scientifi c laboratory at VNISI named by S. I. Vavilov

36

• Commercial and industrial users of fl uorescent lamps, incandescent lamps and powerful high pres-sure discharge lamps for lightning.

• The municipal and state organisations which need general lighting of offi ce and public building internal spaces. They are the largest users of fl uores-cent lamps and compact fl uorescent lamps.

• The general population. This group purchases to 90 % of lamps, mostly incandescent lamps, which are the cheapest but also the least power effi cient light sources (LS). Thus, it is necessary to remark that approximately 5 % of the total amount of the light sources purchased by the population is compact fl uorescent lamps.

At present, the LED-based LS’s share in all these three consumption sectors is negligibly small but, nevertheless, they are already applied. Thus, all of them have suffi ciently great latent power saving potential:

• In the fi rst of these sectors, the energy cost structure is that lightning equipment cost is high enough, consequently, appropriate propagation and availability of affordable LEDs, as well as imple-mentation of the normative documents regulating their usage can lead to the quickest materialisation of the huge power saving potential. Despite the exist-ing problems, at present, LED-based lighting systems are most commonly used in this segment and have shown their economic justifi ability and feasibility.

• In the second sector – municipal state organi-sations – quite effi cient fl uorescent lamps and com-pact fl uorescent lamps are used. However, in 2012 a reduction of the total cost of ownership for LED lamps in comparison with compact fl uorescent lamps is predicted, therefore the implementation of LED-

ABSTRACT

This paper contains a brief description of “Svet-lana-Optoelectronics” company’s current achieve-ments and some prospects in the fi eld of manufactur-ing and application of powerful white light emitting diodes (LEDs) and LED-based lighting equipment (lamps).

Keywords: light emitting diodes (LEDs), LED-based lighting, power efficiency, LED lighting equipment

“Svetlana-Optoelectronics” is a widely known Russian enterprise specialising in the manufacture of LED and LED-based products, as well as in im-plementation of LED-based lighting systems (LED LS). The enterprise is a pioneer in the fi eld of white LED manufacturing and today it is the single Rus-sian vendor which implements full technological cycle large-scale production of white LEDs (Fig. 1) and various application LED-based devices. Con-sidering the wide experience in this fi eld accumulat-ed for more than 10 years, at present, the company is considered a leader in the development and manu-facture of domestic white LEDs.

The main reason for success is compliance of the output products with to the basic market needs, both by technical and economical parameters.

Today, we can identify three main sectors of elec-tric power consumption and, consequently, lighting equipment (LE) in the Russian market:

INNOVATIVE LED-BASED SOLUTIONS*

Alexander A. Bogdanov and Alexei E. Mokhnatkin

ZAO “Svetlana-Optoelectronics”, St Petersburg E-mail: [email protected]


* Based on report materials at the 13 th seminar exhibition “Moscow Day of Light and Engineering”, March 3, 2011


37

technical tasks themselves, and the second group is the problems of the appropriate regulatory basis availability and level.

Today, the major technical task is increase in lu-minous effi ciency of white LEDs constructed by the “blue crystal-luminophor” principle and belonging to the 1-Watt class: from 90 to 150 lm/W (Fig. 2) and further – up to 170 lm/W. On the other hand, exten-sion of the “initial” blue crystal emission spectrum is required with the offset to the green spectrum in order to increase the general colour rendering in-dex Ra to 90–95. And, of course, it is necessary to continue working on crystal structure optimisation to increase their service life to 100 thousand hours of continuous operation. As a whole, enhancement of mass production technologies and inevitable in-crease in output volumes (Fig. 3) will lead to a gen-eral reduction in the cost of both LEDs and LED-based products.

On the other hand, LED manufacturers face a problem of the absence of clear standardisation, me-trology and certifi cation mechanism. Indeed, today, in Russia there is no regulatory basis which would uniquely position LEDs in comparison with the tra-ditional light sources. Also, there are no techniques for examination and initialisation of the parameters which characterise LEDs as light sources.

Consequently, there are no certifi cation centres specialising in LEDs and LED-based products. Ma-

based lighting for this customer group providing the appropriate preferences appears to be reason-able. Crediting, power service contracts and leasing schemes shall be widely considered as a possible funding source.

• The third sector (general population) is the most inert in relation to LED-based light sources. Thus, it has the greatest power saving potential. It is well-known purchase decision making for LS is more often based on the product price instead of estimation of the total cost of ownership. There-fore, the majority of the population is more likely to prefer and purchase the cheapest LSs. Accordingly, maximum effort in terms of both technical imple-mentation and information campaigns shall be fo-cused in this direction.

At the same time, it is necessary to remark once again that – according to 2009–2010 experience – the greatest application of LED-based lighting systems falls on the industrial and administrative sectors.

As stated above, the general market estimations are always based on the existing technological level, as well as on short-term and long-term perspective analysis. Thus, we need to switch to consideration of the technical tasks which are faced by the industry as a whole and by our enterprise as a LED and LED-based product manufacturer. These tasks can be di-vided into two large groups. The fi rst group is the

Fig. 1. Workfl ow of white LED manufacturing


38

forcement since May 20th, 2011 of the Construction Norms & Regulations 23–05–95 updated version (which is now called SP 5213330–2011) was signed which will allow more effective designing of LED-based lighting systems and eliminating the existing problems, arising, for example, during the federal or state project expertise procedures.

Nevertheless, “Svetlana-Optoelectronics” aspires to solve all these tasks right now. Thus, positioning ourself as a domestic LED manufacturer, we rely upon our own LED series, which contains more than 15 types of mass produced LEDs.

nufacturers who follow the path of product certifi ca-tion, including ourselves, have to undergo this proce-dure according to the scheme for traditional lighting sources that, generally, is not appropriate.

At the same time, it is necessary to note that since 2009 complex remedial activities have be-gun which are conducted both by our enterprise and by the leading research centres such as the All-Rus-sian Research Lighting Engineering Institute and the Research Institute of Metrology Systems with sup-port of RUSNANO. In particular, it is possible to note that on December 27th, 2010, the decree on en-

Fig. 2. Scheduled distribution of produced 1-Watt white LEDs by the nominal luminous fl ux (the numbers correspond to the fl ux values)

Fig. 3. Estimation of 1-Watt white LED production dynamics


39

are characterised by a luminous fl ux of 90 lm at the correlated colour temperature Tcc of 4000 K, and 20 % of them have a luminous fl ux equal to 100 lm. In 2011, we plan to achieve a stable level of 100 lm/W by 1-Watt LED luminous effi ciency at Tcc = 3 500–4 500 K.

Positioning itself as an LED vendor, “Svetlana-Optoelectronics” considers increase in LED share sold to third-party users as a primary target. Cur-rently we intend 80 % of manufactured LEDs for our own lamp production and only 20 % of them for sale, but by 2013 the situation is set to change dia-metrically (Fig. 4).

We predict LED cost dynamics according to Fig. 5 which shows expected cost changes for the two most characteristic LEDs of types К2 (SvL-01); 5050 (SvL-03) and the multicrystal LED-matrix.

The main and the most mass produced LEDs are the “1-Watt LEDs”, i.e. the LEDs meant for 350 mA working current. Besides these LEDs meant for 20, 60 or 150 mA currents, as well as multicrystal LED-matrix with capacity up to 50 or 100 W are produced. All types of LEDs are produced with the standard casings and are well-adapted for automatic assembly lines. In addition, the LEDs are well inte-grated with all types of secondary optics, which are offered in the market, that allows the fullest mate-rialisation of the LED main advantage – directional radiation with minimum loss of luminous fl ux.

The technological equipment permanently up-graded at our enterprise allows us to produce 1 mil-lion 1-Watt LEDs per month. In the nearest future, we plan to achieve the volume of 10 million piec-es per month by 2012. Currently 80 % of our LEDs

Fig. 5. Estimation of 1 luminous fl ux lumen cost dynamics for the 1-Watt white LEDs of SvL-01 and SvL-03 types and the white LED matrix of SvL-07 type

Fig. 4. Estimation of dynamics of the manufactured 1-Watt white LED shares for own and external consumption


40

The problem of lighting in the administrative and household sector is to be noted where the “Arm-strong” surface-mounted and built-in ceiling lighting devices dominate. The LED-based lighting device of TIS-15 type is a direct functional analogue of the traditional lighting device. Its characteristics have been noticeably improved since the fi rst pilot project when it was used for lighting of Belgorod State Uni-versity two years ago. This device is in great de-mand. For example, last year, we implemented a number of additional projects for lighting of objects of the Ministry of Education and Science of the Rus-sian Federation. Thus, in particular, lighting of a typ-ical classroom using the TIS-15 type lighting devices requires approximately 37 % less energy in compari-son with traditional lighting.

It is necessary to underline that LED-based light-ing devices may be inferior in terms of luminous ef-fi ciency to high-quality imported lighting devices with fl uorescent lamps, but not in terms of the “spe-cifi c set power” [W/ m2] (at a given lighting level) parameter, which, in our opinion, is more suitable.

It is important to underline that the majority of manufactured LEDs have a specifi c target pur-pose – they are used in LED-based lighting devic-es. Thus, the nomenclature of these lighting devic-es is already wide enough, more than 30 items, and it is regularly updated following improvement of de-vice characteristics as LED effi ciency grows (Fig. 6).

In particular, lighting parameters of the well-proven TIS-1 public space lighting device have been optimised and its power has been reduced, mak-ing it an effective alternative to the currently used “PSH”, “NBP”, etc. traditional lighting devices with 40, 60 and 100 W incandescent lamps (Fig. 7).

Another example of a modernised LED-based lighting device is the SUS-2 type general-purpose lighting device, which has been produced for more than four years. It has the signifi cantly increased lumi-nous fl ux, which currently reaches 6 000 lm at a total power of 110 W. For example, calculations of lighting of the class B road showed that the required specifi c set power is more than 30 % lower than when using the ZhKU-11–150 001”lamp” lighting device.

Fig. 6. LED-based lighting device nomenclature

Fig. 7. Power effi ciency comparing of the incandescent lamp-based and LED-based lighting devices


41

main innovation is use of a self-produced 50-W LED matrix of SvL-07 type as the light source and an im-ported membrane fan, which effectively removes heat from the powerful semi-conductor light source at small lighting device dimensions that creates the possibility to combine the lighting devices in blocks and to successfully compete with traditional lighting devices of ATN-400 and even ATN-700 types.

From the above examples, we can see that using LED-based lighting systems instead of traditional lighting devices with incandescent lamps, fl uores-cent lamps and high pressure discharge lamps al-lows achieving energy savings equal on the aver-age to 30 %.

Essentially better power saving results can be achieved when a LED-based lighting device is man-ufactured not only as a functional analogue but as a targeted lighting device. Most often, such situations are encountered when solving various complex light-ing tasks.

Thus, it is important to mention our collabora-tion with OAO “RZhD”, which has been conducted for many years and long ago moved from pilot to full-scale project solutions. In 2010, we implement-

As noted above, LED-based lighting devices are commonly used in the industrial sector. Pro-duced by our company LED-based lighting devices of “TIS-H-40” series for industrial areas which are a functional analogue of the “lamp” RKU-80 (125) lighting device do not completely meet the essential requirements, particularly, because of the “open” LED layout. Therefore, at the end of 2010, mass pro-duction the LED-based lighting devices of TIS-17 type began (Fig. 8); these device is a functional ana-logue of the well-known LSP 2×36 lighting device. At present, this lighting device dominates in indus-trial area lighting projects. As an example, we can mention the LED-based lighting system of a typical metal-cutting shop (estimated energy saving is about 36 % with accordingly smaller specifi c set power).

Considering that lighting devices in industrial areas are frequently fi xed at a considerable height, it is very important to create a LED-based lighting device, which is functionally similar to powerful tra-ditional lighting devices of RSP-250 type. For this reason, after extended research, we have developed and are preparing for mass production a new LED-based lighting device of TIS-18 type (Fig. 9). Its

Fig. 9. TIS-18 LED-based lighting device

Fig. 8. TIS-17 LED-based lighting device


42

device of SUS-2 type was created for the generic so-lution: all platforms are identical so the LED system application effect appears to be essential. On aver-age, power saving per platform is 1.6 kW in com-parison with the traditional system with the lighting device of RKU-250 type.

Another example of a targeted LED-based light-ing device is crossbar lighting devices of TIS-R se-ries, which are a real source of pride for us. A LED set with special light distribution was developed for these lighting devices. When located in a certain way, they provide the most effective lighting of inter-track areas that is required from crossbar lighting systems. It is necessary to note that rigid crossbar lighting systems are quite standard so LED-based lighting devices show very high performance at any similar objects. Thus, the sizes of the illuminated areas are hundreds of thousands square meters. An example il-lustrating the effi ciency of crossbar LED-based light-ing systems is the lighting of inbound-outbound park track complex of the “Volkhovstroy” station with the total illuminated area of 33 thousand m2. Actual achieved power consumption savings are 30 kW and the lighting specifi c power is 0.32 W/ m2 (Fig. 10).

ed complex projects on lighting of various objects: technical maintenance shops, track station complex-es, electric train cars, etc. In total, more than 60 ob-jects have been illuminated with a total power con-sumption savings of more than 15 MW.

The best illustration of the results of our work is the implemented projects lighting various objects and the achieved lighting parameters. For example, the internal LED-based lighting system for the “Ba-baevo” EC post has been implemented. This object has premises of different categories including fi re hazardous ones of F-IIa category for which a spe-cial modifi cation of the TIS-17 lighting devices has been produced. As a result, we managed to achieve 38 % power consumption savings. An interesting as-pect of LED-based lighting device application is the provision of not only appropriate horizontal illumi-nance but also vertical illuminance using control racks, which appeared to be higher than in the case of fl uorescent lamp-based lighting devices.

One of the effective LED-based lighting device applications in outside lighting is lighting of com-muter station platforms. The success is ensured by the fact that the appropriate LED-based lighting

Fig. 10. Comparing of lighting devices of RKU-250 (with DRL 250 lamp) and TIS-R3-A types in terms of power effi cien-cy at crossbar lighting of a typical track complex

Fig. 11. TIS-22 V explosion-proof LED-based lighting device


43

of the TIS-22 lighting device, which is a functional analogue of V3 G-100 or V3 G-200 lighting devices (Fig. 11). Currently the complex certifi cation proc-ess of this lighting device is coming to the end. But, prior to the process completion, we put this device in our prospective projects. In particular, in 2011, we plan to begin implementation of a complex lighting project for one of the OAO “INTER RAO UES” en-terprises – Verkhnetagilsky SDPP using the TIS-22 lighting devices. LED-based lighting system imple-mentation on this object will allow releasing 300 kW of power, i.e. to save 66 % of power consumption, thus the payback period is 4 years.

To summarise this description of the current achievements of “Svetlana-Optoelectronics” in man-ufacturing and application of LEDs and LED-based lighting equipment, we would like to underline that LEDs are not a “pilot” product any more. LEDs are the facts of life, providing visible economic benefi ts. Systematic and full-scale transition to widespread project implementation of LED-based lighting sys-tems is a strategic task which opens great possibili-ties for national economic growth. Especially as there are already existed the necessary scientifi c, engineering and technological potential in Russia. If efforts and experience of implemented LED LS projects can be consolidated and expended to all in-dustries, one can hope for the achievement of sig-nifi cant economic benefi t on the national scale dur-ing the next year.

Whilst on the subject of large open space light-ing, we shall mention one of our most ambitious projects – the development and mass production im-plementation of TIS-M lighting system which is be-ing undertaken in partnership with OAO “RZhD”. It is a functional analogue of the well-known VOU-30 lighting system. Today, the development of the system has been completed and high performance indicators have been achieved. In particular, the to-tal consumption power does not exceed 4.6 kW that is almost twice less than the power of VOU-30 based on 4 fl ood lamps of APZM-2000 type. Before the end of 2011, full-scale acceptance tests shall be com-pleted and the mass production of the TIS-M lighting system will beginning.

Coming back to complex projects, it would be noted that OAO “RZhD” is not the only pioneer in the fi eld of LED-based lighting system imple-mentation, some other companies have also moved from pilot projects to systematic LED-based light-ing system implementation. In particular, togeth-er with OAO “TGK-1” in 2010, we implemented the projects of lighting of “Pervomayskaya” and “Yuzhnaya” thermal power stations in St. Petersburg. Within these projects, we implemented both internal and external LED-based lighting systems for large industrial complexes.

Working in this area, we faced a necessity of an LED-based lighting device, which would be suita-ble for use in explosion hazardous areas of B-I cat-egory. For this reason, we began mass production

Alexander A. Bogdanov, Ph.D., associate professor, graduated from Saint Petersburg Electrotechnical University “LETI” (ETU) in 1997. Now he is ZAO “Svetlana-Optoelectronics” Marketing Deputy Director

Alexei E. Mokhnatkin, jurisconsult and electrical engineer. In 1997, he graduated from St. Petersburg State University, Law faculty; and in 2001 – from North-West Distance Education Polytechnic Institute, Power

Engineering faculty. Since 2009, he is ZAO “Svetlana-Optoelectronics” Deputy Director General and a Board Member. Earlier, he occupied leading positions in the RF Ministry of Energy and OAO “GAZPROM” structures in St.-Petersburg

44

• ZERS Trade Company is engaged in sale, pro-motion and marketing of ZERS light emitting diode illumination systems (LED IS). The company also designs architectural LED illumination;

• ZERS Engineering Company performs instal-lation and adjustment work on ZERS LED illumina-tion systems.

The history of ZERS Companies group began in 1993. The company searched for new develop-ment directions creating devices of show equipment and selling facilities for show business. After the emergence of LEDs, the company founders realized their huge potential and began numerous experi-ments on development of LDs with LEDs. Already by 2006, ZERS implemented a project of street il-lumination using luminaires with LEDs, being one of the fi rst companies to do so, and to a large extent approaching the era of functional LED illumination.

Later on, further development of architectural (development of luminaires with LEDs and accom-plishment of the projects on a turn-key basis) and of functional illumination (projects and development

ABSTRACT

1A brief background is presented to the structure and history of ZERS Companies group, its experi-ence in design and operation of luminaires with light emitting diodes for street illumination, and two man-ufactured series of these luminaires: “Modula” and “Pride”, as well as about a group’s experience of de-velopment and implementation of the projects of ar-chitectural illumination using light emitting diodes.

Keywords: ZERS, light emitting diodes (LED), lighting devices (LD) with LEDs, luminaires with LEDs, street illumination, architectural illumination

The ZERS Group comprises three companies:• ZERS Technology Research-and-production

Enterprise is involved in development and produc-tion of light emitting diode energy saving products under ZERS brand;


LIGHTING EQUIPMENT WITH ZERS LIGHT EMITTING DIODES FOR STREET, INDUSTRIAL AND ARCHITECTURAL ILLUMINATION*

Maxim E. Reunov

ZERS Trade Open Company, Novocherkassk, Rostovskaya oblast, Russia E-mail: [email protected]


2006 2007 2008

First generation Second generation Third generation

Luminaire LZ-40-160 Luminaire LZ-28-120/140-170

Fig. 1. Evolution of ZERS street luminaires


45

of luminaires with LEDs for external and inner illu-mination) proceeded in parallel and was intercon-nected. By 2010, the number of patents reached 10.

ZERS’s most notable achievements include: LED illumination of platforms at Leningradsky station in Moscow, Danilov depot, the largest in Russia, and the stand of Rosnano State Corporation, as well as development of a media facade for a 13 storey business centre and implementation of colour-dy-namic illumination projects using luminaires with RGB-LEDs.

An in-depth market research exercise performed by ZERS in 2008, showed that by 2012 LED illumi-nation will occupy approximately 30 % of the illu-mination market and become a serious competitor to traditional lamps. It also became clear that function-al LED illumination will soon dominate over deco-rative illumination (which in 2008 occupied 40 % of the LED illumination market).

In 2012 the predicted part of street LED illumi-nation will make 18 % of the Russian LED illumina-tion market ($260 million a year), and architectural one – 25 % ($360 million a year).

In order to reduce product cost, ZERS in its lumi-naires with LEDs for street illumination used cases of a Chinese production traditional street luminaire until 2008. Changes were only introduced in placing of light-emitting diode modules (LEDM). Therefore, in 2006–07 all LEDs in the luminaires were of one-plane installation. They formed a simple bright circle on the road surface: at that time, the SNIP (Russian building regulations) in light distribution was not observed. Certainly, this situation did not meet re-quirements of the company developers, and in 2008 a luminaire with “straightened” LEDMs was devel-oped that allowed increasing the size of the luminous spot (Fig. 1).

2009

Fourth generation

Luminaire LZ-40d

Fig. 2. Evolution of ZERS street luminaires

Luminaire type LZ-20d LZ-40d

Power, W 110 220

Voltage, V 220 ÷ 10%

Distribution angles 2Θ1/2, grad 90×135˚

LI curve type Semi-wide Wide

Luminous fl ux, klm 7 15

Weight not more, than, kg 8 14

Type of safety IP 65

Life time in regime of town illu-mination, years 25

Fig. 3. Modula series luminaires with light emitting diodes for street illumination of LZ-20 d and LZ-40 d models (the

6 th generation, 2010–2011)

Power, W 180

Voltage, V 220 ±10 %

Distribution angle 2Θ1/2, grad 7, 12, 44 или 90

Luminous fl ux at ambient tenpera-ture 20 °С, кlm

13 (LZ–96U) и 10 (LZ–80U)

LI curve type at 2Θ1/2 = 90о D3

Axis luminous intensity at 2Θ1/2 = 90о, kcd (not less, than)

6.6 (LZ–96U) и 5.2 (LZ–80U)

Weight, kg 9.4

Sizes, mm 530× 338×135

Type of safety IP65

Fig. 4. Modula series luminaires for industrial illumination of LZ–96 U and LZ–80 U models(the 6 th generation, 2010–2011)


46

LEDs of leading manufacturers like Cree, Philips Lumileds, Seoul Semiconductor, etc. were used.

The Modula luminaires, true to their name, have a modular structure containing typical optoelec-tronic elements fi xed on a special frame that allows modifying luminaires or creating new ones within the shortest possible time. The expediency of such an approach consists in that a luminaire can be con-structed with parameters required by a customer as

In this context the development of a bespoke case specially intended for LEDM use began. While in development, a massive aluminum luminaire case of Italian Fael Luce Company came to replace the Chinese one. Furthermore, ZERS decided to im-prove the optical part as well. In this case one of the methods of reaching the needed light distribution was to use of four LEDMs, two of which contained secondary optics. The created luminaire was effec-tively sold and used on many objects in Russia from the beginning of 2009 till mid 2010 (Fig. 2).

In 2010 ZERS began selling two luminaire se-ries with LEDs at once: Modula and Pride, in which

Fig. 5. Pride series luminaires

Power, W 180

Voltage,V 220 ± 10%

Angle of distribution 2Θ1/2, grad 90×135˚

Type of luminous intensity curve Semi-wide

Luminous fl ux at ambient temperature 20 °С, кlm 12

Weight not more, than, кg 12

Type of safety IP 66

Life time in regime of town illumina-tion, years 25

Height of mast, m 12

Fig. 6. Cobra series LZ-40 d luminaire for road illumi-nation of A class according to the Building regulations

23–05–95 Fig. 7. Examples of architectural illumination using light emitting diodes:

a – Voiskovoi (Army) Voznesensky cathedral in Novocherkassk; b – building of the Authorized

Representative of the President of the Russian Federation in Northwest Federal district, St.-Petersburg


47

ing such products is much easier but not always bet-ter. And consequently ZERS has a distinct line of its own giving the market new ideas.

As mentioned above, in terms of architectur-al (architectural-and-art) LED illumination, ZERS in the beginning of its activity developed equipment for show business and implemented several projects of architectural illumination (Fig. 7). The most large-scale of these is the illumination project of Novo-cherkassky cathedral, the third largest temple in Rus-sia. In addition to soaring effect of the building, the project is notable by use of a stationary device for 32 slides to be displayed onto the entrance part of the cathedral that makes an unforgettable impression. The project obtained numerous awards at a number lighting competitions.

A very weighty advantage of the luminaires with LEDs, is their immediate activation that makes col-our-dynamics possible with LED illumination (for example by means of RGB-LEDs) and this aspect opens new prospects in architectural illumination. ZERS companies group fulfi lled its fi rst project us-ing luminaires with RGB-LEDs in 2007, and by 2010 there were several implemented projects of colour-dynamics LED illumination buildings in its asset, as well as a huge media facade of the 13 storey build-ing (of 1030 m2 square).

soon as possible and at minimal cost. Street lumi-naires of the Modula series have 3 models: LZ-40 d (instead of the luminaire with DRL 400 lamp), LZ-20 d (instead of the luminaire with DRL 250 lamp) and LZ-20 s (an affordable luminaire for park areas or B class roads) (Fig. 3). The luminaire range of the Modula series for industrial illumination presents four models: LZ-96 U and LZ-80 U (both instead of the luminaire with DRL 400 lamp) (Fg. 4), LZ-40 U (instead of the luminaire with DRL 250 lamp) and LZ-20 U (instead of the luminaire with DRL 150 lamp). A major advantage of these luminaires is the possibility to use secondary optics in them and the availability of a central suspension arch, which al-lows installation on walls as well as on wire-hangers, on tubes or directly on the ceiling.

As to the Pride series, it is an elite series of lumi-naires with LEDs containing a cast aluminum case. They embody the best manufacturing techniques for LDs with LEDs (Fig. 5). Despite technical aspects, the design has a special importance in this series. A need for a perfect natural form is especially notice-able in luminaires with LEDs of Cobra group in the Pride series. A unique design, perfect technical data and a raised warranty period attract more and more attention to the Cobra luminaires (Fig. 6). Rectan-gles with LEDs occupying our cities have already bored many consumers. It is clear that manufactur-

Maxim V. Reunov, an electromechanical engineer and economist.Graduated from the South Russian State Technical University (Novocherkassky Polytechnical Istitute) in 2000 and from the Rostovskaya State Economic Academy in 2003.Leading sales manager of ZERS Open Company

48

ABSTRACT

1The article contains information about the cur-rent potential and some of the latest achievements of Philips in the sphere of LED lighting.

Keywords: light emitting diodes (LEDs), LED lamps, LED Luminaires, LED Lighting

1. LED LIGHTING DEVELOPMENTS WORLDWIDE

It is well known that light emitting diodes (LEDs) are already extensively used for lighting purposes, not only decorative, but also functional.

* Based on report materials at the 13th seminar exhibition “Moscow Day of Light and Engineering”, March 3, 2011


PHILIPS LIGHTING’S EXPERIENCE IN THE APPLICATION OF LIGHT EMITTING DIODES FOR LIGHTING IN VARIOUS FACILITIES *

Sergei A. Borovkov

The Philips LLC, Moscow E-mail: [email protected]

Fig. 1. The market shares of LED light sources and luminaires (grey) and traditional light sources and lumi-naires (black) in 2008 and 2020 (according to the Philips

assessments)

Fig. 2. The key investments of Philips Lighting into the LED market in 2005–2009.


49

toS” Autonomous Noncommercial Organization. A comparative analysis of LED lamps sold in Russia was carried out on the basis of the results obtained.

All in all, more than 13 models of LED lamps produced by various manufacturers were tested. And only 3 models (2 of them are produced by Philips) fully correspond to their stated characteristics (Figs. 5–7).

According to an assessment made by the Philips, in 2008 light sources containing light-emitting di-odes and lighting fi xtures using LEDs occupied 7 % of the light sources and lighting fi xtures market vol-ume (Fig. 1), despite the high price of LEDs. It is ex-pected that in the years to come LED cost price will drop 10 times. It is also expected that by 2020 LED light sources and lighting fi xtures using LEDs will occupy 75 % of this market.

Although LED light sources save 80 % energy compared to general purpose incandescent lamps, they become even more effi cient when coupled with various control systems. It can be said that the future belongs to lighting systems using LED light sources where both luminous fl ux and emission colour are controllable. Such lighting systems will permit us to obtain lighting concepts adapted to the needs of in-dividual consumers.

Since 2005, the Philips has been actively acquir-ing companies manufacturing LEDs and lighting fi xtures using them, as well as their control systems: Lumileds, Color Kinetics, TIR Systems, Dynalite, Teletrol, Genlyte, etc. (Fig. 2).

2. THE QUALITY OF LED LAMPS

LED lamps hold a unique position among LED light sources. Any LED lamp, even the simplest one, is essentially an electrotechnical system including an LED, an optical converter, electronic control gear and a heat radiator (Fig. 3). The quality of such a system is determined by the quality of its least relia-ble part (“a chain cannot be stronger than its weakest link”). As can be seen from Fig. 4, the control gear has the shortest service life; as a result, the service life of the whole bulb is determined by that of pre-cisely this component.

Taking advantage of the lack of norms and stand-ards regulating the quality of LED lamps and light-ing fi xtures using them in the Russian market, as well as the lack of a system certifying their compli-ance to their stated parameters, many manufacturers mislead consumers when they inform them of un-truthful performance data of those advanced devices.

In 2010, the LLC Philips marketing department carried out a test of LED lamps represented on the Russian market. They were tested for the compli-ance of their stated technical data to their actual per-formance. Specimens of LED lamps were bought in shops and handed over for tests to the lighting facilities and electric fi xtures test centre – the “Sve-

Fig. 3. A LED lamp (basic design)

Fig. 4. Lifetime of various components of an LED lamps (an example)


50

since there are no norms and standards in Russia that could help assess the quality of LED light sources.

We see it fi t to introduce appropriate standards and to create a system of certifi cation of LED light sources and light fi xtures using them, namely:

• Standards and technical regulations regulat-ing energy effi ciency of those light sources and light fi xtures;

• Requirements concerning their quality characteristics;

• Test laboratories appraisal systems as per GOST R ISO/ IEC 17025 “General Requirements Concerning the Competence of Test and Calibration Laboratories”;

The principal problematic characteristics of the LED lamps were: luminous fl ux, colour rendering index, and correlated colour temperature.

Two of the above parameters of 8 out of 13 test-ed of LED lamps models did not correspond to their stated values.

Thus, summarizing the results of these tests, we can say that only 15 % of LED lamps fully cor-respond to their stated characteristics, and 61 % of them have 2 characteristics out of range.

What should a consumer do in such a case? How should they choose a quality LED lamp that will have a long service life and give off quality light? Unfor-tunately, it is hard to answer this question at present,

Fig. 5. The results of MR16 test of LED lamps

Fig. 6. The results of GU10 test of LED lamps


51

• Facilities with round-the-clock lighting (some shops, hotels, underground passages, etc.);

• Premises with high ceilings and high-rise fa-cilities (where light fi xture maintenance is diffi cult);

• Historic buildings and cultural facilities (e.g., picture galleries).

In 2010, Philips Lighting realised a project light-ing the Georgievsky Hall of the Winter Palace in Saint Petersburg, where ordinary incandescent lamps were replaced by Novallure LED series LED lamps and extra energy effi cient EcoClassic30 hal-ogen lamps (Fig. 9). The Novallure lamps are used in chandeliers lighting the side niches of the Geor-gievsky Hall. They have excellent colour rendering and give off bright sparkling light; thanks to their candle-like form, they fi t very well into the hall in-

• A system of compulsory energy effi ciency re-quirements compliance certifi cation at licensed lab-oratories ONLY.

3. LED LAMPS AND THEIR APPLICATIONS

At present, Philips Lighting manufactures a wide range of LED lamps both for decorative and for functional lighting (Fig. 8).

Today, the price of LED lamps is high, and this fact limits their application, since traditional light sources (halogen lamps, fl uorescent lamps, high-pressure sodium lamps) can ensure the same level of energy saving. However, LED bulbs have their own market niche:

Fig. 7. The results of А60 test of LED lamps

Fig. 8. The range of LED lamps manufactured by Philips Lighting


52

4. LED LUMINAIRES FOR OUTDOOR LIGHTING

A survey of perception of illumination generated by different light sources was carried out in Great Britain. According to the poll, high-pressure sodi-um lamps have a slight edge over mercury arc lamps because of a larger light fl ux; however, they lose out against LED luminaires. 92 % of respondents preferred the warm white light of LED luminaires to the yellowish “sodium” one as a safer and more comfortable one. The possibility to discern objects and people in the road at night was one of the as-sessment criteria. All the respondents declared they

terior, being in harmony with the chandeliers. As a result, it became possible to reduce the power con-sumption of the lamps lighting the Georgievsky Hall by 45 %.

The replacement of ordinary incandescent lamps and halogen lamps by Master LEDbulb and Mas-ter LED LV lamps manufactured by Philips at the Scandic Palace hotel (Copenhagen, Denmark) re-sulted in saving 62 % electric power needed for lighting.

Lighting at the Oasis of the Seas cruise lin-er (Turku, Finland) can serve as another example of LED lamps utilisation in the “entertainment and hospitality industry” (Fig. 10).

Fig. 10. Lighting the Oasis of the Sea cruise liner

Fig. 9. Lighting the Georgievsky Hall of the Hermitage by LED lamps


53

sumption reduction without deterioration in visibil-ity conditions.

In 2010, the Philips in cooperation with the Neth-erlands highway authority, the Gebroeders van der Lee project partner and Spectrum consulting com-pany modernised the А44 highway lighting system in the Netherlands. SpeedStar series energy sav-ing Philips luminaires containing a LEDgine light-

had no problems discerning objects at the sections of thoroughfares where LED luminaires were used, while some had diffi culties at the sections lighted with high-pressure sodium lamps. That was in spite of the fact that the high-pressure sodium lamps illu-mination level was twice as high.

Thus, replacement of high-pressure sodium lamps by LED luminaires can result in power con-

Fig. 11 The modernisation of lighting on the А44 highway, Netherlands. Formerly (left): SGS306 SON-T250 W 230 V Trafi cVision luminaires, an electromagnetic control gear, input power: 270 W. Currently (right): BGP 323 (LED 136)

SpeedStar luminaires, input power: 242 W, Starsence remote control system with a function of dimming up to 20 % of the rated power, payback time: 8.6 years (Electric rate: €0.124/kWh).

Fig. 12. The lighting of the Alexander Column, Saint-Petersburg


54

Afterwards, within the framework of cooperation with the State Hermitage, in the same year (2010) Philips lit the Alexander Column in the Palace Square with LED fl oodlights (Fig. 12). The architec-tural design of lighting this column, one of the sym-bols of Saint Petersburg, was developed by Philips jointly with the Saint-Petersburg State Unitary Enter-prise “Lensvet”. Cutting-edge powerful СolorReach Powercore floodlights made by Philips light the monument effi ciently at night with optimally ration-al electric power consumption. For the fi rst time, the designers managed to light the column the way its lighting was conceived when it was created: to high-light the statue of the angel without additional light accents on the column.

It became possible to realise two lighting modes, for everyday and for special occasions, with a single fl oodlight. On weekdays, the column is lit by warm white light in a static mode. For holidays, specialists from Philips and the Saint Petersburg State Unitary Enterprise “Lensvet” prepared a scenario of a spec-tacular light show with changes of colour and inten-sity of lighting. Soft tones of violet, blue, scarlet and yellow sometimes lighting, sometimes going out will enhance the play of light and shadow.

emitting diode module as a LED light source were chosen for the realisation of the highway lighting project (Fig. 11).

A feature of the new lighting is that the LEDgine module will be improved together with the LED, and new modules can be installed into previous genera-tion lighting fi xtures.

The optical system used in the Philips Speed-Star luminaires is developed specially for highways; therefore, it permits to direct all the luminous fl ux to the roadway. Thus, light pollution discomfort to local residents is considerably reduced. Besides, the durability of the LEDs and the possibility to con-trol the luminaires’ operation reduce operating costs considerably. Luminaires give off bright white light. They contain a controlling unit permitting to auto-matically dim up to 20 % of the rated luminous fl ux depending on the traffi c density on the road.

Using existing light posts (height 12 m, distance between posts 50 m) was a condition of the mod-ernisation project.

The new equipment utilisation will permit to save 180 MWh electric power per year and cut СО2 emis-sions by 40 %. As a result the project payback time will be less than 9 years.

Sergei A. Borovkov, engineer, graduated from the Moscow Power Engineering Institute in 1997 (specialisation: “Automation of Manufacturing Activities and Production Operations”) and from the All Russian Academy for Foreign Trade in 2000 (specialisation: “International Economics”), at present, works at LLC Philips since 2003, now as the Value-Added Reseller’s (VAR) Channel manager

55

Galina S. Mun, Nikolai I. Shumakov, and Natalia V. ShuryginaThe Architecture and Illumination of Sretensky Boulevard Metro Station

Fig. 1. Middle hall views

Fig. 5. Lobby views (a ceiling part)

56

Tatyana S. Vasilyeva and Yuri V. Nazarov The Lighting Design of Clothes

Fig. 1. Laser dress. Hussein Chalayan

Fig. 5. Ski clothes equipped with ultraplain light emitting diode lampsDesigner Willy Bogner

57

Tatyana S. Vasilyeva and Yuri V. Nazarov The Lighting Design of Clothes

Fig. 7. Galaxy Dress. Designers Francesca Rosella and Ryan Genz

Fig. 6. Climate dress. Diffus Company

Fig. 8. Luminous false eyelashes. Designer Soomi Park

58

Jennifer Tracy and Evan MillsIlluminating the Pecking Order in Off-Grid Lighting

Fig. 3. Kerosene house

Fig. 4. Fluorescent house

Fig. 5. LED house

59

demand manufacturers search for new production technologies of light emitting components, search or synthesise new phosphors, and create original systems of heat removal. Only an integrated solu-tion of all these problems will allow development of competitive lighting products. The Scientifi c and Design Bureau of Common-Industrial Devices and Components of the Ural Optical-mechanical Fac-tory has achieved certain successes in this direction.

Light engineering is a key development direc-tions of civil instrument-making at UOMZ Produc-tion Association (PA) Open Society. The enterprise has worked in this sphere since 1997, and the pro-duction of a whole scale of lighting equipment has been developed during this period: lamp and light-emitting diode optical systems for traffi c lights, lu-minaires for external and indoor illumination, traffi c signs and light indicators. Ural traffi c light devices control car traffi c on roads of fi fty Russian cities, as well abroad. Since 2005 the company has been LED-oriented, and has developed serial production of more than ten various lighting devices on the ba-sis of LEDs.

At present, the development of hi-tech industrial production of a new generation of energy saving and ecologically clean systems of common illumination based on LED, demands the simultaneous solution of three technological problems.

First, the perfection of technology of heterostruc-ture epitaxial growth based on GaN is necessary. Be-sides, search for additives to decrease dislocations level and accordingly to increase current density lev-

ABSTRACT

1Problems of designing innovative lighting devic-es based on light emitting diodes (LED) are consid-ered. Development of such devices demands design of a specialised system of heat removal and opti-mum choice of light sources (LS) corresponding to market requirements by their spectral characteristics and luminous effi cacy. Standard design approaches no longer yield products with suffi cient competi-tive advantages in terms of technical data and cost; these demand development of original approaches and structural solutions. The requirements of light-ing devices have become tougher, if it comes to de-sign of medical illumination systems. Some original approaches to design are presented in the article, in-cluding synthesis of nanostructure phosphors based on quantum dots, light-emitting diode crystals, as well as heat pipes for the cooling system.

Keywords: light emitting diode, LED, illumi-nation devices with LEDs, phosphor, heat removal, medical luminaires

Development and creation of innovative light de-vices based on light emitting diodes (LED) has not been limited to LED selection and power supply for a long time. Increasing requirements on light qual-ity, design and construction implementation of prod-ucts, as well as on decreasing resource consumption,


PROSPECTIVE DEVELOPMENTS OF UOMZ PRODUCTION ASSOCIATION OPEN SOCIETY IN THE FIELD OF LIGHTING

DEVICES WITH LIGHT EMITTING DIODES *

Igor K. Sergeev

Scientifi c and Design Bureau of Common-Industrial Devices and Components of UOMZ Open Society, Moscow

E-mail: [email protected]



60

The current state of phopsphor composites syn-thesis technology based on phosphorus-containing components, ensures a quantum effi ciency level up to 50–60 % that is obviously not enough. UOMZ AP Open Society together with S-Pb GOU ITMO has developed a technology of industrial synthesis of in-organic phosphors based on rare-earth nanocrystals with raised quantum effi ciency. Phopsphor compo-sites in laboratory conditions showed a possibility to provide quantum effi ciency from 85 % to 98 %. The cost of these phosphors is still essentially more than the cost of phosphorus-containing phosphors but if their production output increases, the cost will con-siderably decrease [1–8].

To synthesise phopsphor composites, inorganic phosphors based on semiconductor nanocrystals (quantum dots) made of A2 B6 compound, should be used, because they can provide the necessary quan-tum effi ciency and spectral distribution of phosphor radiation, a high index of colour rendition and sta-bility when operating at high temperatures of up to 100–150 0 С. The developed composites should allow effective correction of light spectra sources based on dark blue LEDs (LEDs radiating in the interval of wave lengths 420–480 nm). The correction should be carried out by forming a total radiation consist-ing of LED radiation passing through the composite and of luminescence radiation of a polymeric layer containing phosphors based on semiconductor quan-tum dots and excited by light emitting diode radia-tion passing through this layer [9–13].

It is supposed that application of the developed technology for LED spectrum correction using polymeric matrices containing nanocrystal semi-conductor phosphors, will give the following new results:

• A possibility to obtain a luminescence quan-tum effi ciency exceeding 85 %;

• A possibility to correct LED radiation at any wave lengths in the spectral area of 400–480 nm;

• A possibility to obtain a corrected radiation of different spectral distribution for light devices of different purposes;

• A more effi cient conversion of LED radiation into luminescence radiation (from 5–6 to 10 times) caused by a greater effi ciency of pumping light ab-sorption and by a greater quantum effi ciency of the luminescence;

• A possibility (at a later stage) to develop a highly effective light source with an ergonomic spectrum;

els in the semiconductor, as well as to increase light effi ciency is needed.

In 2009 Semileds (USA) had an key success re-garding epitaxial production technology of GaN crystals. The company developed a light-emitting diode crystal of 800 mW power. The patented tech-nology MvpLEDs™ allowed creating serial LEDs of 120 lm/W luminous effi cacy in 2009. A feature of the crystals produced by Semileds is that the lift-off technology crystal is located on a copper carrier, which ensures good heat conduction and therefore low degradation of the crystals.

UOMZ PA Open Society in 2010 signed a con-tract of strategic partnership and delivery of semi-conductor crystals Semileds placed on a tape. Pro-duction of LED clusters with the use of crystals manufactured by Semileds is arranged on the chip-on-board technological line developed at UOMZ PA Open Society industrial capacities. In 2010 the fi rst serial batch was produced.

When producing lighting devices at the enter-prise, these LED structures or their analogues with improved parameters not yielding to them by char-acteristics are used.

Secondly, development of synthesis technology of high-effective phopsphor composites is neces-sary in order to allow increasing quantum effi cien-cy of white light sources and to ensure a high index of colour rendition, as well as a big operation stabil-ity at a high temperature, up to 100–150 º C.

Fig. 1. LED light device (1 is an evaporator; 2 is the LED on a substrate; 3 is a steam line; 4 is a coil condenser; 5 is a

pipe for condensation water; 6 is a radiator; 7 is a liquid cavity; 8 is a steam cavity; 9 is a power units with func-

tional sensors; 10 is an optically transparent cap; 11 is the spectrum converter on basis of silicium organic composite;

g is acceleration of free falling)


61

products, which reduces consumption of aluminum alloys when producing radiator elements [14, 15]. An example of such a luminaire is shown in Fig. 3.

This development approach is in its infancy. For comparison one can give light devices shown

• A possibility to use the proposed method with-out changing existing LED production technologies.

Thirdly, it is necessary to develop a technology of effective heat removal from LEDs.

Modern production technologies of illumination devices with LED power more than 30 W, provide for a heat removal radiator availability (78 % of the supplied energy is transformed into heat). On one surface of the heat removal, LEDs are placed at a considerable distance from each other (in compari-son with the LED sizes). To release this heat, a ra-diator surface must be big enough.

When LEDs are close to each other, heat release density sharply increases and available heat-conduct-ing materials do not ensure removal of the heat emit-ted by light devices depending on the LED power. Therefore existing technologies assume a uniform LED distribution over all radiator surface.

When developing energy saving and ecologically clean systems of general illumination, we use a ther-mal control system based on the heat pipes technol-ogy widely applied in state-of-the-art aerospace sys-tems. This achieves the following results:

• LEDs compacted on a LED matrix (to increase luminous fl ux density);

• Use of heat pipe technology to separate spa-tially (to a needed distance) the heat source (LED matrix) and the heat removal (radiator);

• Improved layout abilities of a whole illumina-tion device with LEDs in accordance with technical requirements;

• Improved industrial production technology of light devices with LEDs;

• Increased service life of light devices using an optimum thermal operating mode of LEDs;

• Provision of control, adjusting and reliability functions of light devices with LEDs.

Solving heat removal problems It is no secret that the most important task for

developers of light devices with LEDs, is to ensure an effective removal of heat from high power LED light sources. At present, UOMZ AP Open Society develops several street luminaires, where high power multicrystal LED assemblies are used, heat removal from which is ensured by means of heat pipes con-tour versions (Fig. 1 and 2).

An advantage of such a structure consists in the fact that we have the possibility of manufacturing compact luminaires (thickness from 1 to 5 cm), thereby ensuring low resource consumption of the

Fig. 2. The variants of a classical thermal pipe realization (CTP) faceted big diameter CTP evaporator,

fl at plates cooling by a thermal pipe of small diameter (1 – CTP evaporator; 2 – an evaporator side; 3 – elements of the

electronic scheme; 4 – a cooled fl at plate with elements of the electronic scheme; l – a liquid; s – steam)

Fig. 3. The pre-production model of the street LED luminaire.

Obvious advantages: spread range of entrance voltage, high luminous effi casy, the ultrathin case, thermoregulation

system


62

Examples of new lighting products are presented in Fig. 6.

Designing a new generation of medical illumi-nation systems

Special requirements for designing medical equipment make it necessary to a wide set of spe-cifi c characteristics.

The process of providing appropriate systems for use in operating theatres and examination rooms revealed that the demands on these devices are not only strict, but also self-contradictory. In this case, the development of up-to-date standards was pro-moted by the continual competition of manufac-turers of surgical luminaires, surgical illumination systems, patient’s examination room and diagnostic luminaires, as well as by progress in development of new light sources.

In accordance with the International Standard IEC 60601–2-41, GOST Р 50267.41–2001 and with requirements of the European Directive MDD 93/42/EEC on safety of medical equipment, surgical illu-mination systems should meet the following main requirements:

– Correlated colour temperature should be high enough (3000–6700 K) to allow observing surface

in Figs. 4 and 5 which are based on a similar technology.

Implementation of light devices constructed with-out high power LED components, allows managing elements without signifi cant heat removal and manu-facturing compact devices at low resource consump-tion levels.

Experience of creating devices with LEDs made it possible for us to develop a wide scale of devices with LED components (including own production devices) based on semiconductor crystals.

We have mastered an industrial technology of packaging crystals and depositing an organic sil-icon phosphor composition. As one of base struc-tures, a standard size of light emitting diode 3528 is accepted, which is successfully appropriate for structures of both industrial luminaires, and light-signal devices, in particular for road signs and in-formation indicators.

The production of a new generation light optic module for road and railway traffi c lights is planned to begin in 2011. The range of traffi c lights of UOMZ PA Open Society development is continuously up-graded. Modernisation of out-of-date models is con-stantly performed and directed for production cost, power and material consumption to be decreased.

Fig. 4. LED luminaire BWLR-CH200 F105–220 model

Fig. 5. LED luminaire (China), trade mark «REALSTAR», Street Light 933704 model


63

Modern luminaires are based on three types of light sources: gas-discharge lamps, halogen in-candescent lamps and LEDs.

Technologies on the LED basis were commer-cially implemented for in medical light devices fi eld for the fi rst time fi ve years ago, when serial produc-tion of LEDs including both white light sources, and RGB matrices, began.

One should note the following advantages of LEDs in comparison with incandescent lamps:

– High luminous effi cacy;– With due heat removal, LEDs are do not warm

up;– LEDs have a high mechanical strength and re-

liability; service life for high power LEDs at present is between 20 and 50 thousand hours;

– LEDs have a high vibration resistance that al-lows applying them in illumination systems for all transport types (ambulance cars, sanitary aircraft) and for fi eld hospitals;

– Average luminance of LEDs is well controlled using the pulse-width modulation method at frequen-cies of hundreds and thousands hertz without change in chromatic temperature;

– There is a possibility to obtain white light with a controlled chromatic temperature.

The only disadvantage of LEDs is their high cost. In spite of this, cost of one of the fi rst models of the POWERLED surgical luminaire by MAQUET (Ger-many) is €27, 000, i.e. it is in the same price interval, as cost of luminaires with traditional halogen incan-descent lamps.

of tissues and of microstructure in a colour spectrum close to the one perceived under natural illumination;

– Light of the operating lamp should not change the perceived colour of tissues, making them almost the same, as with natural illumination;

– Index of colour rendition Ra should not be less than 85 % [16];

– Luminous fl ux should be uniform (homogene-ous) ensuring absence of shades and clear illumina-tion even of deep sections and sections with complex relief, as well as cavities of the operational wound;

– Retention of edge (contour) shades for clear three-dimensional perception of tissues in the oper-ational fi eld is necessary. At the same time, shades of the surgeon’s hands and head, as well as of the surgical tools should not interfere with illuminance of the operating fi eld;

– A uniform light beam should be generated in wide boundaries in order to avoid refocusing light rays even when changing position of the patient or of illumination devices;

– If during surgery, main surgical luminaires and of surgical illumination systems fail, the illumination should be restored less than in 5 seconds;

– Filtration of thermal (infra-red) radiation gener-ated by an illumination device, should limit as much as possible temperature increase caused by this ra-diation in the operatingl fi eld and in the area of the surgeon’s head;

– Changing position of the light source during examination or surgical operation should be per-formed easily, in a wide intervals, and the light source should keep to the set position stably.

Fig. 6. New light-signal devices At the left – a fl at road traffi c lights with the indicator of readout of time, on the right – light emitting diode traffi c signs


64

fl ow through different LEDs. The process is control-led using a specialised software.

This allows fl exible adjusting of an illumina-tion system characteristics to specifi c requirements (Fig. 7), because support of illumination contrast and quality depends on characteristics of the biological object (Fig. 8).

One of the ways to implement a medical illu-mination system ensuring fl exible change of chro-matic temperature, can be the application of multi-crystal RGB components (Fig. 9). Implementation of the current control in RGB channels is shown in Fig. 10.

However mutual influence of crystals due to warming up via substrate, does not allow reaching a high-quality illumination in the process of current control in various channels. A more stable control of the colour rendition is ensured using discrete LED components of various spectral intervals.

Use of dark blue, green and white LED matrices (their technology is close to the RGB technology) allowed obtaining white colour with the possibility of shifting along the chromatic diagram (in an inter-val of 3500–5000 K) when controlling currents that

Fig. 8. Change of contrast of biological object at color temperature change

Fig. 7. An illustration of possibilities of fl exible change of medical luminaire color temperature

Fig. 9. A variant of realization of medical lighting system


65

lx for 9 clusters consisting of 19 LEDs each (1 red, 6 green, 6 dark blue, 1 cold white and 5 warm white) (Fig. 11).

Structure and general appearance of the illumina-tion system are presented in Fig. 12

Specialists at UOMZ consider close coopera-tion with scientifi c personnel of leading institutes of higher education of the Russian Federation a key to the success of new developments.

An optimum selection of spectral components when forming a luminous cluster, was a result of continuous scientifi c researches.

The developed mathematical model and calcu-lation module allowed designing a medical illumi-nation system with a high index of colour rendi-tion. According to the calculations, it was possi-ble to provide a colour rendition index from 91 to 98 % with illuminance from 150, 000 to 200, 000

Fig. 10. Block diagram of management realization of a luminous fl ux

Fig. 11. Results of mathematical modeling of lighting system

Fig. 12. Design of lighting system


66

ranov A.V.. Film fl uorescent nanosensor based on the sys-tem quantum dot-organic molecule // Russian nanotech-nologies. 2010, 5 (1–2), pp. 61–66.

8. Graham-Rowe, D. From dots to devices//. 2009. Vol. 3, pp. 307–309.

9. Anikeeva, P. O., Madigan, C. F., Halpert, J. E., Bawendi, M. G., Bulović, V. Electronic and excitonic processes in light-emitting devices based on organic ma-terials and colloidal quantum dots// Phys. Rev. B. 2008. Vol. 78, No. 8. P. 085434 (1–8).

10. Song, H., Lee, S. Photoluminescent (CdSe)ZnS quantum dot–polymethylmethacrylate polymer composite thin fi lms in the visible spectral range// Nanotechnology. 2007. Vol. 18, No. 5. P. 055402 (1–6).

11. Song, H., Lee, S. Photoluminescent (CdSe)ZnS quantum dot–polymethylmethacrylate polymer composite thin fi lms in the visible spectral range// Nanotechnology. 2007. Vol. 18, No. 5. P. 055402 (1–6).

12. Anikeeva, P.O., Halpert, J.E., Bawendi, M.G., Bu-lovic, V. Electroluminescence from a Mixed Red-Green-Blue Colloidal Quantum Dot Monolayer// Nano Lett. 2007. Vol. 7, No. 8, pp. 2196–2200.

13. Sun, Q. J., Wang, Y. A., Li, et al. Bright and color-saturated red, orange, yellow and green light emitting di-odes based on core/shell quantum dots with CdSe core// Nature Photonics. 2007. Vol. 1, pp. 717–722.

14. Kiseev, V.M., Vlassov, V.V., Muraoka, I. Optimi-zation of capillary structures for inverted meniscus evapo-rators of loop heat pipes and heat switches// Internation-al Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer. 2010. Vol. 53, No. 9–10, pp. 2143–2148.

15. Kiseev, V.M., Vlassov, V.V., Muraoka, I. Experi-mental optimization of capillary structures for loop heat pipes and heat switches// Applied Thermal Engineering. 2010. Vol. 30, No. 11–12, pp. 1312–1319.

Such cooperation allows for a wider approach to development of new technologies when manufactur-ing prospective lighting products and a deeper ab-sorption into scientifi c and technical problems aris-ing in the design process.

When preparing the publication materials, groundwork of a special design bureau on develop-ment of lighting equipment of UOMZ AP Open So-ciety were used, as well as scientifi c results of spe-cialists of the UrGU of A.M. Gorky and of S-Pb GOU ITMO.

The author expresses thanks for the help when preparing the materials, to the chief designer of light-ing equipment of UOMZ AP Open Society V.A. Mamayev and to developer engineers A.V. Salov and A.S. Lazarevich.

REFERENCES

1. Leonov M. Ju., Baranov A.V. and Fedorov A.V.. Non-stationary band-to-band absorption of light by quan-tum dots: pumping – sounding being a degenerated case of spectroscopy //Optics and spectroscopy. 2010. Volume 109, № 3, pp. 1434–1445.

2. Kruchinin, S.Yu., Fedorov, A.V. Baranov, A.V., Perova T.S., Berwick, K.. Double quantum dot photo-luminescence mediated by incoherent reversible energy transport// Phys. Rev. B. 2010. Vol. 81, № 24. 245303, pp. (1–13).

3. Orlova A.O., Gubanova M. S., Maslov V. G, Vinogradova G. N, Baranov A.V., Fedorov A.V. and Gounko I.. Spectroscopical-and-luminescent properties of the systems formed by similarly charged CdTe quantum dots and by molecules of tetrasulphophtalcyanine //Optics and spectroscopy. 2010. Volume 108, № 6, pp. 799–806.

4. Danilov V. V., Baranov A.V., Elyashevich G. K, Orlova A.O., Khokhlov G.G. and Khrebtov A.I.. Features of fl uorescence of semiconductor quantum rods CdSe/ZnS in multicomponent solutions containing amylciano-biphenyl //Optics and spectroscopy. 2010. Volume 108, № 6, pp. 814–819.

5. Orlova A.O., Adrianov V.E., Maslov V.G, Parfy-onov P.S., Baranov A.V., and Fedorov A.V.. Photophysical manifestations of quantum dots interaction with ortophen-antroline molecules //Optics and spectroscopy. 2010. Vol-ume 108, № 6, pp. 807–813.

6. Baranov A.V., Bogdanov K.V., Ushakova E.V., Cherevkov S.A., Fedorov A.V.and Tscharntke, S.. Сomparative analysis of combinational scattering spec-tra for PbS macro- and nanocrystals //Optics and spectros-copy. 2010. Volume 109. № 2, pp. 1368–1372.

7. Orlova A.O., Maslov V. G, Toporova Yu.A., Ushakova E.V., Fedorov A.V., Artemyev M. V.and Ba-

Igor K. Sergeev, Ph.D. (2004), a senior lecturer, graduated from the MGTU of N.E. Bauman in 2000. At present, the Director of the Scientifi c-and-design bureau of common industrial devices and components of UOMZ AP

Open Society, a specialist in medical instrument development. His main specialisation is radio electronics, medical radio-electronic devices, systems and devices, microcontrollers, digital signal processing, and he is the author of more than 60 scientifi c publications

67

cent system were upsized to provide the same light as the LED system.

Providing light with the fl uorescent or LED sys-tems is also far more economical than connecting to the grid in this case. The estimated grid-connection cost at this facility is 1.7 million Kenya Schillings (approximately 21,250 USD), which is nearly six-times the cost of the fl uorescent system and 35-times the cost of the LED system.

The LED system also confers various non-ener-gy benefi ts. The relative uniformity of LED lighting, compared to the fl uorescent or kerosene lighting, re-duced crowding which in turn created a less stressful environment for the chickens. The far higher levels of illumination also created a better environment for the workers, while eliminating the time required for obtaining fuel and maintaining kerosene lanterns. An additional advantage of the LED system relative to the solar fl uorescent system was that the former does not require a skilled technician to carry out the installation. The portable LED system lighting lay-out is also more easily adjusted than that of the hard-wired fl uorescent systems. Furthermore, switching to the LED system avoids over one metric ton of car-bon dioxide emissions per house on an annual basis compared to kerosene.

There is high potential for replication of this particular LED lighting strategy in the developing world. In order to estimate the scale of kerosene use and the potential for savings, more information is needed on the numbers of chickens produced off-grid, as well as lighting uses for other categories

ABSTRACT

The Lumina Project and Lighting Africa con-ducted a full-scale fi eld test involving a switch from kerosene to solar-LED lighting for commercial broil-er chicken production at an off-grid farm in Kenya. The test achieved lower operating costs, produced substantially more light, improved the working en-vironment, and had no adverse effect on yields. A strategy using conventional solar-fl uorescent light-ing also achieved comparable yields, but entailed a six-fold higher capital cost and signifi cantly higher recurring battery replacement costs. Thanks to high-er energy and optical effi ciencies, the LED system provided approximately twice the illumination to the chicken-production area and yet drew less than half the power.

At the study farm, 3000 chickens were grown in each of three identical houses under kerosene, f luorescent, and LED lighting configurations. Under baseline conditions, a yearly expenditure of 1,200 USD is required to illuminate the three houses with kerosene. The LED system eliminates this fuel use and expense with a corresponding simple payback time of 1.5 years, while the solar-fl uorescent system has a payback time of 9.3 years. The corresponding reduction in fuel expenditure in both cases represents a 15 % increase in after-tax net income (revenues minus expenses) across the entire business operation. The differential cost-effectiveness between the LED and fl uorescent sys-tems would be substantially greater if the fl uores-

ILLUMINATING THE PECKING ORDER IN OFF-GRID LIGHTING

A Demonstration of LED Lighting for Saving Energy in the Poultry Sector

Jennifer Tracy1 and Evan Mills2

1 International Finance Corporation, Nairobi, Kenya 2 Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, University of California, USA




68

rily in broiler production. In order to achieve stand-ard growth rates under a broiler-production model, chickens are raised in houses that are lit for between 20 and 24 hours per day throughout the growth cy-cle, which typically lasts 35 days. This requires the use of artifi cial lighting during the evening hours. The conventional wisdom behind this practice is that light stimulates the chickens to eat and in turn gain weight quickly. The production of broilers beyond the reaches of grid electricity therefore requires farmers to use alternatives, typically a fuel-based source of lighting, most commonly kerosene or die-sel generators, or solar or wind powered systems.3

The current study is an effort to identify more cost-effective approaches to providing the illumina-tion necessary for raising broiler chickens. Through an experimental study we assessed the cost of raising broilers using three types of off-grid lighting alterna-tives: kerosene lanterns, solar-wind powered fl uores-cent lighting, and small portable solar LED lighting. Under each lighting option we examined the costs, lighting service levels, and production outcomes in a full-scale broiler-production setting.

2. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

The study took place on a chicken farm in the town of Maai Mahiu, in Kenya’s Rift Valley Prov-ince (Fig. 1) between August 6 and September 10, 2010. The owner of the farm has been in the business of raising broiler chickens for fi ve years. At the time of the study the farmer had a contract with Kenchic Ltd, Kenya’s dominant chicken distributor, under which he purchased the chicks and later sold back the grown chickens.

4The experiment took advantage of the existing commercial facilities and production practices, mak-ing minimal alterations. The facilities included three side-by-side chicken houses of equal size and pro-portions, approximately 280 m2 each, constructed of stone block walls with wire mesh window/ven-tilation, corrugated metal roofi ng, and dirt fl oors (Fig. 2).

The houses were very similar in design and set-ting, and received essentially identical amounts

3 Government publications also endorse the use of kero-sene lanterns for the informally produced “indigenous1” chickens [5].

4 The map of Kenya was sourced from http://www.africa-within.com/tour/kenya/ maps_of_kenya.htm.

of poultry production (egg layers, indigenous broil-ers1). Our discovery that weight gain did not slow in the solar-fl uorescent house after it experienced ex-tended lighting out ages beginning on day 14 of the 35-ay study suggests that conventional farming prac-tices in Kenyan broiler operations may call for more hours of lighting than is needed to achieve least-cost production.

Keywords: off-grid lighting, poultry sector, kero-sene lanterns, LED luminaires

1. INTRODUCTION

The energy-savings potential for LED lighting in the developing world is enormous [1], but pri-or studies have not examined applications in the food-production sector. Kenya’s poultry industry directly contributes to the income of 3 million Ken-yans and indirectly supports the livelihoods of many more (Poultry News 2010). It contributes to 6.1 % of livestock GDP, which equates to 0.7 % of Ken-ya’s total GDP.2 Broiler chickens are produced for food in a large number of relatively small farms. Omiti [2] states that, as of 2006, there were nearly 27,000 broiler farms in Kenya, an unknown number of which are un-connected to the electricity grid.

Although there is great potential for growth in poultry production given increasing protein con-sumption in Kenya, there has been little gain over the last several years. Slow growth has in part been attributed to the increased cost of inputs. Between 2006 and 2010, the cost of production rose by more than 200 %, from 1.9 billion Kenya shillings (Ksh) to 4.3 billion Ksh while farmers’ net profi ts have not enjoyed the same growth rate [3].

Farmers must pay to provide suffi cient illumi-nation for certain types of poultry products, prima-

1 Raising indigenous chickens for meat can be described as backyard or “free-range” production. It is a small-scale, low-cost production method with minimal inputs. The chickens are generally free range, scavenge for food or get food scraps. Their growth and maturation for meat sale takes considerably longer than that for broiler operations.

2 Of Kenya’s 31.4 million poultry population in 2008, about 84 % were indigenous (free-range, subsistence-oriented) chickens, 8 % were layers, 6 % were broilers, and the re-maining 2 % included ducks, geese, turkeys, guinea fowl, etc. [2]. The Rift Valley province dominates production at 22 %, followed by Nyanza at 20 %, Central at 17 % and Eastern at 14 %. The Coast and Nairobi provinces contribute more modestly at 9 % and 8 %, respectively, and less than 1 % of production takes place in North Eastern province [4].


69

the purpose of this study the farmer agreed to operate one house under the solar-wind fl uorescent system, revert one to kerosene lanterns, and to allow us to install a simple, commercially available solar pow-ered LED lighting system in the third (Figs. 3–5).

The solar-wind system consisted of four 12-volt 100 AHflooded lead-acid batteries charged by a 120-watt PV panel and a 400-watt wind turbine, op-erating three 5 W compact-fl uorescent lamps and two 6 W linear fl uorescent lamps for a total of 27 lighting watts.The LED system consisted of six sealed-lead-acid battery-packs (2 LED lights per pack) that were each charged by a 5-watt PV panel, operating a total of twelve 1 W LED lights for a to-tal of 12 lighting watts. Over the growth cycle, de-pending upon the area of the houses in use and the judgment of the caretakers, the number of lighting sources varied, with an upper limit of fi ve fl uores-cent lights, eight hurricane lanterns fueled with ker-osene, and twelve LED lights (Table 1 and Fig. 6).

of daylight. Each house produces 3,000 chickens per cycle, and the chicks for all three were delivered on the same day. Throughout the standard 35-ay grow-ing cycle, the area occupied by the chickens within the houses was gradually expanded (per standard practice) by moving portable screens, depending upon the size of the birds. From day-zero to day-15 one-third of the house area was used, day 15 to 18 two-thirds were used, and from day 18 through the end of the cycle the full capacity of the houses was utilized. Each house was monitored and maintained by a single caretaker throughout the production cy-cle. This particular farmer completes fi ve of these cycles in an average year. More intensive produc-tion levels would yield larger differential savings be-tween the electric and fuel-based lighting techniques.

In the initial years of operation the houses were illuminated in the evening with kerosene lanterns. One year ago, the farmer installed a 520-watt solar-wind hybrid system to power fl uorescent lamps. For

Fig 1. Map of Kenya highlighting the Rift Valley and Central Provinces, the black diamond represents the approximate location of the chicken farm4

Fig. 2.The three chicken houses. (Left to Right): fl uorescent house powered by a solar-wind hybrid system, the kerosene house, and the LED house


70

and mortality, as well as weekly records of weight and medicine administered. In addition, we asked the caretakers to record the number of light sources used each day in their respective houses and the time at which they turned on the lights in the evening and off in the morning. The duration of lighting for the fl uorescent and the LED houses was also monitored using HOBO data-loggers to verify operator reports, and on-time (with the exception of the solar-availa-bility episode noted below) was verifi ed to be com-parable across the three houses. The caretaker of the kerosene house also recorded the amount of kero-sene used each day. We visited the farm weekly, at which time were caved the records from the care-takers, downloaded the logged data, and asked a set of questions to the caretakers about the performance of the lights, deviations from the normal routine, chicken behavior, and general observations and com-ments each had about the lights and the impact upon the chicken-production operation.

3. RESULTS

LED lighting was the clear favorite from the perspective of the caretakers and the farm own-er. The LED lights delivered the most light, had the most consistent performance, were the easiest lighting choices to manage, and were conveniently versatile.

The farmer identifi ed multiple non-energy bene-fi ts of the LED systems compared to the other light-ing approaches:

1. Unlike the fl uorescent system, the LED sys-tems did not require a skilled electrician for instal-lation or maintenance.

The cost of each system (inclusive of wiring, lamps, and installation costs) is shown in Table 2.

While the LED lights likely have greater lumi-nous effi cacy (measured as lumens of light per watt of power input) than the fl uorescent system, their primary advantage is the far higher optical effi cien-cy achieved by the delivery of more light to the fl oor of the houses. In contrast, the fl uorescent and kero-sene lighting sources emit light spherically, with much going onto the ceiling and high wall areas where it is not of use. As a result, the LED system provided approximately twice the illumination to the chicken-production area with less than half the energy input.

5When the chickens reached a suffi cient size and the houses were at their maximum utilization – fully opened and all available lighting points in use – we measured simple transects of the lighting layout us-ing an Extech 401036 light meter (see Fig. 6 for the lighting layout of each house and location of meas-urements).The kerosene house received by far the least amount of illumination, the fl uorescent house was intermediate, while the LED house received the highest levels of illuminance. The LED house also attained the most uniform light distribution through-out the house (Figs. 7–8).

6As part of their normal routine, the caretakers of the houses kept daily records of food consumption

5 On Day 18 all three houses were opened up to their full fl oor area. The caretaker of the kerosene house continued to use six lanterns for two days after which he decided it was not bright enough, adding the fi nal two lanterns totaling eight lanterns on Day 20.

6 All Kenya Schillings to US-dollar price conversions use an exchange rate of 80 Ksh/USD as per August 2010.

Table 1. Type and number of lighting systems in use. More light sources are engaged as more fl oor area is brought into use

Lighting Source Day 1–12 Day 13–14 Day 15–17 Day 18–20 Day 20–35

Kerosene Lantern 6 lanterns 6 lanterns 6 lanterns 6 lanterns 8 lanterns5

FluorescentLamps 2 lamps 3 lamps 4 lamps 5 lamps 5 lamps

LED Lamps 3 LEDs 3 LEDs 8 LEDs 12 LEDs 12 LEDs

Table 2. Initial cost of each of the three systems

Lighting System Capital Cost (Ksh) Capital Cost (USD)6

Kerosene 2,480 31

Solar-Wind Hybrid Fluorescent 300,000 3,750

Solar Portable LED 46,800 585


71

more time to obtaining fuel, preparing the kerosene lanterns, and cleaning the accumulated soot from the glass chimneys daily.

4. As a result of an undersized solar-wind fl uo-rescent system – and 15 days of minimal sun – the duration of light output in the fl uorescent house was

2. Throughout the growing cycle the caretaker was readily able to reposition the lights based on the desirable placement, unlike the permanently fi xed fl uorescent lamps.

3. In comparison to the other lighting systems, the caretaker of the kerosene house had to devote

Fig. 3. Kerosene house

Fig. 4. Fluorescent house

Fig. 5. LED house


72

Neither the growth rate of the chickens nor the rate of food consumption varied signifi cantly among the houses. This was a surprising outcome given the signifi cant reduction in lighting duration in the fl uo-rescent house during the overcast period. According to the farmer, nighttime illumination is most impor-tant during the fi rst 15 days of the birds’ life.

The mortality rate among the three houses dif-fered signifi cantly, but this cannot be causally linked to the lighting sources. Instead, it is likely a result of Gumboro disease affecting the chickens in the kerosene house and not the other two houses. Gum-boro is a common chicken virus in Kenya that at-tacks the immune system with mortality rates typ-ically reaching 20 %. It can be prevented with a vaccination; however, once the disease hits there is nothing that can be done [6]. All of the chick-ens were vaccinated for Gumboro on day ten, but

reduced by nearly 40 % compared to the duration in-tended. The LED system, on the other hand, never failed prematurely and provided the intended dura-tion of light output consistently throughout the en-tire cycle, as did the kerosene lanterns, which were simply refi lled when necessary.

5. Because they experienced more uniform light-ing distribution than the houses lit by the other light sources, the chickens in the LED house distribut-ed themselves more evenly during feeding. This was verifi ed because the food in the feeders located throughout the LED house was equally depleted, whereas such uniform depletion was not the case in the other two houses. According to the farmer, ex-treme clustering during feeding causes unnecessary stress that affects the chickens. Therefore, the LEDs were seen as advantageous as they reduced the level of clustering during feeding times.

Fig. 6. Lighting layout of each of the three houses and location of illuminance measurements presented in Figs. 7–8, each horizontal/length unit equals 5 feet and each vertical/width unit equals 3.75 feet


73

systems and assuming fi ve growing cycles per year,7 the LED system will pay for itself in 1.5 years while the fl uorescent system will take 9.3 years.8 A higher number of cycles would decrease the payback times proportionately.

Providing light with fl uorescent or LED systems is far more economical than connecting to the elec-

7 The number of cycles per year carried out by the farmer in our study.

8 This payback period does not account for any maintenance costs that may be required over the years, such as battery replacement. Battery-replacement costs are included in our cash fl ow and profi tability analysis, however.

a second vaccination, which the farmer sometimes administers, was not given to any of the chickens. This is the likely reason for higher mortality rates in the kerosene house within the last 5 days of the cycle. It is unknown, however, why Gumboro led to higher mortality in the kerosene house than the oth-er two houses.

LED lighting was by far the most cost-effective of the three systems tested. On a per-cycle basis, the fl uorescent and the LED systems increased after-tax net income (revenues minus expenses) by15 % compared to the kerosene system. Table 3 provides a breakdown of the per-cycle costs and revenues. Considering the initial cost of each of the lighting

Fig. 7. Minimum and maximum illuminance measurements across the length of each house, the measurement transects are shown in Fig. 6

Fig. 8. Minimum and maximum illuminance measurements across the width of each house,the measurement transects are shown in Fig. 6


74

tricity grid. The estimated grid-connection cost at this facility (which is located close to a nearby dis-tribution line) is 1.7 million Kenya Schillings (ap-prox 21,250 USD), which is nearly six-times the cost of the fl uorescent system and 35-times the cost of the LED system.

In addition to cost savings, switching to the LED system avoids over one metric ton of carbon dioxide

(Note: average actual values across the three houses are used here to suppress inter-house noise and clarify the rela-tive impact of lighting choices.9 Expenses for assets lasting longer than one production cycle (feeders, heaters, batter-ies) are prorated to per-cycle values)

Table 3. Cash fl ow and profi tability for each house over the 35-ay growing cycle

9 There were differences in mortality rates among the houses, which infl uenced the food inputs. It cannot be concluded that the differences were related to the lights, and in fact one house was determined to have a minor outbreak of the disease Gumboro. Therefore, in order to standardize the cost-benefi t analysis for the different lighting systems, we used average feed cost and sale revenues across all houses. The LED systems would appear signifi cantly more profi t-able using the raw data.


75

fordable, and modern off-grid lighting by 2012. The longer-term goal is to eliminate market barriers for the private sector to reach 250 million people in Af-rica without electricity, and using fuel based light-ing, by 2030. Improved lighting provides signifi cant socio-economic, health and environmental benefi ts such as new income generation opportunities for small businesses. Lighting Africa contributes to the goals of the Clean Energy Ministerial. For more in-formation, please visit http://www.lightingafrica.org.

Lighting Africa is implemented in partnership with the Asia Sustainable and Alternative Energy Program (ASTAE), the Energy Sector Management Assistance Program (ESMAP), the Global Envi-ronment Facility (GEF), Good Energies Inc., Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, the Public-Private Infrastructure Advisory Facility (PPIAF), the Renewable Energy and Energy Effi ciency Partner-ship (REEEP) and the United States.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We thank Josphat Karanu Muhuthu, Maina Mumbi, Arne Jacobson, Peter Alstone, Patrick Ava-to, Arthur Itotia Njagi, Benedicte Walter, and the 9000 birds that tolerated our presence over their 5-week stay in Maai Mahiu. This work was funded by The Rosenfeld Fund of the Blum Center for De-veloping Economies at the University of California, Berkeley, through the U.S. Department of Energy under Contract No. DE-AC02–05 CH11231 and by the Lighting Africa Program.

REFERENCES

1. Mills, E. “The Specter of Fuel-Based Light-ing,” Science 308:1263–1264, 2005, 27 May.

2. Omiti, J. “Overview of the Kenyan Poultry Industry and its HPAI Status.”Presentation. 2008.

3. “Kenya’s Farmers Hit by High In-put Prices.” Poultry News, July 5, 2010. http://www.thepoultrysite.com/poultrynews/20439/kenyas-farmers-hit-by-high-input-prices

4. Onkundi, D. 2008. “Pro-poor HPAI Reduc-tion Strategies Project – Background Information: Poultry Sectors and Disease Status.” Kenya HPAI Risk Assessment and Risk Pathways Multi-Stake-holder Workshop, Nairobi, Kenya. October 2–3, 2008.

5. KARI. “Indigenous Chicken Production Manual.” Kenya Agricultural Research Institute, Technical Note No. 18, 2006.February, 17 P.

emissions per house on an annual basis compared to kerosene. Given the virtually complete elimination of kerosene light in farms opting for LED lighting, these projects would be particularly conducive to carbon-trading arrangements because of the relative-ly low uncertainties regarding the degree of expected displacement [7]. In many other contexts, verifi ca-tion is far more diffi cult and only partial substitution can be realistically assumed.

4. CONCLUSIONS

Signifi cant quantities of kerosene are used to pro-vide illumination for chicken production in off-grid settings. Through a controlled test in a full-scale chicken-production setting, we found that net reve-nues could be materially improved with the conver-sion to grid-independent electric lighting systems. The choice of kerosene, fl uorescent, or LED light-ing sources did not make a perceptible difference in chicken growth rates. However, the LED sys-tem produced the most illumination, paid for itself in saved kerosene in one-sixth the time of the fl uo-rescent system, and offered many co-benefi ts for the workers in comparison to the other lighting systems. There is signifi cant potential for replication of this LED lighting strategy in the developing world.

About The Lumina Project

The Lumina Project – an initiative of the U.S. Department of Energy’s Lawrence Berkeley Na-tional Laboratory – provides industry, consumers, and policymakers with timely analysis and informa-tion on off-grid lighting solutions for the developing world. Lumina Project activities combine laboratory and fi eld-based investigations to ensure the forma-tion of policies and uptake of products that maximize consumer acceptance and market impact. Lumina Technical Report No.8, for more information, please visit http://light.lbl.gov

About Lighting Africa

Lighting Africa, a joint IFC and World Bank pro-gram, seeks to accelerate the development of com-mercial off-grid lighting markets in Sub-Saharan Af-rica as part of the World Bank Group’s wider efforts to improve access to energy. Lighting Africa is help-ing mobilize the private sector to build sustainable markets to provide 2.5 million people with safe, af-


76

(Footnotes) 1. On Day 18 all three houses were opened up to

their full fl oor area. The caretaker of the kerosene house continued to use six lanterns for two days af-ter which he decided it was not bright enough, add-ing the fi nal two lanterns totaling eight lanterns on Day 20.

2. All Kenya Schillings to US-dollar price con-versions use an exchange rate of 80 Ksh/USD as per August 2010.

6. “Infectious Bursal Disease, IBD, Gum-boro,” The PoultrySite Quick Disease Guide. 2010. http://www.thepoultrysite.com/diseaseinfo/81/infectious-bursal-disease-ibd-gumboro

7. Mills, E. “From Carbon to Light.” Lumi-na Project Technical Report #5. Prepared for the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), Small Scale Working Group of the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) Ex-ecutive Board, 2010. http://light.lbl.gov/pubs/tr/lu-mina-tr5-summary.html

Jennifer Tracy works as a consultant to the International Finance Corporation of the World Bank Group in Nairobi, Kenya. In this role, she serves as the primary Africa-based consultant for fi eld research associated with the Lighting Africa program. Ms. Tracy has a Master’s of Science degree with an emphasis in Energy, Environment and Society from Humboldt State University and a double bachelor’s degree in Anthropology and Psychology from the University of Washington. She has been involved in fi eld research in Kenya since 2009 with a focus on rural off-grid lighting impacts and recently has expanded her work to include activities in East and West Africa

Evan Mills, Ph.D. He is graduated from Shveden University of Lund in 1991 by speciality in ecology and energy systems, and hi is in stuff of Lawrence Berkley National Laboratory for a long time

77

2. FUNCTION OF THE REFLECTOR

The refl ector connects the light source with the area to be illuminated and, depending on the envi-ronment and lighting requirements, the refl ector will need to perform the following functions:

• Light diffusion, light distribution, light guid-ing, glare suppression;

• Filtering the light spectrum (UV/ IR absorpti-on);

• Heat management (cooling, heating);• Aesthetic requirements (design);• Electrical / electromagnetic shielding;• Protection of the light-source against mechani-

cal impact;• Sustainability: energy effi ciency, energy sav-

ing, operational life.

3. LIGHT SOURCES AND REFLECTOR MATERIALS

Almost all categories of rigid materials have been used in refl ectors: metals, glass, (transparent) plastics, paper, textiles. We can also add to the list PVD1 – coated systems, which usually provide in-creased refl ectivity due to their wave-length sensi-tive properties.

The following table contains examples of some reflector materials commonly used in lighting. Alongside optical performance, thermal conductiv-ity and thermal capacity are new and signifi cant fac-tors which need to be considered in the case of LED lighting. Heat management of sensitive electronic light sources is the greatest challenge for materials which has arisen in developments to date.

ABSTRACTS

Requirements to refl ectors of LED luminaires are formulated and examples of refl ector materials are presented. The “Ideal” refl ector for offi ce LED lu-minaire is described.

Keywords: LED luminaire, refl ector, refl ector’s material

1. HISTORIC OVERVIEW OF LIGHT REFLECTORS

1The history of lighting has witnessed the devel-opment of new light sources generally leading to changes in the characteristics of refl ectors, which translated into changes to refl ector geometry or the materials used. In the case of the light bulb or en-ergy-effi cient bulbs, the refl ectors were principally fashioned from paper, textiles or plastic foils, where-as workplace fl uorescent luminaires mainly consist of anodized or PVD-coated refl ective aluminium el-ements assembled into a panel in order to comply with DIN 5035 and EN 12464–1 (standards for in-terior workplaces).

Using LED technology in offi ce environments creates a new set of requirements for refl ector mate-rial. Glare suppression and light diffusion represent particular challenges in terms of precision and also the long-term stability and operational life of the refl ectors.

* On basis of report at 19 „Licht2000“ 2010, 17–20 October, Wien


NEW LIGHT SOURCES AND THEIR REQUIREMENTS ON REFLECTOR MATERIALS*

Roman Fuchs

FME GmbH – Fuchs Materials & Engineering E-mail: [email protected]


78

components. We have set out below a refl ector de-sign which addresses a number of the requirements Figs. 1,2.

An LED light consists of a high-grade and high-ly-refl ective aluminium plate in which the mini-re-fl ectors directing the light are confi gured as “down-

4. THE “IDEAL” LED REFLECTOR

LED lighting, with its high density of point-source light emission places considerable technical demands on the refl ector, due to the degree of minia-turization and the heat-sensitivity of these electronic

Table 1. Properties of refl ector materials

Refl ector materialTotal

refl ectivity, %(DIN 5036–3)

Light– directing/– diffusion

Thermal conduc-

tivity W/ mK

Thermal capacity

kJ/ (kg.K)

El. magnetic shielding

Fire beha-vior 2

Aluminium (raw, anodized) 80–90 Diffused -directed 236 0.9 yes A1

Aluminium (RE) enhanced refl ectivity 95–98 Diffused

-directed 236 0.9 yes A1

Stainless steel 50–60 Matte- directed 15–80 0.46 yes A1

Steel – painted white 80–90 Diffused 15 –80 0.46 yes A1

Silver (polished) 95 Directed 429 0.23 ja A1

Silvered glass mirror 95 Directed 0,19 1,47 yes A1

Glass 1) 92Transparent,

opaque -diffused

0,19 1,47 no A1

Acrylic glass 1 86 0.2 1.25 no B2

Polycarbonate (PC) 1) 80–90 0.14 1.2 no B1

Paper (white) 80–85 Diffused 0.18 1.2 no B3

Textiles 1) 50–80 Diffused 0.04 1.7 no B2 – B3 1) transparent materials= Transmission coeffi cient2) building material classes DIN 4102–1

Table 2. The refl ector functions and requirements seen earlier

Refl ector- functions and requirements Notes

High refl ectivity (front side) ideally R > 95 %

UV / (IR) absorption

Precise light diffusion and glare suppression Complies with EN 12464–1

High emission, highly effi cient heat-radiating surface (reverse / back side) Ideal > 80 % of the black body radiation

Low thermal transfer resistance between LED chip / refl ector via direct solder application

Thin layer of insulation between LED chip and circuit board

High thermal conductivity > 200 W/ mK

Self-supporting / mechanically stable / minimal depth Ideal depth < 15 mm

Integrated wiring E.g. on back/reverse

Sustainability / good recyclability

Operating life Depends on whether for indoor or outdoor use


79

The aluminium base plate housing the mini-downlights, and with high heat conductivity, is con-nected to an aluminium backing sheet which results in a stable, rigid yet thin lighting panel. The two sheets are connected, in this sandwich-like construc-tion, by a thermally conductive core material. The surfaces of the approximately 65 cm x 65 cm LED

lights” and serve to both diffuse light and suppress glare. The surface of the aluminium plate in the “downlight area” has been coated to maximise re-fl ectivity, which ensures high luminous effi ciency. High-performance LEDs with over 3 Watt / LED are mounted directly onto the refl ector, in order to mini-mise thermal transfer resistance.

Fig. 1. The „ideal“ LED refl ectorDepending on the angle from which it is viewed when seen close up, the lighting panel prototype, made from highly-

refl ective aluminium, shows the glare reduction capability of the downlights acting as mini-refl ectors

Fig. 2. Sketch of the LED- lighting panel


80

If you consider the products currently on the mar-ket, with their low light density, then this assessment is no doubt accurate. However, if increases in light yield are achieved at the same pace as during the de-velopment of LEDs, heat dissipation, light diffusion and glare suppression may also become challenges for these wide-area light sources, too.

panels are coated to emit heat and thus a large pro-portion of the heat generated is dissipated into the surrounding area. New printing and coating tech-niques mean electrical supply leads can be applied directly onto refl ector components, thus achieving considerable savings in wiring.

5. NEW LIGHT SOURCES WITHOUT A REFLECTOR (OLED)?

A great future is being predicted for these organic LED lights, including for their use in technical light-ing applications. In both the popular scientifi c press as well as in specialist publications, OLEDs are be-ing hailed as 100 % shadow-free diffuse light sources which do not need a refl ector.

Roman Fuchs, a physics graduate, is C.E.O of FME GmbH and provides technical consultancy on materials science and technology, specialising in light and solar technologies. Roman Fuchs spent a number of years heading up the R&D function of an aluminium business which produces specialszed surfaces for light and solar technology applications

81

Discrepancy of cI (λ) and cII (λ) on the one hand, with functions of spectral sensitivity of retina recep-tors and with functions of relative spectral luminous effi ciency on the other hand, for day-time V (λ), and night-time, V′ (λ) vision, motivated the authors of pa-pers [4–6] to declare a discovery of a new retina pho-toreceptor as some version of ganglionic cells. These authors named the cells “photosensitive retina gan-glionic cells”.

Meanwhile the results of experiments [2, 3] sup-pose absolutely another, more natural and simple treatment given below.

So, an analysis of experimental data on cI (λ) and cII (λ) has shown an obvious non-monotony of the long-wave part of these functions diagrams (Fig. 1 and 2). And with due regard for the work re-sults [7], cI (λ) is well approximated using the bino-mial expression:

72 561

28 99 2

445

2 28 99

2

2,

,exp

,π

λ−

−( )⋅

⎛

⎝⎜⎜

⎞

⎠⎟⎟

+

(1)

+ −−( )

⋅

⎛

⎝⎜⎜

⎞

⎠⎟⎟

25 891

21 21 2

509

2 21 21

2

2,

,exp

,,

π

λ

and cII (λ) can be approximated using

77 881

31 11 2

445

2 31 11

2

2,

,exp

,π

λ−

−( )⋅

⎛

⎝⎜⎜

⎞

⎠⎟⎟

+

(2)

+ −−( )

⋅

⎛

⎝⎜⎜

⎞

⎠⎟⎟

19 871

23 33 2

513

2 23 33

2

2,

,exp

,.

π

λ

ABSTRACT

An analytical expression for the function of rela-tive spectral circadian effi ciency c (λ)1 is suggested. A possibility of its treatment as the sum of weighed functions of relative spectral sensitivity of retina rod and blue-perceiving cone apparatus is substantiated. Accordingly, inaccuracy of the statement about the role of so-called photosensitive ganglionic retina cells as “new photoreceptors” in a retina is shown. In accordance with the statement, “new photorecep-tors” take part in activity control of circadian system of a human being.

Keywords: c (λ) function, non-monotony of a function, retina, rods, blue-perceiving cones, spec-tral sensitivity, ganglionic cells

The effi ciency of optical radiation in the control of circadian rhythms of an organism is to a large extent determined by its spectral composition and by the dependence of melatonin secretion suppres-sion degree on wave length λ, which is expressed by the function of relative spectral circadian effi -ciency c (λ)1. At present two versions of c (λ) are best known. They have been obtained through the process of independent experiments [2, 3]. We shall desig-nate them as cI (λ) and cII (λ) respectively.

1 Term and designation c(λ) data were previously found in K. Biske and D. Gall’s article (Svetotekhnika. – 2006. – №1). The same accordong to V. Adrian [1] is “relative action spectrum for suppression of melatonin secretion”, according to S.M. Berman and R.D. Klier (Svetotekhnika. – 2008. – № 3), it is “cirtopic function of relative spectral lu-minous effi ciency V ′′ (λ)”, and according to V. Van Bommel (Svetotekhnika. – 2011. – №1 and 2), it is “spectrum of biological action В(λ)”. – Editor’s note.


CONCERNING PHOTORECEPTORS OF THE PATH OF THE HUMAN BODY CIRCADIAN RHYTHM CONTROL

Alexander V. Leonidov



82

(509 and 513 nm accordingly) with λmax of relative spectral sensitivity of retina cones functions [7, 8] allows concluding that these terms are not connect-ed with one of the cone types. Practical similarity of the second terms of expressions (1) and (2)2 con-fi rms their connection with one type of retina pho-toreceptors being different from cones. And on the

2 Some differences between them can be explained by inevi-table inaccuracies in experiments [2, 3] and by inequalities of their experimental conditions.

The fi rst terms of these expressions practically coincide with the approximating expression of rela-tive spectral sensitivity of blue-perceiving cones [7]. (Especially the fi rst term of expression (1)).

Such coincidence is clear evidence of the fact that form of functions cI (λ) and cII (λ) to a large extent is determined by blue-perceiving cones of retina, which directly conforms to the correspondent as-sumption by V. Adrian [1].

As to the second terms of expressions (1) and (2), discrepancy of wave lengths of their maxima λmax

Fig. 1. Diagrams:1 – of the function of relative spectral circadian effi ciency in accordance with [2], cI (λ); 2 – of expression approximating

cI (λ) (1); 3 and 4 – of the fi rst and second terms of expression (1) accordingly

Fig. 2. Diagrams:1 – of the function of relative spectral circadian effi ciency in accordance with [3], cII (λ); 2 – of expression approximating

cII (λ) (2); 3 and 4 – of the fi rst and second terms of expression (2) accordingly


83

3. Thapan, K., Arendt, J., Skene, D.J. An action spectrum for melatonin suppression: evidence for a novel non-rod, non-cone photoreceptor system in humans // J. Physiol. – 2001. – Vol. 535, № 1, pp. 261–267.

4. Brainard, G.C., Glickman, G.L. The biologi-cal potency of light in humans: signifi cance to health and behavior // CIE 152: 2003 – Proc. 25 th Session of the CIE in San Diego, 2003.

5. Brainard, G.C.,, Glikman G. L.. Biological in-fl uence of light on health and behavior of a human being // Svetotekhnika. – 2004. – № 1, pp. 4–8.

6. Brainard, G.C., Provencio, I. Photoreception for the neurobehavioral effects of light in humans // Proc. 2 nd CIE Expert Symposium on «Lighting and Health». 7–8 Sept. 2006, Ottava

7. Leonidov A.V.. Approximation of relative spec-tral sensitivity functions of retina receptors// Sve-totekhnika. – 2010. – № 5, pp. 53–55.

8. Meshkov V.V., Matveev A.B.. Basic principles of light engineering: Textbook for high education institutes: Part 2. Physiological optics and colorim-etry. – 2 nd revised edition.– Moscow: Energoat-omizdat, 1989. 432 p.

9. Adrian V.. CIE and photometry in the condi-tions of twilight sight // Svetotekhnika. – 2009. – № 1, pp. 36–43.

10. Abramov, I., Gordon, J. Color vision in pe-ripheral retina. I. Spectral sensitivity // J. Opt. Soc. Am. – 1977. – Vol. 67.

11. Stabell, B., Stabell, U. Spectral sensitivi-ty in the far peripheral retina // J. Opt. Soc. Am. – 1980. – Vol. 70.

12. Stabell, B., Stabell, U. Spectral sensitivity of the darc-adapted extrafoveal retina at photopic in-tensities // J. Opt. Soc. Am. – 1981. – Vol. 71.

13. Leonidov А.В. On impossibility of optical ra-diation reception by retina ganglionic cells // Sve-totekhnika. – 2011. – № 2, pp.65–66.

basis of λmax and of their determination area, these terms are similar to function V′ (λ)) [9] caused as it is considered to be, by action of the retina cone ap-paratus. This function is approximated well enough by the expression:

93 92

37 48 2

505

2 37 48

2

2

,

,exp

,;

π

λ−

−( )⋅

⎛

⎝⎜⎜

⎞

⎠⎟⎟

This allows relating the photoreceptors determin-ing form of the second terms of expressions (1) and (2), to the rods class (more exact, to some their ver-sion functioning at comparatively big luminances in visual fi eld [10–12].

Thus:• The form of function c (λ) presented by its

two most known versions cI (λ) and cII (λ), is caused by joint work of retina rod and blue-perceiving cone apparatus, and not by a new type of photoreceptor;

• Accordingly, the opinion that retina ganglion cells represent a new type of photoreceptors, is erro-neous. Being “output” retina neurons and at the same time intermediate elements of the circadian rhythm control path, ganglion cells of a retina only play the known role of integration and of subsequent transmi-tion of binary signals into suprahiasm nuclei of the hypothalamus and further into neural structures con-nected with epiphysis (pineal gland), and nothing more than that [13].

REFERENCES

1. Adrian V.. Komment on action spectrum of radiation for melatonin secretion control // Sve-totekhnika. – 2008. – № 1, pp. 39–41.

2. Brainard, G.C., Hanifi n, J.P., Greeson, J.M., Byrne, B., Glickman, G.L., Gerner, E., Rollag, M.D. Action spectrum for melatonin regulation in humans: evidence for a novel circadian photoreceptor // J. Neuroscience, 2001, v. 21, pp. 6405–6412.

Alexander V. Leonidov, Ph.D.. Graduated from the Moscow Power Institute in 1970. Specialty: light engineering and light sources

84

Tikhodeev and V.E. Kartashevskaya who worked in the VNIIM of D.I. Mendeleyev in Leningrad. From the middle of the 1940s to the late 1980s, the following was created and investigated in the VNIIM:

– The primary standard of luminous intensity unit at the temperature of platinum phase transition ful-fi lled in accordance with the NIST (USA) specifi ca-tion and adopted by the CIE;

– Subjective and objective methods for transfer of light value unit size were developed;

– Photometric benches, light measuring lamps, luxmeters based on selenic photo cell, distributive photometers and many other things were developed and investigated.

From the early eighties, the subject area of pho-tometry metrological support was transferred to Moscow into the VNIIOFI. This was a result of the new candela defi nition adopted by the International Bureau of Weights and Measures (IBVM) and ac-cordingly a result of the introduction of the exact value of spectral luminous effi ciency maximum co-effi cient Кm connecting luminous and energy values.

The VNIIOFI by this time became the metrologi-cal centre for energy radiometry and spectral radi-ometry in the USSR, the scientifi c centre of develop-ment and creation of black body models both of radi-ators in the optical range wave length, and of optical radiation receivers.

Today the main measure units of the SI system are objects, which are being revised from the view-point of their connection with fundamental physical constants [1], and candela is not an exception.

ABSTRACT

The introduction of energy saving illumination technologies in isolation from reliable and trustwor-thy measurement methods of light devices parame-ters is impossible. All who takes part in the process of illumination problem solutions and of modern en-ergy saving systems, should have an idea about the state of metrological support of photometry and per-spectives of its development. This short review cov-ers the period from the 1940s to the present. Many developments of Russian scientists of the Soviet period remain in practice of light measurements to-day as well. They are the basis of modern storage and transfer methods of light values unit size. At the same time, light measurement science is not at a standstill. Innovative technologies for instrument making, as well as new methods and facilities, are necessary for qualitative and quantitative evaluation of measuring device parameters. Methods of their calibration and checking are also required.

Keywords: units of measures of SI, maximum coeffi cient of relative spectral luminous effi ciency, light-emitting diode, light sources, black body model BBM, cavity thermal converter CTC, light measur-ing lamp, charge-coupled device (CCD) matrix, go-niophotometer, spectral sensitivity, photodiode, pho-tometric head, near fi eld photometry

1. INTRODUCTION

Light measurements in Russia are connected with the names of outstanding Soviet scientists P.M.

METROLOGICAL BASIS OF LIGHT MEASUREMENTS IN RUSSIA

Tatyana B. Gorshkova1, Victor I. Sapritsky1, and Raisa I. Stolyarevskaya2

1The All-Russian Scientifi c and Research Institute of Optical-and-Physical Measurements (VNIIOFI FSUE)

2Light & Engineering Journal E-mail: gortb@vniiofi .ru



85

Here 683 is Кm value adopted by the GCWM. It is the maximum spectral luminous effi ciency be-ing a multiplier factor for V (λ) function (relative spectral luminous efficiency). The old definition of candela did not set a fi xed Кm value. This coeffi -cient could only be found experimentally, on the ba-sis of luminance value assigned to black body at the temperature of hardening platinum. A considerable variation of experimental data (from 670.8 to 686.7 lm×W-1) was one more reason for the conversion to the new defi nition of candela being a luminous in-tensity unit. During the sixties and seventies, in pho-tometric laboratories all over the world, work on the defi nition of Кm coeffi cient was carried out. Its exact value, used together with the V (λ) existing function, gives a ratio of luminous intensity for monochromat-ic radiation of any wave length (not only 555 nm). This allows fi nding the above mentioned ratio for heterochromatic radiation as well. Therefore to re-produce luminous intensity unit, one can use not only a monochromatic source but also a source of contin-uous spectrum (in particular, a black body model).

To determine the Кm coeffi cient, it was necessary to have precise black body models as high-tempera-ture radiators and as integral receivers of optical ra-diation, those being absolute radiometers [5]. Plati-num hardening temperature is essentially lower than chromatic temperature of artifi cial illumination sys-tems and of natural radiation. Main errors appeared when comparing light sources with various chromat-ic temperatures both using visual photometers, and by means of photometric heads having a defective correction to relative spectral luminous effi ciency.

In accordance with the decision made by the GCWM in 1979, each national laboratory is completely free to select methods of candela reproduction.

In 1979 the GOSSTANDART of the USSR came to the decision to transfer all primary standards based on optical methods of physical value size realization, to the All-Russian Sientifi c and Research Institute of Optical-and-Physical Measurements (VNIIOFI).

3. DEVELOPMENT OF OBJECTIVE PHOTOMETRY IN THE VNIIOFI

From the 1970 s, forming of laboratories connect-ed with physical methods of coherent and not coher-ent optical radiation parameter measurements, was begun in the VNIIOFI, which was a rather young centre of science.

Current trends in the development of energy sav-ing illumination make necessary the development of a new set of measuring devices, which in turn de-mand a perfection of old methods and the develop-ment of new ones, as well as facilities for metrologi-cal support of light measurements, or photometry.

2. ACHIEVEMENTS OF THE VNIIM OF D.I. MENDELEYEV

The state primary standard of luminous intensi-ty unit based on the full radiator at the temperature of platinum hardening was created for the fi rst time in the VNIIM of Mendeleyev in 1948. This type of light standard was developed in the USA, adopt-ed in accordance with an international agreement on 1st January 1948 and implemented in eight national laboratories of leading countries of the world. Its lu-minance was 6.105 cd/ m2, international consisten-cy was approximately equal to ± 0.6 %. During his work in the VNIIM (1923–1957), P.M. Tikhodeev established a standard photometric laboratory, which was one of the best national laboratories of that time. For the fi rst time in this country, he set light and group standards based on incandescent lamps [2]. He was awarded the Order of Lenin for this work, as well as medals and the State prize of the USSR together with V.E. Kartashevskaya who took an ac-tive part in this work. As secondary light standards were used for luminous intensity units, illuminance and luminous fl ux units, groups of light measuring incandescent lamps of various structures and differ-ent chromatic temperatures [3,4]. Nevertheless, there was approximately 0.8 % difference between these standards of luminous intensity and luminous fl ux unit size and the average international ones at the chromatic temperature of 2850 K. This fact was ev-idence of the necessity to revise methods and facili-ties of luminous value units reproduction, because incandescent lamps and new light sources, which became generally used, had higher chromatic and correlated chromatic temperatures.

In accordance with a decision of the 16 th Gen-eral Conference on Weights and Measures (GCWM) adopted in October 1979, candela being the lumi-nous intensity unit, obtained a new defi nition that was not so much photometric but radiometric:

“Candela is luminous intensity in a given di-rection, of the source emitting monochromatic radiation of 540×1012 Hz frequency with radiant intensity of 1/683 Wsr-1.”


86

namic temperature. For BBM and a light measuring lamp to be compared by luminous intensity, a com-parator with a long-term stability and high quality of correction to V (λ), was necessary. In the VNI-IM’s practice, visual photometers or comparators based on photo cells with liquid short-term correct-ing fi lters were used. Development of photometers or photometric heads (PH) in the VNIIOFI, of their correction and stabilization methods, which further have served as a basis for the detector approach in photometry, allowed creating a whole direction of devices and measuring instruments for the detec-tor based photometry [10–13]. This also allowed in-troducing PHs into GOST 8.023 on equal terms with light measuring lamps. All of this was preceded by a substantial preparation for the development of equip-ment to measure spectral sensitivity, linearity and uniformity of receiving surface of optical radiation receivers [11,12], to develop stabilisation methods of liquid correcting fi lters [14], simulation and op-timisation of the correcting fi lters composition [15]. The latter was performed using a criterion of prox-imity to the relative actinity unit, relations of four integrals determining the transition coeffi cient in the process of light measurements, from A type source (a base light source at chromatic temperature 2856 K for calibration of measuring instruments in the pho-tometry) to the measured light source with a certain spectral composition and corresponding correlated chromatic temperature [12,13].

The results of international comparisons serve as the highest possible evaluation of real attained unit size realization and transfer accuracy using the prima-ry standard. Since 1986, the VNIIOFI took part in all

Development and manufacture of high-temper-ature black body models (BBM) and development of precise methods of their temperature determina-tion [6], thermal cavity (TC) and plain converters (PC) of various types [7], were the most important achievements of the VNIIOFI by the mid seventies from the point of view of light measurements. These developments have served as a basis for metrologi-cal support of integral and spectral radiometry in the wavelength optical interval [8].

From the VNIIM heritage, most valuable devel-opments were standard light measuring lamps of lu-minous intensity SIS and of luminous fl ux SIP cre-ated together with the VNIIS of Lodygin. The lamps were hollow and gas-fi lled, and intended for chro-matic temperatures from 2042 K to 2856 K. These measuring instruments for light value units size to be transferred in Russia are still being used today, and they underlie the national standard GOST 8.023.

Until the last days of her laboratory’s existence in the VNIIM, V.E. Kartashevskaya tried to transfer to the VNIIOFI the whole reserve of the light meas-uring lamps that were collected, annealed and in-vestigated for long-term stability during many years of the photometric laboratory work. This work was taken forward in cooperation with V.V. Azaryonok who was the chief of the photometric laboratory of the VNIIS of A.N. Lodygin.

Thus a method of luminous intensity unit repro-duction based on BBM and of its temperature deter-mination was developed [5,6]. On the other hand, complete sets of light measuring lamps [9] were used, whose luminous intensity was to be compared with BBM luminous intensity at a certain thermody-

Table 1. Results of the international comparisons of photometric values: VNIIOFI (Russia) – РТВ (Germany). Performed in 1996 [18]

Light valueMean value of the relation

VNIIOFI / РТВ ± relative RMSD (root mean square deviation)

Transported standard

Luminous sensitivity of the photometer 0.9993 ± 0.0012

Two VNIIOFI photometers with liquid fi lters and tube of calculated aperture diaphragms, one РТВ

photometer with thermal stabilisation at 32˚ C temperature

Luminous intensity 1.001 ± 0.002Group standard of luminous intensity using three

VNIIOFI SIS 107–500 lamps, two РТВ lamps of Wi41/G type of OSRAM Company

Luminous fl ux 0.998 ± 0.003Group standard of luminous fl ux using three

SIP107–1500 lamps, two РТВ lamps of Wi 41/G type of OSRAM Company in mat envelopes


87

fer using PHs and light measuring lamps with a high chromatic temperature of approximately 2800 K.

From 1998 to 2002, the VNIIOFI carried out work on perfection of the luminous intensity unit State primary standard. The main purpose of the modernisation consisted in BBM perfection at a temperature of 3500 K, implementation of the inter-national project on measurement of BBM thermo-dynamic temperature using fi lter radiometers, py-rometers and V (λ) photometers, [19, 20], and most importantly, realization of lumen, which is the unit of luminous fl ux [19, 20].

Table 3 contains the results of the international comparisons on determining BBM thermodynamic temperature by means of fi lter radiometers and of a precise PH, between VNIIOFI, NPL (England) and РТВ (Germany).

Final results of the international key comparisons in the photometry fi eld at the turn of the century al-low drawing a number of conclusions:

1. The results of the key comparisons by lumi-nous sensitivity confi rmed the reproduction accuracy of luminous intensity unit declared by the VNIIOFI based on BBM, and photometric head with a liquid correction fi lter. Besides, difference of the PH cali-bration results made no more than 0.05 % for pilot comparisons of the VNIIOFI and РТВ.

2. The results of the key luminous intensity com-parisons were affected by the lack of high-quali-ty light measuring lamps and by the impossibility of the use of domestic production lamps.

international comparisons in the photometry fi eld under the aegis of the BIPM, in bilateral compari-sons with leading world laboratories, such as CSIRO (Australia), NIST (USA), PTB (Germany) [16,17, 18]. And in the Soviet period, the VNIIOFI represent-ing the standard of the SEV (Council of Economic Mutual Assistance), took part in international com-parisons with practically all socialist countries. These comparisons were made using both light measuring lamps recommended by the BIPM (General Elec-tric, and OSRAM companies), and Russian standard groups of SIS and SIP type lamps, as well as includ-ing PHs with liquid correcting fi lters. From the mid eighties (after the New Primary Light Standard was introduced in 1984), thanks to unique developments of the VNIIOFI, as well as to the results of interna-tional photometric comparisons, the institute became a member of the group of recognised international laboratories in the fi eld of photometry and optical ra-diometry. In Tables 1 and 2 selective results of these international comparisons are given.

In 1994 at the 13th summit of the CCPR BIPM, a decision was made to perform key international comparisons in the photometry fi eld using photomet-ric heads as transported standards along with light measuring lamps. The key comparisons lasted sev-eral years. The fi nal results were published by 2000. Russia was allowed to participate in the key com-parisons by luminous fl ux with SIP 107–500 lamps.

The results of these comparisons confi rmed a high level of accuracy of light value unit size trans-

Table 2. Results of the VNIIOFI participation in the BIPM key international comparisons (1994–2000)

Light value Difference from key comparative value, %

Total uncertaintyof comapative result, к = 1 %

PH sensitivity 0.24 0.24

Luminuos intensity 0.36 0.50

Luminous fl ux 0.51 0.33

Table 3. Values of standard deviations when measuring thermodynamic temperature using fi lter radiometers

Instrument nameTotal absolute value of standard deviation at a correspondent temperature, K

1300 2000 2800 3200

PTB fi lter radiometers (on basis of photodiodes) 0.2 0.5 0.9 1.2

VNIIOFI PHs with liquid fi lters 0.4 0.5 0.7 1.0

NPL filter radiometers 0.3 0.4–0.6 0.5–1.3 0.9–1.6


88

where Um is response of the primary photometer; l is distance from the BBM aperture to the input aperture diaphragm of the primary photometer; τm is maximum spectral transmission factor of the cor-recting fi lter; Кv is correction factor taking into con-sideration nonidentity of relative spectral sensitivity of the primary photometer and of relative spectral ra-diation luminous effi ciency V (λ), as well as differ-ence of BBM thermodynamic temperature from the chromatic temperature of the A (2856 K) type source (relative actinity); εe is BBM effective emissivity; Кq is a correction for diffraction loss; Qm is BBM ap-erture area; L is BBM luminance determined in ac-cordance with the formula:

L V L T dе= ⋅ ( ) ( )∫6831

2

λ λ λλ

λ

, , (3.2)

where V (λ) is spectral luminous effi ciency for a standard photometric observer; Le (λ, Т) is BBM spectral radiance distribution calculated using an ana-lytical method according to Planck formula; Т is ther-modynamic temperature of BBM radiating cavity de-termined in the experiment process by means of fi lter radiometers and a precise photometric head.

The essence of the proposed method of inde-pendent lumen reproduction consists of the compar-ison of the light measuring lamp’s luminous fl ux, with HLBBM luminous fl ux as an external source when comparing their fl uxes in a sphere. Luminous fl ux of an external source being a system consist-ing of BBM with a tube in front of the sphere input

3. Nevertheless, variation of the VNIIOFI results from the standard value of the key comparisons was 0.36 %, which did not exceed the standard devia-tion from the international mean of all participants (0.38 %).

4. The VNIIOFI took part in luminous fl ux com-parisons at this for the fi rst time and Russia was al-lowed to participate with domestic production lamps. As a result, the difference from the standard value of the key intercomparisons was 0.51 % for 2800 K chromatic temperature.

In 2003 the new State primary standard GET 5–03 was approved, where the measuring system allows reproduction of both candela and lumen at the same time.

To ensure a high accuracy of luminous intensi-ty and luminous fl ux unit size reproduction, an im-proved high-temperature large aperture black body model (HLBBM) was used. The Fig. shows the lay-out of the standard measuring system.

Candela realization consists of the calibration of a primary photometer supplied with a correcting V (λ) fi lter using the method of direct measuring illu-minance generated by HLBBM at the input aperture of the photometer. HLBBM radiation parameters are measured and calculated analytically. Then primary photometer conversion factor Sv is determined in ac-cordance with the formula:

SU

Q kv

m ml kq

э Lm q

=⋅ ⋅ ⋅

⋅ ⋅ ⋅⎛

⎝⎜⎜

⎞

⎠⎟⎟−

2

1

τε

, (3.1)

Fig. Layout of the measuring system of the primary standard for reproduction of luminous intensity and luminous fl ux units


89

termined using A type source, i.e. using a radiator with a chromatic temperature of 2856 К. Photom-etry is a science concerning measurements of light characteristics of optical radiation. Standard lamps produced by OSRAM, mentioned above, and light measuring lamps of NPL/GEC type (a joint devel-opment of the National Physical Laboratory of Eng-land and General Electric Company) for luminous intensity and luminous fl ux key comparisons, and similar Toshiba Company lamps are virtually not manufactured at present. The situation with our do-mestic production of SIS and SIP type lamps is the same. With due regard for the fact that production of incandescent lamps as light sources is termi-nated everywhere, manufacture of light measuring standard lamps becomes all the more expensive and unprofi table. Light-emitting diode standard ra-diators [21, 22] can be one of the new innovative directions in development of standard light sourc-es. These are pinpoint light sources based on blue or on a combination of colour crystals with phos-phors or envelopes covered with phosphors, etc.; each of them must have a temperature stabilisation of p-n junctions.

Development of standard radiators based on qua-si-monochromatic semiconductor light sources and super-power white light emitting diodes in a wide dynamic interval of luminous intensity and lumi-nous fl ux is one of the priority tasks of modern-day photometry.

aperture (see the fi gure), in which precise aperture diaphragms are placed. The diaphragms form a fl ux coming into the sphere. The fl ux is calculated by the formula:

Ф K L V dQ Q

l lexternal m= ⋅ ⋅ ( ) ⋅

⋅

+( )∫ ( ) ,

,

λ λ λ 1 2

1 2

2

where Km is maximum spectral luminous effi ciency; L (λ) is radiance spectral concentration; Q1, Q2 are aperture diaphragm areas; l is distance between the diaphragms; l1,2 is correction for thickness of the diaphragms.

4. DEVELOPMENT PERSPECTIVES OF LIGHT MEASUREMENTS (PHOTOMETRY)

4.1. Standard radiation sources

One of the most problematic aspects of photom-etry is the development and production of stand-ard light measuring lamps for luminous intensity and luminous fl ux unit size to be transferred. De-spite the huge role that the detector approach has played in photometry, light measurements cannot exist without standard radiators. Conversion fac-tors of PHs, luxmeters, luminance meters and any other devices corrected according to V (λ), are de-

Metrological characteristics of the Primary standard of luminous intensity and luminous fl ux (GET 5-03)

Interval of luminous intensity measurement, cd 35 – 500

Interval of luminous fl ux measurement, lm 500 - 1500

Total standard uncertainty of luminous intensity unit realization estimated by type A 0.1•10-2

Total standard uncertainty of luminous intensity unit realization estimated in accordance with type В 0.14•10-2

Expanded uncertainty of luminous intensity unit realization (coverage factor is equal to 2, Р = 0.95) 0.34•10-2

Total standard uncertainty of luminous fl ux unit realization estimated in accordance with type A 0.13•10-2

Total standard uncertainty of luminous fl ux unit realization estimated in accordance with type В 0.14•10-2

Expanded uncertainty of luminous fl ux unit realization (coverage factor is equal to 2, Р = 0.95) 0.38•10-2

The primary light standard takes a lead in the checking scheme for measuring instruments of light values of continuous and pulse radiation – GOST 8.023-2003.


90

with V (λ) corrected charge-coupled device (CCD) camera. The time is right to perfect measuring sys-tems, developed in the 1980 s, for today’s condition research of radiation receiver characteristics in the wavelength optical interval.

4.3. Methods and measuring facilities to measure characteristics of semiconductor light sources and light devices on their basis

Transition to semiconductor light sources is hav-ing a snowball effect all over the world. Europe and America have reconsidered the requirements for il-lumination devices and signal equipment based on light emitting diodes, developed new standards for determination methods of their light and chromat-ic characteristics. New approaches and models are necessary for colour rendering evaluation, for de-termination of luminance discomfort and disability glare, determination of photobiological infl uence on humans and other organisms. When solving these problems, the cornerstone is reli able measurements of photometric and spectroradi ometric characteris-tics (light and chromatic) of illumination devices with light emitting diodes. Requirements for condi-tions and measuring facilities of light-emitting di-ode illumination devices concerning test methods are the basis of a new national standasd – GOST R “ILLUMINATION DEVICES. LIGHTING RE-QUIREMENTS AND TEST METHODS” pre-pared in the VNISI to be published in 2011. In 2011 as well, GOST R (GSI) “LIGHT EMITTING DI-ODES. MEASUREMENT METHODS OF PHO-TOMETRIC CHARACTERISTICS” should be a part of applicable standards. This GOST is ful-fi lled by the VNIIOFI based on an authentic trans-lation of the CIE 127–2007 publication: “LEDs MEASUREMЕNT”. One of the main requirements is as follows: when measuring light characteristics of light emitting diodes and light devices on their ba-sis, it is necessary to use PHs with a V (λ) curve high quality correction taking into consideration the cor-rection factor. For PHs with f1 1 5' . %≤ only, correc-tion factor Кv can be unused. The correlated colour temperature should be determined by spectroradio-metric measurement. Integral colourimeters intro-duce a big margin of error, because they are calibrat-ed by type A source, and calculation and taking into consideration of the correction factors for all four channels of the PH colourimeter is very diffi cult. The development of methods, techniques and measuring

4.2. Photometric heads and methods of their research

In addition to the fact that PHs represent compo-nents of measuring devices, such as luxmeters, lu-minance meters, colourimeters, photometric spheres and many others, they are used as facilities to trans-fer luminous intensity, illuminance and luminance unit size in accordance with GOST 8.023 check-ing scheme. To determine characteristics of the PHs (luxmeters, luminance meters and colourime-ters) [23,24], a whole system of installations is nec-essary: information-and-measuring systems, which determine linearity of the response function in a set dynamic interval of light values, homogeneity or uniformity of the response function along a surface of the device receiving aperture and spectral sensi-tivity of the radiation receiver. In domestic practice, Installation of Higher Accuracy for spectral sensi-tivity of optical radiation receivers to be measured, (IHA VNIIOFI) works based on a comparison of the measured and standard detector response to a narrow (quasi parallel) fl ux of a set wave length at the mon-ochromator output. It means that PH spectral sen-sitivity is determined for a little central area of the light receiver, and sensitivity of the whole receiving area as a rule is non-uniform. Non-uniformity of a detector’s spectral sensitivity makes an essential contribution to the error component when evaluat-ing PH correction quality. The development of a new measuring system working in an illuminance meas-urement mode is necessary. And a high level of illu-minance uniformity in the measurement plane in the whole spectral interval should be provided. Such an installation [25] is developed in the NIST (USA) us-ing a re-adjustable laser and non-specular diffusers. This is very expensive equipment but without it there is no way to determine the spectral characteristics of the receiving-and-recording path of optical ra-diation precise selective receivers. The lack of this type of measurement in domestic practice can affect abilities of expensive and high-precision equipment tests, development of the domestic instrument mak-ing industry, and limit Russia’s ability to take part in further spectral sensitivity key international com-parisons within the BIPM. Besides, modern meas-uring systems are constructed based on near-fi eld photometry principles [26,27]. This in its turn sets the problem of these equipment tests for compliance with the type using up-to-date measuring facilities, for example a goniophotometer or luminance meter


91

orders were taken by the VNIIMS of Lodygin. In-troduction of new standards with requirements on determination of light devices photometric character-istics, will demand implementation of goniophoto-metric devices ensuring measurement of spatial dis-tribution of luminous intensity (luminance) in certain coordinate systems everywhere [28]. It is necessary for the unity of representation of luminaire charac-teristics, for further calculation of illumination sys-tems using certain software products [29]. The do-mestic development of G.V. Azizyan’s “Goniopho-tometer” [30] has a variety of advantages as applied to the research of separate crystals, light emitting di-odes or light-emitting diode assemblages (clusters, matrices, modules) but not to luminaires, because fi nal fi les of luminous intensity spatial distribution representation do not correspond to the CIE require-ments [28]. Wide scale implementation of light de-vices based on light emitting diodes and of standards with requirements and methods of their photometric characteristics determination will create the neces-sity to buy and to import near-fi eld goniophotom-eters in addition to the classical type goniophotom-eters [31], as well as some state-of-art measuring instruments, such as spectrometers and minispec-trometers based on CCD matrices, spectrocolouri-meters, temperature chambers and many others.

СONCLUSION

1. Russian scientists and engineers, specialists in photometry, who provide metrological support of light measurements, maintain leading positions in world science practice the late 1930 s. For the fi rst time in the world, in 2001–2003, the Primary Light Standard reproduces both candela and lumen was created in the VNIIOFI. A high level of the de-velopment is confi rmed by results of international comparisons.

2. The questions connected with secondary trans-ported standards based on light measuring lamps and photometric heads, remain unsolved and de-mand a solution. These are questions of production arrangement or renewal, certifi cation and introduc-tion of measuring facilities into the Register. But the main thing is, of course, arrangement of production of principally new light sources and radiation con-verters as well.

3. Problems of light measurement metrological support in addition to those listed above, include de-velopment and production of power supply systems

facilities, simulation of visual perception processes and their evaluation based on the measurement re-sults of real illumination systems are also priority directions for contemporary photometry.

4.4. Photometry instrument making in Russia

The level of photometry instrument making is in-separable from the level of support to light measure-ment metrology at all stages. The pace of develop-ment here is slow. The leader of delivery to the Rus-sian market of domestic luxmeters, superimposed luminance meters and spectrocolourimeters widely used for the evaluation of working conditions and vital activity, is TKA Company (S.-Peterburg). The company celebrates its twentieth anniversary this year. Light measuring devices of the ARGUS series manufactured by the VNIIOFI, have the same ac-curacy level and are also produced for a wide range of applications by epidemiological stations in la-bour safety divisions, in the home and in production rooms in various life-support spheres. Best photo-metric heads of ТКА types have total error of con-version factor determination equal to 2 %. Correc-tion factor Кv calculated for fi ve sources [23], does not exceed 2.5 % but this is only true of single units. Precise serial production of measuring devices for light and chromatic measurements does not exist in Russia. Single units of PHs, luminance meters, spectrocolourimeters for high-precision measuring are manufactured for special purposes by the VNI-IOFI based on imported components. Introduction into the Russian State Register of measuring instru-ments of imported photometric equipment is also rather problematic.

An expensive procedure of acquisition of cer-tifi cates confi rming introduction into the Register, sometimes exceeds manufacturing and delivery pe-riods of the measuring systems (a year and even more). This is despite the fact that manufacturers of the measuring system are leading international organisations (Instrument systems, LMT, Tekhno-Team, and many others) with certifi cates of direct equipment calibrations from national laboratories, such as РТВ (Germany), NIST (USA), NРL (Eng-land). It is necessary to buy auxiliary machines for devices and stands to be equipped. Russian produc-tion of optical benches ОСК 2 and ОСК 1 has sunk into oblivion. There is no place to order an integrat-ing sphere. No more than several years ago, such


92

8. V.I. Sapritskii, M.N. Pavlovich. Absolute Ra-diometer for Reproducing the Solar Irradiance Unit// Metrologia.-1989.-26, pp. 81–86.

9. Vugman S.M., Vdovin N.S. Thermal sources of radiation for metrology. Moscow: Energoizdat, 1988. 79 p.

10. Cromer C.L., Eppeldauer G., Hardis J.E., Larason T.C., Ohno Y., Parr A.C. The NIST Detec-tor-Based Luminous Intensity Scale// J.Res.NIST., 1996.V.33, pp. 115–124.

11. Epstein M.I. Spectral measurements in elec-trovacuum engineering. Мoscow: Energiya, 1970. 144 p.

12. Stolyarevskaya R.I.. Research methods of metrological characteristics. Devices for meas-urement of light values// Svetotekhnika.-1998. № 6, pp. 21–26.

13. Stolyarevskaya R.I. Objective measuring facilities of light values// Izmeritelnaya tekhni-ka.-1998.-№ 11, pp. 32–33.

14. Sapritsky V.I., Stolyarevskaya R.I. Com-bined use of photometric lamps and photometers for maintenance and transfer of units of lights quan-tities. In CIE Proc. 22 nd Session.-1991.-V.1.-P.1.-D2, pp.25–28.

15. Sapritsky V.I., Stolyarevskaya R.I., Elkin B.S. Utilization of liquid correction fi lters in the new re-alization of the candela in the USSR. Proc. SPIE.-1993.-V2161, pp.123–130.

16. Gardner J.L., Stolyarevskaya R.I., Brown W.J., Pavlovich M.N. Comparison of VNIIOFI and CSIRO Photometric and Radiometric Quantities// Metrologia.-1992.-V.29, pp.309–312.

17. Lindner D., Sauter G., Lindemann M., Erb W., Stolyarevskaya R., Sapritsky V. Interna-tional Comparison of Photometric Units Main-tained at VNIIOFI (Russia) and PTB (Germany)// Metrologia.-1998.-V.35, pp.335–338.

18. Ivanov V. S., Kotyuk A.F., Sapritsky V.I., Stolyarevskaya R.I., Hlevnoi B.B.. Photometry and radiometry of optical radiation. Book 4. Part 3. Poly-graph service Open Company, 1999. 216 p.

19. Sapritsky V.I., Stolyarevskaya R.I., Metzdorf J., Sauter G., Sperfeld P., Harrison N.J., Fox N.P. Present Status of the International Project for Lumi-nous Flux Realization. Newrad’97, Arizona, 27–29 October 1997.-Rep.#056.

20. An international project on lumen reproduc-tion // Svetotekhnika. 2002. № 5. pp.3–10.

21. Agafonov D.R., Sapritsky V.I., Stol-yarevskaya R.I., Tolstyh G.N. Working standard

and of standard radiators stabilisation. Today these products are manufactured by the VNIIOFI in indi-vidual copies.

4. Standard PHs are also manufactured in limited numbers and under individual orders (TKA Com-pany), or imported from abroad at high prices and customs duties and costs associated with introduc-tion into the State Register of measuring facilities.

Regulatory documents determining PHs status are necessary as well.

5. Besides development and manufacture of pho-tometric heads measuring converters, development of measuring systems for research of these convert-ers characteristics is necessary. I.e. development and manufacture of information-and-measuring systems to determine parameters of standard photoelectric ra-diation converters are needed.

6. All of the above should serve as a stimulus to develop an industry of light measuring devic-es of wide application with due regard for spectral measurement methods necessary for characteristics of semiconductor light sources to be determined.

7. Metrological support programmes of funda-mental nature for photometry should precede intro-duction of innovative illumination and energy saving programmes in the country that will allow, among other things, stimulating instrument making devel-opment in the photometry fi eld.

REFERENCES

1. Zwinkels J.C. at al. Photometry, Radiometry and “the candela”: evolution in the classical and quantum world// metrologia.-2010.V.47.-R15.

2. Tikhodeev. P.M.. Light measurements in light engineering (Photometry). Moscow – Leningrad: Gosenergoizdat, 1962. 463 p.

3. Kartashevskaya V.E.. Photometric laboratory of the Main Board of Weights and Measures of the VNIIM of D.I. Mendeleyev// Svetotekhnika. 1984. № 1, pp.17–20.

4. Kartashevskaya V.E.. On metrological sup-port of light measurements// Svetotekhnika. 1986. № 9, pp.4 –6.

5. Sapritsky V.I. A New Standard for the Cande-la in the USSR// Metrologia, 1987. V.24, pp.53–59

6. Sapritsky V.I. Black-body radiometry// Metro-logia, 1995/96.V.32, pp. 411–417.

7. A.F. Kotyuk, etc.. Receiver: PP-1. Metrologi-cal support of energy photometry. A handbook. Mos-cow. Atomizdat. 1979. pp. 88–90.


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27. Udo Krüger. Imaging Luminance Devices. Proc. of CIE 2010 Expert Symposium on Spectral and Imaging Methods for Photometry and Radiom-etry. 2010, pp. 1 V (1–34).

28. CIE Publication 121–1996 „The Photometry and Goniophotometry of Luminaires“.

29. Labairad R.. Use of luminaire characteris-tics presented by the manufacturers in simulation programs of light transport // Svetotekhnika. 2010.- № 5. pp.13–16, 56–63.

30. Azizyan G. V., Anikin P.P, Stolyarevskaya R.I., Shishov A.V.. Methodology of determination of fl ux and radiant intensity of light emitting diodes// Svetotekhnika. 2007. № 1. pp. 27–29.

31. Bartsev A., Belyaev R., and Stolyarevskaya R. Near fi eld Goniophotometer: Experience of Re-search and Use. Abstracts of CIE 2010 Expert Sym-posium on Spectral and Imaging Methods for Pho-tometry and Radiometry. 2010, Bern, pp. 54–55.

of luminous intensity based on light emitting di-odes// Svetotekhnika. 2000. № 3. pp.9–12.

22.Yuqin Zong. Measurement of High-Pow-er LED. Proc. of CIE 2010 Expert Symposium on Spectral and Imaging Methods for Photometry and Radiometry. 2010, pp.V1 (1–19).

23. CIE Publication 53–1982 „Methods of Char-acterizing the Performance of Radiometers and Photometers“

24. CIE/ISO Standard for Characterising the Performance of Illuminance Meters and Lu-minance Meters – Part 1: Quality Indices and Measurement Procedures (CIE TC2–40 Final Draft 2010)

25.Eppeldauer G.P. at al.// Metrologia. 2000.-V.37. pp.531–534.

26. Rikovsky R.. Spectral tracing of rays based on the goniophotometry results for near fi eld// Sve-totekhnika. 2010. № 6. pp. 29–35.

Tatyana B. Gorshkova, graduated from the Moscow Institute of Fine Chemical Technology, the Chair of Semiconductor Materials, in 1985. From 1982 to the present day she works at the All-Russian Scientifi c and Research Institute of Optical and Physical Measurements (VNIIOFI). She is the chief of the laboratory of photometry and colourimetry. She took a part in the development and manufacture of the State special standard of colour and chromaticity coordinate units. From 2009 she is the scientist keeper of the standard. She also took part in modernisation of the State primary standard of luminous intensity and luminous fl ux units

Victor I. Sapritsky, Dr.Sci.Tech., professor. Graduated from the Moscow Institute of Steel and Alloys in 1969, the specialty was “Technology of special materials for electronic engineering”. He works in the VNIIOFI since 1972, a full member of the Metrological Academy. He is a representative of Russia in the Photometry and radiometry advisory committee of the International Bureau of Weights and Measures. He has more than 150 scientifi c papers. From 1983 he is the permanent scientist keeper of the State primary standard of the candela luminous intensity unit

Raisa I. Stolyarevskaya, Dr.Sci.Tech., graduated from the physical department of the Kazan State University in 1968. From 1976 to 2002 she worked in the photometry laboratory of the VNIIOFI. She is a representative of the CIE Russian national committee in the CIE Department 2 from 1999. At present she is the scientifi c editor of the English version of the Svetotekhnika Journal (Light & Engineering) and concultant at VNISI of S.I. Vavilov

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The target of this work is the evaluation of a pos-sibility to implement an inexpensive automatic il-lumination control system in a domestic apartment, which can be a basis for the development of a stand-ard project for multi-storey apartment buildings.

2. FORMULATION OF THE PROBLEM

The automation object is a three-room apartment with various numbers of light sources in the rooms (from one to eight). Number of control points (points of push-button switches installation) differs from one to three. The system should turn on the light auto-matically in those rooms, where people are present, if natural illumination is not enough. All non-stand-ard situations are worked out using a manual control.

3. CONTROL SYSTEM CHOICE

An analysis of systems present on the market, showed that for the majority of illumination control systems in living accommodations, certain problems arise when implementing a non-standard control al-gorithm. Therefore it was decided to use an industrial programmable logic controller (PLC) ADAM-5510 E. This PLC operates under the control of the ROM-DOS operating system and is programmed using Tur-bo C ++. Four 16-channel modules of discrete input ADAM-5051, three 16-channel modules of discrete output ADAM-5056 and one eight-channel module of relay switching ADAM-5068 are included into the complete set of input-output modules (Fig. 1).

A relay unit was manufactured for illumination devices to be switched. Control of the lamps lumi-nance was not provided for, because the number

ABSTRACT

The article describes the composition, operating principle and working algorithm of a control sys-tem for illumination in apartments. A key feature of the system is the joint application of volume se-curity announcers and of coupled optical contactless switches as movement sensors. System testing was performed with the use of an industrial programma-ble logic controller. A concept of automation home system construction based on specialised room con-trollers is proposed.

Keywords: home automation, illumination control

1. INTRODUCTION

Energy saving requirements have resulted in the emergence of automatic illumination control facili-ties. For public rooms with short-term or constant presence of people (stairs, corridors, offi ce rooms, etc.) the algorithm of illumination control is simple. An illuminance sensor, movement sensor (or pres-ence sensor) [1], and perhaps a timer installation, are enough for its implementation, whereas for liv-ing accommodations this is all more complex. A person in a domestic space can remain practically motionless for a long period of time, and therefore the installation of a movement sensor will be not enough. The application of a presence sensor with a higher sensitivity, leads to false responses because of pets and other noises. Other hardware methods of detecting a person’s presence are inappropriate for living accommodations, or are too expensive for mass use.

AUTOMATIC CONTROL OF ILLUMINATION IN APARTMENTS

Igor M. Kozlov

The Novosibirsky State Architectural-and-Building University, Novosibirsk E-mail: [email protected]

Light & Engineering SvetotekhnikaVol. 19, No. 4, pp. 95-98, 2011 No. 6, 2011


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of operated load channels was enough for a neces-sary set of illumination scenes, including a mode for night illumination.

For manual controller operation, wiring acces-sories of the Italian company BTicino were selected (assembly boxes, carriages, buttons and overlays) ensuring an optimal combination of functionality, overall dimensions, ergonomics and design (Fig. 2).

There are several areas with different levels of natural illumination in an apartment. A three-channel illuminance sensor on the microcontroller was developed and manufactured (I.V. Voronko and D.V. Purgin) (Fig. 3). The device has one photosen-sitive element and three output channels. The opera-tional threshold for each channel is set according to a current illuminance level by the pressing of a but-ton. In order to ensure a certain stability when work-ing in the interval of a boundary illuminance, a small hysteresis is provided for in the microcontroller pro-gramme. Final values of delay durations of illumina-tion switching on-off are set in the central controller.

4. PRESENCE DETECTION

As people can be motionless in living accom-modation, it is necessary to apply a sensor, which at the disappearance of a movement signal would be able to make certain conclusions about the location of people. Infra-red barriers installed between differ-ent areas and detecting movement direction can be used as such sensors. With the help of these sensors it is possible to the count number of persons in the room and to switch off the illumination, when all the people leave. However, as practice has showed, be-cause of a low noise immunity, people calculation on its own was not enough. Therefore it was decided to use a hybrid version combining barriers and infra-red movement sensors.

Fig. 1. Programmable logic controller ADAM-5510 E

Fig. 2. BTicino buttons unit

Fig. 3. Three-channel illuminance sensor


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signing various delays of light switching-off, the duration of which depends on the specifi c event and on the state of the system, when this event occurrs.

Without descending into arduous details, the ac-tion sequence set in the developed algorithm can be described as follows:

1. If entry in a room is detected by the barrier and confi rmed by the announcer, the light is turned on and will not be turned off until 30 minutes elapse from the moment of the last detection of movement in the room.

2. If the barrier detects that a person leaves the room, and the counter shows absence of people in-doors, the switching-off delay is set to 20 seconds.

3. If the barrier detects that a person leaves the room, and the counter shows presence of people, switching-off delay is set to 3 minutes.

4. If illumination was switched off, and the an-nouncer detects movement (a person woke up or a cat ran by) then illumination will be turned on for 30 seconds.

5. If during the time specified in 1–4, indoor movement was not detected, a signal warning about switching-off is emitted (illumination scene changes, for example one of the luminaires is disconnected). If during next 10 seconds there is no response, the illumination is switched off.

6. STANDARD, NIGHT AND MANUAL MODES

Any automatic control is carried out within typi-cal situations, the external signs of which are meas-urable. In all non-standard situations, manual control is applied. A manual control mode is separately pro-vided for every specifi c area. As illumination in the

Pairs of infra-red optical contactless switches VBO-M18–76 Y-7123-C were used as barriers (Sen-sor Joint-Stock Company, Ekaterinburg) [2]. Oppo-site the doorway, retrorefl ectors PB-СВ-050 were fi xed (Fig. 5).

The sensitivity of the movement sensors should not be too high, because this leads to an increase of false operations number. However it should not be too low either, because this can lead to switching-off illumination while people are present. Therefore presence sensors were not used, and instead a RAP-ID infra-red passive optoelectronic security announc-er IO409–28 was used. It has a twelve-lobe pattern of 87° width and anti-sabotage area (the device de-tects movement directly under the announcer).

5. ALGORITHM

The algorithm of the system’s operation at a com-bined scheme of presence detection is based on as-

Fig. 5. Appearance of a door jamb with PB-СВ-050 retro-refl ector

Fig. 4. VBO-M18–76 Y-7123-C sensor in a door jamb (a), and appearance of a door jamb with sensors (b)


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to transmit the system into standby mode is provid-ed for (in the day-time, without people in the apart-ment). In this mode, buttons accent light, barriers and relay units are disconnected. Volume sensors work as security ones and are not disconnected. The con-sumption in the standby mode is 400 mА (4.8 W).

8. FINDINGS

The illumination control system (Fig. 6) has un-dergone full-scale testing for rather a long time. In the testing process, interface was improved, er-rors in the controller programme were revealed and eliminated. The operational experience confi rmed stability, convenience and unobtrusiveness of the systems.

The only disadvantage is a centralised topology leading to some diffi culties in the wiring installation. In order that the developed principles and control al-gorithm can be used in typical designs, the system should be more technological. For this purpose the topology of the system should be centralised and de-centralised at the same time. At a single room level the number of system objects and length of the wires allow refusing network protocols of data exchange, and control can be centralised. The similarity of the equipment composition and of the performed func-tions in each room allows determining a minimum level of typifi cation.

manual mode is not disconnected automatically and this can result in excessive consumption of electric power, a special indication is provided for, so as to inform transition to the manual mode.

A night mode is intended for the illumination not to be turned on when moving of a person in asleep. In this mode, an alternative illumination (accent light) is only turned on when a person enters the room. Switching-off occurs, when indoor move-ment is not detected for more than 40 seconds. Night mode in rooms is set manually. Night mode in a cor-ridor is set when this mode is set in all rooms, where people present.

Night and manual modes are reset in the morning. Night mode is reset automatically after 3:00 a.m. when natural illumination emerges, if manual mode is not set. In its turn, manual mode is reset at 6:00 a.m. Thus if night mode is turned on before dark in the evening, it will not be turned off until morn-ing. And if in manual mode light is casually kept in switch on position, it will not burn infi nitely.

7. POWER SUPPLY

Power supply of the controller and sensors is made using RAPAN-40 А uninterrupted power supply source of 12 V voltage. The maximum power consumption of the control system is equal to 47.8 W. For the consumption to be reduced, it is possibile

Fig. 6. Ready-fi tted light control system


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nation control algorithm were developed. As a result of the testing, stability, convenience and unobtru-siveness were showed. All of this can be used in the process of design of multi-storey apartment houses after serial production of room controllers will be-gin, including controllers for illumination, heating and ventilation.

REFERENCES

1. Dmitriev S.K. Sensors of movement and pres-ence is a real electric power saving //Energosbe-rezhenie. – 2009. – № 7. URL: http://www.abok.ru/for_spec/articles.php? nid=4452.

2. From stable parameters to stable relations. URL: http://www.sensor-com.ru.

3. Kubitsky E. Room thermostats RDF/RDU with communication in accordance with KNX protocol // Avtomatizatsiya zdaniy. – 2010. – № 7–8.

The necessity to use information from one barrier by means of two adjacent area controllers, as well as the requirement for access to whole-apartment information such as illuminance level and general control commands, leads to the necessity for inter-controller exchange being a system classifi ed as dis-tributed one.

The room controller should fulfi ll not only illumi-nation automatic control functions but also climate control functions (heating, forced-air and exhaust ventilation, air-conditioning). A trend of such a de-velopment for home automation has been already planned: Siemens has presented room thermostats and controllers for individual room control with an illumination scenarios control function [3].

9. CONCLUSION

In the process of estimating the possibility of im-plementing an inexpensive automatic illumination control system in a habitable apartment, the princi-ple of people presence in the apartment and illumi-

Igor M. Kozlov, an architect, graduated from the Novosibirsky State Architectural-and-building University (Sibstrin) in 2010. At present he is a Senior teacher of the Chair of Architectural Designing of Buildings and Constructions of the Sibstrin. His fi eld of scientifi c interests: intellectual buildings, buildings design, systems of automated design, and information simulation of buildings

99

Soldiers of Alexander the Great used bands proc-essed with a natural photochromic dye changing their colour at sunrise [1]. An abundance of light re-fl ecting elements was always noted in the vestments of Ancient Egyptian priests and Pharaohs. The same trend is retraced in vestments of clerics of the Byzan-tian orthodox church, and then of Russian and other orthodox churches.

A trend in abundance of shiny metal elements is also apparent in military clothes (from ancient Ro-man legionaries to cuirassiers of the XIXth century). These details fi rst performed a protective function, and with time began to be used for intimidation and as decorations. The most normal clothes of a soldier in Roman empire at the time of Trajan, was armour consisting as a rule of two metal sheets (front one for breast protection, and rear one to cover shoulder-blades) and of fl exible metal belts enclosing both shoulders and middle part of the trunk and located so as to “follow” different movements of the soldier.

An elementary type of antique armour was a small cuirass. Since Camill (IV – V centuries BC) Romans began to manufacture metal armour instead of leath-er. It is clear that being scrubbed to shine, they per-fectly refl ected light and could frighten enemies.

After the appearance of phosphors, they more of-ten became to be used not only for ritual actions but also in circus and in other dramatised shows. And the emergence of UV radiators made white sections of clothes began “shine”.

Radical changes in clothes light design have oc-curred thanks to progress in miniaturisation of LSs and power supplies. Theatrical costumes fi rst appre-hended these technical novelties. Low-voltage lamps and tiny batteries allowed decorating costumes and

ABSTRACT

The work of foreign clothes designers with ap-plication of lighting devices is analysed. This sub-ject is given attention in Russia for the fi rst time, while abroad this area has been widely developed in the middle of the last decade. Foreign designers of clothes do not invent new lighting technologies but dynamically integrate them into developed mod-els. The range of lighting and electronic devices ap-plied in clothes design, is very broad: from tiny light emitting diodes to liquid crystal (LC) screens, from diode lasers to electrofl uorescent radiators. Integra-tion of such devices into modern clothes design in-creases the esthetic, ergonomic, information and bi-ological parameters.

Keywords: light emitting diodes, diode lasers, clothes design, clothes light design, Hussein Cha-layan, Moritz Waldemeyer, Swarovski, Philips De-sign, “Lumalive”, “LilyPad”, Osram, Diffus, “Gal-axy Dress”, Soomi Park, light technologies

INTRODUCTION

The focus of many designers on the use of vari-ous light sources (LS) in clothes design is not acci-dental. This interest is driven both by functional re-quirements and by reasons of an emotional and es-thetic nature.

Clothes are always connected with light: natural and artifi cial. In the day-time sunlight makes clothes visible for surrounding people by means of light-ing the clothes. In the evening and at night stars, the moon and fi re become LSs, quite often “strength-ened” by light refl ecting materials.

THE LIGHTING DESIGN OF CLOTHES

Tatayna S. Vasilyeva and Yuri V. Nazarov

NID (National Institute of Design), Moscow E-mail: [email protected]



100

to form shaping in clothes and by a commitment to the application of new technologies [2, 3].

1.1. “Laser dress”

Working with Swarovski, Hussein Chalayan used crystals of Lux class for decoration of female dress-es. Diode lasers built into clothes gave light rays re-fl ected or absorbed by crystals.

Many lasers were located on all parts of the dress and manually fastened onto its surface with brass loops. The lasers implanted into the dress constantly moved by means of a micro motor. A luminous aura appeared round the models’ fi gures, and the play of rays on crystals created an effect of a changing confi guration of the dresses that made them look like living objects (Fig. 1) [4].

1.2. “Video dress”

This dress contained 15,000 LEDs densely cov-ering the entire surface. Their light was used to cre-ate a video image, and white base material of the dress blurred it creating a “magic” effect of blink-ing (Fig. 2).

Tiny LEDs sewed in the texture, were control-led by electric pulses reproducing one or another chromatic shade. The esthetic effect of the product appeared to be very high. The cost of the dress was

made a breakthrough in clothes light design. It can be retraced using the example the cabaret clothes of the Parisian Moulin Rouge corps de ballet.

Further development of LSs accelerated the proc-ess of light design integration with clothes. This was not only through natural growth, design companies and experimental designers played an accelerating role. Philips Design and designer Hussein Chalayan were indisputably among the fi rst.

1. Designer Hussein Chalayan, engineer Moritz Waldemeyer and Swarovski

Designers from the famous Swarovski compa-ny and the company Cypriot-British represented by Hussein Chalayan presented in the 2007–2008 season a prototype of future clothing connecting the attractiveness of Swarovski crystals, the abili-ties of lasers and the multiformity of light emitting diodes (LED) into a uniform system. Hussein Cha-layan performs his light experiments together with German engineer Moritz Waldemeyer. They are real innovators in the fashion world. They do not invent new light technologies but skillfully introduce state-of-the-art electronics into clothes.

Hussein Chalayan was already twice considered to be “Designer of the year” in Great Britain and is a recognised designer of clothes on an international level, widely known for his “architectural” approach

Fig. 1. Laser dress. Hussein Chalayan


101

light pulses inside of the fi rst ones, and changing im-ages depending on day time are displayed at the sur-face of the second ones.

In 2008 Philips Design united its efforts with Swarovski designers. The designers began develop-ment of a new concept bag using the Lumalive tech-nology researching a possibility to combine crystals and light in accessories. A specialist team from both companies developed a collection of bags called “Favorite” made of violet coloured leather with a wide strap decorated with crystals. On the front of the bags, a crystal plate is installed, behind which a fl exible LC screen is placed displaying a message entered in advance. In addition to the bags, Philips Design manufactures different gadgets of original design in cooperation with Swarovski: fl ash drives and headphones with so-called “active crystals” [6].

Some key features of Lumalive: it allows repro-ducing bright animations, logos and text; its resolu-tion is 14×14 pixels, RGB format; battery life to 4 h; it allows loading video clips up to 10 minutes long; reproduction speed up to 40 frames/s; screen lumi-nance: up to 300 cd/ mm2 [7].

3. CYCLIST’S JACKET WITH BUILT-IN LIGHT EMITTING DIODES

Another interesting invention, with obvious ad-vantages is a jacket for cyclists with built-in LED

about $16,000. By the end of 2007, customers in Ja-pan were able to buy such a dress [5].

The project was completed in only four weeks. The dress looked like a continuous TV screen, and any image could be programmed to display on the screen. The creator’s intention was for the dress to symbolise the arrival of spring.

Hussein Chalayan noted that his inspiration for this dress came from the weather, more precisely by seasonal climate changes. He takes great interest in science literature and searches for creative inspi-ration in spheres far from fashion.

2. PHILIPS DESIGN

Among design companies working in the light technologies fi eld, there are several major players, for example Philips Design. The company has de-veloped a new technology called “Lumalive” to dis-play luminous messages using combinations of vari-ous light shades in textures, and now the company manufactures clothes, bedding and even furniture capable of “communicating” with the world around it by means of light symbols and light letters.

Clothes from Philips Design contain flexible LEDs specially sewed into the texture, to lead out to the surface of a top, a sports jacket or a vest a mes-sage that was entered in advance (Fig. 3). Philips Design pillows and sofas differ from others in that

Fig. 2. Video dress. Hussein Chalayan


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Leaсh Buechley and of SparkFun Electronics com-pany. The device is protected against moisture so that clothes with it can be washed.

Light-design effects reproduced on the jacket surface, are ensured by a special power unit located near to the LilyPad Arduinos. Proximity of these de-vices is necessary for their smooth operation (Fig. 4).

Characteristics of the LilyPad Arduino are as fol-lows: external diameter − 50 mm; thickness – 0.8 mm without components and 3 mm – with com-ponents [8]; input voltage of 2.7 –5.5 V; number of digital contacts: 14; number of analogue inputs: 6; fl esh-memory: 16 kb (2 kb of them are occupied with a loader.)

LSs on the back. Confi gured in the shape of arrows, the LED LSs function as turnoing indicators. With their help, the cyclist can inform vehicles and pedes-trians behind of his or her further actions. LED LSs operate using a small device (LilyPad Arduino) lo-cated among them.

LilyPad Arduino is the main actuation device in this structure consisting of an ATmega168 V mi-crocontroller with an Arduino loader and of a mini-mum number of external components. The designers managed to make the LilyPad Arduino as an abso-lutely plain and compact device.

This wearable electronic device is applied in tex-tile technologies and is the brainchild of designer

Fig. 3. Lumalive afoot. Philips Design

Fig. 4. Jacket for cyclists with built-in light emitting diodes on the back


103

6. “GALAXY DRESS” CLOTHES

The Galaxy Dress is one more example of LED use in clothes. In 2009 two London designers creat-ed a dress embroidered with 24 thousand full-color LEDs. This unusual product is the biggest display in the world combined with a human body (Fig. 7). Galaxy Dress became the central exhibit of LED exhibition in the Chicago Museum of Science and Industry. Francesca Rosella and Ryan Genz, the de-signers of the dress, used small full-colour LEDs, the thickness of which was no more than that of a sheet of paper and their dimensions 2×2 mm. Due to their extraordinary fl exibility, they were manually embroidered onto silk so that the resultant material was practically no different from a normal texture and abile to change its confi guration. To provide a “spectacular scattering of light”, the dress had 4 lay-ers of silk chiffon, silk organza with crinoline were used. Due to the thinness of the mentioned “electron-ic” plates, the dress did not interfere with movement of the wearer, no more than traditional materials.

It is clear that thousands of LEDs need a high power energy source, and consequently instead of one massive element, which would be diffi cult to place into the dress, in the Galaxy Dress a set of small iPod batteries hidden under the crinoline were applied. Francesca Rosella asserts that the LEDs were almost invisible and did not create dis-

4. DESIGNER WILLY BOGNER

Despite the increased popularity in clothes appli-cation, LEDs are most often used in clothes for dec-orative purposes. However, designer Willy Bogner suggested in 2007 to use them in clothes not only for decorative but also for functional purposes. Ski suits that he developed together with Osram, are equipped with ultraplain LED LSs, which are pow-ered by built-in solar batteries and make the skier very well visible on slopes, especially at night time. These models we presented for the fi rst time in No-vember 2007 in Munich, at a show of winter sports collections (Fig. 5).

5. DIFFUS COMPANY

A luminous “Climate dress” (Fig. 6) which is pre-sented by its creator as an ecological design concept, is of a certain scientifi c interest. Anthropogenic СО2 emissions into the atmosphere grow from year to year. And such dresses will probably become more and more popular. The Climate dress contains hun-dreds tiny LEDs connected with a central microproc-essor and with a module determining level of СО2 in ambient atmosphere. If a critical level of CO2 con-tent is exceeded, the LEDs start blinking, informing the wearer of the necessity to change his or her lo-cation. This concept dress is a real eco-indicator [9].

Fig. 5. Ski clothes equipped with ultraplain light emitting diode lamps.Designer Willy Bogner


104

comfort for the wearer. The capacity of the batter-ies was enough for an hour of full operation. Not all surfaces of the dress were covered with LEDs. The dress was also decorated with more than 4 000 Swarovski crystals: from colourless to bright pink. They caused the dress to be shine even when the LEDs were switched off. Nobody has yet worn the Galaxy Dress, it was simulated on a manequin [10, 11].

7. LUMINOUS FALSE EYELASHES (WHISKER) OF DESIGNER SOOMI PARK

When working on projects, designers often search for answers to some general questions, like for example, why do women tend to have big eyes?

Many women attempt to emphasize the eyes and accentuate them. A thought occurred to designer Soomi Park from South Korea: to create “luminous” false eyelashes. When putting them on, the wearer achieves an unusual decorative effect: “glowworms” appear under the eyes, making them eyes more ex-pressive and bright (Fig. 8).

The project is not yet fi nished: to force eyelash-es to shine they must be connected to headphones by wires, and this must not be noticeable. Perhaps in the future designers will create wireless luminous false lashes which will shine on their own [12, 13].

Fig. 7. Galaxy Dress. Designers Francesca Rosella and Ryan Genz

Fig. 6. Climate dress. Diffus Company


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REFERENCES

1. Andrievsky A.M. Chameleon Clothes // Rynok legkoi promyshlennosti (Light industry market). 2009. № 67. URL: http://rustm.net/catalog/arti-cle/1535.html (Addressing date: 01.09.2010).

2. Gerasimenko A. Future dress from Swarovski. URL: http://www.3 dnews.ru/news/plate_budushego_ot_swarovski (Addressing date: 14.09.2010).

3. Hussein Сhalayan. URL: http://www.hus-seinchalayan.com (Addressing date: 3.01.2011).

4. Readings – Laser and Swarovski Crystal Dress – Hussein Chalayan. URL: http://waldemey-er.com/projects/fashion/readings-laser-swarovski-crystal-dress-hussein-chalayan (Addressing date: 8.04.2011).

5. Airborne LED Video Dress – Hussein Cha-layan. URL: http://waldemeyer.com/projects/fash-ion/airborne-led-video-dress-hussein-chalayan (Ad-dressing date: 8.04.2011).

6. Philips, Official site. URL: http://www.philips.com (Addressing date: 9.01.2011).

7. Lumalive. URL: http://lumalive.ru (Address-ing date: 8.04.2011).

8. Turn signal biking jacket. URL: http://www.instructables.com/id/turn-signal-biking-jacket/step8/program-your-jacket (Addressing date: 8.04.2011).

5. CONCLUSION

It is impossible to describe in this article all the experiments carried out by clothes designers using light design. The presented examples clear-ly demonstrate a general trend: to actively include innovative methods into the structure of contem-porary clothes. The results of such a synthesis are as follows: birth of a new image of clothes, increase of its esthetic component and as a con-sequence, development of applied light engineer-ing actively expanding its infl uence on the world of household objects. Hussein Chalayan, Moritz Waldemeyer and Willy Bogner, and Philips Design are leading this direction in light design, paving the way for other designers thanks to their enthu-siasm and successful experiments. And other de-signers gradually realise that light has the same active ability of forming the image of contempo-rary clothes, as confi guration, silhouette, texture and accessories. Some research in the clothes light design sphere is carried out in our country as well. Such clothes collections are created in the MGTU of A.N. Kosygin, at the National Institute of De-sign but these experiments yet lack the profes-sional support of Russian light engineers. It can be hoped that our domestic lighting industry will en-gage with help young designers, and the Russian light design competition will receive a new nomi-nation: “Clothes Light Design”.

Fig. 8. Luminous false eyelashes. Designer Soomi Park


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11. Cutecircuit. URL: http://www.cutecircuit.com (Addressing date: 9.04.2011).

12. Eyelashes-glowworms from merry Japanese. URL: http://www.novate.ru/blogs/251009/13274 (Addressing date: 9.03.2011).

13. Soomipark. URL: http://soomipark.com (Ad-dressing date: 10.04.2011).

9. The Climate Dress by DIFFUS. URL: http://www.diffus.dk/pollutiondress/intro.htm (Addressing date: 10.04.2011).

10. Born D. “Galactic dress” of silk and of 24 000 LEDs. URL: http://www.3 dnews.ru/news/_galak-ticheskoe_plate_iz_shshlka_i_24000_led (Address-ing date: 30.11.2010).

Tatyana S. Vasilyeva, a designer. She graduated from the Chelyabinsky Humanitarian Institute in 2003. At present time she is the head of the Clothes Design Workshop of the National Institute of Design

Yuri V. Nazarov, Dr. of art criticism, professor. He graduated from the Moscow Higher Art-industrial School (former Stroganovsky) in 1972. At present he is the Rector of the National Institute of Design, Corresponding member of the Russian Academy of Arts, the President of the Union of Designers of the Russian Federation. Dr. Nazarov is a winner of the State prize of the Russian Federation, a Honored Art Worker of the Russian Federation


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CONTENTS



Editorial boardJubilee of Editor-in-chief of “Light & Engineering”and “Svetotekhnika” Journals 5

Wout van BommelIncandescent Replacement Lamps and Health 8

Axel StockmarEnergy Effi ciency Measures for Outdoor Lighting 15

Lars BulyndLED for General Lighting Project One Part of the ”Saving the World” Project 20

Ronald Rykowski Spectral Ray Tracing From Near Field Goniophotometer Measurements 23

Denan Konjhodzic and Richard DistlMetrology for LED Lamps and Modules 30

Arno Keppens, Huanting Chen, Yijun Lu, Zhong Chen, Yulin Gao, Geert Deconinck, and Peter HanselaerLight-Emitting Diode Junction Temperature and Power Determination from Forward Current 34

Alexander V. Leonidov Approximation of Relative Spectral Sensitivity Functions of Retina Receptors 49

Rajat Mandal, Sushil K. Malik, and Saswati Mazumdar Analysis of Safety Features of Indian Consumer Range of Electronic Ballasts and its Cost Economical Solution. 52

Yuanjie Liu, Gan Xu, Xuebo Huang, Farshid Manoocheri, and Erkki IkonenPerformance of a Multi-Wavelength Filter Radiometer for Spectral Irradiance Measurement in the Near Ir 61

Alexander M. Zyuzin and Dmitry A. Salkin Prospective Application of the EPR Phenomenon for Phosphors’ Quality Control 70

Alexei V. Kuzmichyov, Vladimir V. Malyshev, and Dmitry A. TikhomirovEffi ciency of the Combined Pasteurization of Milk Using UV and IR Irradiation 74

Sergej A. Svitnev and Oleg A. Popov Plasma Parameters Spatial Distribution of Low Pressure Ferrite-Free Inductive Discharge 79

Content #2 83


108

CONTENTS



Agnes Vidovszky-Németh and János Schanda Investigation of Street Lighting with White LEDs in Hungary 5

Wei XU and Wout van BommelInferior Verso Superior: Inferior Retinal Light Exposure is More Effective in Pupil Contraction in Humans 14

Christoph SchierzLighting for the Elderly: Physiological Basics and their Consequences 19

EvgenyV. Dolin, IrinaV. Zvezdina, Dmitry S. Nadezhdin, Lyubov M.Teksheva, and Igor A. ShmarovComparative Medical-Vision Evaluation of Illumination Conditions with Fluorescent Lamps and with Light-Emitting Diode Light Sources 28Discussion Ludmila V. AbramovaSvetlana M. LebedkovaGalina V. FedukinaRaisa I. StolyarevskayaPavel P. Zak at alLyubov M. Teksheva with co-authorsOn Behalf of Editorial Board

Joerg Amelung, Michael Eritt, and Christian KirchhofLighting Based on Organic Light Emitting Diodes 42

Jörg Minnerup and Christian BraatzErP and the Effects on Practical Lighting Installations in View of Economic Effi ciency 48

Arnulf Rupp and Hubert OttModular Systems for General Lighting with LEDs 61

Demet Aykal, Bilal Gümüş, Rengin Ünver, and Özgür MurtAn Approach to the Evaluation of Re-Functioned Historical Buildings in View of Natural Lighting: A Case Study in Diyarbakir Turkey 64

Nina А. Galchina, Lev М. Коgаn, Аlexander А. Kolesnikov, Yuri А. Portnyagin, and Igor Т. RassokhinHigh Power Ultra-Violet Emitting Diodes 77

Leonid M. Vasilyak, Leonid A. Drozdov, Sergei V. Kostyuchenko, Nikolai N. Kudryavtsev, Denis A. Sobur, Dmitry V. Sokolov and Yuri E. ShunkovA Method of UV Radiant Flux Measuring of LP Tubular Bactericidal Lamp 81

Nikolai I. ShchepetkovObservations on the Lighting Design of Four Cities in Western Germany 87

Contents No. 3 96


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CONTENTS



Wout van Bommel Lighting Quality and Energy Effi ciency, a Critical Review 5

Nina A. Galchina, Alexei L. Gofshtein-Gardt, Lev M. Kogan, and Naum P. Soshchin High Power White Light Emitting Diodes with Light Effi cacy up to 120 lm/W and Products on Their Base 12

Alexander V. Leonidov On the Inability of Optical Radiation Reception by Retinal Ganglion Cells 16

Jade Deltour, Peter D’herdt, Arnaud Deneyer, and Magali Bodart.Impact of Lighting Renovation on Energy Consumption and Visual Comfort: A Case Study in Social Dwellings 18

Rajat Mandal, Biswajit Acharjee, and Saswati Mazumdar Analysis of Self Ballasted Compact Fluorescent Lamps’ Electronics Circuit;Designing and Optimizing of IC Circuit in Indian Context 34

Eugenia V. Okhonskaya, Alexander V. Panteleev, and Valentine K. SamorodovA Study of the Characteristics of Fluorescent Lamps with Small Diameter Tubes 44

Natalia V. Bystryantseva Current State of Urban Luminous Medium Design 53

Mikhail E. Klykov Supplies for Light Emitting Diodes When Connecting to an Alternating Current Circuit 60

Sergei V. Mitelyov and Victor A. Tsvetkov Illumination of a Public Garden Near St.-Petersburg State Theatre “Buff” Using Light Emitting Diodes 68

Friedhelm Pracht Luminaire Synthetic Materials and the Environment 71

Nicolai I. Shchepetkov The Art of Berlin Lighting 78

Alexei A. Korobko and Anatoly Sh. Chernyak Developing a New Standard for Lighting Devices 87

Alexander A. Kondrashin, Andrei N. Lyamin, and Vladimir V. Sleptsov Organic Light Emitting Structure Application into Display Matrices 91

Contents No. 4 95

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