Liberal Theory Liberal Theory Journalism is more than a commercial activity Journalism is more than a commercial activity

designed to make profits by selling news.designed to make profits by selling news.

Journalism is a servant of democracy, the means by Journalism is a servant of democracy, the means by which people become informed about current affairs which people become informed about current affairs and the route by which they learn enough to make and the route by which they learn enough to make informed choices at the ballot boxinformed choices at the ballot box

Journalism serves the ‘public sphere’ – the realm in Journalism serves the ‘public sphere’ – the realm in which citizens engage with one another in debate and which citizens engage with one another in debate and critical reflection about the practices of the state. critical reflection about the practices of the state. (Harcup) (Harcup)

Journalism has a quasi-constitutional role as a Journalism has a quasi-constitutional role as a watchdog on the workings of government. watchdog on the workings of government.

Journalism holds power to accountJournalism holds power to account

Who supports fourth estate Who supports fourth estate theory?theory?

Media proprietorsMedia proprietors Journalists Journalists Many democratic politiciansMany democratic politicians

Fourth Estate as MythFourth Estate as Myth

News is a commodity like any other.News is a commodity like any other. Newspapers are businesses like any other. They Newspapers are businesses like any other. They

exist to make money not to hold power to exist to make money not to hold power to account.account.

Press freedom is an illusion: the notion that Press freedom is an illusion: the notion that anyone is free to start a newspaper or anyone is free to start a newspaper or broadcaster has been nonsense ever since the broadcaster has been nonsense ever since the industrialisation of the press.industrialisation of the press.

Journalism privileges the explanations of the Journalism privileges the explanations of the powerful.powerful.

News values are ideologically loaded. Objectivity News values are ideologically loaded. Objectivity is impossible. Balance is a lie.is impossible. Balance is a lie.

Fourth estate theory was invented by journalists Fourth estate theory was invented by journalists to add lustre to a sordid profession to add lustre to a sordid profession

Examples of Fourth Estate Examples of Fourth Estate Theory in action?Theory in action?

Times coverage of Crimean WarTimes coverage of Crimean War W.T. Stead’s Maiden Tribute of W.T. Stead’s Maiden Tribute of

Modern BabylonModern Babylon Washington Post/WatergateWashington Post/Watergate Andrew Gilligan/Today Andrew Gilligan/Today

Programme/Dodgy DossierProgramme/Dodgy Dossier

Fourth Estate failures?Fourth Estate failures? What journalists call “news values” are What journalists call “news values” are

actually “ideologically-loaded maps of actually “ideologically-loaded maps of meaning” Journalists are conditioned to meaning” Journalists are conditioned to choose stories of certain kinds. We give choose stories of certain kinds. We give individual events greater prominence individual events greater prominence than long term social trends.than long term social trends.

News does not have an independent News does not have an independent existence. It is a product invented by existence. It is a product invented by journalists. There is no reality, only journalists. There is no reality, only narratives constructed in a social, narratives constructed in a social, economic and moral context.economic and moral context.

Powerful people have more access to Powerful people have more access to news media than weak people. news media than weak people.

Objectivity is authority in disguise.Objectivity is authority in disguise.

The Fourth Estate The Fourth Estate DefinedDefined““The notion of the press as a ‘fourth estate of The notion of the press as a ‘fourth estate of

the realm’ – alongside the Lords Spiritual the realm’ – alongside the Lords Spiritual (clergy sitting in the House of Lords), the lords (clergy sitting in the House of Lords), the lords Temporal, (other peers) and the House of Temporal, (other peers) and the House of Commons – originated in the 18th century and Commons – originated in the 18th century and gained ground during the 19th century. Initially gained ground during the 19th century. Initially referring to the parliamentary press gallery, the referring to the parliamentary press gallery, the term became a more general label for the press term became a more general label for the press as a whole, locating journalists in a quasi-as a whole, locating journalists in a quasi-constitutional role as ‘watchdog’ on the constitutional role as ‘watchdog’ on the workings of government. This is central to the workings of government. This is central to the liberal concept of press freedom.”liberal concept of press freedom.”

Tony Harcup, Journalism Principles and PracticeTony Harcup, Journalism Principles and Practice

Daniel Defoe on Lying Daniel Defoe on Lying NewspapersNewspapers

““So widespread in London that it So widespread in London that it was ‘the jest of the town’ with was ‘the jest of the town’ with neighbours asking one another neighbours asking one another ‘What is the lye of the week?’ Or ‘What is the lye of the week?’ Or what is the Lye courant for the what is the Lye courant for the day?day?

From Andrew Marr, My TradeFrom Andrew Marr, My Trade

The Duties of JournalistsThe Duties of Journalists

““The responsibility of journalists is in The responsibility of journalists is in proportion to the liberty they enjoy. No proportion to the liberty they enjoy. No moral obligation can be graver. But their moral obligation can be graver. But their duties are not the same, I think, as those duties are not the same, I think, as those of statesmen. To find out the true state of of statesmen. To find out the true state of facts, to report them with fidelity, to apply facts, to report them with fidelity, to apply to them strict and fixed principles of to them strict and fixed principles of justice, humanity, and law, to inform as justice, humanity, and law, to inform as far as possible, the very conscience of far as possible, the very conscience of nations and to call down the judgement of nations and to call down the judgement of the world on what is false, or base, or the world on what is false, or base, or tyrannical, appear to me to be the first tyrannical, appear to me to be the first duties of those who write.”duties of those who write.”

History of The Times 1841-1884 History of The Times 1841-1884

Inventing the MythInventing the Myth

“…“…increased sales could only be increased sales could only be achieved if a newspaper could claim achieved if a newspaper could claim in some way to be independent, to in some way to be independent, to represent public opinion, and to be represent public opinion, and to be able to give the public an authentic able to give the public an authentic and reliable news service: in short a and reliable news service: in short a newspaper had to be worth buying.”newspaper had to be worth buying.”

George BoyceGeorge Boyce

Inventing the Myth 2Inventing the Myth 2““The legitimate press believed that, to survive and The legitimate press believed that, to survive and to thrive, it must take its place in political society to thrive, it must take its place in political society and must cease to be regarded as either a pariah, and must cease to be regarded as either a pariah, or as a dangerous and revolutionary force. It must or as a dangerous and revolutionary force. It must have its place in the sun, its recognised role to have its place in the sun, its recognised role to play in political life; it must occupy some kind of play in political life; it must occupy some kind of middle ground, between revolution on the one middle ground, between revolution on the one hand and subservience on the other. And to hand and subservience on the other. And to establish such a role, the press and its advocates establish such a role, the press and its advocates devised a series of practical arguments devised a series of practical arguments considering the role of the press. They described a considering the role of the press. They described a ‘political society destined to be created in the ‘political society destined to be created in the future…told for the purpose of encouraging men future…told for the purpose of encouraging men to hasten its advent. In other words, they invented to hasten its advent. In other words, they invented a political myth.”a political myth.”George Boyce, The Fourth Estate; The Reappraisal George Boyce, The Fourth Estate; The Reappraisal of a Conceptof a Concept

Jeremy Bentham on Jeremy Bentham on NewspapersNewspapers

““in this instrument may be seen in this instrument may be seen not only an appropriate organ of not only an appropriate organ of the public opinion tribunal, but the public opinion tribunal, but the only regularly and constantly the only regularly and constantly acting one.”acting one.”

James Mill on James Mill on NewspapersNewspapers

““So true is it,” So true is it,” he wrote he wrote “That the “That the discontent of the people is the only discontent of the people is the only means of removing the defects of means of removing the defects of vicious governments, that the freedom vicious governments, that the freedom of the press, the main instrument of of the press, the main instrument of creating discontent is, in all civilised creating discontent is, in all civilised countries, among all BUT the advocates countries, among all BUT the advocates of misgovernment, regarded as an of misgovernment, regarded as an indispensable security and the greatest indispensable security and the greatest safeguard of the interests of mankind.”safeguard of the interests of mankind.”

Newspapers as Newspapers as BusinessesBusinesses

““Naturally, the opportunities Naturally, the opportunities provided…attracted people whose provided…attracted people whose interest lay, not primarily in interest lay, not primarily in enlightening or informing public enlightening or informing public opinion, nor in criticising public opinion, nor in criticising public policy, but in making money by policy, but in making money by giving the public what it wanted. giving the public what it wanted. – or at least what it was supposed – or at least what it was supposed by the entrepreneur to want.”by the entrepreneur to want.”

Failing the IdealFailing the Ideal They got into bed with politicians – in some They got into bed with politicians – in some

cases taking money to advance specific policies or cases taking money to advance specific policies or parties – and were often so close to the political parties – and were often so close to the political machine that they seemed to be part of it – not machine that they seemed to be part of it – not the critical, independent observers that fourth the critical, independent observers that fourth estate theory proposes.estate theory proposes.

They did not achieve their potential. They did not achieve their potential. Governments in the nineteenth century were Governments in the nineteenth century were occasionally swayed by newspaper pressure – but occasionally swayed by newspaper pressure – but on the whole they considered parliament a more on the whole they considered parliament a more effective check than newspapers on their freedom effective check than newspapers on their freedom of movement.of movement.

Not all Victorian newspapers were in the business Not all Victorian newspapers were in the business of informing people about public affairs. Many of informing people about public affairs. Many just gave the public what they wanted – sport, just gave the public what they wanted – sport, lurid crime reporting and scandals i.e. what the lurid crime reporting and scandals i.e. what the public was interested in NOT the public interest. public was interested in NOT the public interest.

The Myth EstablishedThe Myth Established

““The paradox of the Fourth The paradox of the Fourth Estate, with its head in politics Estate, with its head in politics and its feet in commerce, can…and its feet in commerce, can…only be understood if it is only be understood if it is appreciated that the whole idea appreciated that the whole idea of the Fourth Estate was a myth”of the Fourth Estate was a myth”

George BoyceGeorge Boyce

News as CommodityNews as Commodity

“ “A way of making money, just as A way of making money, just as selling bread is a way of making selling bread is a way of making money”money”

John Wilson a former controller John Wilson a former controller of editorial policy at the BBCof editorial policy at the BBC

Not a Myth After all?Not a Myth After all?

a British working man who invested a a British working man who invested a penny in a daily newspaper could penny in a daily newspaper could become become ““by its aid a man of fuller by its aid a man of fuller information, better judgement and information, better judgement and wide sympathieswide sympathies,”,” than any of his than any of his ancestors who ancestors who “had to content “had to content [themselves] with gossip and [themselves] with gossip and rumour.”rumour.”

Andrew Marr, My TradeAndrew Marr, My Trade