li 2023 nathalie f. martin p honology. introduction: phonology no human language exploits all...
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Introduction: Phonology
No human language exploits all phonetic possibilities
Every language makes its own particular selection from the range of all possible ___________
IntroductionPhonological Representation
Phonology /fənɒlədʒi/ : The components of grammar that
determines the _______of speech sounds and that ______both the sound ______ and the systematic phonetic variation found in language.
IntroductionPhonological Representation
The task of phonologists: To ________and ________the systematic
phonetic patterns found in individual languages
To discover the ___________ ____that underlie the patterning of sounds across human languages.
IntroductionPhonological Representation
Three major phonological units:_________________________________
IntroductionPhonological Representation
Wd
σ σ
s è g m F n t
- syllabic+ sonorant
…[ ]
Word level
Syllable level
Segment level
Feature level
IntroductionPhonological Representation
Segment:___________ ___________
Feature: Features correspond to articulatory or acoustic
___________such as [voice] or [strident] Smallest building block of phonological structure
Syllable: A syllabic element – usually a vowel- and any
preceding or following segments that are associated with it
Segments in ContrastContrast
All speakers knows which segments contrast and which ones don’t …
Segments are said to _______when:Their presence alone may distinguish
forms with different meaning from each other Ex: sip [sɪp] and zip [zɪp] Ex: hit [hɪt], hat [hæt] & hot [hɒt]
Segments in ContrastMinimal Pairs
The first step in the analysis of the phonology of language is to establish which sounds in that language are in ______with each other
In order to establish contrast, it is necessary to examine the ___________ of sounds in words and to compare word meanings.
This can be accomplished through the ______________
Segments in ContrastMinimal Pairs
Minimal pair: Consists of _______with ___________ that differ by ______ ____ ______found in the same position in each form.
Example: sip [sɪp] and zip [zɪp]Therefore the segments [s] and [z] contrast
Segments in ContrastMinimal Pairs – Definitions
Environment:The phonetic _________in which a
sound occurs.Near minimal pairs:
Pairs of words that have segments in nearly identical environments (ex: assure & azure)
Segments in ContrastMinimal Pairs – Definitions
Phoneme: Segments that _______with each
other ___________ _______are said to belong to separate phonemes of that language
• Contrastive phonological units
Not to be confused with ________
Segments in ContrastLanguage-Specific Contrasts
Important: - Two sounds can be phonetically
distinct without necessarily being phonologically distinct or contrastive.
- Sounds that are contrastive in one language may not necessarily be contrastive in another.
Segments in ContrastLanguage-Specific Contrasts
oExample: In English [ɛ] & [æ] are contrastive (ex: Ben & ban)
In Turkish (ex: the word “I” can be said [bɛn] & [bæn])
Segments in ContrastPractice & Homework
Find minimal pairs to show contrast between all English consonants
(15 phonemes) Exceptions which are hard to find:
[ŋ] [h] [ʔ] [ʒ]
Phonetically Conditioned Variation Introduction
Phonetic variation is systematicOccurs most often in phonetically
similar segmentsConditioned by the ___________ or
environment in which the segments are found
Phonetically Conditioned Variation Introduction - Variation
Variation occurs because segments are affected and altered by phonetic characteristics of neighboring elements or by the larger phonological context in which they occur
Speakers and listeners of any language tend to factor out this type of variation in order to focus on contrast that affect meaning
Phonetically Conditioned VariationComplementary Distribution
In English, all Ls are not identicalDifferent sounds:
[l//] (voiceless l)& [l] (voiced l)
Yet they do not contrastThere are no minimal pairs in which the
phonetic difference [l//] & [l] functions to indicate difference
Phonetically Conditioned VariationComplementary Distribution
Examine the distribution of the two Ls
All of the voiceless [l//] occurs after the class of ___________ ___________
Voiced [l] never occurs after voiceless stopsPredictable property of phonology in English
Phonetically Conditioned VariationComplementary Distribution
Therefore: Since no voiced [l] ever occurs in the same phonetic
environment as a voiceless [l/] (and vice versa), we say that that the two variants of L are in ___________ ___________
Table 3.6 Complementary distribution of [l] and [l� ] in English
[l] [l/]
After voiceless stops no yes
Elsewhere yes no
Phonetically Conditioned VariationPhonemes and allophones
Allophones:When segments are phonetically
distinct, but not phonologically the same they are considered _________(predictable variants) of one _________(contrastive phonological unit).
Phonetically Conditioned VariationPhonemes and allophones
Phonetic representation: Consists of predictable variants or allophones
Phonemic (or phonological) representation: Consists of the phonemes to which the allophones
belong.
Phonemic representation (phoneme)
/l/Phonetic representation (allophones)
[l//] [l]
Symbols for allophones are
enclosed in square bracket []
Symbols for phonemes are
placed between slashes //
Phonetically Conditioned VariationPhonemes and allophones
Phonemes:Are _________representations: the way
in which sounds are stored in the mind.Are in your ________
Allophones:Are not part of what you remember
when you store a word in your mindCome out of your mouth
Phonetically Conditioned VariationPhonemes and allophones
An important part of phonological analysis thus deals with discovering ___________ of the phonemes of language and accounting for ___________ ___________.
Phonetically Conditioned VariationFree Variation
Free variation: Various forms that do not change the
meaning since they are phonetically similar.
They are therefore allophones of a phoneme Ex: [stɒp!], [stɒp̚] & [stɒpʔ] [p!], [p̚] & [pʔ] are different allophones of the
phoneme /p/
Notice that the narrow transcription of these words and the different allophones
are in square brackets and that the phoneme is in between
slashes.
Forceful articulation
(Feature rep. only used in the book)
Extended closure
Coarticulation with glottal
stop
Phonetically Conditioned VariationClasses & Systematic Variation
Everyday speech usually _______ systematically according to phonetic classes
Phonetically Conditioned VariationClasses & Systematic Variation
In English, liquids have _______ __ __ _____after voiceless stops and ___________ __elsewhere.
Phonetically Conditioned VariationClasses & Systematic Variation
In English, liquids and glides have ___________ ________after voiceless stops, and _________ __ ___________ elsewhere.
Phonetically Conditioned VariationClasses & Systematic Variation
One of the major goals of phonological description is the discovery of such ____ __ ________, and the formulation of the most ___________ ____possible to describe them.
CANADIAN RAISINGENGLISH MID VOWELS AND GLIDES
LANGUAGE-SPECIFIC PATTERNS
Phonetically Conditioned
Variation
Phonetically Conditioned VariationCanadian Rising
Canadian rising is another example of allophonic variation in English
[aj] before the class of ____________________
or in _________________
[ʌ j] before the class of ________________________________________
Phonetically Conditioned VariationCanadian Rising
• [aj] before the class of ___________ or in ___________
• [ʌ j] before the class of ___________
Phonetically Conditioned VariationEnglish Mid Vowels and glides
In most dialects of English, the mid tense vowels [e] & [o] are always diphthongized
[ej] & [ow]
[o] and [w] are both back and unrounded
[e] and [j] are both back and unrounded
[e] and [o] are both mid tense vowels
Phonetically Conditioned VariationEnglish Mid Vowels and glides
The ___________ ___________ are predictably followed by a ___________ that has the same ___________ and ___________ as the vowels
Phonetically Conditioned VariationLanguage-specific patterns
Important: The phenomenon of allophonic variation is
universal. However, just as the phonemic contrast
found in each language are specific to that language, the actual ___________ of phonemes and allophones is also language-specific.
Thus, whatever we discover for one language may not hold true for another.
Phonetically Conditioned VariationLanguage-specific patterns
Nasals in Scots Gaelic:
Vowels are nasal in Scot Gaelic when preceded or followed by a nasal consonant
Phonetically Conditioned VariationLanguage-specific patterns
Nasals in Malay:
In Malay, all vowels and glides following a nasal and not separated from it by a non-nasal consonant are nasalized (until an obstruent, liquid, or glottal is reached)
Phonetic and Phonemic TranscriptionLet’s Practice!
Transcribe the following wordsPhonemicallyPhonetically
Don’t forget the predictable properties mentioned on the previous slides
ReviewContrast, phonemes and allophones
Each language has a set of contrastive phonemes
Phonemes themselves can have predictable variants or allophones
There are two distinct levels of representation: phonemic level and phonetic level
SyllablesIntroduction
Definition: A syllable consists of a ___________ _ and
its associated non-syllabic (less sonorous) segments.
What speech sounds are more sonorous?
SyllablesIntroduction
Vowels are the most sonorous soundTherefore, syllables usually have a
vowel nucleus as their coreLess sonorous sounds may appear ___________ ___________
SyllablesIntroduction
Native speakers of a language demonstrate their awareness of the sonority values of segments and of the syllable
Examples: Telegraph Accident Sprint
SyllablesOnset
Syllable: σOnset (O): Within a syllable, the longest
segment of consonant to the ___of each nucleus
SyllablesRhyme: Nucleus & Coda
Rhyme (R): The ______and the ____of a syllable (e.g., [ɪnt] in Sprint)
SyllablesNucleus & Coda
Nucleus (N): a vocalic element that forms the _______of a syllable (e.g., [q])
Coda (Co): The elements that _______the nucleus in the same syllable (e.g., [nt])
SyllablesConstraints
Syllables comply with certain constraints that prohibit them from beginning with a sequence like [kstr] and thus results in the actual syllabification / ək.strim / (“extreme”)
SyllablesUniversal Tendencies
All languages have syllablesThe shapes or syllables are governed
by various kinds of constraintsBut certain universal tendencies are
observable
SyllablesUniversal Tendencies
1. Syllable nuclei usually consists of _________;2. Syllables usually begin with onsets;3. Syllables often end with codas;4. Onsets and codas usually consist of one
consonant.
Syllables usually take the shape ___________
SyllablesOnset Constraints & Phonotactics
Isn’t it interesting! Native speakers of ant language intuitively
know that certain words from other languages sound unusual and they often adjust the segment sequences of these words to conform with the pronunciation requirements of their own language.
Example: Russian word vprog /fprɔk/ (value, or good) [fəprɔk] – adding /ə/ [prɔk] – deleting /f/
SyllablesOnset Constraints & Phonotactics
Phonotactics: The set of constraints on how
sequences of segments pattern Forms part of a speakers knowledge
of the phonology of his or her language
SyllablesAccidental and Systematic Gaps
Gaps in the language’s vocabulary that correspond to ___________ but _________ forms called accidental gaps Sometimes filled by borrowed words that
fill the phonotactic constraints
Ex: Kodak, taco, Zen, perestroika
SyllablesAccidental and Systematic Gaps
Systematic gaps:Gaps in the syllable structure of a
language that result not by accident but from exclusion of certain sequences
Examples in English: /bz/, /pt/ & /fp/
Unacceptable in one language but not necessarily another
SyllablesAccidental and Systematic Gaps
Accidental gaps: Sometimes filled by ___________ ___that fill
the phonotactic constraints
Ex: Kodak, taco, Zen, perestroikaSystematic gaps:
English speakers often change the pronunciation of borrowed words that do not fit the phonotactic constraints
Ex: Psychology & pterodactyl
SyllablesLanguage-specific phonotactics
Language-specific constraints, on the other hand, hold true for individual languages such as English, but they may not be found in other languages
ReviewSyllable & Onset
Syllable: σ
Onset (O): Within a syllable, the longest segment of consonant to the left of each nucleus that does not violate the phonotactic constraints of the language in question (e.g., [st] forms the onset of the second syllable in hamster)
ReviewRhyme: Nucleus & Coda
Rhyme (R): The nucleus and the coda of a syllable (e.g., [ust] in the word boost)
Nucleus (N): a vocalic element that forms the core of a syllable (e.g., the vowel [A] is the nucleus of the first syllable in Patrick)
Coda (Co): The elements that follow the nucleus in the same syllable (e.g., [rf] in surfboard)
SyllablesSetting Up Syllables
Each language defines its own syllable structure through the interaction of universal and language-specific constraints
SyllablesSyllabic Phonology
One reason that syllables are treated as units of phonological structure is that they are relevant to stating generalizations about the distribution of allophonic features
SyllablesSyllabic Phonology: Vowel Length
English vowels are ____when followed by a ______ ___________ in the ____ position of the same syllable
FeaturesDefinition
Segments themselves are composed of even smaller, subsegmental, phonological units known as segments Smallest unit of phonology Basic building blocks of human speech
soundsIndependent and coordinate phonetic
elements
FeaturesFeatures & Natural Classes
By ___________ examining the phonemic contrasts of a language, we can extract the ___________ ____and use these irreducible linguistic elements to describe the phonemic inventory
Features Representation
Only a limited number of features – currently around twenty-four – have been proposed
Fewer are needed to characterize the sounds of English
Features RepresentationLaryngeal Feature
[±voice][±spread glottis] ([±SG])[±constricted glottis] ([±CG])
Features RepresentationPlace of Articulation
[LABIAL][±round]
[CRONAL][±anterior][±strident]
[DORSAL][±high][±low][±back][±tense][±reduced]
DerivationsDefinitions
Phonemic representations are equivalent to __________________ that speakers have of the words in their language Also called underlying representation
Phonetic representations are equivalent to the __________________that are produced in the course of speech Also called surface representations
DerivationsDefinitions
Derivations: Resulting from the application of phonological
rules to underlying representation Going from mental representations to spoken
languagePhonological rules:
Rules that derive phonetic representations from underlying representations, accounting for alterations among allophones