The Era of the Great War

National 5

Revision Booklet

Why is this booklet useful?

This booklet provides a quick summary of the key information you need to be aware of in the Era of the Great War topic.

At the end of key area there are a set of summary questions to consider that will help you create an exam-geared approach to revision. Also, at the end of each key area there is a set of flash card templates for you to create key questions from the information in this booklet. Flash cards are a great way to get active in your revision, and the more you use them the more you’ll start to remember!

There are four key sections in this unit, each with their own sub-sections.

Health and Housing

The Growing Population Housing Health

Industry- Textile Factories and Coal Mines

Cotton Coal

Transport- Canals and Railways

Canals Railways

Pressure for Democratic Reform up to 1867

Radical Protests The 1832 Reform Act The Chartists The 1867 Reform Act

Health and Housing

The Growing Population

Some reasons for the rapid population growth around the time of industrialisation:

Industrialisation itself. The 1840 Irish famine. Developments in medicine. More children surviving infancy. Better housing and sanitation. Younger marriage and larger families. The agricultural revolution.

The main reason was most certainly the increase in birth rate. As the 19th century came to a close, the death rate also fell. This increase in life and decrease in death lead to an overall surge in population. However, it is important to consider other factors.

Industrialisation

As more factories opened, more workers were needed. More people needed more everyday products. The demand was huge. This gave inventors a big incentive to be the first to invent new methods to produce

products faster and in large scale volume. The new way of mass production in factories increased employment opportunities

dramatically. This allowed couples to earn enough to get married at a younger age and start families, which had an impact on population.

Medical Knowledge

Before 1850, doctors knew very little about the causes of disease and how to tackle them.

After this point, there were several significant medical advancements. Joseph Lister invented antiseptics and Robert Koch discovered bacteria. Dr John Snow discovered the connection between water supplies and choler, leading

to clean water pumps that helped stopped deaths from disease.

Changes in Farming

The increase in population increased demand for food. Farmers began to invent more effective methods to produce food. Selective breeding produced better quality meat, boggy land was drained to farm,

more crops were produced and new machines were invented to harvest a greater number of crops.

All of these changes were known as the Agricultural Revolution. The results – more people had meat as part of their diets and more food created

better health and stronger bodies to fight illness.

Better Living Conditions

In the second half of the nineteenth century, living and working conditions improved.

Fresh, clean water was now flowing through pipes. Drains had been installed to carry away waste. Overcrowding was being reduced by better housing. Cheaper soap ensured a cleaner house and cleaner people. All of this reduced the chance of dying from disease.

Migration of Population

Migration- when people move from one area to another in search of work or a better life.

These people move because of a variety of push and pull factors. Push factor- when people are forced to move from where they live. Pull factor- when people are drawn to a new place because of what it offers. Industrial towns grew quickly as people were drawn to easy employment and a more

exciting life. The biggest migration was from Ireland. The population of Ireland effectively halved

during the 19th century, whereas Scotland’s trebled. The Irish were fleeing the potato famine of the 1840s. The Highland clearances also forced people to move south to the cities because

farmers were being forced of their land to be replaced by sheep. Sheep were far more lucrative because of their wool.

Housing

Bad housing, known as slums were a major problem in Britain during the 18th and 19th centuries.

There were simply not enough houses to meet the demand. Landlord would often build poor-quality houses to maximise profit as quickly as

possible. Single-room accommodation for entire families was not uncommon. Basic needs such as clean water and sanitation were not available. Water was usually collected from a nearby pump and was often contaminated. Walls were extremely thin and poorly insulated. Because there was no public transport, there was a demand for housing close to

factories and mills. As a result, people were continually exposed to immense amounts of pollution.

Housing was a perfect breeding ground for disease.

How did housing improve?

The Government understood that something had to be done to tackle the problems with housing in Britain.

One of the real problems was the exodus of the rich from the city centres. This came about as a result of the rich looking to escape from the unhealthy living conditions.

Wealthy people in Glasgow left the city centre, which at the time was located near the Clyde and created George Square. The wealth in this region is still obvious today when considering the street names- Jamaica Street, Havana Street, Virginia Street. These are all sites were tobacco and cotton industries were booming.

Wealthy people were happy just to leave the slum areas, they were not interested in improving them.

The first act introduced to help the problems with housing was the Nuisance Removal Act, which gave police in Scotland the power to clean and close properties that were a threat to public health.

Councils were given more power in 1875 with the Public Health Act. This gave councils the control over water supplies and sewers.

The Swellings Improvement Act allowed councils to demolish slum housing. However, it was criticised as there was no funding to replace them. Glasgow City Council tore down hundreds of slums leaving 30,000 people without a home.

This problem was eventually tackled by introducing council owned properties around the turn of the 20th century.

Health

Despite the population rising dramatically over the 18th and 19th centuries, the death state remained high.

Early death was often caused by a lethal combination of poor diet, a dangerous working environment and bad living conditions.

A small illness could kill people easily, as there was little in place to help combat sickness.

Diseases spread quickly in overcrowded cities were water pumps were often polluted by raw sewage. This was a major problem for health in Britain.

How Bad was Sanitation?

Most houses lacked any sanitation. There was no running water and no drainage. Toilets were usually outdoors and built over a hole in the ground where waste was

collected. This system had been in place for hundreds of years. When the bucket whole was full it was cleaned by night-soil men, who cleaned the

pit overnight. The smell caused by no sanitation was particularly serious. Cesspits often overflowed

into local rivers and streams and water wells which contaminated the water.

Other Problems near Houses

Roads were crowded with horse-drawn wagons and carriages which were constantly a threat to crossing pedestrians. Horse manure was also a real problem in streets.

Air pollution was also a major problem in cities. Factories and chemical plants were constantly spouting soot into the air. City streets often suffered from poor visibility. Waste was often dumped onto streets, as well as rivers.

What Medical Problems were there as a Result of Poor Living Conditions?

When disease broke out it spread very quickly because of the overcrowded conditions. Doctors did not know how the disease spread, as they had not discovered bacteria.

Death from disease was most common in new-born babies and their mothers, many of whom would not survive child birth.

Typhus was a deadly disease spread by lice that lived on peoples clothes and bedding. Those affected would suffer from lice bites that covered their entire body. These bites would cause a typhus fever which was very contagious.

Influenza- the flu- was also very common. Epidemics were common in the nineteenth century.

Scarlet fever caused fear among families. It tended to affect mainly the old and very young.

Tuberculous (TB) was spread by coughing and sneezing. People quickly deteriorated physically once they caught this disease.

Smallpox caused 12,000 deaths in 1840 in Britain alone. Smallpox is transmitted by physical contact between two people. This made it very dangerous in the slums, where overcrowding was a real problem.

Cholera was the most deadly disease of all. There were three major out breaks in Britain. Between 1831 and 1832, 30,000 people were killed by Cholera.

Cholera left people with severe diarrhoea and vomiting. People died from the dehydration that followed.

All of the above diseases are closely linked to bad water, overcrowding and poor diet.

What did Parliament do to Improve Matters?

The 1831 Board of Health

The Government set up the Board of Health in 1831 to look at ways to solve the cholera problem.

This was the first time the Government had ever stepped in to control the organisation of local authorities.

The Board concluded that anyone with Cholera should be quarantined- kept away from other people.

Although the Board looked to make a difference, they had no real power to enforce quarantines.

Local boards eventually fell apart after the first outbreak of cholera came to an end.

Edwin Chadwick

Edwin Chadwick was one of the breakthrough thinkers in public health. During an investigation published in 1842, Chadwick discovered the following:

Overcrowding was a main reason was disease spreading quickly. Disease was cause by filth and dirt on the streets. The lack of clean drinking water was identified as possible cause for the spread of

disease.

The Public Health Act of 1848

Local health boards were set up in order to deal with the challenges of health in Britain.

These new health boards had the power to enforce the following:- All new builds must have drainage and toilets.- Landlords had to link their homes to sewers.

- Landlords had to provide clean water.- Rubbish was to be collected and this process paid for through tax.

How Successful was the Public Health Act?

The act enjoyed limited success. Many cities had reduced their death toll by half in ten years. Clean water was taking a step forward as well. Loch Katrine, near Glasgow, was set

up as a reservoir and was providing 200 million litres of clean water a day to the city. However, there was a lot of criticism of the act. Many people were unhappy at paying more taxes that were needed to fund these

improvements. Landlords were unimpressed at being forced into improvements by the government. Many of the sewers were still pumping water into local rivers, which eventually re-

polluted the system.

Improvements in medical knowledge in the 19 th century

In 1865, Louis Pasteur, a French chemist, proved germs caused disease. Pasteur could now target germs specifically in the look for vaccinations. Further advances were made in the prevention of diseases such as TB and cholera.

As these developments continued, town planners and councils could adjust their strategies.

What was still to be done by 1900?

Slums and poverty still existed by 1900. The poor had no means of raising the money to escape the slums to the suburbs

surrounding cities. In York, it was reported that 16 families were using one water tap. That is despite the

improvements in clean water provision in other areas.

Things You Should Know

To be successful in this section you must be able to:

Explain why living conditions were so bad in towns up to 1900.

Describe the changes that led to improvements in housing up to 1900.

Explain why bad housing was linked to bad health.

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Industry- Textile Factories and Coal Mines

Cotton

In order to make clothing, many individual threads of fibre are weaved together.

Things You Should Know

To be successful in this section you must be able to:

Explain why living conditions were so bad in towns up to 1900.

Describe the changes that led to improvements in housing up to 1900.

Explain why bad housing was linked to bad health.

Key Words

Board of Health- A collection of specialists hired to improve public health.

Death rate- The number of people dying as a proportion of the population.

Western Front- The area of fighting through Belgium and Northern France.

Key Questions to Consider

To what extent had housing improved in Britain by 1900?

To what extent had health improved in Britain by 1900?

The process of making these individual fibres is known as spinning. A weaver would then weave thread together into cloth clothing using a loom. Prior to the industrial revolution, most cloth was made in the home. This was a manual process, using handlooms. This was known as the domestic system. This process came to an end with the population burst that came with the Industrial

Revolution. Simply put- the technology and methods used were no longer meeting demand. This led to the mechanisation of the textile industry.

What changed in the Cotton Industry?

Manufacturers were determined to be the leader in this new market and make a fortune. This led to quick technological advances to help meet the new demands.

As new machinery was no suited to the home, and business owners wanted their employees and machinery under one roof.

Therefore, businesses reopened in factories in the town. In addition to a new location, businesses now needed access to power in order to

keep their machines in operation. The solution was water power. It was the use of water power through wheels that helped the Revolution sustain

itself. Improvements to machinery were made quickly, with each being able to deal with more volume of cloth and more quickly.

What was it like to work in the Cotton Industry?

Factories were often operating twenty four hours a day. Workers would work a 12 hour shift, every day. The speed of the improvements in machinery dramatically reduced the need for

skilled workers. As a result, even children operated the machinery in factories. This meant that wages were very low, particularly in the case of women and children

who were paid even lower than men. This had a real impact on the employment of men- they would often be at home

without work while their family went to the factories.

Dangers of working in the factory

Factories were very dangerous places.

Many of the new machines had moving parts that were not shielded. As a result, many people lost fingers and whole limbs due to exposed machinery.

In some factories 2/3rds of the population were children. This was considered normal practice, as children had no compulsory education and no childcare, so they were brought to work.

Children often had the most dangerous jobs, which involved crawling under machinery to sweep cotton and to fix broken threads.

Children were often beaten in factories for not working hard enough or falling asleep.

Adults were also under strict discipline. They were not allowed to talk and there was a six day working week.

Factories were often poorly ventilated. This meant that the air was dirty with smoke and dust. The air would be thick with the smell of oil and sweat. The heat would often be unbearable.

How were factories improved?

Over time, the conditions in factories were becoming more unacceptable. Many business owners were reluctant to change as they believe this would affect

profits, but despite this steps were taken to improve working conditions. Robert Owen, a factory owner in New Lanark, was a pioneer in this new way of

thinking. He believed that by treating his workers well, he could get better results from them. He reduced the working day, stopped beatings and increased wages. As a result, production increased and so did his profits.

The Factory Act 1833

The Factory Act of 1833 made it illegal for children under the age of nine to be employed.

In addition, children under 13 could only work a nine hour day, up to 48 hours a week.

Those under 18 were limited to a 12 hour day up to 69 hours a week. Finally, only those over 18 could work a night shift.

The most important improvement was the government inspections. The new inspectors had the right to turn up unannounced to any factory and ensure the new laws were being enforced.

The act was a significant step forward in improving factory conditions. Despite the above improvements, the inspectors did not the power to inforce the

law should the factories fall below the standard. In addition to this, it was not uncommon for children to not be registered at birth so

it was often hard to prove any wrongdoing. Finally, the law was not welcomed by families who needed their children’s income to

survive. As a result, many families helped their mill owners deceive the inspectors.

The Ten Hours Act

This act restricted the working day of women and children to 10 hours. This was later reformed to ensure children could only work a half day up to the age

of 14. As well as this children up to the age of nine now had to attend school.

Had factories improved by 1900?

Compared to 1800 factories were considerably better places to work. Hours were shorter, and machinery was shielded. However, by 1900 factories were still a poor place to work by today’s standards. Employees were still working long hours and for poor pay. Compared to today’s equivalent, machines were still very dangerous.

Things You Should Know

To be successful in this section you must be able to:

Explain why working conditions were so dangerous in factories.

Describe the technological improvements in that took place in factories before 1900.

Describe the improvements in factories as a result of changes in the law before 1900.

Coal

What was coalmining like in Britain before the Industrial Revolution?

Before the industrial revolution, mining was very basic. Technology had not been invented to allow deep mining. Most mining was carried out by using a bell pit. Miners were lowered down into bell shaped mines by rope. The mines themselves were dangerous, with water often filling the pits while

men worked causing collapse. This in turn often resulted in pits being abandoned and reopened in another

region to keep up with demand.

The Industrial Revolution- We Must Dig Deeper!

As is the trend with industry during this time, there was an enormous increase in demand for coal because of the increase in population.

There was further demand from the new factories, which would use coal to smelt in furnaces and power lighting.

As a result, technology was developed that allowed mines to be dug deeper and deeper with several layers.

The Conditions in Mines

Unfortunately for the miners, their wages were poor. Miners were only paid for the coal they brought to the surface.

The whole family was involved the process. Hewers were the men who chipped the coal from the wall of the mine. Hewers often lay on their sides for extended periods of time in damp and

cramped conditions. Women occupied the role of the Bearer. This involved dragging baskets of

coal to the surface up through the mine. This was extremely difficult work that was both back breaking and exhausting.

Children were known as Putters in the mines. They connected the Hewers and the Bearers by pushing carts of coal to the Bearers to carry to the surface.

Dangers of the Mines

The bottom line? Mines were dangerous. In many ways they were more dangerous than factories, as accidents in mines would often have consequences for a whole group of miners.

Like factories, the whole family would be employed in mining, which made the potential devastation from accidents considerable.

As mines were built deeper, the risks grew considerably. Deformity and wasting: children who worked long hours in damp, cramped

conditions often grew up deformed and would die at a young age. Falls: miners were lowered into pits on ropes. The ropes could snap or the turning

handle slip and miners could fall to their deaths. In some pits, coal was carried up rotting, slippery wooden steps.

Drowning: if a pit was flooded, miners could easily drown. Crushing: roof falls were common, trapping miners underneath. Suffocation and explosion: Poisonous and flammable gasses built up in the deeper

regions of the mines causing death and explosions.

How Did Technology Improve Conditions?

Collapsing roofs: Instead of relying on pillars of coal to support mines, developments used wooden and iron props.

Flooding: James Watt significantly improved mine drainage when he introduced the steam engine.

Suffocation: The initial solution was to take canaries down mines. If they died, toxic gases were building up. The new system relied on improved ventilation through exhaust fans that pushed out bad air.

Explosion: older solutions involved miners holding a long stick with a candle on the end. The idea was that any explosion would occur further from the miner, hopefully saving his life. This poor solution was made redundant with the introduction of the safety lamp in 1815.

Did New Laws Improve Conditions?

In the last half of the 20th century there were several steps made to improve the working conditions in mines.

The momentum came from the public reaction to the death of over 25 children during a flash flood in a mine in Barnsley.

In 1840, the Government set up a Royal Commission to investigate conditions in mines. The Commission investigated how mines were run, who was employed in them and the conditions they worked in.

The findings of the Royal Commission caused a public outcry. Change was inevitable from this point.

The 1842 Mines Act

The Act of 1842 focused mainly on the conditions of women and children.- No women should work underground.- Children under 10 could not work underground.- No one under the age of 15 was to be in charge of moving machinery.- Ponies were now to drag the coal underground.

Although the Act was a step forward, it had limited success. For example, there was only one mine inspector in the whole of the United Kingdom. As if that wasn’t bad enough, that inspector was not allowed to go underground! The Government taking issue with women working dangerous jobs underground

simply changed the battlefield, with women now being given dangerous jobs above ground.

Like with factories, women were opposed to the Government interfering with the family income. This was particularly the case with mines, as women were now paid less for working above ground.

The situation of children was also similar. It was hard to prove their ages due to the lack of birth certificates. In addition, most families relied on the money brought home by children to ensure food and bills could be paid.

Finally, the Act did nothing to address male working hours. It was not unknown for some pits to have men underground for twenty four hours.

The 1850 Coal Mines Inspections Act

The new Act allowed Government inspectors – of which there were now a lot more!- to go underground, even if the owner insisted against it.

Inspectors now had the power to enforce the rules of the 1842 Act. Finally, mine owners now had to record deaths. Despite this, very few prosecutions ever occurred.

How Successful were the new Laws?

By the end of the 1900’s, mines were far safer places to be. Despite this, there were still over a thousand deaths recorded every year in Britain. The fact that mine owners were reluctant to provide improvements hampered the

progress of the Laws.

Finally, the new Laws were successful in preventing children from being exploited underground for their size. By 1900, there were set working hours introduced for men.

Things You Should Know

To be successful in this section you must be able to:

Explain why more coal was needed for the Industrial Revolution.

Describe the working conditions of coalminers.

Canals

Arguably the greatest problem faced in the early Industrial Revolution was finding a way to transport the great increase in products and goods around the country.

Roads were very poor at the time, with potholes and thick mud everywhere. As new industries in Britain began to boom with the Revolution, they needed

coal and iron in large amounts. The solution was canals. Transportation by boat was easier, smoother and

had an increased capacity for more goods.

Positive Impact

The decrease in transportation cost compared to hiring several coaches to move goods resulted in the price of coal being halved within a few years of their use.

By the turn of the 19th century, almost 5000 miles of canals had been built in Britain. In addition to cheaper goods, the canals were a magnet for employment, employing

thousands of people in building and maintaining canals.

Why did Canals decrease in Popularity?

Canals were always very difficult to build. Canals had to be kept level, which meant that if a hill had to be crossed, a number of

raising locks had to be built to lift the barge to a new section of canal. In order to maintain water levels, reservoirs had to be built to ensure the water

could be resupplied. Canal maintenance was never kept at the standard it should have been. As a result, people lost confidence in the now dirty and littered canals. In hot

summers several are reported to have dried up and in the winter several froze, in both cases stopping transportation completely.

Finally, the advent of rail travel had a real impact on the use of canals. Railways offered a new top speed for transportation, a 19th century top speed. ‘Fast’

canals were now only fast for the 1700’s.

Things You Should Know

To be successful in this section you must be able to:

Explain why more coal was needed for the Industrial Revolution.

Describe the working conditions of coalminers.

Railways

The rise of railway really occurred with the introduction of the steam engine. This was notable in the cities of Manchester and Glasgow. Railways in Manchester were carrying nearly 1500 people a day after the first

three months of its use. By the late 1840’s, 270 different companies had applied to build railways in

Britain.

Economic Benefit of Railways

Railways provided thousands of new jobs. People were needed to build the lines, to build tunnels, to build trains, to drive trains, to guard trains, to maintain trains and to collect tickets on trains. That’s just a few of the jobs related to railways!

Railways boosted industries. In order to build trains, tracks and stations the company owners would have to buy vast quantities of steal, iron and coal. As this demand increased, the businesses that provided them were encouraged to expand and grow also. The bottom line is nearly every industry was able to invest in rail. Railways could now connect all of these businesses in a way that had not been done before, with companies now able to sell large quantities of goods across local and national borders.

Social Benefit of Railways

Rail led to significant social change in Britain. Towns could easily grow in size because of the new possibilities of commuting. Travel was cheap, with varying prices that allowed both middle and working class

people to use the service. Food was now cheaper and fresher as it could be delivered quicker. Tourism was now a possibility for virtually all because of cheap tickets and quick

travel times. The ability to travel around cities in Scotland led to the creation of the Scottish

Football Association. This was due to the new possibility of weekly leagues across the cities of Scotland.

Politically, the advent of rail allowed groups like the Chartists to meet and communicate quickly. Something that was near impossible before.

Things You Should Know

To be successful in this section you must be able to:

Explain why transport improvements were necessary for progress.

Describe the advantages and disadvantages of canals.

Key Words

Barge- Long flat-bottomed boat pulled along canals by horses.

Locks- A way of raising barges up and down a series of steps to allow canal boats to cross hills.

Key Question to Consider

To what extent was the introduction of railway the main reason for the fall in popularity of canals?

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Things You Should Know

To be successful in this section you must be able to:

Explain why railways had such a big effect on Britain’s society and economy.

Describe the developments of railways in the nineteenth century.

Key Words

Locomotive- A steam engine that moves independently.

Prosperity- widespread wealth and peace.

Key Question to Consider

To what extent did the introduction of railways have an impact on Britain by 1900?

Radical Protests

How was Democracy in Britain before 1760?

In 1760, Britain was a very different political landscape. The vast majority of the adult population could not vote. The power to make decisions had been in the hands of the same family of rich

landowners for many generations. The right to protest was also non-existent during this period.

Why was there a Pressure for Change in 1815?

A long, bloody war with France had just came to an end, and the soldiers who fought were now looking for homes and work.

These men were impatient for these things to be provided to them, and when they were not immediately given to them they began to protest.

As the year progressed, protest groups emerged from these demonstrations that looked to achieve political change.

These groups would become known as the Radicals. Those men that protested for new rights – such as the right for the middle and working class to vote- were also known as Radicals.

Why was the Government Opposed to Change?

Revolution was the flavour of the month in Europe at the end of the 18th century. Revolution in France during 1789 had inspired thirst for political change in Britain. The protests of 1815 that had been started by the Radicals were deeply concerning

tot the Government as this was how the French Revolution began. In order to stop the protests, the Government took strong action against the

Radicals.

How did the Government tackle the Radicals?

There was no police force in 1815, with local authorities relying on groups of yeomanry.

These men typically protected local communities, but by 1815 they were drafted in to tackle Radical protests.

In another step to tackle the Radicals, councils employed agent provocateurs to infiltrate Radical groups to help organise protests before turning the culprits over to the Government.

The Spa Fields Protest

Spa Fields was the first significant Radical protest. It occurred in London, 1816. Large-scale protests like Spa Fields occurred in cities where the Industrial Revolution

had its greatest effect. For example, London, Manchester and Glasgow. The first Spa Fields meeting occurred on the 15th of November 1816. 10,000 people

turned out to here a famous Radical, Henry Hunt, speak about political reform, unemployment and poverty.

The first meeting ended peacefully. However, the second meeting in December- which attracted 20,000 people- did not end so well. The army was used to break up the crowds as violence broke out, which only added to the determination of the Government to stop the Radicals.

The St Peter’s Field Protest

This would become the most famous of the Radical demonstrations. It occurred in Manchester August 1819.

60,000 people turned out to hear the Manchester Patriotic Union and guest speaker Henry Hunt.

Local magistrates had become worried at the gathering crowds. Meeting in a local pub, the magistrates decided to gather a thousand local yeomanry to deal with any violence.

The crowd reaction to Hunt’s appearance spooked the magistrates. They ordered the yeomanry, many of whom were on horseback, into the crown to arrest the leaders.

The crowd turned on the soldiers, throwing rocks and other missiles. The yeomanry responded by drawing their swords killing 11 and leaving 600 injured. When the survivors returned to work, many of them were sacked for being present

at the protest.

The Radicals in Scotland

Scotland had a history of Radical protest. This included a protest in Edinburgh that resulted in protesters being shot by the

Government forces. The protests came about as a result of growing anger at the lack of political reform,

rising unemployment and food prices. In April 1820, 60,000 workers from across the West of Scotland went on strike and

gathered in Glasgow. They trained together in Glasgow Green as a ‘people’s army’. It is debated if the work was the making of the Radicals or agent provocateurs, but

what happened next suggests the Government was well informed of the coming trouble.

The Governments plan would be simple: let the protesters start their revolution at a pre-determined site, then arrest them.

In Glasgow, a fake meeting was set up were 50 armed Strathaven Radicals were greeted by Government officials and arrested.

The leader of the Strathaven Radicals was executed and beheaded for inciting revolution.

At the Carron Iron Works, Government yeomanry ambushed a group of Radicals in what would become known as the Battle of Bonnymuir. Four Radicals were wounded and over a dozen arrested.

Two of those arrested at Bonnymuir were hanged at Stirling Castle for their roles in the protest.

After the events of 1820 the Radical movement died out. The movement also slowed because of the improving economy and employment opportunities.

However, the desire for political reform had not disappeared.

RRRad Things You Should Know

To be successful in this section you must be able to:

Describe examples of Radical protests in England and Scotland. Explain what caused the radical protests and why the Government

was so against them.

Key Words

Yeomanry- local part-time soldiers who were used to stop Radical protests.

Agent Provocateurs- Spies who infiltrated the Radicals and informed the authorities of their activities that they helped

arrange.

Magistrates- local people who acted as judges.

Key Question to Consider

To what extent did the Radicals pose a threat to order in Scotland in 1820?

The 1832 Reform Act

There was a great deal of discontent over the state of the political system prior to 1832.

The new middle class factory owners and the ever-growing working class were calling for the right to vote as they believed they were the driving force of the economy.

Reasons Why the System was FailingConstituency Seats

One of the main problems was the way in which the constituency seats that each MP occupied were distributed unfairly.

Many MP’s were being voted in by on a handful of voters, or sometimes even no voters, as the rest of the constituents had moved to the cities. These were known as rotten boroughs. This was a bigger problem during this period, as some constituencies were assigned to MPs.

On the other had, small villages that had no MPs to send to Westminster had been swallowed into cities with the revolution, such as the case in Glasgow, Liverpool and Manchester.

Corrupt Elections

The problem with voting was there was no secret ballot. All voting was done publically where you raised your hand to vote for a party.

Which allowed businessmen and landowners to threaten those who had the vote to vote in their interests or be fired.

The Government Introduces Reform

Under pressure to avoid the revolution that occurred in France and having being threatened with it with the rise of the Radicals, the Government introduced the 1832 Reform Act.

The Reform Act changed the distribution of constituency seats, allowing for a far fairer system.

The Middle Class was now allowed to vote. Unfortunately, the system was based on the value of property you owned, so the Working Class still had no vote.

Criticism of the Act

Out of a population of 14 million, 13 million could not vote. Five out of six men could not vote and no women could vote. There was still no secret ballot. MP’s were still unpaid. This once again excluded the working class.

Things You Should Know

To be successful in this section you must be able to:

Explain why parliament needed to be reformed before 1832. Describe the changes made by the Reform Act of 1832.

Key Words

Constituency- The area that an MP represents.

Distribution of seats- The way the total number of MPs is shared across the country.

Rotten Boroughs- Towns that still sent MPs to parliament even though they had few or no constituents.

Key Question to Consider

To what extent was the 1832 Reform Act a success?

The Chartists

The Protest Change Grows

The working class were bitterly disappointed not to have been given the vote in the ’32 Reform Act.

To add to the disappointment, by the mid 1830’s the economy was failing, unemployment was rising and the governments ‘laissez-faire’ approach meant that nothing was being done to change the fortunes of the working class.

The London Working Men’s Association was started in 1836. They created the People’s Charter, a six-point list of political reforms that would demand from the Government.

Those that supported this Charter would be known as the Chartists.

The Demands of the Chartists

Universal suffrage for Men- all men would have the right to vote. Secret voting- to end bribery and corruption at elections. Equal electoral districts- each MP to represent roughly the same number of people. Elections every year- so that MP’s could be voted out if the did not keep their

promises. No property qualifications for MP’s- so that people who did not own land could

become MP’s. Pay for MP’s- so that poor men could afford MP’s.

The National Convention of 1839?

The national convention was a group of 50 representatives from different radical movements across the country.

The organisers were looking to organise a one month long general strike with the aim of paralyzing business until parliament accepted demand.

Petitions were also planned to mount pressure on the Government to introduce. Many members were so determined to get change that they were willing to use

violence to achieve their aims. However, the petitions were rejected on all three occasions that the they were put

forward. Forced with the parliament rejections, the Chartists began to crumble over

arguments over how to best move forward with their demands. Moral force: the first of the two major camps led by William Lovett. He believed that

only peaceful persuasion would convince the Government to give the Charter. Physical force: The second major camp, led by Fergus O’Conner. He believed that

violent persuasion was the only answer; he was even open to the idea of a national revolution like that seen in France.

This new split played into the Government’s hands. The new ‘pro-violence’ side of the Chartists gave the Government the green light to become more forceful in their defence against reform.

The Plug Plot The new tough attitude towards the Chartists was demonstrated in 1842

when a group of factory workers organised a strike in the North of England. This was known as the Plug Plot. The plan was to remove plugs from the steam engine boilers that powered

the factories production. The hope was that this method of protest would spread, seriously damaging

the industries targeted. The Government responded to this planned plot as an act of terrorism. Over

1500 strikers were arrested and deported to Australia for up to 20 years.

The Newport Protest

November 1839, around 5000 workers flocked to Newport. The majority of protestors were armed with guns and pikes. There is debate over the intent of use of these weapons, however they were most

definitely seen as a means of revolution by the Chartist leaders. Inevitably, violence broke out between troops and the protesters. Gunfire killed 25

marchers and 50 were arrested. Three Chartist leaders were amongst the arrested at Newport. They were sentenced

to be hung, drawn and quartered. However this sentence was reduced to being departed to Australia, in order to stop the Chartists being seen as martyrs.

The Chartist Movement Fails

When a final petition was reject by parliament in 1848, the Chartist momentum had lost its momentum.

Similar to the Radicals, an improving economy and opportunity of employment led to a dwindling support for political reform.

In addition to these reasons there are other points to note when considering why the Chartists failed.

The Government: the refusal to speak to the Chartists about the petitions gradually ground down the support for the cause.

Petitions: The petitions themselves were found to contain fake signatures, which led to the Chartists credibility being questioned.

Divisions: The division into a pro-peace and pro-violent side split the momentum of the movement and made it less effective.

Unemployment: Many workers were concerned about the threat of unemployment if the took part in Chartist activities.

Things You Should Know

To be successful in this section you must be able to:

Describe the aims and methods of the Chartists. Explain why the Chartist movement grew so quickly and why it

declined. Decide whether Chartism did or did not fail.

Key Words

Laissez-faire- A French phrase meaning to leave alone and not get involved.

Moral force- Using peaceful protest methods.

Physical force- Using forceful protest methods.

Key Question to Consider

To what extent was the improving economy the main reason for the decline of the Chartists?

The 1867 Reform Act

By the 1860’s the pressure for reform was back again. However, on this occasion there was far less opposition to the change.

There was now a new crop of politicians breaking through, one of the most important of which was William Gladstone.

He believed that the working class man deserved the vote. With the introduction of railways and public libraries, many working class men were

now skilled and politically knowledgeable due to the increased access to information.

There are several reasons for this reform.

Pressure Groups

The pressure mounted by the Radicals and the Chartists was still at the forefront of the political leaders minds during the 1860’s.

They also left a legacy that led to the new pressure groups such as the Reform League. This put further pressure on the Government to reform.

The Government was concerned that a rise of fresh protests would lead to revolution.

The fear of new large demonstrations were realised in 1866 during a demonstration in Hyde Park where 200.000 protestors gathered to call for reform.

International Pressure

There was great social change occurring across the Western World during the 19th century.

Revolutions in both Germany and Italy were supported by the British Empire, as they were led by the middle and working classes looking to secure a greater political voice.

If Britain did not follow suit, the Empire was at risk of falling behind the rest of the democratic world. Something that the world’s most powerful Empire could not afford.

Political Games- Who Can Get the Vote?

The two political parties of the time were the Liberals and the Conservatives. William Gladstone led the Liberals and Benjamin Disraeli led the Conservatives. Both parties believed that if they could introduce reform first, that they would be

able to secure the new working class vote. Something that would ensure victory for several elections to come.

Disraeli and his party constantly knocked down the discussion of the working class vote in parliament.

However, when the Conservatives won the next election, the first act of Disraeli was to introduce the extension of voting rights in the 1867 Reform Act.

This has been forever remembered as a political master class.

The 1867 Reform Act- What did it Do?

The right to vote was given to men owning property above certain value and men who paid over £10 a year in rent.

This in effect reserved the extension of the vote to skilled working class men. The reform effectively doubled the number of men who could vote. In Glasgow the

roll increased from 18,000 to 47,000. The reform took further steps to improve the distribution of seats around the

country, granting cities like Liverpool and Manchester MPs.

Criticism of the Act

The right to vote was still denied to the majority of men. Once again the issue of the secret ballot was not addressed, which left elections

open to the corruption that had occurred through previous elections. The issue of women’s right to vote had still not been addressed.

Things You Should Know

To be successful in this section you must be able to:

Explain why the 1867 Reform Act was passed. Describe the ways in which the Act made Britain more democratic.

Key Words

William Gladstone- Leader of the Liberal Party during the 1860’s.

Benjamin Disraeli- Member of the Conservative Party during the 1860’s.

Distribution of seats- The way the total number of MPs is shared across the country.

Key Question to Consider

To what extent did Britain become more democratic between 1760 and 1900?