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Lessons learned and farmer-to-farmer transfer of technologies iii

Preface

Farmers are constantly being subjected to changes that are beyond their control on account offactors that affect the viability and profitability of their farming enterprises. Therefore in orderto sustain agricultural development, farmers must acquire the capacity to respond to thesechanging situations and opportunities in order to maximize production. Farmers need to behelped to develop this capability by encouraging their innovations and by involving them in alearning process in which they are exposed to new knowledge and technologies.

The steps that a development programme must follow to promote agricultural development are:the identification of intervention areas, participatory diagnosis of problems, selection ofsustainable technologies, participatory planning of activities, training and organization offarmers, ensuring availability of supplies, diversification in relation to markets, provision ofcredit facilities and incentives, farm processing, agro-industrial development, monitoringprogress, establishment of municipal committees for integrated development, and projectevaluation.

The present document is meant as a guideline for those involved in the promotion, planning andimplementation of sound agricultural development initiatives in hilly areas. It is addressed notonly to “specialists” in natural resources management but also to ministers of agriculture andenvironment, extension workers, forest officers, village leaders and many others who contributeto or are involved in the promotion and planning of sound agricultural activities. Because of thelimited capacity in some government and non-governmental organizations to promoteagricultural development at an adequate rate in many countries, emphasis in this study has beenplaced on training farmers to act as extensionists and innovators. The main recommendationsrelate to basic principles of improved crop and land management such as simplified diagnosticprocedures, adequate extension and training participatory approaches, adapted and widelyadopted low-cost simple farming activities engendering farmers’ motivation and self-esteem,credit and market facilities, and simple qualitative methods of evaluating project impact carriedout by the farmers themselves.

The present guideline refers to the implementation of “Integrated Crop and Land Management:in the Hilly Terrains of Central America: concepts, strategies and technical options” which isthe subject of a first document published in the “Plant Production and Protection Division,Integrated Crop Management” series, devoted to farmers’ experience gained in the CentralAmerica region.

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Acknowledgements

This publication is based on extensive visits by Mr. Richard Barber to Costa Rica, El Salvador andHonduras to identify recommended strategies, methods and technologies that have, or are being,used to promote the adoption of sustainable agriculture on hillsides in Central America. It is hopedthat these technologies could be replicated in other areas with similar agro-ecologicalenvironments and socio-economic conditions. As with most efforts like this, many other personswere involved. The contributions of José Benites and Jean-Claude Griesbach, Land and WaterDevelopment Division, and Jean-Pierre Marathée and Caterina Batello, Plant Production andProtection Division, have been very beneficial.

The valuable perspective provided by all those in Costa Rica, El Salvador and Honduras, whovery generously gave their time in interviews and field trips to Mr. Barber, and who willinglyshared their knowledge and considerable experience about the concepts, strategies andtechnologies necessary for the successful implementation of agricultural development projects inCentral America, is gratefully acknowledged.

Special thanks are due to Ms. Lynette Chalk for her efficient preparation of the text andformatting of this document.

Lessons learned and farmer-to-farmer transfer of technologies v

Contents

Page

1. INTRODUCTION 1

Need for, and role of, farmer-extensionists 1Requirements and implementation of farmer-extensionist training courses 1Working arrangements and conditions of farmer-extensionists 2Nature and content of the document 3

2. BASIC CONCEPTS 5

Catchments and their significance 5Soil properties and soil formation 5Soil characteristics of importance to plant growth 6Land degradation processes 9Principles of conservation-effective land management 10

3. FARMER-EXTENSIONIST ACTIVITIES IN PARTICIPATORY DEVELOPMENT 17

Selecting the community and intervention areas 17Conducting the diagnostic study 19Identifying problem-cause relationships and possible solutions 24Elaborating a development strategy 31Formulating a plan of action 31Training farmers in land management and agriculture 33Training farmers in simple experimentation 34Elaborating integrated farm plans 35Arranging training courses in basic education and rural skills 48Facilitating the formation and functioning of farmers’ organizations 48Promoting the formation of municipal “sustainable development committees” 49Promoting links and activities with other developmental organizations 50Facilitating the formation and functioning of community banks 50Monitoring the plans of action 50

4. DESCRIPTION OF AVAILABLE TECHNOLOGIES 51

Recommended successful technologies for subsistence-oriented farmers 51Recommended successful technologies for market-oriented farmers 61Technologies of limited application 64Potentially suitable technologies yet to be widely adopted 66

REFERENCES 69

ANNEX 1. Soil characterization procedures 71ANNEX 2 Methods of marking contour lines 73

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List of figures

Page

1. Visual aids to estimating percentage ground cover 11

2. Example of a transect to identify problems associated with the use of natural resources 21

3. Example of a location map of the farmers in a micro-catchment 21

4. Collection of data on a community’s agricultural enterprises, other sources ofincome and land tenancy using a pictorial method 22

5. Example of a Venn diagram for community-institutional relationships 22

6. Example of the problems of maize in relation to each production practice orstage of growth 23

7. Example of a cropping calendar 23

8. Example of a calendar of fodder production 24

9. Example of a “tree of problems, causes and possible solutions” for the problem ofwater erosion 25

10. Diagnostic form for integrated farm planning 36

11. Example of a sketch map of farm location and land use for integrated farm planning 39

12. Soil characterization form for integrated farm planning 41

13. Existing, desired, optimum and recommended land uses for each field and land unit 43

14. Form of recommendations on fences, livestock, environmental aspects, marketingand farmer organization for integrated farm planning 46

15. Example of sketch map of recommended land uses for integrated farm planning 47

16. Timetable for implementation of the integrated farm development plan 47

Lessons learned and farmer-to-farmer transfer of technologies vii

List of plates

Page

1. Examination of a soil pit in a field of beans 62. Decomposition of mucana and maize residues resulting in high biological activity 83. Excellent soil crumb structure caused by macro-biological activity 84. Farmers control soil erosion through crop cultivation 145. Farmers’ community preparing seedbeds 336. Example of integrated farm and watershed planning 357. Soil examination 408. High residue cover from maize and sorghum crops 529. Live barriers and direct planting to control soil erosion 5410. Weeding intercropped banana/cassava 5511. Dispersed trees in annual crops. Branches lopped prior to sowing beans 5912. Farmers constructing terraces and seedbeds for horticultural crops 6313. Individual platform terraces for citrus 6314. Hillside ditch for grain crops 6515. School garden in Lempira area: students learning how to prepare compost 6716. Cover crop of Canavalia ensiformis between citrus 67

List of tables

Page

1. Farm size and frequency 202. Land management problems, causes and possible solutions 263. Example of a plan of action 324. Relation between altitude and average annual temperature 365. Climatic requirements of crops, pastures and trees 376. Edaphological requirements of crops, pastures and trees 387. Legend to be used in a sketch map 408. Categories of optimum land use evaluated according to slope, soil depth and stoniness 429. Check list of technologies and management practices for different land use types 4410. Guide to land management practices with emphasis on soil conservation 4511. Guide to recuperation practices for degraded soils 45

Lessons learned and farmer-to-farmer transfer of technologies 1

Chapter 1Introduction

NEED FOR, AND ROLE OF, FARMER-EXTENSIONISTS

The majority of developing countries in Central America do not have the financial resources topromote widespread agricultural development through the traditional means of governmentextension services. Shortage of funds is even forcing some governments to consider theprivatization of extension services, so that farmers will have to pay for technical advice andsupport. Funds for development projects from international agencies are declining, and sofuture agricultural development is likely to depend more and more on support from non-governmental organizations (NGOs), many of which possess only very limited financialresources. It is therefore proposed that more emphasis should be placed on training farmers toact as extensionists, along the lines of the campesino a campesino movement, which has beenhighly successful in parts of Guatemala where it commenced, and then subsequently inNicaragua, Mexico and Honduras. The formation of farmer-extensionists is a low-cost option,and allows for a more rapid scaling-up of agricultural development. Farmer-extensionists havemany advantages over government extensionists. They normally work in their own orneighbouring communities, and so can communicate more easily and better understand theconstraints and attitudes of their own people. Consequently, their advice is generally morereadily accepted than that given by “outsiders.”

The aim of training farmer-extensionists is not to replace government extensionists, but tocomplement existing professional extensionists in order to increase the coverage of farmersreceiving technical advice, and to reduce the existing and frequently very highfarmer/extensionist ratios, so that the pace of agricultural development can be accelerated.

REQUIREMENTS AND IMPLEMENTATION OF FARMER-EXTENSIONIST TRAINING COURSES

It is envisaged that the trainers of farmer-extensionists would initially be professionalextensionists from government and/or NGOs but, as farmer-extensionists become moreknowledgeable and skilled, other specialists may be required to give more advanced orspecialized training.

Training centres may be set up in rural towns or villages, where accessibility is good, andwhere a suitable room or building for giving classes, and an area of land for practical work areavailable. The land could be rented from a farmer, or used in exchange for work carried out onthe farm, or could be within a nearby experimental station. The availability of sufficient land ofsuitable quality (i.e. representative of most farmers’ lands) is extremely important so thatfarmers can gain practical experience in conservation-effective land management andsustainable crop production through the process of "learning by doing." Farmer-extensionist

Introduction2

training could also be conveniently carried out in farmer field schools, which have been highlysuccessful in training farmers in integrated pest management in Asia, often using farmers as thetrainers.

It is suggested that training courses in conservation-effective land management andsustainable crop production for farmer-extensionists should last two years. During the first yearthe trainee farmer-extensionists would spend an average of three to four days per week in thetraining course, and possibly two days per week throughout the second year. It is mostimportant that they continue managing their own properties throughout the period of training,as well as when they are subsequently working as farmer-extensionists.

Practical activities should be scheduled early in the appropriate season for each activity,giving the trainee farmer-extensionists the opportunity to repeat the activity on their ownproperties. It is essential that before farmers commence working as farmer-extensionists theyshould have had at least one, preferably two, years of first-hand experience of the technologiesthey will be teaching to other farmers.

At the end of the two years all farmers who have completed the course will receive acertificate in recognition of their achievement at a public ceremony attended by local andprovincial dignitaries. Each farmer will also receive a report on the various skills, knowledgeand teaching abilities they have acquired with emphasis being placed on practical andpedagogic abilities. A system of grading and recognition needs to be developed so that farmer-extensionists can continue to gain credits for additional knowledge and skills acquired duringsubsequent training courses after completion of their initial two-year training course.

WORKING ARRANGEMENTS AND CONDITIONS OF FARMER-EXTENSIONISTS

It is envisaged that after completing their training, farmer-extensionists will either work in avoluntary capacity, or will receive some compensation (financial or in kind) from thecommunities with which they are working, or from the government department, localgovernment, or the NGO that organized and financed the training. No hard and fast guidelinescan be made concerning the most appropriate mechanism as this will depend on localcircumstances.

A selected number of farmer-extensionists may in some situations eventually become full-time professional extensionists who receive a salary if local government or an NGO possess asthe financial capacity to implement such an arrangement. Thus a career structure would need tobe established for the small number of farmer-extensionists who relinquish farming anddedicate themselves to development work.

It is envisaged that trained farmer-extensionists will work initially in their own community(or partly in their own community and partly in a neighbouring community, depending on thesize of their community), and would spend one to two days per week working as a farmer-extensionist. This should enable each farmer-extensionist to attend about 20 to 30 farmingfamilies on an individual basis, paying visits once every two weeks. In addition they would alsobe able to give, on average, one group activity every two weeks, such as a demonstration (e.g.planting a live barrier to about 10 to 15 farmers), a practical activity (e.g. making silage orgrafting to about five to eight farmers), or a talk (e.g. about a new herbicide to about 20 to 30farmers). Once the farmers within their own community have acquired basic skills and


knowledge, and have achieved a certain level of development, it will probably be feasible toreduce the frequency of visits and group activities, and the farmer-extensionist will then be ableto commence working in a neighbouring or nearby community.

NATURE AND CONTENT OF THE DOCUMENT

This document presents technical guidelines for the trainers of farmer-extensionists inconservation-effective land management and sustainable crop production for the hilly terrainsof Central America. It should also be useful for those engaged in training farmers, as in farmerfield schools. Much of the content will also be appropriate for farmers, but the format and styleof presentation would then be very different and adapted to a less technical target group.

The emphasis of the document is on learning by doing, building on farmers’ existingknowledge and experience, and promoting an understanding of the concepts of good landmanagement and sustainable crop production through discussions, and by analysing the causesof problems, their effects and possible solutions. Thus, decisions on the selection of appropriateland management and crop production practices are based on observations and theinterpretation of soil conditions and crop performance, and techniques are learnt by hands-onexperience in the field. Thus much time needs to be spent in farmers´ fields, at demonstrationplots and experimental sites. An essential common feature of the guidelines is to use simpleterms and procedures that can be readily understood and applied by farmers.

This document presents the basic concepts required by farmer-extensionists onconservation-effective land management and sustainable crop production, the variousparticipatory activities required to promote improved land husbandry and sustainable cropproduction, and a description of the available technologies for both subsistence- and market-oriented farmers, as well as those technologies that are potentially suitable but have not yetbeen widely adopted. The scope of this manual does not permit details to be included oncommunication and organizational skills which farmer-extensionists also need to acquire if theyare to be efficient and effective.

Introduction4


Chapter 2Basic concepts

This section presents outlines of the basic knowledge required by farmer-extensionists on soils,water and land management, and their significance to crop production. The information shouldbe presented in workshops and field visits, emphasizing the practical aspects and encouragingdiscussion amongst the farmers.

CATCHMENTS AND THEIR SIGNIFICANCE

Introduce, in the field, the relationship between crest lines, drainage lines and catchment areas,and the concept of rainwater movement within a catchment, perhaps by visiting two contrastingcatchments that differ in the proportion of rainwater which infiltrates or is lost as runoff.Promote discussions on the fate of rainwater movement within and through a catchment, andthe factors that influence runoff and flooding, infiltration, water retention within a soil profile,water use by annual and perennial crops and forests, drainage into deep groundwaters, themaintenance of springs and river flow levels, and water losses by evaporation. The importanceof these factors in influencing crop production, and the importance of forests in regulatingwater availability and influencing water quality, both within the catchment and in downstreamareas, should be emphasized. Discussions should focus on practical measures that can beundertaken by a farming community living in a micro-catchment1 to ensure reliable and highquality water supplies.

SOIL PROPERTIES AND SOIL FORMATION

Examine profiles of different soil types in the field, e.g. sandy and clayey soils, soils with goodand poor drainage, high and low organic matter contents, well and poorly structured, that occurin different catenary positions and under different types of land use (Plate 1). Discuss in broadterms the soil properties of texture, structure, porosity, internal and external drainage, colour,consistency, stoniness and slope - and their practical significance in relation to crop production.

Consider in simple terms, using as many local examples as possible, the influence of parentmaterial, climate, time, topography, vegetation and human actions on the formation, nature and 1 In this document the term “catchment” is used as a general term whereas “micro-catchment” denotes a catchment

that is of a manageable size for development purposes. The size of a “micro-catchment” that can be effectivelymanaged in a development programme will vary depending upon the local situation (e.g. the size of holdings, farmdensity, nature of the farming systems and accessability of the area) and the development agency’s resources (e.g.the number of extensionists available, where they are domiciled, and their mode of transportation). For CentralAmerican conditions, a micro-catchment is often equivalent to an area of about 100 to 350 ha in which some 40 to50 farming families are living.

Basic concepts6

properties of soils and soil horizons.Emphasize the contrasting influence ofvolcanic rocks, coarse and fine grained rocks,light and dark coloured rocks, and alluvialsediments on soil type, soil fertility andsusceptibility to erosion and moisture stress.Emphasize the slow rates of rock weathering,the more rapid rates of organic matteraccumulation, mineralization and humusformation under favourable conditions, and thevery rapid rates of soil erosion that may occurdue to human actions. Discuss the effect oftopographical position on soil drainage, theloss and accumulation of sediments andnutrients. Stress the influence of land use andvegetation type on soil cover, organic matterloss and accumulation, and the impacts ofhuman actions on erosion rates, soil organicmatter losses, soil structure and soil fertility.Emphasize the importance of soil organicmatter on soil physical and chemicalproperties, soil physical and chemical fertility2

and biological activity, and stress theimportance of macro-fauna activity in terms oforganic matter mineralization, nutrientrecycling, soil water movement and the

significance of these processes to crop productivity.

SOIL CHARACTERISTICS OF IMPORTANCE TO PLANT GROWTH

Field examinations of soils should be carried out by digging soil pits in a number of contrastingsoil types selected to show suitable, marginal and unsuitable conditions for crop growth, andpreferably at sites within a limited area to highlight the great heterogeneity that usually exists inhilly terrains. Farmers should be encouraged to make these examinations on their ownproperties. The following factors of importance to plant growth should be identified in the field,discussed and assessed using rule of thumb indicators:

a. Good rooting conditions: Compare compacted soil and soil without rooting hindrance infields of crops (preferably at the flowering stage or later), paying particular attention to thepresence of horizontally growing roots, exceptional root thickening, root contortions,corkscrew root development, flattened roots, or the presence of very few roots below 15 to25 cm depth in soils with compacted horizons. Where no crops are present, examine thedensity of pores visible to the naked eye (> 0.3 mm diameter) through which most plantroots are able to penetrate. As a general rule of thumb, minimum pore density should be at

2 In this document the terms ‘soil physical fertility’ and ‘soil chemical fertility’ are used. ‘Soil physical fertility’

refers to the capacity of a soil to provide adequate conditions for seed germination, seedling emergence, rootdevelopment, anchorage, and site stability, and to supply sufficient amounts of available water and air for plantgrowth. ‘Soil chemical fertility’ refers to the capacity of a soil to provide adequate amounts of those nutrientsessential for plant growth, without any elements that are toxic to plant growth being present.

PLATE 1Examination of a soil pit in a field of beans


least five pores per 25 cm2 for good root distribution.3 Discuss the importance of good rootgrowth and distribution to the uptake of water and nutrients by plants.

b. Good drainage and aeration: Introduce the relationship between soil drainage and soilaeration, i.e. in well drained soils the rate at which oxygen can move down into the soilprofile through air-filled pores will be sufficient to meet the oxygen needs of plant rootsand soil micro-organisms. However, in very wet soils, the rate of oxygen movementthrough water is very greatly reduced, and so both plant roots and micro-organisms maysuffer from an oxygen deficit leading to poor plant growth, and possibly the production ofplant toxins by micro-organisms. These are referred to as reducing conditions. Comparewell drained, poorly drained and imperfectly drained soils, and pay attention to thepresence of mottles of colours indicative of reducing conditions, i.e. light brownish grey tolight grey to bluish grey colours. The presence of more than 10 percent reducing coloursindicates poor or imperfect drainage conditions, depending on the depth at which themottles are first encountered (see Annex 1 on Soil Characterization Procedures).

c. Good soil moisture retention: Compare the influence of sandy soils and clay loam soils,and of shallow and deep soil profiles on crop growth in areas or seasons where moisture islimiting. Comparing the effect of a small area, e.g. 30 to 50 cm along a crop row where thesoil has been mixed with 50 percent sand, on crop susceptibility to a short period ofdrought with that of the remaining field, can be a very convincing demonstration of theimportance of clay on soil moisture retention. Differences in crop growth between highspots (where rainwater has been lost by runoff) and low spots (where there has beenrainwater accumulation) can provide another good example of the importance of soilmoisture on crop growth in areas with moisture limitation.

d. Good supply and retention of nutrients: Emphasize the importance of clay and soil organicmatter (humus) on nutrient supply and nutrient retention. Compare crop performance onfields that have been cultivated for different periods of time, e.g. a newly cleared field ofhigh organic matter content, with a field of similar soil type that has been cultivated forseveral to many years that contains lower organic matter. Differences in soil organic mattercontent may be reflected in differences in soil colour. Even within the same field it is oftenpossible to find areas with greater organic matter content where crop growth is superior tothat in surrounding areas. Areas or fields where organic manures have been applied willalso be expected to show superior crop growth.

e. High biological activity: Emphasize the importance of the macrofauna, and especiallyearthworms, in improving and maintaining soil physical and chemical fertility, and of theneed to maintain a cover of residues on the soil surface (as a food supply for earthworms)for as long as possible (Plate 2). Observations comparing forest soils or soils that havebeen under no-tillage for several years with soils that have been cultivated for many yearswill show much higher soil organic matter content, darker colour, moister conditions, abetter, more crumbly structure, greater number of earthworms and other macrofauna, and asweeter

3 There cannot be a universal limiting value because of the many factors in addition to the size, continuity and

distribution of soil pores that will affect a crop’s rooting pattern (e.g. soil texture, penetration resistance, soilmoisture, rainfall amounts and distribution, depth to water table, crop rooting habit, soil nutrient status, thepresence of toxic elements). Nevertheless the minimum value of five pores per 25 cm2 of soil surface serves as arough field guide, in the absence of better information, to indicate the possibility that porosity may be limitingroot development.

Basic concepts8

more earthy smell in the former compared to the latter (Plate 3). The number ofearthworms can be estimated by counting the number of worms in successive layers of soilremoved with a spade from an area of about 0.6 m x 0.6 m.

f. Sufficient anchorage for crops: Emphasize the different minimum soil depths required forforestry, pastures, fruit trees, grain crops and vegetable crops, and discuss how theseminimum values will vary with rainfall (greater soil depths required in drier than wetterareas), soil texture (greater soil depths required in sandy than clayey soils), and stoniness(greater soil depth required in stony than non-stony soils).

g. Suitable conditions for seed germination: Emphasize the requirement of adequate soilmoisture and temperature conditions; the combination of these two elements is the mostimportant limiting factor of seed germination in addition to air and, in some specific cases,light. The soil water content varies with climate, soil cover and rainfall; the soiltemperature is also variable and depends on soil type and cover, and climate, with day andnight oscillation. Therefore, all measures to favour good soil moisture and temperaturesbelow the critical 40oC must be taken. Nevertheless, the use of soil cover must be carefully

PLATE 2Decomposition ofmucuna and maizeresidues resulting inhigh biological activity

PLATE 3Excellent soil crumbstructure caused bymacro-biological activity


done, twice in some cases. When the cover is brought in from outside the farm it can carrygermination inhibitors of the common crops. Soil texture and structure influence seedgermination and a texture with small size clods will favour a good contact of the seeds withsoil moisture.

h. Suitable conditions for seedling emergence: Emphasize the need for a soil cover to protectsurface aggregates from structural collapse and crust formation under raindrop impact,especially in soils with very high fine sand or silt contents which are particularlysusceptible to crusting. The surface cover, by reducing moisture losses throughevaporation, will also encourage moister conditions in the top soil and so reduce thestrength of any surface crusts that are formed which will facilitate seedling emergence.

i. Stable site conditions, i.e. the absence of problems that would reduce the suitability of asite for crop growth, such as strong winds, wind or water erosion, mass movements, orflooding.

LAND DEGRADATION PROCESSES

Only those processes that are important in the region need to be introduced and discussed and,wherever possible, this should be done in the field where manifestations of the problems areevident. Discuss how to recognize the presence of specific processes of land degradation, thecauses and their effects.

Water erosion: Discuss how the loss of soil by erosion reduces soil fertility by the preferentialremoval of clay and organic matter, and how it may result in downstream problems of flooding,sedimentation of dams, and lower water quality that can affect drinking-water supplies, as wellas riverine and marine life. Include field visits to see different manifestations of water erosion.Emphasize how the regular presence of rills during the rainy season may often be used as arough indicator of unacceptably high rates of water erosion.

Mass movements: Explain how mass movement, a form of soil erosion, is particularlyprevalent on volcanic soils in high rainfall areas, and especially when the deep-rooted originalforest vegetation has been replaced with shallower-rooting crops that transpire less water thanthe original forest. The absence of deep roots from the forest vegetation to help retain the soil inplace, and the excess of water present in the soil acting as a lubricant, contribute to the slippageof soil masses over saturated subsoil layers. Mention that mass movements can lead to the lossof very productive lands.

Flooding: Discuss how this may arise by the raising of river channel beds from sedimentdeposition and by increased runoff due to the crusting or sealing of exposed soils.

Wind erosion: Emphasize the problems of loss of soil fertility through preferential removal oforganic matter and fine sand-sized particles, the effects of wind on crops (loss of leaves andflowers, breakage of stems, removal of plants from the soil), sand deposition on crops, and theproblems of accumulated sand on tillage.

Leaching of nutrients and soil acidification: Explain how the drainage of large quantities ofrainwater through a soil profile carries away soil nutrients with it and so makes the soil less

Basic concepts10

fertile due to increased acidity and an increase in toxic aluminium. This can markedly reduceyields, especially of acid-sensitive crops such as beans, alfalfa and soybean.

Salt accumulation: Explain how, in areas where rainfall is less than evaporation, groundwatersin the soil tend to rise bringing with them dissolved salts that are deposited in the upper layersof the soil profile or at the surface. These salts are detrimental to crop growth as they make itmore difficult for crops to absorb water, and may deteriorate soil structure, making it lesspermeable to water and creating a lack of oxygen in the soil.

Soil compaction: Dig soil pits in fields where there are compacted soils, preferably undergrowing crops, to examine the root systems for evidence of compaction. Note the small densityof pores (visible to the naked eye) within the compacted layer. Explain how soil compactiondecreases the size and the continuity of pores which can impede root penetration, and inextreme conditions may worsen soil drainage and decrease the rate at which oxygen is suppliedto plants and micro-organisms under wet conditions. Compaction in the form of plough pansmay be caused by frequent tractor- or animal traction-tillage at a constant depth usingmouldboard plough or disc implements, and will be particularly prominent in lower-lyingwetter areas of the field, in field entrances, and in tractor turning-areas. Compaction is alsomore common in poorly and imperfectly drained soils and very silty soils. Deep zones ofcompaction may be caused by the entry of vehicles into fields with heavy loads, e.g. fully ladenlorries, combine harvesters or large tractors, when conditions are very moist or wet. Surfacecompaction can also be caused by excessive livestock trampling, especially in wet soils.

Soil crusting or sealing: Examine crusted and sealed soils in the field and explain how soilswith a high fine sand and/or silt content are particularly susceptible to crusting, whereas clayeysoils are more susceptible to sealing. Explain how the formation of surface crusts acts as animpediment to seedling emergence, especially in dry conditions when crust strength increases.Emphasize how the presence of seals and crusts decreases the proportion of rainfall thatinfiltrates into the soil for use by crops, and increases the proportion that runs off, with thepotential for causing water erosion, the contamination of water supplies with sediment,pesticides and fertilizers, and downstream flooding.

Accelerated loss of soil organic matter and reduced biological activity: Emphasize howexcessive tillage, crop rotations that produce small quantities of residues, and no return of cropresidues to the soil, can result in accelerated soil organic matter losses and reduced biologicalactivity. If possible, examine similar soils with contrasting soil organic matter contents, to seethe differences in colour, moisture content, soil structure, friability, smell, biological activity,crop growth and yield. Excavations of successive five centimetre layers of soil from an area ofabout 0.60 m x 0.60 m and counts of the number of earthworms should reveal markeddifferences. Emphasize the influence of soil organic matter and surface crop residues onbiological activity, soil chemical and physical fertility.

PRINCIPLES OF CONSERVATION-EFFECTIVE LAND MANAGEMENT

There are eight principles of land management which should be presented with a maximum offarmer participation and discussion. Wherever possible demonstrations and field observationsshould be arranged so that farmers can learn the general principles by inferences from their ownobservations and experiments.Increase soil cover: This is the most important of the eight general principles of sustainableland management because of its many benefits:


FIGURE 1Visual aids to estimating percentageground cover

Each quarter of any one square hasthe same proportion of black areas

• Reduces water and wind erosion. Theinfluence of cover on soil losses due to watererosion can be demonstrated by observing theamount of eroded sediment produced whensimulated rainfall (supplied from a wateringcan) is applied to inclined trays of bare soiland soil covered with a grass mulch (see Box1, Shaxson, 1997). This demonstration willenable the following concepts to beintroduced: it is the force of direct raindropimpacts that break up soil aggregates intosmall particles, and it is the rainwater whichruns off that transports the small detachedparticles. Emphasize how the aerial coverafforded by the leaves of growing plants canreduce the force of direct raindrop impacts onsoil aggregates, whereas contact coverprovided by residues on the soil surface notonly reduces the force of raindrop impact, butalso acts as a barrier to the runoff so givingmore time for rainwater to infiltrate. Discusshow a growing crop gives a steadily increasing ground cover, and how it is the interactionbetween crop type, sowing density, time of sowing and the time when intense rainstormsare expected, that will influence the magnitude of soil losses. Explain how a 40 percentground cover may be adequate to reduce soil erosion to acceptably low values on gentleslopes of up to 10 to 15 percent, but higher values of up to 75 percent cover may be neededon slopes of 15 to 50 percent. See Figure 1 for how to make visual estimates of percentageground covers. The presence of a ground cover on the soil surface and standing cropresidues will also reduce soil losses from wind erosion through a reduction of windvelocity close to the soil surface.

• Increases soil moisture availability. Consider the influence of ground cover on increasingrainwater infiltration and decreasing soil moisture loss by evaporation. Draw upon farmers´own experiences, as well as their observations of the demonstration of how a cover of cropresidues, or even stones, will increase rainwater infiltration, and so reduce runoff (Box 1,Shaxson 1997). Explain that it is soil cover, which protects surface soil aggregates fromraindrop impact and so prevents their disintegration into small particles that may blocksurface pores and form impervious seals or crusts, which is responsible for promotingrainwater infiltration. Arrange for field observations of the differences in soil moisturecontent under bare and covered soils, due to differences in moisture losses throughevaporation. Discuss the importance of increased soil moisture availability to crop growth,especially in areas and seasons, when moisture deficits are expected.

• Decreases soil temperature in the surface few centimetres. Demonstrate that surface coveroften reduces soil temperature in the upper few centimetres by about 3 to 5oC. Explain thatseed germination requires temperatures of less than 40oC in the first five centimetres depthof soil, and that the initial growth of seedlings of many crops requires temperatures lessthan 28 to 30oC. Hence, the combination of lower soil temperatures and higher moisturecontents in the surface soil will improve conditions for seed germination.

Basic concepts12

BOX 1: DEMONSTRATION: EFFECTS OF COVER AND SOIL STRUCTURE ONSOIL LOSSES AND RUNOFF

Materials

1. Five open-topped wooden boxes (or more if extra treatments wanted). (WxLxH = 30 x 40 x 10 cminternally, one end 2 cm lower to provide a sill for runoff to flow over.

2. Sufficient air-dry well-structured soil to fill all five (or more) boxes completely to 8 cm depth twice(enough to allow a second try if the first fails –see 9 below).

3. One garden watering can (5-litre) plus coarse-sprinkler head, to simulate very heavy rain (make surethe water goes straight onto the boxes, not out sideways – a tin-can with one end off and the otherwith holes punched in it may give a better spray than the common wide-angle sprinkler end).

4. Chopped dry grass or other mulch material sufficient to cover two boxes completely.

5. A piece of wire gauze/mosquito netting 50 x 50 cm for use as a sieve for soil, and as a permeablecover over one of the boxes. (The mesh of the mosquito gauze should not be larger than about 2mm, sufficiently fine to break up large water drops.)

Method

6. Sieve soil until there is enough well-structured material, without roots, stones or fine materials, to fillone of the boxes 8 cm deep. Return the fines to the unused pile.

7. Set aside enough well-structured soil to fill another box for a second try if needed.

8. Pulverize the remaining material and sieve fine soil into the remaining three boxes, discarding anycoarse materials.

9. Prop up each box at an angle of about 30 degrees, each one a little apart from its neighbours, withthe low sill of each box at the downhill end.

10. The four boxes with pulverized soil:

� Leave one with no cover of any sort.� Fix the material used as a sieve over another box (without blocking the sill) to act as a means of

breaking up large water drops before they reach the soil surfacer.� Cover the third box evenly and completely to a depth of about 5 mm with the chopped grass or

other mulch material.� Cover the fourth box with a single layer of chopped grass, such that it is well-distributed but about

50 percent of the soil surface can be seen between the grass pieces.

11. The one box with well-structured soil is left uncovered.

12. Holding the watering can about 2 m above the first box, simulate a very heavy rainstorm bysprinkling one complete can of water evenly all over it.

13. Note the amount and colour of any runoff.

14. As soon as the runoff has ended, excavate the soil from the downhill half of the box by hand, notingthe depth to which the water penetrated.

15. For each box, repeat steps 12 to 14, and discuss and take photographs of the results.

16. If the water has penetrated to the bottom of every box, and no differences can be discerned, emptyout the wet soil and start again from the beginning, this time using say 3 litres of water instead of 5for every box.


• Increases soil organic matter contents. Examine soil samples of similar soil types frombeneath forest, no-tillage plots, and from fields that have been under continuous cultivationfor many years without the return of crop residues, to show how leaving crop residues onthe soil surface results in substantially higher soil organic matter contents as evidenced bydarker soil colours. Try to use samples from plots known to farmers for which crop yieldsare known. In this way the influence of soil organic matter on soil fertility, and hence oncrop yields, will become apparent. Also emphasize that increases in soil organic mattercontent may enhance the resistance of soil aggregates to disintegration by raindropimpacts, and so reduce the susceptibility of soils to erosion and surface crusting. Explainthat the greater the quantity of crop residues returned to the soil, the higher will be the soilorganic matter content in the surface layer. In the United States, experiments have shownthat for every 20 tons of crop residues returned to 1 ha of soil during a period of 5 years,soil organic matter content approximately doubled (Langdale et al., 1992).

• Stimulates soil biological activity. Emphasize the importance of soil biological activity insustaining soil fertility, and highlight the important role of earthworms in incorporatingorganic residues into the soil to form soil organic matter, and in burrowing to createmacro-pores that facilitate the penetration of plant roots and the drainage of excessrainwater. Draw upon farmers´ own experiences of the relationships between fertile soils,organic matter content as indicated by soil colour, and number of earthworms present.Estimate the numbers of earthworms in a fertile soil with high organic matter content andhigh crop yields, and compare with the number found in a soil of low fertility, low organicmatter content, and low yields using the technique described above. Emphasize theimportance of a constant supply of organic residues on the soil surface as a food supply formany earthworms species.

• Enhances weed control. Provided there are sufficient residues on the surface, theemergence of weeds should be greatly limited, though with inadequate residue coverproblems with some weeds, particularly graminaceous weeds, may worsen.

Stimulate discussions on how to increase ground cover by not burning, incorporating orremoving crop residues from the field, and by restricting grazing. In areas where there are dryseasons with shortages of crop residues for livestock consumption, consider the possibilities ofproducing additional quantities of fodder for the dry season, so that more residues can be left onthe soil surface as protection against erosion and to enhance soil fertility and sustainability.Technologies to increase the production of additional dry-season fodder are the production ofhay or silage from improved pastures, better managed existing pastures, live barriers of grasses,or forage trees, or the production of silage crops (for example, sorghum plus intercroppedlegumes).

Encourage farmers to think in holistic terms, and help them to estimate the area of landthat would be required to produce sufficient dry season fodder for their livestock so that all, orthe major part, of the crop residues could be left on the soil surface. Stimulate discussions onthe benefits and problems of such approaches.

Discuss other methods by which greater crop cover and greater quantities of crop residuescan be left on the surface, such as fertilization, the sowing of cover crops, intercropping,sowing varieties, crops or crop rotations that produce large quantities of foliage which is slowlydecomposed (Plate 4). If possible combine these discussions with field visits to see no-tillage,

Basic concepts14

intercropping of cover crops and crop rotationsthat produce large quantities of slowly
decomposable residues.
Increase soil organic matter content: Thisprinciple is closely related to that of increasingsoil cover, since an increase in ground cover lefton the surface will generally result in elevatedsoil organic matter contents. However, greaterincreases of soil organic matter content are morelikely to occur when the cover consists of slowlydecomposable residues such as wheat and maizestover. Numerous benefits accrue from highersoil organic matter contents, such as enhancedsoil structural stability, a greater capacity of thesoil to retain moisture and nutrients, and a moreintense biological activity. The capacity oforganic matter to retain moisture, which is oftenof special importance to very sandy soils, can bedemonstrated by weighing equal quantities of drysoil and dry compost (note: compost is notexactly the same as soil organic matter but thecomparison is still valid), placing them in sacks,immersing the two sacks in buckets of water fortwo hours, allowing the excess water to drain,and then reweighing the sacks. The compost will

have increased in weight far more than the soil. The procedures for increasing soil organicmatter content are as given for increasing soil cover.

Increase rainwater infiltration and reduce surface runoff: Stimulate a discussion on thebenefits of increasing rainwater infiltration and reducing runoff. Consider the effects of greaterrainwater infiltration on the flow rates and maintenance of water sources (springs, streams andrivers), and the effects on crop growth, yield and foliage production due to reduced moisturestress. Discuss the effects of reducing runoff on soil erosion, flooding and the contamination ofriver waters with sediments, pesticides and fertilizers. Consider the influence on drinking waterquality, the populations of freshwater and marine fish, and the life expectancy of reservoirs andhydro-electric power stations.

Discuss practices that will contribute to maximizing rainwater infiltration. This will serveto consolidate knowledge gained about the benefits of maintaining a cover on the soil surface,i.e. reducing the forces of raindrop impact on soil aggregates and slowing down the rates ofoverland flow. Consider practices that increase aerial cover, such as higher plant populations,intercropping, sequential cropping, early sowing and cover crops, as well as practices thatpromote contact cover from crop and weed residues on the soil surface, by avoiding burning,incorporating, grazing or removing residues.

In some situations tillage is necessary because of the difficulties of producing a cropresidue cover due to poor crop growth or intense termite activity, as in many semi-aridenvironments. If this situation occurs in the region, consider practices such as ridge-tillage withor without tied ridges to reduce runoff; alternatively, strip tillage can be practised in which the

PLATE 4Farmers control soil erosion throughintercropping


inter-row zone is ploughed once only and left in a cloddy condition to delay aggregatebreakdown and crust formation, thereby encouraging rainwater infiltration. The creation ofmicro-barriers through ploughing and planting parallel to the contour will also facilitateinfiltration, but will only be adequate on their own, without other supporting practices, on verygentle slopes. Infiltration may also be increased in soils with impermeable subsoil horizons bydeep tillage, though the benefits of this practice are generally only temporary.

Runoff can be reduced by changing the slope of the land through the construction ofterraces; however, terraces are only normally recommended for high value crops, e.g. individualplatform terraces for fruit trees and bench terraces for horticultural crops, because of the highcosts and labour required for their construction. Live barriers of densely growing species suchas grasses will reduce runoff, though their effectiveness varies with the width and spacing ofthe barriers. If the area that they occupy becomes too great they become less popular because ofthe loss of land to the desired use, and because of the time required to construct and maintainthem.

Improve soil conditions to promote better rooting: This principle will be most relevant inareas where tillage is carried out using tractors or animal-traction. Discuss the benefits of soilconditions that promote deep, well developed rooting systems, such as, better absorption ofwater and nutrients, and lower probabilities of crops suffering from moisture stress. Considerpractices that can be introduced to improve the rooting potential of soils, such as, deep tillagewith subsoilers and paraplows4 to loosen compacted layers, soil drainage to reduce soilcompaction susceptibility, and the application of phosphatic fertilizers or lime to enhance rootgrowth through the correction of aluminium toxicities and phosphate deficiencies. Also discusschanging the type of tillage practice from mouldboard plough and disc tillage, which causecompaction, to vertical tillage with tined implements or no-tillage which greatly reduce theprobabilities of compaction.

Improve soil fertility and productivity: Discuss the benefits of raising soil fertility and landproductivity, such as increased yields, greater root development and foliage production. Theincreased foliage can result in a greater residue cover on the soil surface and higher soil organicmatter contents. Encourage discussion on how to increase soil chemical fertility, for example,by taking soil or crop foliar samples for chemical analysis so that nutrient deficiencies orimbalances can be identified and corrected by fertilizer applications. Consider also thepossibilities of introducing varieties tolerant to high acidity (aluminium). Emphasize theimportance of adopting the correct procedures for sampling soils and crop foliage, and the timeat which such sampling is carried out. Similarly, the type of fertilizer, method and the timing ofapplication are also very important in order to minimize leaching losses and maximize fertilizerefficiency. Stimulate discussions on the benefits and limitations of applying organic manuresand composts, and intercropping with cover crops, to raise soil physical and chemical fertility.

Consider other practices that promote soil productivity such as appropriate crop rotationswith legumes in order to reduce weed, pest and disease problems, and to reduce competitionbetween successive crops for water and nitrogen. Discuss practices that can promote nutrientrecycling within the farm, such as the production of composts from otherwise unusedvegetation and organic wastes, the application of manures and composts to the soil, avoiding

4 "Paraplow" is the original trademark of the Howard Rotavator Company, UK, for a type of subsoiler in which the

lower part of the shank is bent inwards at right angles to the direction of travel to avoid bringing large clods tothe surface.

Basic concepts16

the burning of crop residues and their return to the field, the use of fallow periods and deeprooting crops - especially dispersed tree crops - to absorb nutrients that have been leached intodeep horizons beyond the reach of the roots of most annual crops.

Reduce the costs of production: Discuss the various procedures by which farmers may be ableto reduce the costs of production, for example, by using biological pesticides, botanical andsemi-botanical herbicides,5 integrated pest management, intercropped or relay-croppedlegumes, rock phosphates, organic manures, composts, and by applying fertilizers at economicapplication rates. In areas where the cost or availability of labour are limiting factors, animal-traction or manual seeders will reduce production costs. The organization of farmers intoassociations will permit farmers to benefit from larger scale transactions, e.g. joint purchasingof inputs and the joint sale of produce.

Protect the land: Land should be protected from the effects of flooding, strong winds, landslips, water and wind erosion. Strong winds may cause physical damage to crops, reducedpollination, and reduced efficiency and opportunities for opportune pesticide application.Discuss the practices that can be used for protecting the land against each of the above factors,e.g. interceptor canals to protect the land from flooding, ground cover to protect the soils fromwater erosion, windbreaks and surface cover as protection against wind erosion, and deeprooting tree crops and drainage canals to reduce the risks of land slips and mud flows. Conductfield visits to view these practices if possible.

Reduce the pollution of soils and the environment: Discuss the advantages of reducingpollution, for example, on the quality of drinking water, crops and pastures, and the effects onanimal and human health. Emphasize how the use of biological pesticides, training in theapplication of inorganic pesticides and fertilizers, and integrated pest management will allcontribute to improved environmental quality. Appropriate soil conservation practices will alsohelp to reduce sediment concentrations in water supplies, and so avoid pollution problems.

5 Botanic herbicides are the same as organic herbicides; "semibotanic" herbicides refer to a mixture of organic and

inorganic herbicides to reduce the cost.


Chapter 3Farmer-extensionist activities in

participatory development

Farmer-extensionist activities comprise the following:

• to select the community and intervention areas;• to carry out a participatory diagnostic study of the farmers´ existing situation;• to identify with the farmers the principal land management problems, their causes and

possible solutions;• to elaborate with farmers a development strategy;• to formulate a plan of action to overcome the most pressing problems;• to train farmers in conservation-effective land management and agriculture;• to train farmers in simple experimentation;• to elaborate individual integrated farm development plans;• to facilitate the introduction of courses on basic education and rural skills within the

community;• to promote the organization of farmers into associations;• to assist in the formation and functioning of municipal-level committees for integrated

rural development;• to promote links and activities with other institutions and organizations for the benefit of

the community;• to promote the formation of community banks;• to monitor progress in the implementation and impact of the plans of action.

In all stages of the development process, full participation is required by all sectors of thecommunity, men and women, old and young. The participation of representatives of the church,local government and non-government organizations is also advantageous. It is important thatfarmer-extensionists work not only with small-scale farmers who own their land, but also withthose who rent land, the landless, and any large-scale land-owners who live in the community.In communities with many landless farmers, assisting a large-scale farmer to intensifyproduction may result in extra labour being required to the benefit of the landless. Similarly, inareas with many tenant farmers, convincing large-scale land owners of the advantages to begained from their tenants practising better land husbandry may prove to be beneficial to bothland owner and tenants.

SELECTING THE COMMUNITY AND INTERVENTION AREAS

Promote discussions on the advantages (and disadvantages) of working with communities thatexist within a micro-catchment, or with existing communities defined by reference to localgovernment administrative boundaries that do not coincide with catchment boundaries.

Farmer-extensionist activities in participatory development18

The advantage of working with families in a micro-catchment is that many agriculturalactivities directly impinge on the catchment´s water supplies, for example, irrigation and otheruses of river water, the construction of drainage channels and graded terraces, the design anddrainage of roads, and reforestation of catchments to protect water recharge areas. Theseactivities will only be fully effective when they are planned with reference to the wholecatchment. The design of physical soil and water conservation structures to control watermovement must be based on the topography of the whole catchment. In upper catchments,farming activities can greatly influence downstream supplies of drinking water, the longevity ofhydro-electric power stations, and even the sustainability of downstream urban centres.

The optimum size of a micro-catchment that is most efficient for the planning andexecution of extension activities corresponds to some 40 to 50 families, which will probablyoccupy 100 to 350 ha depending on average farm size. These are not rigid limits, but serve asapproximate indications. With a larger number of families the sense of unity may be lost, and itmay become more difficult to define common aims and objectives, and to reach a consensus ofopinion. In larger areas there is likely to be greater heterogeneity of natural resources andproduction systems, which will make extension activities more difficult. If the micro-catchmentis too large or too populated it may be preferable to work initially in the upper part, and thenprogressively advance into the middle and lower parts. With smaller than optimum micro-catchments or with fewer than the optimum number of families, the impacts of extensionactivities are likely to be ineffectual. The number of farmer-extensionists required to work with40 to 50 farmers will depend on whether the farmer-extensionists are voluntary, when they willprobably have little free time to spare, or are salaried when they may be able to work half time,and so fewer will be needed. It is very important that farmer-extensionists continue to befarmers in their community.

Working with an established, well organized and functional community is veryadvantageous in that the essential ingredients of cooperation, trust, commitment and sharedresponsibility among the people will probably exist. In the absence of an established andorganized community, impacts are likely to be limited and piecemeal. However, communitiesdefined by administrative boundaries seldom coincide with catchment boundaries. Acommunity may straddle two or more catchments, or there may exist one or more communitieswithin a catchment area. Often the farmer-extensionist will work with an existingadministratively-defined community which occurs in part of one, or in more than one micro-catchment. In this way it will be possible to benefit from the advantages of both the establishedand organized community, as well as from the micro-catchment concept. At times it may benecessary to promote the formation of new organizations of families living within a micro-catchment, so that the geographical limits of the community coincide more closely with themicro-catchment boundaries, and so that the micro-catchment size and number of families fallswithin the acceptable limits.

For activities that do not affect, or are not affected by, a catchment´s natural resources, itmay be preferable to implement such activities by working with an existing community even ifit does not coincide with a catchment, and especially if this community is better organized thanthat living in the catchment. Examples of activities that do not need to be focused on acatchment-based community are the bulk purchasing of supplies, joint sale of produce,acquisition of communal credit, establishment of seed banks or nurseries, training courses, andthe setting up of agro-industries.


Various criteria may be used in the selection of the community where the farmer-extensionist(s) will work. The most important criteria are:

• the farmers are poor and there is a real need for assistance in agricultural development;• the community is willing and keen to cooperate; and• the community is willing to become organized and form a farmers´ association if one does

not already exist.

Communities that have become accustomed to paternalistic projects, where give-awaysand project-dependency are common, will find it much more difficult to learn how to solvetheir own problems, and achieve a sustainable process of development.

CONDUCTING THE DIAGNOSTIC STUDY

The aims of the diagnostic study are to characterize the physical environment, the activities ofthe people, and their social and economic conditions; to identify the principal problems rankedaccording to their own perceptions, and to formulate possible solutions to these problems. Thediagnostic study is not an end in itself, but is the first step in the process of agriculturaldevelopment.

An advantage for farmer-extensionists, who usually work in their own or in neighbouringcommunities, is that the diagnostic study can be fairly simple. The farmer-extensionist willalready be familiar with the general conditions and problems of the zone, and it is unlikelythere will be more than a few differences in conditions or problems between one communityand a nearby community. Nevertheless, a sufficiently comprehensive analysis of thecommunity’s activities, conditions and problems is desirable, so that the agreed plan ofactivities produced as an outcome of the diagnosis will be of maximum benefit to the majorityof the community. For this reason active participation by the whole of the community is ofgreat importance, so that decisions have been agreed by the majority of the community, andhave not been pushed through by a few individuals for their own benefit. The diagnostic studymust not be considered as an initial “one-off” activity, but as a continuous “ongoing” processwhich the farmers themselves are encouraged to carry out as they become more independentand more self-confident.

The recommended diagnostic study consists of three stages:

A “motivation” meeting is convened by the farmer-extensionist for all members of thecommunity, men and women, old and young. The object of the meeting is to motivate thecommunity to participate with the farmer-extensionist in a learning process that leads to thepeople solving their own problems. The farmer-extensionist should convince the community ofthe benefits that arise from working together as an organized group, if such a group does notalready exist. The types of problems which the farmer-extensionist can assist the community insolving must also be clarified at the outset to avoid subsequent misunderstandings.

A field visit of a morning’s duration is organized for several of the farmers and the farmer-extensionist in order to make one, possibly two, field transects within the micro-watershed toobtain information on natural resource and agricultural problems. The transect should bealigned transversally across the drainage line of the micro-watershed, and if necessary a secondtransect aligned along the length of the watershed if considerable variation in that direction is


expected. Information will be collected on the crop, livestock and forestry systems, theconstraints to production, topography, soils, water availability, conservation measures, andenvironmental problems. This will enable the farmer-extensionist to obtain an initialunderstanding of the problems of the area (if he/she is not already familiar with them), and toappreciate the community members’ perceptions of their environment and their problems. Themethodology is presented in Box 2, and an example of a transect is presented in Figure 2.

A second meeting is convened with the aims of determining the services and facilitiesexisting in the community, the socio-economic situation of the farmers, the community’s linkswith local institutions, the nature of the principal farming enterprises, the factors limitingproduction and their relative importance, the causes of the problems and possible solutions. Itshould be possible to undertake these activities within a morning:

i. A simple sketch map is produced by the farmers showing the location of all farmers (seeFigure 3), and general information is obtained on the location, history, communications,population, basic services, and important non-farm activities within the community.

ii. A small survey of basic socio-economic data is carriedout at the outset of the meeting by asking each farmingfamily a few questions on their age, level of schooling,size of property, land tenancy, farming enterprises,location of houses relative to fields, periods ofmaximum labour, off-farm activities, women’sresponsibilities and activities, and participation ofwomen and youngsters in farm work. The informationmay be most easily recorded in pictorial form asshown in Figure 4, but can then be subsequentlypresented in tabular form, as in Table 1.

BOX 2. METHOD FOR MAKING TRANSECTS AS PART OF THE DIAGNOSTIC STUDY(from Geilfus, 1997)

Objectives: To determine the problems associated with the use of natural resources for different land units andland use types.

Time: 1-3 hours depending on the complexity and number of participants.

Materials: Sheets of paper and pens, or blackboard and chalk.

Method: 1. Explain the objective of the exercise to the participants.2. From a good viewing point of where the transect is to be made, make a schematic outline of

the transect on the upper part of a large sheet of paper (or 2 or 3 sheets joined together), anddivide the transect into distinct land units based on topography (note: distinct differences in soilor vegetation types may also be used but avoid excessive complexity). Insert vertical lines todivide the transect into its separate units, and a series of horizontal lines to create “boxes” inwhich the details of land use and natural resources will be entered (see Figure 2).

3. For each land use type in each land unit of the transect, ask the farmers for details of thefollowing information and record on separate sheets of paper: type of soil, availability of waterin the soil and water sources, crops, livestock, forestry, conservation practices, labour,previous land use, and problems encountered.

4. Once all the details have been exhausted for the first land unit, discuss the details, eliminateinvalid or duplicated information, and arrive at a consensus of what information should berecorded on the transect. Record the information in the appropriate box.

5. Proceed to the next land unit of the transect and repeat the exercise until the whole transecthas been completed.

6. Discuss all the information that has been recorded for the whole transect.

TABLE 1Farm size and frequency.

Size range Frequency< 1 ha 12-6 ha 6

7-7.5 ha 410-12 ha 1

> 40 ha 1Total 13


FIGURE 2Example of a transect to identify problems associated with the use of natural resources (fromGeilfus, 1997)

FIGURE 3Example of a location map of the farmers in a micro-catchment


iii. The institutional links that exist arerecorded, and will include anyorganizations which exist within thecommunity, local leaders, and therelationships that the community haswith other governmental and non-governmental institutions. Therelationships with other institutions maybe shown in the form of a Venn diagram,as illustrated in Figure 5. Such diagramsshould be produced for each of the mainagricultural enterprises in thecommunity.

To construct a Venn diagram, a smallcircle is drawn in the centre of a sheet ofpaper to represent the community. Foreach institution with which thecommunity has some type of link a circleis drawn - a large circle if the communityconsiders the institution to be importantfor their development, and a small circleif the community’s perception is theopposite. The institutions may includebanks, cooperatives, governmentministries, private companies andschools. If the institution is very activelyinvolved with the community the circleis drawn close to the centre of the sheetof paper, and if the opposite is true thecircle is drawn further from the centre. Itdoes not matter if the circles are drawnto the north, south, east or west of thecentral circle, it is only the size anddistance of the circles from the centre ofthe sheet that are important.

Thus a large circle located far from thecentre will indicate an importantinstitution for agricultural developmentaccording to the community, but onewhich is not actively involved with thecommunity. Therefore this relationshipshould probably be strengthened.

iv. Information is collected on theproduction practices, limitations, and thetimetable of activities for each of themain farming enterprises. For this part of the meeting farmers should be grouped accordingto their principal enterprises if other farmer-extensionists or professional extensionists are

FIGURE 5Example of a Venn diagram for community-institutional relationships

FIGURE 4Collection of data on a community’sagricultural enterprises, other sources ofincome and land tenancy using a pictorialmethod (from Geilfus, 1997)


present to act as group facilitators. Thesequence of production practices foreach crop, for example, landpreparation, sowing, first weeding,fertilization, second weeding, bendingstalks to assist the drying of cobs,harvesting and storage, should bedescribed in detail. The same process iscarried out for each type of livestock.The existence of any serious limitationsassociated with the production practice,or stage of growth or development, arealso recorded, as shown in Figure 6.When the timing of activities, cropsequences, or the availability ofproduce is critical, it is helpful topresent the data in calendar form, asshown for crop sequences in relation toexpected rainfall in Figure 7, and forthe seasonal availability of fodder inFigure 8.

v. With all participants present, theproblems previously identified for eachof the main farming enterprises are thenranked according to their relativeimportance to the whole of thecommunity. Discussing thecommunity’s problems is the key tostimulating their interest inparticipating with the farmer-extensionist in the proposed programmeof agricultural development.

Some problems may arise which falloutside the scope of the farmer-extensionist´s experience. However, thefarmer-extensionist should still try toassist the community to solve theseproblems by suggesting how to tacklethe problem, and who should becontacted for assistance. By helping thecommunity to solve their ownproblems, the community gains moreself confidence, becomes moreindependent, and is a step closer tobeing able to sustain their ownagricultural development. At the sametime the farmer-extensionist gainsgreater credibility with the community.

FIGURE 6Example of the problems of maize in relationto each production practice or stage ofgrowth (Geilfus, 1997)

PROBLEMS IN MAIZEStage ofgrowth

Problems

Decision tosow

- Does not know which varietieshave a marker

- Uncertain of sowing dateSelection offield

- Scarcity of land- Soil erosion- Those who rent cannot

choose their landLandpreparation

- Lack of labour- Expensive to hire traction

animalsSowing - Inappropriate variety

- Uncertain rainfall- Weevils

Firstweeding

- High cost of labour- Expensive herbicides- Fertilizer expensive- Soil pests

Secondweeding

- Drought during grain fillingstage

- Lack of labour- Soil pests

Doubling ofmaize

- Lack of labour- Rotting of stems

Harvest - Lack of labour- Harvest losses from stealing- Transport expensive

Storage - Pesticides expensive- Lack of suitable silos- Rotting of grain

Sale - Low prices at moment of
selling
- Need to pay off debts

FIGURE 7Example of a cropping calendar (Geilfus,1997)


vi. This is followed by an analysis of thecauses and possible solutions of thehighest ranking problems previouslyidentified for each of the main farmingenterprises. This exercise helps thecommunity to understand better the natureand causes of the problems, and to be ableto distinguish between cause and effect.Box 3 shows the steps required toundertake the exercise, and Figure 9 anexample of the results of the exercisepresented in the form of a “tree ofproblems, causes and possible solutions”.

IDENTIFYING PROBLEM-CAUSE RELATIONSHIPS AN

The selection of possible land management solutionsoil and climatic problems. Often there is an inespecially in relation to water deficits and excesseshould be considered. Agronomic problems due to wappropriate land management solutions.

Possible solutions to the identified problems mmust also be socio-economically acceptable. Therefand level of production, the farmer’s financial resouavailability, the degree of mechanization of the farmof inputs, storage facilities, road access to the

BOX 3. METHOD FOR ESTABLISHING A “TREESOLUTIO

Objective: Identify the principal causes of theand present possible solutions for ea

Time: 1-3 hours depending on the compleMaterials: Cards, pens, board and adhesive ta

Method: 1. Explain to the participants that “problems” previously identified,example using prepared cards.

2. Write one of the main “problemsboard.

3. Ask the participants to write a “cper card, and stick the cards to thRepeat until all “causes” have be

4. Revise and discuss the “causeswhich are not valid.

5. Request the participants to id“causes”, write them onto a cardto the board below the correspon

6. Revise and discuss the “solutioinvalid.

7. Record the result, and proceed to

FIGURE 8Example of a calendar of fodderproduction (Geilfus, 1997)

D POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS

s will largely depend on the nature of theteraction between climate and soil type,s, and therefore edapho-climatic problems

eeds, pests and diseases may also require

ust not only be technically appropriate, butore factors such as the size of the propertyrces, costs of production, labour costs ander, his or her access to credit, availability

farm and transport reliability, marketing

OF PROBLEMS, CAUSES AND POSSIBLENS”

main problems for each farming enterprise,ch of the causes.

xity of the exercise.pe, or blackboard and chalk.

this is to identify the “causes” of the main and then possible “solutions.” Give a simple

” on a card and stick on the upper part of the

ause” of the problem on a card, one “cause”e board in a line below the “problem”en identified.” and eliminate those that are duplicates or

entify possible “solutions” for each of the using one “solution” per card, and stick themding “cause”.ns,” removing those that are duplicates or

the next main “problem.”


opportunities, the degree of farmer organization in the community, land tenancy, and the qualityand reliability of technical support services, should all be taken into account in identifyingpossible solutions. The environmental impact of proposed solutions on human welfare, thehealth of livestock, soils, water and the atmosphere must also be considered, to ensure that thepossible solutions are technically, socially, economically and environmentally sound andacceptable to the farmers.

Table 2 is designed to facilitate the identification of possible solutions, and is based onthe relationships between the problems (limiting factors), causes of the problems, and possiblesolutions for each of the causes. A range of possible solutions is given for each cause of eachproblem. Those solutions that are not relevant or realistic to the farmer must be discarded, andonly those that are relevant in terms of the farm’s agro-ecological environment, scale ofproduction, degree of mechanization, type of farming enterprises, and the farmer’s socio-economic circumstances should be considered. Many problems may be best tackled by applyingtwo or more possible solutions simultaneously.

FIGURE 9Example of a “tree of problems, causes and possible solutions” for the problem of watererosion


TABLE 2Land management problems, causes and possible solutions

Problem Cause Possible solutionInorganic fertilizersInorganic foliar fertilizersOrganic foliar fertilizersFertilizer placementSplit fertilizer applicationsOpportune timing of fertilizer applicationNon-acidifying fertilizersSoil sampling for analysisFoliar sampling for analysisIncorporation of green manuresCover crops

i. Nutrient deficienciesand/or imbalances

Crop rotations with legumesInorganic fertilizersLime or dolomitic limestoneOrganic manuresCompostLeave crop residuesCover cropsNo-tillageIncorporation of green manuresIntercropping with legumesLegume inoculationCrop rotations with high-foliage cropsPasture seeding1

Cover crop fallowsTree-enriched fallowsHigher plant populationsControlled grazing of residuesLive fences or fences2

Hay productionSilage productionProtein banksDispersed trees in annual crops

ii. Low levels of soilorganic matter and/or clay

Dispersed trees in pasturesRotations with deep-rooted cropsPerennial cropsAlley cropping3

Dispersed trees in annual cropsDispersed trees in pastures

iii. Leaching

Tree-enriched fallowsAcid-tolerant speciesAcid-tolerant varietiesLime or dolomitic limestoneGypsum applicationGypsum and lime application

A. Low fertility

iv. Aluminium and/ormanganese toxicity

Green manure incorporationB Low productivity Improved varietiesi. Low crop yields

Crop diversificationii. Extensive use of land Higher plant populations4

IntercroppingSequential cropping

1 Fences or live fences, and drinking water supplies, e.g. troughs or ponds may also be required.2 Drinking water supplies, e.g. troughs and ponds may also be required.3 Alley cropping requires considerable labour which often limits its use.4 Fertilizers or manures may also be required.


TABLE 2 Cont’dProblems Cause Possible solution

Alley cropping3

Kitchen gardensImproved seed productionImproved seed selectionImproved seed storage

iii. Poor quality seed

Seed treatmentHerbicidesSemi-botanical herbicidesIntegrated weed managementCrop rotations

iv. Weeds

Cover cropsInsect trapsInorganic pesticidesNatural pesticidesCrop rotationsInsect-repellent crops

v. Pests or diseases

Integrated pest managementShade treesWind breaks

vi. Climate

See C.Silosvii. Post-harvest lossesNatural pesticides

viii. Low soil fertility See A.C. Climatic and edapho-climatic

Leave crop residuesCover cropsMulchesOrganic manuresNo-tillage

i. High evaporation andlow infiltration (withresidues)

Drought-resistant crops or varietiesii. Strong winds Wind breaks

Ridge and furrow tillageTied ridgesStrip tillageVertical tillage with tined implementsTillage at the end of the rains

iii. Low infiltration (without cropresidues)

Live barriersIncorporation of organic manuresIncorporation of green manuresCover cropsSubsoilingMoisture-conserving fallowsDrought resistant crops or varieties

iv. Low soil moistureretention

Sprinkler or drip irrigationv. Low rainfall Irrigation systems

a) Moisture deficit

Water collection from roofsDiversion canalsb) Moisture excess i. Runoff accumulationSafe discharge outletsDrainage ditchesSubsoilingCambered beds with graded furrowsRidge and graded furrow tillage

ii. High water table orimpermeablehorizons

Safe discharge outletsc) Wind damage i. Lack of protection Wind breaks


TABLE 2 Cont’dProblem Cause Possible solution

Leave crop residuesMulchesCover cropsNo-tillageOrganic manuresCrops or varieties producing large quantities ofslowly decomposing residuesHigher plant populations4

Controlled grazingLive fences and fences2

i. Lack of residues andsoil organic matter

Hay and silage production5

Crop rotationsPasture seeding6

ii. “Tired” soils

Organic manuresNatural pesticidesInsect-repellent cropsIntegrated pest managementInsect trapsIntegrated weed management

D. Low biologicalactivity

iii Toxic pesticides

Crop rotationsLeave crop residuesLeave stones on soil surfaceCover cropsMulchesIntercroppingSequential croppingHigher plant populationsFertilizersOrganic manuresCovered beans (“frijol tapado”)Dispersed trees in annual cropsShade trees in coffeeRotations with crops or varieties thatproduce large quantities of slowlydecomposable residuesWeed control with herbicidesWeed control with field cultivatorsNo-tillageStrip tillageControlled grazing of residuesLive fences and fences2

Hay production

i. Lack of cover andlow infiltration

Silage production5

Contour plantingContour tillageStrip tillage

ii. Lack of surfaceroughness

Tillage at the end of the rainsLive barriersStone barriersGraded hillside ditchesDiversion canalsSafe discharge outletsBench terracesOrchard terraces

E. Water erosion

iii. Runoff

Individual platform terraces

5 Protein banks may also be needed.6 Fences, live fences, troughs and ponds may also be needed.



Leave crop residuesHarvest crops well above ground level

i. Lack of cover

See E (i)Wind breaks

F. Wind erosion

ii. Strong windsRidge tillage

i. Severe compaction Subsoiling (for recuperation)Vertical tillage with tined implementsPeriodical deep tillageControlled traffic

ii. Incipient compaction

Biological “tillage” with tap-rooted cropsiii. Hardsetting horizons Vertical tillage with tined implementsiv. Excess moisture See C (b)

Phosphate fertilizersRock phosphates

v. Phosphorus deficiency

Liming

G. Restrictedrooting

vi. Aluminium andmanganese toxicities

See A (iv)

Leave crop residuesCover crop residuesMulchesNo-tillageWind breaks

i. Lack of moisture

Deep placement of seeds in dry conditionsRaised or cambered bedsDrainage ditchesDiversion canalsSafe discharge outletsSubsoiling

ii. Excess of moisture

Land levellingLeave crop residuesCover crop residuesMulches

iii. Excessivetemperatures

No-tillageRidge tillageRaised bedsWind breaksDrainage ditches

iv. Very low temperatures

Absence of residuesStrip tillageDisc tillage

v. Cloddy structure

Grass fallow6

H. Poor germination

vi. Poor seed quality See B iii)Leave crop residuesCover cropsMulches

I. Poor emergence i. Crusting

No-tillageRidge tillageHigher sowing densityShallower depth of seeding

ii. Hardsetting horizons Vertical tillage with tined implementsiii. Poor seed quality see B iii)



Manual seeders, fertilizersi. High labour costsAnimal traction seeders, fertilizersManual no-tillageii. High machinery

costs Animal-traction tillageIntegrated weed managementSystemic herbicidesCrop rotationsCover cropsNatural pesticidesIntegrated pest managementInsect-repellent cropsInsect trapsBulk pesticide purchases by farmer

iii. High pesticide costs

OrganizationsSow legumesOrganic manuresCompostEconomic applicationsSplit applicationsFertilizer placementOpportune timing of applicationSoil sampling for analysisFoliar sampling for analysisCover cropsRock phosphatesFallows with deep-rooted cropsEnriched fallows with tree species

iv. High fertilizer costs

Bulk fertilizer purchases by farmer organizations

J. High productioncosts

v. High credit cost Formation of communal banksCrop and livestock diversificationEconomic information on profits of differententerprisesImproved availability of seeds and plantsFarm planningCredit access

i. Lack of diversification

Marketing informationBulk sales through farmer organizationsSilos to delay time of sale

K. Low profits

ii. Low prices

Farm processing to increase valueNatural pesticidesIntegrated pest managementCrop rotationsInsect-repellent cropsInsect trapsIntegrated weed management

i. Toxic pesticides

Monitoring of soil and water qualitySplit fertilizer applicationsEconomic application ratesFertilizer placementLegumes to reduce N fertilizersGreater use of organic manuresGreater use of compost

ii. Fertilizer losses

Monitoring of water qualitySee E.iii. Water erosionMonitoring of water quality

L. Environmentalpollution

iv. Wind erosion See F.


ELABORATING A DEVELOPMENT STRATEGY

The initial activities selected should be those that can overcome the most urgent and pressing,as perceived by the community, of the identified land management and crop productionproblems. It is important that the activities are simple, preferably based on farmers´ existingtechnologies, cheap, and feasible to implement. They should also give rapid recognizableresults, e.g. substantially increased productivity or income, or substantially reduced productioncosts, or labour requirements.

The number of activities to be initially introduced in a community of subsistence-orientedfarmers should be carefully considered. It is most important to follow the maxim “start smalland slowly”. By introducing only one or two technologies initially, it will be easier for themajority of farmers to assimilate and understand them fully. Once farmers have experiencedsuccess with the first technologies they will become more self-confident and enthusiastic to tryout other new technologies, and will also gain confidence in the farmer-extensionist. Anotherreason for emphasizing few rather than many technologies is that it is much more feasible toensure the availability of the required inputs when there is a larger demand.

To obtain an impact with the introduction of a new technology, there must be a “criticalmass” of farmers who initially adopt the technology. Only then is it likely to become widelyadopted by the community. If the technology is adopted by less than the critical mass, it willprobably be gradually abandoned as a result of peer resistance and criticism from theconservative majority of the community who did not adopt it. In Central America the criticalmass of farmers that will permit a new technology to “take off” is estimated at 25 to 45 percent.

Once success has been achieved with one or two technologies to solve the first most urgentproblem, the community will become enthused to continue with further activities to solve otherproblems. Two additional technologies to solve the next most pressing problem may then beintroduced the following year. In this way the number of new technologies adopted will steadilyincrease each year. If the initial technologies were selected on the basis that they would givehigh increases in yield and/or income, subsequent technologies applied to the same crop oranimals would be expected to give diminishing returns. As each new technology is adopted,farmers will become more capable and confident about learning and adopting more difficulttechnologies.

Some farmers will progress at a faster rate than others, and it is probable they will be ableto adopt more than two additional new technologies each year. Within a farming family sometechnologies may be introduced to the women, others to the men, and perhaps some toyoungsters. If too many activities, which involve new concepts and practices, aresimultaneously introduced to the same group of people at the same time, then it is probable thatadoption will remain at a low level because the critical mass will not be achieved, and sowidespread adoption and sustainability is likely to be precluded.

FORMULATING A PLAN OF ACTION

A third meeting with the community is convened to plan the implementation of future activities.As a preliminary step, a summary of the farming systems and socio-economic data obtainedduring the transect and from the diagnostic study the previous meeting, plus any other relevantdata collected by the farmer-extensionist, is presented to the community for information and for


their agreement. A summary of the main problems, ranked according to importance, and thepossible solutions that were selected, is also presented for confirmation.

Once agreement has been reached on the one or two solutions (technologies) to beimplemented, a detailed plan of action must be produced and agreed by the community with theparticipation of the farmer-extensionist. The plan of action may include the implementation ofnew technologies, training courses, workshops, demonstrations, farm visits, validation trials,simple experiments, the organization of community, local or municipal committees, or visits togovernment departments or non-government organizations. The plan of action must be withinthe capacity of the community, the farmer-extensionist, and the local organizations toimplement. Details must be elaborated of what activities or technologies are to be undertaken,and who will be implementing them. When an activity involves several steps implemented atdifferent times, or when it requires the cooperation of two or more individuals or more than oneinstitution, it is necessary to elaborate a plan of action, such as that shown in Table 3. Thenature of the activities, the responsibilities of each person or institution involved, and when tocarry them out must be indicated. Prior to producing the plan of action, a firm commitmentmust be obtained from each individual and institution that has agreed to participate.

TABLE 3Example of a plan of action (from Geilfus, 1997)

Activity Sub-activity Responsible Time1. Prepare land and fence Nursery Committee Jan.Establish a

nursery 2. Prepare seedbed Nursery Committee & Lions Club Jan.3. Fill bags Nursery Committee & Lions Club Beg. Feb.4. Sow Nursery Committee & Lions Club End of Feb.5. Irrigate, clean and fumigate Nursery Committee March - August6. Prepare reforestation site Nursery Committee & Lions Club May7. Planting Nursery Committee & Lions Club July8. Training in grafting Nursery Committee & NGO March9. Meeting of all participants John Feb. May, August

The farmer-extensionist will need to explain very clearly the individual steps involved incarrying out a recommended technology, and the particular conditions, for example slopegradient or type of soil, for which it is best suited. Explanations are best given in the fieldwhere the technology has already been implemented. It is essential that the farmer-extensionisthas already tested and implemented all the new technologies that are being proposed, and sonew technologies can be explained to farmers at the farmer-extensionist’s property. If atechnology has been successfully implemented by a farmer-extensionist, farmers will feel muchmore confident that they too can successfully implement the same technology. Visits to otherfarmers who have already implemented the technology may also be useful. For sometechnologies, for example marking out contour lines and planting live barriers or silage making,farmers should practise the technology as a group on the property of one of the farmers, beforeimplementing the technology on their own property.

Agreement should be reached on the area to be used for implementing the technology.Farmers should preferably test or validate new technologies on a small area, generally notexceeding 2 000 m2, before commencing large-scale implementation. The farmer-extensionistwill need to explain when the technology should be initiated, the inputs required, and fromwhere they can be obtained.

During the time the farmers are implementing the new technology the farmer-extensionistshould visit each farmer at regular intervals to monitor progress, provide assistance andencouragement, and receive feedback. Since the farmer-extensionist lives in the same or a


neighbouring community, it will be easy for farmers to visit the farmer-extensionist wheneverthey require help. The knowledge that support can be easily obtained will give farmers greaterconfidence and motivation to carry out the work.

TRAINING FARMERS IN LAND MANAGEMENT AND AGRICULTURE

The farmer-extensionist will need to arrange talks, workshops, visits, practicals anddemonstrations for farmers on the concepts of conservation-effective land management andsustainable crop production, the identification of problems and the selection of appropriatetechnologies as given above. Descriptions of appropriate technologies are presented in chapter4 of this document.

The guidelines presented in this document for training farmer-extensionists inconservation-effective land management and sustainable crop production could be introducedinto the highly successful “farmers’ field schools” which have been training farmers inintegrated pest management in Asia. Farmers’ field schools are of low cost, and use innovativeparticipatory approaches to farmer training similar to the ideas and concepts presented in thisdocument.

In addition, the farmer-extensionist will need to organize workshops on a range of otheragricultural subjects appropriate to the community, as and when they are needed. Subjects mayinclude the management of annual crops, perennial crops and livestock, crop and livestockdiversification, agroforestry, horticultural crops, seed production and selection, seed andvegetative banks, nurseries, simple irrigation systems, integrated pest management, watershedmanagement, conservation structures and soil drainage (Plate 5). The farmer-extensionist willprobably be able to contribute to many of these subjects, but will undoubtedly need supportfrom professional extensionists, NGOs and other supporting agencies. With time, as the farmer-extensionist receives more training and his/her knowledge improves, so less support will berequired. Details of these topics are beyond the scope of this document and so are not included.

The balance of the training should be 50 to 80 percent practical and 20 to 50 percenttheoretical - the absolute minimum necessary for farmers to understand the “why” and “how” ofnew innovations. The emphasis should be on learning by doing. Wherever possible, trainingshould be in the field, at demonstration areas on the farmer-extensionist´s property, on theproperties of other farmers, and occasionally at research stations. To help farmers to learn,

PLATE 5Farmers’ community preparingseedbeds


remember and understand new concepts, it may be helpful to use games, stories, poems andplays. Wherever possible local resources should be used to minimize costs and to overcome thedifficulties of acquiring inputs.

TRAINING FARMERS IN SIMPLE EXPERIMENTATION

The aim of the farmer-extensionist is not merely to give farmers new ideas and knowledge, andto increase crop yields and livestock production, but to motivate farmers to become moreinnovative so they can respond to, and benefit from, changing circumstances that affect theviability or profitability of existing farming enterprises as well as creating new opportunities.The ultimate aim is to help farmers become more independent and more protagonistic.

To encourage farmers to become more innovative, the farmer-extensionist must stimulatefarmers to design and conduct simple experiments, for example, to test new varieties, organicpesticides, organic foliar fertilizers, or leguminous cover crops. Similarly they must beencouraged to test new management practices, such as the use of manures instead of expensiveinorganic fertilizers. In this way they learn how to solve their own problems, and how to makethe most of new opportunities. Farmers can be stimulated to become more experimental byexposing them to a variety of new ideas, new knowledge, new techniques, new crops, newsituations, and new ways of responding to problems through talks, workshops, visits toprogressive farmers and experimental stations, and by encouraging discussions and the sharingof experiences.

Farmers must be encouraged to experiment on small plots of land, or with very smallgroups of animals, using limited inputs, so that if an experiment fails the farmer’s loss will beminimal.

An attitude of scientific enquiry and a simple method of experimentation should be taughtso that farmers:

• learn how to select a suitable site for the experiment;• learn how to make valid comparisons;• appreciate the importance of keeping all variables constant apart from the variable that is

being investigated;• learn how to make simple hypotheses and how to test them;• understand the idea of limiting factors and learn how to design and carry out simple

experiments to test the idea;• appreciate the importance of precise measurements;• learn how to keep records of all activities and observations;• learn how to calculate the costs and benefits of the practices being investigated.

Simple experiments of the following type should be taught:

1. Measure two small plots of land of 5 m x 10 m, or 10 m x 10 m, or separate out two groupsof two to three animals, so that each plot or group of animals corresponds to a particulartreatment

2. Plan the experiments so that only one production factor varies between the two plots or thetwo groups of animals,

3. Weigh or measure the results,


4. Add up the expenses and calculate the income from each treatment, i.e. from each plot oreach group of animals.

Initially, farmers will need guidance and support from the farmer-extensionist, but as theygain experience they will become more self-confident and more capable and enthused to workon their own.

ELABORATING INTEGRATED FARM PLANS

The plan of action formulated by a community will include various activities to be carried outwithin the properties of individual farmers. The benefits of new farming technologies will bemaximized if they are implemented with due regard to the rational planning of the wholeproperty. Integrated farm planning (IFP) is the planning of the use, management anddevelopment of the whole farm in a rational manner so that maximum advantage is made of thefarmer’s resources and the farm’s potential, whilst overcoming as far as possible those factorswhich limit productivity and profitability, and minimizing those which adversely affect theenvironment (see Plate 6).

The procedure of IFP comprises the selection of suitable farming enterprises, theirmanagement practices which will include conservation measures, their estimated costs ofimplementation, their assignment to different fields and land units, and the elaboration of afarm development plan and timetable for a three-year period. The selection of farm enterprisesmust be made according to the needs and aims of the farmer - for home consumption andmarket, the farmer’s resources, the socio-economic conditions of the farmer, the agro-ecological conditions of the farm, and the agro-ecological requirements of the crops. Assigningfarm enterprises to specific fields and land units will be based on the agro-ecologicalrequirements of the enterprises, and the need to locate certain enterprises in specific places. Forexample, vegetables and fruits must be located close to water sources to facilitate irrigation,poultry should be close to the farmhouse for security and ease of management, and sugar caneshould have good road access for lorries at harvest time.

PLATE 6Example of integrated farmand watershed planning


The farmer and farmer-extensionist should follow the following steps and record the farmdata in the form given in Figure 10.

i. Identification and location of thefarm: Fill in the details of the farmer’saddress, size of property and climaticdata. If the average annual temperatureis unknown, it may be possible todetermine this from the relationshipbetween altitude, obtained from atopographical map of the area, andaverage annual temperature, if such arelationship has been established for theregion. An example of such arelationship established for El Salvadoris given in Table 4.

ii. Available labour: Indicate the availability

FIGURE 10Diagnostic form for integrated farm planning

i. Identification and location of the farm

Farmer-Extensionist: Agency: Date:Name of farmer:Department:Town:Village:Hamlet:Map co-ordinates:

Size of property Climatic parametersLand owned (ha): Altitude (m):Own land rented out (ha): Average Annual Temperature (oC) †:Land rented (ha): Average Annual Precipitation (mm):Total land used (ha): Severity of dry spell “Canícula”:

† Estimated from altitude - see Table 4.

ii. Available labouriii. Diagnosis of farming enterprises

Existing DesiredCrops,

Pastures &Trees

Ha Varieties Yields(units)

Crops,Pastures &

Trees

Ha Varieties

Existing DesiredAnimals No. Breed Productivity Animals No. Breed

TABLE 4Relation between altitude and average annualtemperature

Altitude A.S.L.

(m)

Averageannual

temperature(°C)

Altitude A.S.L.

(m)

Averageannual

temperature(°C)

0 27.9 1 200 20.0200 26.6 1 400 18.7400 25.3 1 600 17.4600 23.9 1 800 16.1800 22.6 2 000 14.8

1000 21 3 2 200 13 5

and seasonality of family and contracted labour.


iii. Diagnosis of farming enterprises: Make a list of the existing and desired crop andlivestock species, varieties and breeds. Include not only new enterprises but also changes inthe cropping areas, crop varieties, number of animals or breeds. To assist the farmer in theselection of new enterprises, see Tables 5 and 6 which give details of the climatic and soilrequirements respectively, for different crops, pastures and trees.

TABLE 5Climatic requirements of crops, pastures and trees (from FAO, 1994)

Species Optimumrainfall (mm)

Maximum rainfall(mm)

Optimumtemperature (oC)

Grain cropsRice (dryland)Rice (flooded)BeansMaizeSorghum

1 000-1 7001 500-2 000

500-1 500600-1 200500-1 000

3 5004 0004 3001 8003 000

20-3020-3016-2718-3024-35

Annual cropsSesameGroundnutsTobaccoCowpea

500-1 000600-1 500

500-750600-1 500

1 5004 0003 0004 000

20-3022-3215-3020-35

SpicesGarlicGinger

750-1 6001 400-3 000

2 7004 000

18-3019-29

TubersSweet potatoCassava

750-12501 000-1 500

5 0005 000

18-2820-29

Fruit treesAvocadoCustard appleCoconutGuavaLimeLemonMandarin (satsuma)MandarinMangoCashew nutBananasOrangePapayaPineappleGrapefruitTamarind

1 000-1 4001 800-2 2001 000-2 4001 000-3 0002 200-2 7001 500-2 3001 200-1 5001 200-1 800

500-1 000750-1 600

1 200-3 6001 200-2 0001 200-1 500

800-2 5001 500-2 300

800-1 500

1 8004 2004 0005 0003 7004 0002 5004 0002 6004 0005 0002 7003 0003 5004 0004 300

15-2420-2525-3023-3026-3221-2818-2823-3424-3015-3523-3020-3021-3021-3018-3220-35

Other perennial cropsArabica coffeeRobusta coffeeSugar canePigeon peaSisal

1 400-2 3001 700-3 0001 200-1 500

600-1 500900-1 250

3 5004 0005 0004 0002 500

16-2420-3020-3218-3015-27

Horticultural cropsPumpkinGourdOnionCucumberRadishBeetrootCabbageWatermelonTomatoCarrot

1 000-1 600600-1 600

350-6001 000-1 2001 000-1 500

800-1 500500-1 000

500-750600-1 300600-1 200

2 8002 8002 8004 3002 8002 5002 5001 8001 8004 000

16-2820-3012-2518-3012-2615-2515-2420-3020-2715-24

Improved pasturesBrachiaria decumbensStar grass (Cynodonplectostachyus)Stylosanthes guianensis

1 500-1 800500-1 500700-1 500

2 4004 0002 500

25-3520-2715-28

Forage treesLeucaena leucocephalaMulberry (Morus nigra)

800-2 000700-1 500

5 0004 000

20-3215-25

Timber treesEucalyptus camaldulensisGrevillea robusta

700-1 300750-1 500

2 5002 500

25-3515-28


TABLE 6Edaphological requirements of crops, pastures and trees (from FAO, 1994)

Species Max. slope(%)

Opt/Min depth(cm)

Opt/Minfertility1

Min. pH Optim. rangeof pH

Opt/Tolerabledrainage2

Opt/TolerableTexture3

Basic grainsRice (dryland)Rice (flooded)BeansMaizeSorghum

500.1505050

>50/20>50/20>50/20>50/20>50/50

H/MH/MM/LH/LM/L

4.54.55.04.55.0

5.5-75.5-7

5.5-6.85.0-76.0-7

W/P,IVP-P/IW/WW/WW/P,I

H/MH-MH/MM/H,LM/H,LM,H/L

Annual cropsSesameGroundnutsTobaccoCowpea

50202050

>150/50>50/50>150/50>50/20

M/LH/MM/MM/L

4.54.54.54.3

5.5-76.0-6.55.0-6.55.5-7.5

W/WW/WW/WW/W

M/L,HM/L,HL,M/HM/H,L

SpicesGarlicGinger

2020

>50/20>50/20

H/LH/M

5.04.3

6.0-6.66.0-7

W/WW/W

L,M/HM/L,H

TubersSweet potatoCassava

2020

>50/20>50/50

H/LM/L

4.04.0

5.0-75.5-8

W/W W/W

M/LL,M/ML

Fruit treesAvocadoCustard appleCoconutGuavaLimeLemonMandarin (satsuma)MandarinMangoCashew nutBananasOrangePapayaPineappleGrapefruitTamarind

60605060606060

606060

6060

6060

>150/50>50/20>150/50>50/20>50/50>50/50>150/50

>150/50>150/50>150/50>150/50>150/50<150/50>50/20>150/50>150/20

H/MM/MM/LH/LM/LH/MH/M

H/MM/LM/LH/MM/LH/MM/MH/MM/L

4.54.34.34.04.85.55.0

5.54.33.84.04.04.33.56.04.5

5.0-75.5-6.55.5-8

5.0-7.56.0-6.56.5-7

5.5-6.5

6.0-6.85.5-7.54.5-6.55.5-7.55.0-65.5-7

4.5-6.56.5-7.35.5-6.5

W/W W/W W/WW/P,IW/W W/W W/W

W/P,I W/WW/W W/W W/W W/WW/W W/W W/W

L,M,HM,H/L

M,L,/MLL,M/HL,M/HL,M/HL,M/H

L,M/HL,M/HL,M/HM/H,LL,M/HM/L,HL,M/HL,M/HM/L,M

Other perennial cropsArabica coffeeRobusta coffeeSugarcanePigeon peaSisal

6060155050

>150/50>50/20>50/50>150/50>50/20

H/MH/LM/LM/LM/L

4.54.04.54.56.0

5.5-75.0-6.36.0-7.55.0-7

6.5-7.5

W/WW/P,IW/I

W/W W/W

M/L,MM,H/L

M,H/M,HL,M/H

L/LHorticultural cropsPumpkinGourdOnionCucumberRadishBeetrootCabbageWatermelonTomatoCarrot

10101010101010101010

>150/20>150/20>50/20>50/20>50/20>50/20>20/20>150/50>20/20>50/50

H/LH/LM/L

H/H-MH/LH/MH/MH/LH/MM/M

5.04.54.34.55.25.05.05.05.04.2

5.5-6.85.5-7.56.0-7

5.5-7.56.0-7

6.0-6.86.0-75.5-7

5.5-6.85.8-6.8

W/W W/W W/W W/W W/W W/W W/W W/W W/WW/W

M/L,HM/L,HM/L

M/L,HL/M,HM,L/HM,L,HM/L,HM/L,HM/L,H

Improved PasturesBrachiaria decumbensStar grass (Cynodon plectostachyus)Stylosanthes guianensis

50

50

50

>20720

>50/20

>150/50

M/M-L

H/M

L/L

4.5

6.5

5.5

5.0-6

7.0-7.5

6.5-7

W/W

W,P,I

W/W

L,M,H

L,M,H

L,M/L,MForage treesLeucaena leucocephalaMulberry (Morus nigra)

60

60

>150/20

>50/20??

M/L

H/M

5.0

4.3

6.0-7

5.5-7

W/W

W/W

M,H/L

L,M,HTimber treesAcacia magiumEucalyptus camaldulensisGrevillea robusta

70

7070

20??

>50/50>150/50

M/?

M/LH/L

4.0

6.05.0

?-7

6.5-7.55.5-6.5

P,I,W

P,I,WW/W

L,M/?

l,M/HL,M/L,M

__________________________________1 H = High; M = Moderate; L = Low.2 W = Well; I = Imperfectly; P = Poorly; VP = Very poorly.


3 H = Heavy; MH = Moderately heavy; M = Medium; L = Light


iv. Sketch map of the farm location and existing land use: Walk through the farm, field byfield with the farmer and prepare a sketch map of the farm. An example is presented inFigure 11. Indicate the direction of north, the location of roads (with distances to nearbytowns), paths, buildings and other landmarks which help in locating the property. Give theboundaries of each field on the sketch map and assign a capital letter of identification toeach field. Show the drainage lines indicating if they are permanent or temporary, springs,severely eroded areas, forests and fallow areas. Indicate the presence of timber trees, fruittrees, forage and fuelwood trees, other perennial crops, basic grains, other annual crops,horticultural crops, natural pastures, improved pastures, and other land uses. See Table 7for an example of the legend that may be used in preparing the sketch map.

v. S ils

ino(Pwthpslewc

vi. Athucfoma

oil characterization: During the visit to the property examine and characterize the soFIGURE 11Example of a sketch map of farm location and land use for integrated farm planning (seeTable 7 for legend)

each field. Annex 1 explains how to characterize soils, and it is recommended that twor more small pits to 0.6 m depth are made in each field to facilitate examination of the soillate 7). If there are marked differences in the slope, depth, stoniness, drainage, or fertilityithin a field, the field should be divided into separate land units that are demarcated one sketch map. These differences are often manifest by differences in slope or crop

erformance, but it is only worthwhile separating out different land units if they areufficiently different that their use or management would also be very different. Smalltters of identification should be assigned to each land unit within a field, e.g. Aa and Abould represent two land units “a” and “b” in field “A”. Information on the soil

haracteristics is recorded in Figure 12.

ssigning the optimum land use category: To complete the characterization of the land,e optimum land use category is determined for each field and land unit. Optimum land

se refers to the potential use of the land in general terms, for example for horticulturalrops, tuber crops, grains, pastures, fruit, forage and fuelwood trees, timber trees or nativerests. A very simple classification should be used which will be applicable to theajority of soils within a specified region, and which farmer-extensionists will be able to

pply.


The classification for determining optimum land use categories should be based on themain land characteristics that limit pro-ductivity in the region. Soil specialists from thesupporting agency will probably be needed to identify a simple classification system thatwill be acceptable for a particular region. Simple classification systems will save time, andif farmer-extensionists can use them a more widespread coverage (greater scaling-up) canbe achieved. This would not be the case if a more comprehensive and rigorous landcapability classification system, such as that from the United States, were to be used.

An example of a simple classification system for assigning optimum land use is thatdeveloped for the soils of El Salvador where large parts of the hilly terrains are welldrained, medium to heavy textured, and moderately fertile, though responding to nitrogenand phosphorus. Therefore drainage, texture and fertility are sufficiently uniform andeither non-limiting or requiring similar management practices (e.g. N and P fertilization),that they do

TABLE 7Example of legend to be used in a sketch map

Feature Symbol Feature SymbolIdentification symbols for fields andland units

Aa,Ab,Ac,Ba,Bb, Ca, etc. Exposed rocks R

Property and field boundaries Erosion (rills) E

Boundaries of land units and optimumland use units

Natural forests NF

Boundaries of existing land use units Fallows F

Roads Timber trees TT

Paths Fruit trees FT

Rivers and drainage linesp = permanent; t = temporary.

Forage and fuelwoodtrees

FFT

Spring M Other perennial crops PC

Building ☺ Basic grains BG

Electricity pylons ┬ ┬ ┬ Other annual crops AC

Corral Natural pastures NP

Gullies G G G Improved pastures IP

Landslides ▒ Horticultural crops HC

PLATE 7Soil examination


nao

ApSffr

vii. Ssadwas

viii. Rinp

FIGURE 12Soil characterization form for integrated farm planning

Field

(a)

Landunit

(b)

Slope

%(c)

Effectivedepth

cm(c)

Stoni-ness

%(d)

Ferti-lity

(e)

Drain-age

(f)

Text-ure

(g)

Optimum landuse

category(h)

(a) Use capital letters to identify the field. (e) According to the farmer’s evaluation as high,moderate, low or very low.

(b) Use small letters to identify the landunit.

(f) Give as well, imperfectly, poorly or very poorly drained.

(c) Give actual values. (g) Give as very light, light, medium, heavy or very heavy.(d) Indicate if the value is >75, 50-75, 25- (h) The optimum land use category is evaluated on the

ot greatly influence optimum land use. Greater variation occurs in soil depth, stoninessnd land slope. Thus it is these factors which are mostly responsible for influencingptimum land use.

n example of the use of these three criteria to evaluate optimum land use categories isresented in Table 8. The slope limits used to define optimum land use categories in Elalvador are <10 percent for horti-cultural crops, <20 percent for tuber crops, <50 percentor grain crops and pastures, <60 percent for fruit, forage and fuelwood trees, <70 percentor timber trees, and >70 percent for native forests. The optimum land use categories areecorded in Table 8.

oil sampling: If facilities for soil analysis exist in the region, it is recommended that soilamples are taken from each field and from each land unit where it is proposed to establishnnual crops, improved pastures, perennial crops, or fruit trees. Collect 15 soil samples to aepth of 20 cm, mix thoroughly, and then take a composite sample of 0.5 to 1.0 kg ineight and transfer into a plastic bag, inserting a label indicating the name of the farmer,

nd the location of the field from where the sample was taken. Samples should be sent to aoils laboratory for routine analysis and fertilizer recommendations.

ecommended land uses for the farm: In Figure 13 record for each field and land unitformation on land tenancy, estimated area, slope, existing land use and management

ractices, desired land use by the farmer, and optimum land use (obtained from Figure 12).

50, or <25 percent. basis of slope, soil depth and stoniness, (see Table


The farmer and farmer extensionist willthen assign the recommended land use toeach field and land unit through aprocess of rationalization among theoptimum land use, the desired land useby the farmer, and the existing land use,taking into account the available labour,the farmer’s resources, and if the field isrented or not.

Recommended land uses should first begiven for the most demanding crops, i.e.horticultural crops, then grain crops,natural and improved pastures, fruit,forage and fuelwood trees, timber treesand finally native forest vegetation -which is the least demanding. The mostdemanding crops should be assigned tothe best soils and the least demandingcrops to the poorest soils, but otherconsiderations must also be taken intoaccount, e.g. if they need to be locatedclose to water sources, to the corral, tothe farmhouse, or the road. The total areathat the farmer desires for each farmingenterprise must be considered, as well asexisting land use since it is not feasibleto introduce grain crops where timbertrees are already established.

To confirm that the recommended landuses are compatible with thecharacteristics of the land units, theedaphological requirements of the crops,given in Table 6, should be comparedwith the soil characteristics for each fieldand land unit.

Sometimes the desired use will not becompatible with the optimum use and soit will be necessary either to reject thedesired use, or to accept the desired usein a soil with characteristics that areneither optimal nor desirable for thatcrop. For example, grain crops may haveto be recommended for lands of morethan 50 percent slope, when the farmer onlOnce the recommended land uses have berecorded in Figure 13.

Appropriate management practices must thfor each field and land unit. It is recomm

TABLE 8Categories of optimum land use evaluatedaccording to slope, soil depth and stoniness

Slope

(%)

Effectivedepth(cm)

Stoniness

(%)

Optimum landuse category 1

>70 F60-70 <25 F

25-50 >25 F<25 TT

50-100 >50 F<50 TT

50-60 <25 F25-50 >50 F

25-50 F<25 TT

50-100 >75 F50-75 TT25-50 TT<25 FT

20-50 <10 F10-25 >25 F

<25 P25-50 >50 F

25-50 P<25 G,P

50-100 >75 F50-75 G,P25-50 G,P,FT,TT<25 G,P,FT,TT

10-20 <10 F10-25 >25 F

<25 P25-50 >50 F

25-50 P<25 G,P

50-100 >75 F50-75 G,T,P<50 G,T,P,FT,TT

>100 >75 G,T,P50-75 G,T,P<50 G,T,P,FT, TT

0-10 <10 F10-25 >25 F

<25 P25-50 >50 F

25-50 P<25 G,P2

50-100 >75 F50-75 G,H,T,P 2<50 G,H,T,P,FT,

TT2

>100 >75 G,H,T,P2

50-75 G,H,T,P2

<50 G,H,T,P,FT,TT2

1 F - Natural forest as protection; G - Grain crops; P -Pasture, natural or improved; TT - Timber trees; FT- Fruit,forage and fuelwood trees; T - Tuber crops; H -Horticultural crops.

2 For very poorly drained soils the optimum land use is

y possesses land in excess of 50 percent slope.en agreed for each field and land unit they are

en be identified for the recommended land usesended that they are identified according to the


npCohTatyT

ix. Rsetrre

x. Lm

xi. Rspthla

FIGURE 13Existing, desired, optimum and recommended land uses for each field and land unit

Field

[O/R](a)

Landunit

Est.area

(ha)

Slope

(%)

Existing landuse and

management (b)

Desiredland use

Optimumland use

(c)

Recommendedland use

(d)

Recommendedmanagement

practices(e)

(a) Give the identification letter for the field and indicate if it is owned (O) or rented (R).(b) Mention the soil conservation practices.(c) See Table 8 for an example.(d) By a process of agreement and rationalisation between the optimum land use, the desired land use by

the farmer, the present land use, the labour and resources available to the farmer, and whether theland is rented or not. To define more precisely the recommended land use refer to the detailed soilrequirements for different crops, pastures and trees given in Tables 5 and 6.

(e) See Table 2 for management practices presented in relation to specific problems and causes, andTable 9 for a check list that includes recommended land management practices for annual crops,pastures, fruit, forage, fuelwood and timber trees and native forests, Table 10 for managementpractices related to soil conservation, and Table 11 for recuperation practices for degraded soils.

ature of the problems and their causes as given in Table 2. Emphasis should then belaced on those management practices that have already been shown to be successful inentral America as given in Chapter 4 for subsistence-oriented farmers and for market-riented farmers. A comprehensive check list of management practices for grain crops,orticultural crops, pastures, fruit, fodder and fuelwood trees, and timber trees is given inable 9. Tentative guidelines for the selection of management practices that conserve soilss well as improving soil productivity are given in Table 10 on the basis of slope and croppe. Recommended recuperation measures for severely degraded lands are presented inable 11.

ecommendations on field boundaries: Record information on the location and presenttate of each field boundary, then make recommendations on how to improve them by, forxample, the introduction of barbed wire, or of living fences of fruit, forage or fuelwoodees. Also consider whether any fields need to be subdivided and additional fences arequired (see Figure 14).

ivestock recommendations: Give recommendations on how to improve livestockanagement and what new species or breeds should be introduced (see Figure 14).

ecommendations on environmental aspects: Consider which environmental factorshould be improved. In relation to water sources indicate if it is possible to improve therotection of the sources with fences, by planting trees or pastures around the spring, or ife water should be transferred by pipes. For the fate of human wastes indicate if a newtrine is necessary or the existing latrine should be moved to reduce the risks of pollution.


With reference to the management and fate of animal manures indicate if it is necessaryto


TABLE 9Check list of technologies and management practices for different land use typesRecommended technologiesand management practices

Annualcrops

Horticulturalcrops

Pastures Fruit, forage,fuelwood trees

Timbertrees

Native forests forprotection

No burning x x x x x xLeave residues x x x xNo-tillage (Direct sowing) xStrip tillage xVertical (chisel) tillage x xContour planting x x x xImproved seed x x x xImproved varieties x x x xHigher plant populations x x x x xIntegrated pest management x x x xNatural pesticides x x x xSemi-botanical herbicides x x x xInorganic pesticides x x xAvoid entry of cattle x x x x xControlled grazing x xLive fences x x x x xSilos xHay production x xSilage production x xKitchen gardens xMulching x xIntercropping with legumes x x x xSequential cropping x xCover crops x x xCovered beans xOrganic manures x x x xOrganic foliar fertilizers xCompost x x xManual seeders xAnimal traction no-till seeders xSoil analysis x x x xPlant analysis x x x xInorganic fertilization x x x x xCrop rotations x x xStrip cropping x xLive barriers x xIndividual platform terraces xInterception canals x x x x xContour or graded hillsideditches

x x

Stone barriers x xWind breaks x xShade trees in coffee xGrassed discharge areas x x xBench terraces x xEnriched fallows xProtein banks x x xDispersed trees in annual crops xDispersed trees in pastures xGully recuperation x x x x xDrinking troughs xSimple irrigation systems x x xWater conduits x x xCollection of water from roofs x x xPiped water sources x xReforestation of catchmentareas

x

Ponds xWater reservoirs xThinning x xWeeding x x x xPruning x xControl of landslides x x x x


TABLE 10Guide to land management practices with emphasis on soil conservationCrop Slope Land management practices with emphasis on soil conservationHorticulturalcrops

0-5% Mulching, Contour planting, Strip cropping.

5-10% Mulching, Contour planting, Strip cropping, Contour bedding, Stonebarriers, Bench terraces.

>10% Horticultural crops not recommended, but if it is inevitable, apply thepractices given for slopes of 5-10 percent.

Grain crops 0-10% No burning, Leave residues, No-tillage, Contour sowing, Controlled grazing,Contour live fences, Intercropped legumes.

10-50% No burning, Leave residues, No-tillage, Contour sowing, Controlled grazing,Contour live fences, Intercropped legumes, Live barriers, (Hillside ditches)∗

>50% Grain crops not recommended, but if they are inevitable, apply the practicesgiven for slopes of 10-50 percent.

Fruit trees 0-10% Mulching, Leguminous cover crops, Contour live fences.10-60% Mulching, Leguminous cover crops, Contour live fences, Live barriers,

Individual platform terraces, (Hillside ditches)∗>60% Fruit trees not recommended, but if they are inevitable, apply the practices

given for slopes of 10-60 percent.∗ Only recommended if agronomic and vegetative practices cannot solve the erosion problem.N.B. Lands subjected to runoff from steep slopes and roads will require interception canals for protection.

TABLE 11Guide to recuperation practices for degraded soilsType of degradation Recuperation practicesAreas severely eroded bysheet erosion, with exposedsubsoil.

Reforestation, Sowing legume cover crops, Runoff interception canals,Safe discharge outlets.

Areas severely eroded bygully erosion.

Interception canals above the gully heads, Safe discharge outlets,Reforestation of the gully sides, heads and bottom, Planting of deep-rooting grasses on gully sides, Retention dikes across gullies.

Areas of landslides andmudflows.

Interception canals, Safe discharge outlets, Reforestation, Planting ofdeep-rooting grasses.

Severe erosion of river banks. Reforestation of river banks, Planting of deep-rooting grasses on riverbanks, Placement of gabions.

construct a corral, and how to collect, store and use the manures for the benefit of crops. Inrelation to the management and disposal of agrochemicals indicate the possibilities ofreplacing existing agrochemicals with natural pesticides or with agrochemicals of lowerhealth risks, and if training is required in the use of agrochemicals (see Figure 14).

xii. Marketing: Give recommendations on how the marketing of farm products may beimproved so as to increase profits (see Figure 14).

xiii. Farmer organization: Indicate if the farmer is a member of a farmer organization, and ifnot, if he is interested in joining such an organization, and if training on farmerorganizations is required (see Figure 14).

xiv. Sketch map of the recommended land use of the farm: Produce a sketch map showingthe recommended land uses for each field and land unit if many changes in land use havebeen proposed (see Figure 15 for an example).

xv. Timetable for implementing the farm development plan: Use a different form, shownin Figure 16, for each field or land unit where changes in land use or land managementhave been agreed. Indicate the activities which are to be carried out during a three-yearperiod. Give the proposed dates for the implementation of each activity, the inputsrequired, and estimated costs. It is very important that any seeds, seedlings and livestockneeded to implement the development plan are available that year or the following year.


O nd thefo

FIGFofa

Fe

Li

En

Ma

Orint

nce the activities have been completed, the date of completion should be inserted arm signed by the farmer and farmer-extensionist.URE 14rm of recommendations on fences, livestock, environmental aspects, marketing and

FIGURE 15Example of sketch map of recommended land uses for integrated farm planning (seeTable 7 for legend)

rmer organization for integrated farm planning

nces

Location of fence Existing state Recommendation

vestock

vironmental aspects

Water sources: (Indicate if improved protection is needed by fences, trees, pastures or if waterpipes are required).

Fate of human wastes: (Indicate if the latrine needs to be relocated to avoid pollution).

Management and fate of animal manures: (Indicate if a corral or a new system for collectingmanure is needed, or if a biogas plant is required).

Management and disposal of agrochemicals: (Indicate the feasibility of changing theagrochemicals used for others of lower health risks, and if training in their use is needed).

FIGURE 16Timetable for implementation of the integrated farm development plan

Month/Year

Developmentactivities

Inputs Estimatedcosts

Date ofimplementation

Signatures of farmerand farmer-extensionist

rketing: (Indicate how to improve marketing so as to increase income).

ganization of farmers: (Indicate if the farmer is a member of a farmers´ organization, if he iserested in becoming a member, and if training courses are required).


xvi. Commitment by the farmer: It is very important that the farmer is allowed a few weeksto reflect on the proposed development plan before commencing activities. It may bedesirable for the farmer and farmer-extensionist to sign a letter of agreement once thefarmer is convinced that he wishes to go ahead with the proposed farm development plan.

ARRANGING TRAINING COURSES IN BASIC EDUCATION AND RURAL SKILLS

The promotion of improved land management and sustainable crop production technologies isnot on its own sufficient to achieve a better standard of living and quality of life. Many of thoseliving in rural communities frequently need basic numeracy and literacy skills, and are oftentotally unaware of how rural areas are administered. Most communities will also benefit fromcourses on a range of subjects, such as hygiene, nutrition, community health, food preparation,food preservation, farm processing, simple accounting, obtaining credit, and ruraladministration. Courses on rural technologies, such as carpentry, plumbing, electricity,metalwork, foundry, building, and vehicular mechanics may also be needed. It is the farmer-extensionist´s responsibility to try and arrange for an appropriate NGO or governmentinstitution to provide the required courses.

FACILITATING THE FORMATION AND FUNCTIONING OF FARMERS’ ORGANIZATIONS

Farmers’ organizations benefit from more favourable terms in the purchase of supplies and saleof produce due to increased volumes. They also wield greater influence and power whendealing with private companies, government, banking or credit institutions than an individualcould. If individuals within a catchment cooperate within a farmers´ organization, it is easier tosolve catchment-related problems, such as the control of overgrazing or erosion, the need forreforestation, the control of runoff from roads and footpaths, and obtaining agreement onirrigation water allocations. They can also, for example, influence local supply merchants tosupply those inputs that are most required by member farmers. The formation of farmers´organizations is an important first step towards the empowerment of farmers.

Where a suitable farmers´ organization already exists, it is invariably much better to utilizethis organization than to create a new one. If no farmers’ organization exists, such anorganization should be formed with the assistance of the farmer-extensionist, but it must beformed in response to a definite problem that the community urgently wishes to solve. If thereis no felt need, no organization should be formed. Farmers´ organizations are frequently formedto obtain credit, or to manage water supplies in an irrigation project. Once farmers realize theadvantages of acting as a group, they invariably extend the organization’s activities to otherproblems. Farmers´ organizations can also influence farming practices by, for example,restricting membership only to those farmers who do not burn crop residues.

For a farmers’ organization to be successful there must exist trust and a desire amongst thepeople to cooperate to solve their problems and realize their potentials. The initial type oforganization that is formed should be simple enough for many of the members to be capable ofrunning it, and not merely a few star leaders.

In some countries it is necessary for farmers´ organizations to acquire legal status whichgives them greater influence to negotiate credit from banks and the sale of produce. However, itis not a prerequisite in all countries. The structure of farmers’ organizations generally consistsof a general assembly, a board of management, and a range of committees to deal with mattersof particular interest to the community, e.g. grain storage, projects, marketing, grain milling,


credit, technologies and research. Any results that are obtained from experiments should alwaysbe presented to the organization’s management board, and in this way the knowledge andcapability of the organization is increased.

When sufficient motivation exists to form a farmers´ organization, the farmer-extensionistwill need to arrange for training courses to be given on the administration and management offarmers organizations, the management of budgets and credit. Until such time as the farmers´organization is able to act independently, the farmer-extensionist will need to guide and orientthe organization in its various activities.

PROMOTING THE FORMATION OF MUNICIPAL “SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT COMMITTEES”

The slow pace of agricultural development is often related to problems of health, hygiene,domestic facilities, nutrition, water supplies, latrines, education, literacy, marketing or roads; infact there is a high degree of interaction among all of these factors. Hence, agriculturaldevelopment is frequently more successful when there is an integrated approach todevelopment. This is presumably because improvements achieved in one aspect of life can leadto better conditions that facilitate improvements in other aspects of life. On the other hand, iftoo many different programmes are implemented, there may be less success because people’senergies are not sufficiently well focused on any particular issue.

One of the functions of farmers’ organizations is to negotiate with government and non-government institutions on behalf of the community when specific services or developmentprogrammes are needed. For development at a municipal level there should be an organizationresponsible for sustainable development and the environment, comprising the leaders offarmers´ organizations, the mayor, and representatives of NGOs, the church, cooperatives,utility companies, and government ministries of public works, water, agriculture and livestock,environment, forestry, health and education. Such organizations, which may be referred to as“sustainable development committees,” should plan, coordinate and monitor the variousprogrammes of sustainable integrated development within the administrative region for whichthe municipality is responsible. They should ensure a well focused, effective and efficientimplementation of local development programmes that adequately take into accountenvironmental issues.

One of the responsibilities of farmer-extensionists is to assist in promoting the formation ofmunicipal-level “sustainable development committees,” so that development problems andneeds which arise in a community, and which are beyond his or her power to solve, can betackled by the committee.

PROMOTING LINKS AND ACTIVITIES WITH OTHER DEVELOPMENTAL ORGANIZATIONS

Farmer-extensionists should also establish links with any NGOs working in the area to co-ordinate activities and avoid duplication of effort. The farmer-extensionist is in an excellentposition to be able to orient NGOs on the real needs and problems facing the community, and toadvise them on appropriate activities. Often it may be beneficial to plan joint activities, and theNGOs may be able to give needed training courses, and provide resources or information thatthe farmer-extensionist is unable to obtain.


FACILITATING THE FORMATION AND FUNCTIONING OF COMMUNITY BANKS

Subsistence-oriented farmers often require credit for seeds, fertilizers and pesticides, and it isrecommended that farmer-extensionists assist communities to form “community banks”. Theseare simple to manage and understand, encourage the concept of saving, and enable farmers toreceive credit which they might otherwise be unable to obtain. For many subsistence farmers itis difficult to obtain credit from banks as they do not possess acceptable guarantees. A furtheradvantage of community banks, is that the community can agree to longer repayment periods often months, so that farmers may sell their produce when prices are higher. Loans from mostbanks usually have to be repaid in periods of about six months, which forces farmers to sellsoon after harvest when prices are low. Another advantage is that pressure from the communityusually encourages repayment thereby reducing the number of bad debts.

The farmer-extensionist should arrange for training of the farmers’ organization in themanagement of a community bank. Initially, the farmer-extensionist will need to guide thefarmers on how to manage and operate the community banking system until such time as theycan manage it on their own. The seed capital for a community bank may be obtained fromproceeds generated by the communal production of a crop, and the bank’s capital can then beincreased by monthly contributions.

Loans must be given to members of the community according to their capacity to repay,and on the basis of well conceived plans. Activities should be financed gradually, one by one,according to a farmer’s plan of action for his farm. A part of the loan, e.g. 10 percent, must bedeposited in the communal bank, and in this way the community bank acquires additionalfunds. Interest rates should be the same as in commercial banks or cooperatives.

MONITORING THE PLANS OF ACTION

Monitoring of progress in the implementation of work plans, and feedback from farmers willenable the farmer-extensionist to decide whether any changes are needed in the work plans,technologies, or training courses. Any apparent weaknesses should be revealed, which will helpthe farmer-extensionist to improve his/her effectiveness and efficiency.

Monitoring of progress and problems in the implementation of the work plan, and theimpacts that have occurred, may be accomplished by simple surveys, by field observations andby meetings, but the principal method should be by day-to-day feedback from farmers duringthe farmer-extensionist´s visits to the field, and visits by farmers to the farmer-extensionist. It isrecommended that farmer-extensionists hold regular meetings with all farmers from thecatchment, perhaps at monthly intervals. This will afford a valuable opportunity for the farmersto discuss their progress, problems, results and experiences gained whilst implementing thework plans and experiments. The farmer-extensionist should be able to clarify anymisunderstandings, solve problems that have arisen, and explain in more detail any issues thatwere not fully understood.

Farmers need to be trained in how to monitor, in a very simple manner, the productivityand profitability of their farm enterprises. By comparing enterprises and calculating theirprofitability, they can take decisions on how to increase overall farm income by expandingsome enterprises and reducing others. Monitoring the production of crops from a particularfield over a number of years will indicate whether soil productivity is stable, declining orimproving. Similarly, the monitoring of productivity and profitability of different managementtreatments or different varieties in a farmer’s experiment will show which is the superior


treatment or variety. Such training in simple farm monitoring should be provided by the farmer-extensionist, and is part of the process of helping farmers to become more independent.

Monitoring progress in the implementation of the plans of action will be greatly facilitatedif the farmer-extensionist receives reliable, honest, feedback from farmers, and this will onlyoccur if a good relationship exists between the farmer-extensionist and the farmers. Farmersmust feel that any criticisms they make will be well accepted, and not result in bad feelings orrepercussions. Consequently, it is important that farmer-extensionists value farmer opinion,readily accept criticisms, and will act upon them.


Chapter 4Description of available technologies

RECOMMENDED SUCCESSFUL TECHNOLOGIES FOR SUBSISTENCE-ORIENTED FARMERS

The following technologies have been found to be successful in that they are readily andfrequently spontaneously adopted by farmers in Central America (Barber, 1997). The majorityare characterized by requiring little or no additional costs to implement, and many aretraditional technologies. Farmer-extensionists should implement these technologies in their ownfarms for demonstration purposes.

No burning: The practice of not burning crop, weed and shrub residues is widely implementedand accepted by many farmers, often in response to a local shortage of fuelwood and timber. Bynot burning, useful and fast-growing tree species are allowed to regenerate to supply fuelwood,timber and posts. This may be in fields of annual crops or pastures. Farmers also recognizeother benefits of leaving residues on the soil surface, viz., reductions in runoff and hencemoister soils, better plant growth - especially in areas or seasons with moisture deficits,improved responses to fertilizer application due to the moister soils, and less soil loss.

Emphasizing reductions in soil loss as an advantage of no burning will generally havemuch less impact on farmer adoption rates than emphasizing the benefits of no burning on cropyields, reduced labour for land preparation, and the simultaneous production of crops,fuelwood, posts and timber. Another advantage is that by increasing the availability offuelwood within the farm, the time required to collect fuelwood will be reduced, enabling otherfarm or domestic tasks to be carried out.

No-tillage: Where no burning is practised, no-tillage and direct seeding is normally implicitand has the additional advantage of greatly reducing the time required for land preparation. Inmany parts of Central America no-tillage is a traditional technique, although formerlyassociated with the practice of burning crop residues. A planting stick is widely used forplanting, but manual seeders that also incorporate fertilizer to the side and slightly below theseed offer great advantages though they have yet to be widely accepted. Similarly, for farmerswith animal traction, no-tillage seeders that also place fertilizer exist, but have yet to be widelydopted (see section Animal traction no-till seeders).
a
Studies carried out within an FAO project (GCP/ELS/004/NET) in El Salvador have shownthat on steep slopes of 20 to 50 percent, where basic grain crops are being cultivated, 75 percentof the soil surface should be covered with residues if erosion hazards are to be confined to lowlevels (Argueta, 1996). In many situations in Central America a conflict exists between leavingresidues on the soil surface to protect the soils and promote better crop growth, and feeding theresidues to livestock in the dry season when there is a shortage of other fodder. In this situation,additional fodder should be produced by the production of hay or silage from improved orexisting pastures, from silage crops, e.g. sorghum and a legume, or from fodder trees to

PLATE 8High residue cover frommaize and sorghum crops

Description of available technologies52

maintain the livestock throughout the dry season when a shortage of fodder exists, so that allthe crop residues may be left on the soil surface for soil protection (Plate 8).

Higher plant populations: In traditional maize systems the number of plants per planting holeare often high (three to five) causing competition between plants for water and nutrients, andthe spacing between planting holes is usually very wide resulting in very low plant densities,often only 20 to 60 percent of recommended values. These two factors may be major causes oflow yields. By introducing higher plant populations and fewer plants per planting hole, thecompetition between plants will be reduced, and higher overall yields will often be obtained.Moreover, by reducing the area required to obtain the same production, the labour requirementwill be reduced, and more land will become available for diversification into other income-generating crops. The higher plant population will also reduce erosion hazards due to thegreater interception of raindrops by maize foliage, and larger quantities of residues can bereturned to the soil. Recommended densities for maize will vary with climate, soil type andvariety, but generally two plants are recommended per planting hole with spacings of 0.8 to0.9 m between rows and 0.4 to 0.5 m between planting holes, giving plant densities of 45 000 to62 000 plants/ha. High plant populations should be recommended, especially when improvedvarieties and contour planting are introduced.

Contour planting: The process of sowing crops parallel to the contour creates small,discontinuous barriers largely perpendicular to the slope which tend to slow down themovement of overland flow and sediments in a downslope direction, thereby giving more timefor infiltration and reducing the hazards of erosion. Moreover, if crops are aligned parallel tothe contour all subsequent operations such as weeding, pesticide applications and harvestingwill also be carried out parallel to the contour, and resultant surface disturbances will tend tocreate micro-barriers that are also approximately parallel to the contour. On steep slopes, therestriction of traffic along the contour greatly reduces the risk of soil mass movement that mightotherwise occur when humans or animals slip on moving up or down slope. In grain crops,contour planting has been successfully introduced in conjunction with new varieties and higherplant populations. Contour planting has also been widely adopted in coffee on hillsides,because of the greater ease and speed of harvesting and crop management when plants arealigned along the contour. By placing pruning materials adjacent to the coffee bushes andparallel to the contour, a larger barrier is created which will restrict the downhill movement ofsediments and favour their accumulation as incipient micro-terraces.

To implement contour planting, lines parallel to the contour may be marked out at periodicintervals down the slope to act as guidelines for seeding (see Annex 2 for the method ofmarking contour lines). The presence of permanent contour structures such as live barriersgreatly assists sowing along the contour.

Improved varieties: Provided farmers can produce their own seed and the improved varietiesdo not entail extra costs, the adoption of improved grain varieties is often high due to thegreatly increased yields. Hybrids are generally not recommended because of the high cost offertilizers and seed, and the need to buy seed every year. An advantage of improved varieties isthat the same production of basic grains can be obtained from a smaller area thereby liberatingmore land for diversification into other crops. For the new varieties to be readily adopted theymust be acceptable to farming families in respect of their taste, consistency, storage life,cooking time, fuelwood consumption, seed availability, agro-ecological suitability for the zone(including drought resistance and photoperiodism), low input requirements, and resistance topests and diseases. It is probably more efficient to provide seed samples of different improved


varieties to families first, so they can evaluate the taste and cooking qualities of each variety,before carrying out on-farm trials to test their performance under farmers’ field conditions. Inthis way the variety trials can be restricted to just those varieties that are domestically-acceptable to farmers.

Frequently the main factor inhibiting the adoption of improved varieties is theunavailability of good quality seed. For this reason free-pollinating varieties are to be preferredto hybrids as farmers then have the possibility of producing their own seed provided theyreceive adequate training on seed production and quality control.

Another important factor to be considered in the selection of improved grain varieties isnot only the grain production but also the quantity of foliage or dry matter production. Shortstature varieties, although less susceptible to lodging, return much smaller quantities of organicmatter to the soil compared to taller, more traditional Criollo varieties. This will accelerate soilbiological degradation due to the loss of soil organic matter, and may lead to a rapiddeterioration of soil structure, greater runoff and increased erosion hazards.

Live barriers: Live barriers established along the contour may be used as a soil conservationpractice on the basis of the ability of vegetative barriers to filter out sediments carried insuspension by surface runoff (Plate 9). Adoption of live barriers is most successful when thebarriers provide a much needed commodity that is in short supply, such as grass for livestockconsumption, or when they give an appreciable additional income, such as sugar cane in partsof Honduras. Their adoption is restricted to those farmers who own their land.

In Honduras live barriers of Napier grass (also known asElephant grass) (Pennisetum purpureum) in an area of 1.4 hacan supply sufficient fodder for 10 to 15 animals, and so theuse of maize stover for animal fodder may be avoided,allowing the soils to be better protected against erosion.Nevertheless, the presence of a live barrier in a field of maizeor beans frequently causes lower yields of the adjacent croprows due to shade and competition for water and/or nutrients.Therefore the income generated from the live barriers mustmore than compensate for the yield reduction of the preferredcrop. For this reason many farmers in Honduras are replacingtheir grass barriers with sugar cane. Dwarf varieties ofElephant grass (Pennisetum purpureum) would give lessproblems of shading. The lack of income from the grassspecies Vetiver (Vetiveria zizanioides) also explains thefrequent lack of interest shown by farmers in this species,despite its negligible competition with crops, its excellent soil retaining qualities, and despitemany extension activities and incentives used to promote its adoption.

PLATE 9Live barriers and directplanting to control soilerosion


Another possiblealternative to grass as livebarriers is pineapples (Ananascomosus), which can producean income of US$ 20 to 30(1997) from 100 m of livebarrier. However, the widespacing needed for thepineapples to produce fruit isinitially too great to be able to

retain eroded sediments. Only by piling up residues, weeds and prunings on the uphill side ofthe live barrier will it be possible to create an effective obstacle to retain eroding sediments, butthis implies extra work which farmers may not find acceptable. The same arguments ofineffective sediment trapping apply to widely spaced shrubs and trees such as pigeon pea(Cajanus cajan), Gliricidia sepium, and Leucaena leucocephala, unless sufficient residues andprunings are accumulated on the uphill side of the live barrier. Moreover these species do notgive as high an income as sugar cane or Napier grass, which explains the lack of spontaneousadoption of these species beyond the plots where they were originally established.

Napier grass and sugar cane are too high to be used in conjunction with vegetables, and soshorter species, less than 60 cm high, such as rice grass (Oryzopsis sp.) or weeping love grass(Eragrostis curvula) have been adopted by some farmers but, because of the lack of incomefrom these species, uptake has not been high.

Recommended species for live barriers are dwarf varieties of Napier grass (Pennisetumpurpureum) a clumped perennial, Brachiaria brizantha, which is a loosely tufted perennialgrass, weakly rhizomatous and reasonably palatable, and sugar cane (Saccharum sp.).

To establish live barriers, contour lines must be marked out at intervals corresponding towhere the barriers are to be established (see Annex 2). The spacing of live barriers should notgenerally be closer than about 15 to 20 m regardless of slope, because of the work involved inmaintaining and harvesting the barriers (grass barriers may need to be cut every four weeks tomaintain fodder quality), and because of the competition for light, water and nitrogen betweenbarriers and adjacent crops. Live barriers also take an area of crops out of production that maybe unacceptably high to the farmer if the spacing is less than 15 to 20 m, especially for farmersowning very small properties.

For compacted soils it is advisable to first till the soil along the lines where the barriers areto be established, either by hand or by animal traction.

To establish Napier grass, stem cuttings of three to four nodes are used, for Brachiariabrizantha root divisions with two to three shoots, and for sugar cane setts of four or five nodes.The stem cuttings of Napier grass and the setts of sugar cane should be selected from stems cut10 to 20 cm above ground level. All vegetative materials should be selected from young healthyplants. Prior to planting the root divisions of Brachiaria brizantha, the leaves should be cut toleave 10 to 15 cm, and the roots cut to leave only 5 cm.

The stem cuttings of Napier grass and the setts of sugar cane are buried at an inclined anglein the soil to a depth of 5 to 7 cm at 15 to 20 cm spacings. If sufficient material is available tworows are established at 20-30 cm spacing to hasten the development of a cover. The rootdivisions of Brachiaria brizantha are planted at 15 cm spacings, and it is preferable to plant a


second row 20 to 30 cm uphill from the first. Brachiaria brizantha can also be established fromseed, but the cost is likely to be excessive.

Shortly after the plants have “taken,” the live barriers should be examined and any largespaces should be immediately replanted. Livestock must be kept out of the field where the livebarriers are being established for at least the first two years, and should preferably bepermanently excluded to avoid damage to the barriers. Periodic revisions of the barriers arenecessary to maintain them in good condition.

Annual intercropping systems: In intercropping systems two or more crops are grownsimultaneously in the same field. These systems if properly managed may give greater totalproductivity per unit area of land, and therefore provide a more efficient utilization of the land,which is particularly important to farmers cultivating small areas. Intercropping systems alsotend to suffer less from insect, disease and weed problems, and are often less susceptible toerosion risks due to the increased ground cover. The most successful and widely adoptedintercropping systems are the traditional systems of maize (Zea mays) - beans (Phaseolusvulgaris) and maize-sorghum (Sorghum bicolor) that involve the simultaneous cultivation ofthe basic grain crops required for subsistence. Perennial intercropping of cassava and bananasare also common in some parts (Plate 10).

PLATE 10Weeding intercroppedbanana/cassava


Traditional bean varieties that are edible, such as cowpea or Vigna, e.g. “frijol alacín”(Vigna unguiculata), scarlet runner bean “Chinapopo” (Phaseolus coccineus) for high altitudeareas of 1 500 to 2 800m, and “cornfield bean” (frijol milpero) (Phaseolus vulgaris) areintercropped with maize, and readily accepted by farmers when seeds are available. The Vignashave the advantage that they mature very rapidly, in 40 days, and can be easily intercroppedwith maize and sorghum. Moreover, only the pods are normally harvested so that the stems andleaves remain on the surface providing a degree of soil protection, though the leaves are rapidlydecomposed. Other traditional intercropping systems which are widely adopted in some areasare maize-pumpkin (Cucurbita sp.); maize-watermelon (Citrulus lanatus); maize-gourds(Lagenaria siceraria); and cassava (Manihot esculenta)-maize-beans-watermelon-cowpeas(Vigna unguiculata) in the drier areas of southern Honduras.

More attention should be given to these and other traditional systems which are alreadywidely adopted and well accepted by farmers in certain areas, and which could probably bereadily transferred to other areas with similar agro-ecological and socio-economic conditions.Traditional systems provide a sound basis for introducing simple modifications that wouldgreatly enhance productivity or sustainability by, for example, changing to an improved variety,higher plant populations, superior crop arrangement, or improved management. A majorproblem in promoting the adoption of edible cover crops is the limited availability of seed, andso the establishment of communal seed banks would be advantageous.

Sequential cropping systems: Sequential, or relay, cropping of maize-beans and maize-sorghum is a traditional technology in which the beans or sorghum are sown in the latter part ofthe cropping season when the maize plants are at physiological maturity. At the time of plantingthe beans the maize plants are doubled to facilitate drying of the grain. These systems are verywidely practised and have the advantages of: allowing two crops to be sown per year in thesame field; utilization by the second crop of part of the remaining fertilizer applied to themaize; maize stalks serving as supports for the bean plants to climb up; surface maize residuesreducing water losses by evaporation and runoff, and protection of the soil from erosion.Sequential intercropping systems are more widespread than annual intercropping systems.These systems can often be readily improved by increasing plant population and usingimproved varieties.

Covered bean in a slash-mulch system: In this slash-mulch system the bean seeds arebroadcast, and then the vegetation is slashed (instead of being burned) and left as a mulch tocover and maintain moisture for the germinating seeds. A two- to three-year fallow period isusually allowed between successive bean crops. This system is particularly common in veryhumid environments where burning the fallow vegetation is often difficult. The practiceoriginates from pre-Hispanic times, and is practised in Central America, where it is known as“frijol tapado.” Maize, cassava, plantains and bananas can also be produced by the slash-mulchsystem, but beans is the most common.

Covered bean systems are generally practised in small areas (av. area = 0.5 ha) on steepslopes. Seeds are broadcast at high seeding rates of 180 000 to 400 000 seeds/ha in humidconditions on land with two or more years fallow regrowth of predominantly low-aggressiveweeds. The weeds, shrubs, vines and small trees are then slashed with a machete so that a moreor less compact layer of mulch, 5 to 50 cm thick, forms over the seeds and provides moistconditions favouring seed germination. Emergence of the bean plants occurs through the rottingmulch and a cover of bean plants occurs within 15-20 days of sowing. The seeds are ofindeterminate varieties (climbing types) which grow above the elongating weeds. The field is


then left largely unattended until harvest time when the bean plants are pulled up, dried in thefield, and the seeds harvested.

The system has the advantages of no inputs apart from the farmer’s own seed, andminimum labour so enabling the farmer to attend to other activities. Moreover, the land iscovered throughout the cropping period thereby minimizing erosion hazards, soil organic mattercontents are maintained, and there is an efficient recycling of nutrients. The covered beanssystem is a sustainable, low risk technology, but gives low yields. Average yield in Costa Ricais 0.33 t/ha, but yields vary widely with seasonal rainfall, soil fertility and the degree of pestattack. Nevertheless, the yield per unit of inputs or per unit of labour is often acceptable tofarmers.

The main limiting factor is the low plant population despite high seeding rates. This isoften due to poor quality seed and insufficient moisture in the mulch cover for germination andinitial seedling growth. Preliminary research in Costa Rica gave a six-fold increase in beanyield from 77 kg/ha to 495 kg/ha by planting the seeds directly into the soil, but this required anextra nine days labour. It is possible that farmer participatory trials could lead to yield increasesthrough management improvements whilst maintaining the system’s advantages of lowenvironmental risks, low inputs and low labour requirements.

Agrochemicals: Fertilizers and pesticides are in small quantities used by many subsistence-oriented farmers, especially in El Salvador. The application of inorganic fertilizers even at lowapplication levels should be encouraged, especially where the application is economic, andthere are insufficient alternative materials available, such as manures.1 Without small fertilizerapplications basic grain yields will often be unacceptably low. Furthermore, the higher yieldsobtained with fertilizers liberate land that can be used for diversifying into other crops or landuses for additional income generation.

Significant improvements in the efficiency and profitability of fertilizer application cansometimes be made, for example, by not using highly acidifying fertilizers such as sulphate ofammonia, by applying only those nutrients actually required on the basis of soil analysis, andby applying quantities that correspond to economic application rates. Increased efficiency infertilizer application and in the effectiveness of the fertilizer itself can be obtained by usingseeders (“matracas”) with combined fertilizer and seed hoppers that place the fertilizer to theside of, and slightly below, the seed. However, despite their considerable potential, adoptionhas been very limited so far (see section Manual seeders). The range of available fertilizers isoften very restricted, frequently no fertilizer response information is available for the soils andcrops of the area, and the cost and feasibility of soil analysis may be prohibitive. Simplefertilizer trials that farmers can carry out may be a useful approach to overcoming some ofthese problems. The use of composts has not been widely adopted, probably because of thework involved.

With the increasing adoption of no-tillage, the demand for herbicides is increasing. Moreemphasis needs to be placed on the use of glyphosate systemic herbicides instead of thecarcinogenic contact herbicide Paraquat. Demonstration plots and training courses areparticularly important to convince farmers of the desirability of using glyphosate herbicides,

1 Despite considerable efforts to introduce leguminous cover crops to supply nitrogen, these practices have

generally not been widely adopted, except in some small localised areas.


because of the long period before glyphosates show an effect, and because of the greaterknowledge required in the timing of glyphosate application. Commercial companies can play animportant role in promoting the use of these herbicides through paired demonstration plots andshort training courses to farmers and farmer-extensionists.

The use of pesticides is common for many farmers; organic pesticides based on Neem(Azadirachta indica) and Gliricidia sepium have been adopted locally, but despite considerablepotential the degree of adoption appears to be limited (see section Natural pesticides).

Live fences: Live fences provide farmers with a means of demarcating their properties, and ofcontrolling livestock movement and protecting their crops, not only from livestock but alsofrom wild animals. They also have a much longer life and their initial cost is much lesscompared to posts. They can also function as windbreaks, provide shade, and can act to someextent as live barriers when aligned parallel to the contour. In addition they may provideadditional products such as fuelwood, posts, fruits, nuts and fodder.

It is the lack of available stakes of suitable species which is the main constraint to theadoption of live fences. Other problems are the low percentage “rooting” of stakes, the dangerof them being destroyed by animals - even apparently unpalatable species - the labour requiredto manage and lop the trees, and the need for planting stakes and lopping trees at the peak ofland preparation activities just before the rains.

To establish live fences from seedlings overcomes the problem of the low rates of rooting,but cost of the seedlings is frequently unacceptably high, and suitable seedlings are often notavailable. Moreover, most seedlings are readily consumed by livestock unless the seedlings areprotected - which is not a feasible proposition for resource-poor farmers. Alternatively,seedlings may be established within a fenced maize field for two or more years, until they aresufficiently high not to be destroyed by livestock, when the field can be sown to pasture.

Despite the difficulties, there are clear advantages to live fences, and establishment fromstakes is relatively simple and requires no inputs provided suitable stakes are available.

The most popular species for live fences are those that can be easily established fromstakes, and which provide an additional commodity or source of income such as fuelwood,browse, fruits, nuts, posts or other useful products. Popular species in Central America are:Indio desnudo or Jiote (Bursera simarouba) (fuelwood, browse, utensils); Piñon de Indias(Jatropha curcas) (fruit); Ciruelo or Jocote (Spondias purpurea) (fuelwood and fruit); Caulote(Guazuma ulmifolia) (fuelwood, browse); Casco de burro (Bahueia monandra) (fuelwood,posts); and Gliricidia sepium (browse and fuelwood).

Stakes should be cut at the end of the dry season before the appearance of new shoots, andtwo to three weeks before they are to be planted. Select stakes that are 2.0 to 2.5 m long, 5 to 8cm diameter at the base and 3-5 cm diameter at the top. In general, it will be trees that are of 18to 24 months old that will provide stakes of these dimensions. Farmers recommend that thestakes should be cut during the waning of the moon (Radulovich and Rodríguez, 1994).

Stakes should be straight, well formed and free of any diseases. The cut should be as cleanas possible, and the removal of side shoots should not damage the bark. Avoid any knocks orbruises to the stakes, leave them in the shade for one week so that the cuts can heal, and then


place them in a vertical position for two to three weeks to promote the accumulation of certainnutritional elements at the base to promote rooting.

Plant the stakes just prior to the onset of the rains in holes 30 to 50 cm deep at intervalsof one to two metres. About 30 minutes are required to plant each stake. Whether or not thestakes have rooted should become clear 30 to 60 days after planting, assuming the rains havestarted.

Fence wires should not be nailed to the stakes for the first 6 to 12 months, and when theyare nailed, the nails should not be completely inserted to avoid becoming embedded in thegrowth of the tree. Shoots from the lower and middle parts of the stake should be cut off toencourage vertical growth, so that the leaves extend beyond the reach of livestock. Loppingneeds to be carried out every year, or more frequently if fodder or fuelwood are needed. It isimportant to cut the side branches cleanly to avoid infection, and not too close to the trunk toavoid damage to the trunk.

Dispersed trees in annual crops: Allowing the growth of occasional trees within annual cropsis a traditional system in much of Central America and provides for the simultaneousproduction of fuelwood, posts, timber and grain (Plate 11). Thus the productivity per unit areaof land is increased. The trees absorb nutrients from depths beyond the reach of annual crops,which are subsequently recycled, and the loppings of the trees offer protection to the soil fromerosion, and supply additional organic matter to the soil. Examples of dispersed trees in annualcrops are sowing maize in the loppings of Gliricidia sepium followed by the broadcasting ofbeans, as in parts of Honduras, and the natural regeneration of laurel (Cordia alliodora) andquebracho (Lysiloma seemannii) in grain fields in El Salvador.

A system of dispersed trees in annual crops, known as “Quesungual” in Honduras, hasrecently been developed by farmers in the Lempira Department as a consequence of not burningthe crop residues, and by their perceived need to obtain more fuelwood. Those trees thatnaturally regenerate after the harvest of the maize, which are fast growing, do not provideexcessive shade, and those which are useful to the farmer for fuelwood, timber or posts areallowed to regenerate. The most useful trees are caulote (Guazuma ulmifolia), quebracho(Lysiloma seemannii), laurel (Cordia alliodora), Gliricidia sepium, carbón (Prosopis juliflora),jiote (Bursera simarouba), almendro (Terminalia catappa) and aceituno (Simarouba glauca).

PLATE 11Dispersed trees in annualcrops. Branches lopped priorto sowing beans


Unwanted trees are eliminated. At the beginning of the next season the useful trees are loppedat about chest height, and leaves and smaller branches are spread over the surface to form athick mulch. Loppings that serve as fuelwood are removed. Maize or maize and sorghum arethen sown through the mulch; alternatively beans and sorghum may be broadcast. The practicecontinues for two to three years, when the land is left fallow for two to three years and the cyclerestarts. At the beginning of the new cycle the useful trees are left, the others are cut anddispersed on the soil surface to form a thick mulch.

This system is similar to a simple form of alley cropping, but has certain advantages inthat it is not necessary to mark out contour lines or plant trees along the contour. Otherimportant advantages, in addition to the production of fuelwood, posts and timber, are theimprovement to soil fertility due to the thick surface mulch, the reduction of erosion risks, andthe diminished soil moisture losses by evaporation due to shade. The tree stumps also serve assupports for drying beans in the field. This system appears to be admirable, is sustainable, andis widely accepted by farmers in the Lempira Sur area of Honduras. Farmers have beenmodifying the system over a number of years, and should be encouraged and helped to continueinvestigations on how to improve the system by using improved varieties, herbicides, higherplant populations, and economic applications of fertilizer.

Dispersed trees in pastures: This is another traditional system widely practised in CentralAmerica, in which the presence of trees within pastures not only increases land productivity,through the production of fuelwood, timber and fence posts, but the trees also afford shade, andbrowse to livestock, and recycle nutrients from deep down within the soil. The most usefultrees in this system and their main uses (given in parentheses) are laurel (Cordia alliodora)(timber, posts), guachipelín (Diphysa robinioides) (fuelwood, timber, posts), quebracho(Lysiloma seemannii) (fuelwood, timber, posts), jagua (Genipa americana) (fuelwood), masico(Brosimum alicastrum) (fuelwood, posts), carbón (Prosopis juliflora) (fuelwood) andguanacaste (Enterolobium cyclocarpum) (fuelwood, timber, browse). The most common grassspecies are Guinea grass (Panicum maximum), Star grass (Cynodon nlemfuensis), Andropogongayanus, and Jaragua (Hyparrhenia rufa). In addition to the above benefits, the pasture grassesbeneath trees such as Inga sp. appear to stay greener for longer than where no trees are present.

This is another simple system that does not require any input costs and which should beencouraged. However, the main problem is how to establish trees in existing pastures that arebeing grazed. One approach is to fence off the pasture, plant tree seedlings and sow grass seed.The grass is cut and carried for two years until the trees have grown beyond the reach ofanimals, when the livestock are again allowed to enter. Other possible solutions are to establishthe trees in a fenced field of annual crops for two years, then sow the pasture and restrict theentry of livestock for a further year, so that the trees have three years to grow before beingexposed to livestock. Alternatively, a pasture may be established by clearing a fallow regrowthof all but the desirable tree species, and then sowing the grass. By establishing dispersed treesin pastures from a field used for annual crops or from a fallow regrowth, it is possible toinclude more useful species.

Kitchen gardens: Kitchen gardens are widely adopted and provide dietary variation for thefamily, but may also provide occasional opportunities for selling excess fruit and vegetables ona small scale. For reasons of convenience, security and to facilitate irrigation, they are usuallysituated close to the farmhouse. They generally consist of fruit trees, bananas, spices, medicinalplants and traditional vegetables, such as sweet potatoes (Ipomoea batatas), cassava (Manihot


esculenta), squash and pumpkins (Cucurbita sp.). There can be wide variations in terms of therange of species present.

This technology is usually managed by women, and can be easily improved by makingavailable good quality seeds and vegetative materials of other traditional crops. Theestablishment of seed and vegetative banks in farmer-extensionists´ farms is one way of makingthese materials available within a community.

RECOMMENDED SUCCESSFUL TECHNOLOGIES FOR MARKET-ORIENTED FARMERS

Emphasis in this document is given to technologies that are most applicable to subsistence-orientated farmers, and so the following practices for market-oriented farmers are dealt with inless detail.

Shade trees in coffee: This practice provides many benefits, such as reduced insolation,increased organic matter additions from litter fall, greater soil cover reducing erosion risks, andless moisture losses by evapotranspiration. A further advantage of mixed cropping of fruit treesand coffee bushes is that in response to changing coffee prices, the farmer can adjust therelative severity of pruning of the coffee and fruit trees according to which crop is giving themost favourable returns.

In many areas the main shade trees are derived from the original forest, e.g. poró(Erythrina fusea), Gliricidia sepium, and guaba (Inga paterno). Dual-purpose fruit trees shouldbe promoted such as bananas and plantains (Musa cv), which provide both shade and additionalincome from the sale of fruit. Citrus sp. are less desirable because the spines may causediscomfort when harvesting the coffee. Avocado pear (Persea americana) is used in some areasand appears to be very promising.

Wind breaks for high value crops: Wind breaks are largely restricted to those areas wherewind damage is a problem and where high value crops are being grown, such as horticulturalcrops and coffee. The costs of establishing wind breaks are seldom considered justifiable forlow value crops, although the establishment of trees along property and field boundaries is verycommon and should be encouraged. In Costa Rica elephant grass (Pennisetum purpureum) isfrequently used as a wind break for vegetables, whereas pine trees are used for coffee.

Organic manures: The benefits of applying organic manures to soils are due to the highorganic matter contents and the wide range of nutrients present which help to restore andmaintain soil physical and chemical fertility. Using organic manures produced on the farmpromotes nutrient recycling within the farm, and their application to small areas of horticulturalcrops and fruit trees should be encouraged. Those farmers who possess livestock should plantheir farm so as to facilitate the collection and application of manures. Keeping livestock in acorral at night, or restricting their movement during the day, greatly facilitates the collection ofmanure, and if the location of the vegetable or fruit tree plots is close by, the time required toapply the manure will be greatly reduced. Factors which restrict the use of farm-producedmanures are the time spent in collecting, carrying and applying the manure to the crops.

The use of off-farm manures is restricted to those farmers who have ready access to cheapsupplies. Where cheap supplies are available their use should be promoted, especially forhorticultural crops when there is good access to reliable markets. The technology will be


sustainable as long as the price and cost of transportation of the manures are acceptable.Escalating prices and transport costs may force farmers to change over to inorganic fertilizersbecause of their much higher nutrient contents.

Organic animal manures derived from cattle, goats and horses should be allowed todecompose under cover for 15 to 25 days, depending on the weather conditions, i.e. rainfall,temperature and wind, before using. Whilst the manures are decomposing they must beprotected from the sun and rain by covering the pile with a layer of grass, and erecting a shelterover it. Alternatively, the manures can be added to a compost heap. Well decomposed manuresshould be applied at the time of sowing by incorporation into the row or planting hole. If themanures are still fresh they must be applied 15 days before planting to avoid the manures“burning” seeds or roots of the seedlings.

Chicken manures must not be left exposed to the sun and rain to avoid nutrient losses.Covering with a thick layer of grass or plastic beneath a shelter will also avoid massivebreeding of flies which can transmit diseases. Chicken manure should be incorporated into, andthoroughly mixed with, soil in the row or planting hole 15 days before sowing. This is becausefresh chicken manure is very scorching and would otherwise damage the seeds or seedlings. Fordensely sown horticultural crops such as onions and carrots, the chicken manure may bebroadcast and incorporated into the soil with a hoe some 15 days before sowing. It may also beapplied after sowing, by placing the manure into the soil beside the emerged crops. Chickenmanure should generally be applied at rates of about 6.5 to 13 t/ha.

Strip tillage: Strip tillage refers to the cultivation of narrow strips parallel to the contourwhere the crop is to be sown, whilst leaving intervening areas untouched and covered withresidues. It is essentially a traditional practice that was abandoned and is now being adoptedonce again in parts of Central America. The loosening of the soil in narrow strips of 5 to 20 cmwidth along the seed row improves the physical condition of the soil and facilitates seedgermination. Leaving the intervening areas uncultivated (possibly in a cloddy condition) andcovered with residues facilitates rainfall infiltration. As a result of improved infiltration,moisture contents and crop yields tend to increase, and erosion hazards decrease. Otheradvantages of strip tillage are the greater ease of incorporating fertilizers and manurescompared to no-tillage, the reduction in land preparation time, and possibilities of moreopportune seeding compared to conventional tillage, although not compared to no-tillage.

Strip cultivation may be implemented using hand cultivation with mattocks and hoes onslopes of up to 30 percent, by chisel ploughing with animal traction on slopes up to 25 percent,and using tractors with chisel ploughs or cultivators on slopes up to 17 percent. This practiceshould be recommended for soils with degraded surface or topsoil structures and/or very firmconsistencies where rainfall infiltration or seed germination are limiting factors. Byincorporating organic manures in the loosened zone, soil physical conditions can be furtherimproved, so that after a number of years it may be possible to replace strip tillage by no-tillage, which is more conservation-effective.

Terraces for high value crops: Terraces improve rainfall infiltration and reduce the risks oferosion on hillsides, but suffer from disadvantages of high labour requirements for constructionand maintenance and specialized knowledge. Therefore they should only be recommended forhigh value crops such as coffee, horticultural crops and fruit trees (Plate 12 and 13).Terraces


need to be recommended when it is clear that the erosionproblem cannot be adequately controlled by the cheaper and more easily implementedagronomic and vegetative conservation measures. Physical conservation practices should beconsidered as complementary to agronomic and vegetative practices.

Intermittent step terraces in conjunction with contour planting have been widely adoptedin coffee, as the terraces greatly facilitate the harvesting and management of the coffee, as wellas reducing runoff and erosion. Individual platform terraces are frequently readily adopted forfruit trees, despite the work involved, because farmers quickly perceive the benefits of betterwater infiltration, greater fertilizer efficiency and improved growth. Bench terraces have beenwidely adopted for horticultural crops, due to the ease of managing the crops and cultivating thesoil prior to sowing or transplanting. Since the need for these practices is restricted, and sincedetails of their construction and maintenance are readily available in the literature, theprocedures are not presented here.

Horticultural crops: This technology is only suitable for those farmers receiving regulartechnical support, with access to reliable transport, and who live close to market towns.Traditional horticultural crops, such as sweet potatoes, beans, pumpkins, cassava, yams,plantains, bananas, watercress, and squash are most recommended as they are more resistant to

PLATE 12Farmers constructingterraces and seedbedsfor horticultural crops

PLATE 13Individual platform terracesfor citrus


disease and more familiar to farmers than crops such as tomatoes and chillies. To sustainproduction, vegetative and seed banks need to be established within the communities, andaccess to cheap sources of organic manures is a great advantage. Contracts for supplyingvegetables and fruit to local supermarkets, restaurants and hotels are needed to sustainproduction, but this requires a highly organized and reliable production system. An efficientirrigation system, the application of pesticides, and large quantities of manures, inorganic andfoliar fertilizers are required.

Improved pastures: This technology is recommended for, and has been well adopted,especially by dairy farmers. In El Salvador the species resulting in the most spontaneousadoption are Brachiaria brizantha and Digitaria swazilandensis. Frequently the cost andavailability of seed are the main factors limiting adoption.

Silos: The use of metallic silos has been well received by farmers and can prevent 10 to 15percent post harvest grain losses, provided the grain is dried to 14 percent moisture contentprior to storage. Storage of the grain also enables farmers to sell at a later date when prices arehigher. Silos should be recommended to those farmers who have sufficient financial resourcesand access to credit; the cost can usually be recuperated within a few years because of theconsiderable savings in loss of grain.

Small simple irrigation systems: This is a very profitable technology for areas that have morethan five dry months dry season per year, are close to markets, and where permanent sources ofwater are present or can be created. Under these conditions small scale irrigation systemsshould be encouraged, but the number of farmers that can benefit is usually very limited. Thesimplest systems involve the delivery of water under gravity via tubing from a water source,and its application to small basins or rows of crops. More sophisticated systems usingsprinklers or drip irrigation are suitable to more advanced horticultural farmers. The mainproblems of the rustic systems are the cost, availability and life of the irrigation tubing, and theneed for a degree of farmer organization when several farmers are extracting water from thesame source. Introducing small-scale irrigation encourages farmers to work as a group whenthere is a need to regulate the supply of water, and makes farmers more aware of the problemsof deforestation, runoff and water contamination.

TECHNOLOGIES OF LIMITED APPLICATION

Hillside ditches for grain crops: This technology is generally not recommended for graincrops because of the high costs and sometimes high opportunity costs. For these reasonsadoption rates are very disappointing unless incentives are provided, and incentives, apart fromtraining courses and visits, do not generally lead to sustainable development.

For grain crops on steep slopes, the problems of soil erosion and runoff should be initiallytackled by means of agronomic and vegetative soil conservation practices, e.g. no burning, no-tillage (for well structured top soils) or strip tillage (for degraded top soil structures), contourplanting, leaving crop residues on the soil surface, and live barriers. Only if these practices areunable to adequately control the problems of erosion and runoff, should physical structures beconsidered as complementary practices, and even then it is unlikely many farmers will adoptthem without incentives, because of the effort and costs involved (Plate 14). The circumstancesunder which hillside ditches are most likely to be needed are for soils with very low infiltrationrates where it is difficult to establish a residue cover on the surface, as for example in areas

PLATE 14Hillside ditch for grain crops.Recommended only whenagronomic and vegetativeconservation practicescannot control erosion orrunoff


with long dry periods and a high demand on the residues. Also for very shallow or very stonysoils with low water holding capacities; the water holding capacity of the underlying parentmaterial must also be taken into account, as this can sometimes be very significant. With goodsoil management practices, it is likely that hillside ditches can be abandoned once theinfiltration rates, water holding capacities, and the percentage ground cover have beenimproved, as there will then be few risks of soil erosion or runoff losses.

If contour hillside ditches are necessary, it is important to ascertain whether the ditches areneeded to retain water because of moisture deficits, to discharge water because of excessrainfall or impermeable soils, or whether a combination of both water retention in dry periodsand water discharge in wet periods is required. If moisture deficits are the dominant problem,the ditches should be constructed parallel to the contour (see Annex 2). Where the function ofhillside ditches is mainly that of drainage, the ditches must be constructed on a gradient ofabout 0.5 percent, depending on soil type. In areas with erratic rainfall graded ditches mayrequire small cross-bunds to retain the water during dry periods, but which allow the dischargeof water during heavy rains.

Stone barriers: Stone barriers serve to detain the downslope movement of runoff andsediments, and with the progressive deposition of sediments behind the stone walls, smallterraces are formed. Stones are removed from the field and walls are constructed parallel to thecontour, or at a slight gradient of 0.2 to 0.5 percent if water will need to be discharged. Theconstruction of the walls may be gradual, commencing the first year with a wall of only 30 cmheight, and gradually raising the height of the wall as sediment is deposited behind it.

This conservation practice is only recommended for stony soils, where the presence ofmany stones hinders tillage, whether manual, by tractor, or with animal traction. However,before recommending stone barriers, the question as to whether tillage is really required shouldbe carefully considered. For soils with acceptable infiltration rates and surface structuralconditions that favour seed germination, it is preferable to leave the stones on the soil surfaceas a mulch to encourage water infiltration, and to sow manually by no-tillage. A seriousdisadvantage of stone barriers, which has restricted farmer adoption unless incentives are given,is the high labour requirement of about 124 work-days/ha for their construction.

POTENTIALLY SUITABLE TECHNOLOGIES YET TO BE WIDELY ADOPTED

Manual seeders: Manual seeders with hoppers for seed and fertilizer, known in Brazil as“matracas,” are widely used in southern Brazil, northern Argentina and Paraguay for maize,beans, rice and various cover crops. Up to now they have not been widely adopted in CentralAmerica, despite a work rate approximately two to three times faster than the traditionalplanting stick, and despite their high fertilizer efficiency due to placement of fertilizer close tothe seed. One disadvantage is that the opening of manual seeders can become clogged with soilin moist to wet conditions, reducing their efficiency. The price of locally manufactured seedersshould be within the reach of small-scale farmers. In El Salvador some modifications are beingcarried out to make the seeders more suited to the rugged conditions that farmers have tocontend with in Central America.

Animal traction no-till seeders: Simple no-till seeders designed for animal traction give highseeding rates combined with efficient fertilizer application. In soils with no stones or roots,seeding rates are three times faster than when using a planting stick, and the equipment enables


fertilizer to be placed close to the seed, thereby improving fertilizer efficiency. Modelsdeveloped in Brazil are now being adapted in Costa Rica for Central American conditions bythe use of stronger, longer-lasting materials. The seeders consist of a trash-cutting wheelfollowed by a chisel to loosen the soil, a seed and fertilizer application unit, followed by a presswheel. The seeders are expensive, approximately US$ 700 per unit (1996), and so are onlysuitable for purchase by groups of farmers. Although practice is needed in handling theequipment, there has been considerable demand for these seeders by farmers in Costa Rica,where they are now being manufactured.

Composts: Composts enhance crop yields and improve soil physical and chemical fertility, buttheir adoption is largely confined to farmers with nurseries, and to those producing intensive,high value horticultural crops on a small scale. Producing composts for kitchen gardens has alsomet with little success, despite the promise of the technology. The main limiting factors are thetime and cost of production. It is essential that cheap, locally available organic materials areused to minimize costs. A further difficulty is in knowing the correct proportions of thedifferent constituents to be used according to their chemical composition and function. Themain nutrient content or function of some common organic materials used in composting:coffee pulp (N,P,K); rice husks (for aeration and Si); chicken manure2 (N); sawdust (foraeration); sugar cane molasses (energy source for fermentation and K, Ca, Mg); lime (to adjustthe pH); semolina3 (P, Mg); vegetable green wastes (moisture and N) and sugar cane ashes (K,Ca, Mg) (Plate 15).

Natural pesticides: Natural pesticides should be very appropriate to small-scale farmersbecause of their low cost and the absence of toxicity problems. Natural pesticides may beproduced from

2 Broiler manure may be less suitable than that from laying chickens because of the presence of more antibiotics

which can interfere with the fermentation process.3 “Semolina” refers to the particles of hard wheat left after grinding for flour.


the extracts of certain plants, for example, neem (Azadirachta indica), Gliricidia sepium,pungent chillies (Capsicum frutescens), onions (Allium cepa) and garlic (Allium sativum), andby sowing repellent plants such as marigolds (Tagetes sp.). In general the adoption of naturalpesticides has been very limited, despite their considerable potential and their lack of toxicityproblems. In some areas, especially in El Salvador, the adoption of natural pesticides has beenmore encouraging. The most commonly used natural pesticides are botanical extracts from theabove-mentioned plants applied to maize, beans, coffee, chillies, tomatoes, cucumbers, andsquash. The most common pests that were controlled were Bemisia tabaci, Hypothenemushampei, Diabrotica sp., Phyllophaga sp., and Spodoptera frugiperda. More emphasis needs tobe placed on the use and testing of natural pesticides.

“Non-edible” cover crops: There have been abundant trials on using cover crops intersownwith grain crops throughout Central America, especially with the mucunas (Mucuna pruriensex-Stizolobium deeringianum and Mucuna sp.), Canavalia ensiformis, and Lablab purpureusex-Dolichos lablab (Plate 16). These species are generally considered non-edible in CentralAmerica since there is no tradition of eating the seeds, although in Yucatan Mexico, farmersboil mucuna seeds as a feed for pigs which is superior to available concentrates. However, theseeds of these three cover crops are edible, and in West Africa small quantities of not more than10 to 15 seeds of mucuna or 10 seeds of Canavalia ensiformis can be consumed per person per

PLATE 15School garden in Lempira area:students learning how to preparecompost

PLATE 16Cover crop of Canavaliaensiformis between citrus


meal if the seeds are first boiled in water for 40 minutes, and the water and seed coat thendiscarded. The remaining endosperm is then ground into a paste along with other ingredientsfor preparing stews or soups. Both the green and mature seeds of Lablab purpureus can also beconsumed without toxicity problems, and the dry matter is very palatable. Lablab purpureus issuitable for intercropping with maize because of its initially slow growth rate. Despite the manyvery promising potential benefits of including these “non-edible” cover crops in a range offarming systems, farmer adoption has been minimal to date. Even the excellent example of themucuna-maize production system that has lasted 40 years in the humid coastal zone ofHonduras is now being replaced, in all but isolated areas, by ranching and horticultural crops.

The conditions under which small-scale farmers will adopt cover crops:

• when another crop cannot be grown at that time or place, because of opportunity costs;• when the cover crop requires no cash inputs, such as insecticides;• when the cover crop requires no additional labour;• when the cover crop has additional advantages beyond that of merely supplying cover,

controlling erosion or increasing soil fertility, such as being edible, or capable of being fedto animals.

Because of the above reasons and the lack of custom to consume the seeds of these crops,the adoption rates of mucuna, Canavalia and Dolichos have generally been very low.Nevertheless, the use and consumption of these cover crops should continue to be tested andevaluated.

Leguminous forage crops: Leguminous forage crops may be grown either in pure stands asprotein banks, or intercropped with cereal for in situ grazing or silage production. Dolichoslablab, an annual which can self-seed, is suitable for protein banks as the seeds are non-toxic,and the foliage is very palatable and nutritious for livestock (25 to 28 percent protein).Establishment costs can be reduced by intersowing with maize. It is susceptible to insect attack,especially from Diabrotica sp., but recuperates well, and is tolerant of dry periods. Canavaliaensiformis, also an annual, may be used as a cover crop in citrus and grazed, but is lesspalatable than D. lablab. More attention needs to be given to promising perennial foragelegumes, such as Glycine wightii, for protein banks.

The legumes, Lablab purpureus, Canavalia ensiformis, Mucuna pruriens ex-Stizolobiumdeeringianum, sown as cover crops into maize or sorghum may be grazed in situ or harvestedfor silage production after harvesting the cereal grain. Intercropping sorghum with mucuna,sown 20 days after sorghum, and grazing the mucuna in the dry season has significantlyincreased milk yields in El Salvador. Sowing sorghum and Cajanus cajan in an area of 0.7 hahas produced sufficient silage to feed 10 bovine livestock units. for 111 days of dry season inNueva Guadalupe, El Salvador.

Hay production: In areas lacking dry season fodder, the production of hay would appear tobe promising. Improved or existing pastures, and the foliage from forage trees harvested in thewet season can be used to produce hay for consumption the following dry season. Dry spells topermit the drying of the green materials and suitable storage areas for the hay will be necessary.

Metal drums for seed conservation: This simple low-cost technology has successfullydecreased seed losses during storage in other parts of Latin America, and would be suitable forboth subsistence- and market-oriented farmers.


References

Argueta, M.T. 1996. Analisis de la produccion y utilizacion de rastrojos y su efecto sobre elriesgo de erosion en el departamento de Morazan. Agronomy Engineer’s thesis, Facultyof Engineering, Central American University, “Jose Simeon Canas,” San Salvador. 82 p.

Barber, R.G. 1997. Concepts, strategies and technologies for planners and advisers ofagricultural development programmes in hilly terrains of Central America. ConsultancyReport to FAO, December, 1997.AGLS/FAO, Rome.

FAO, 1994. Ecocrop 1. The adaptability level of the FAO crop environmental requirementsdatabase. FAO, Rome.

Geilfus, F. 1997. 80 herramientas para el desarrollo participativo: diagnóstico, planificación,monitoreo, evaluación. Prochalate-IICA, San Salvador. 208 p.

Langdale, G.W., West, L.T., Bruce, R.R., Miller, W.P. and Thomas, A.W. 1992. Restoration oferoded soil with conservation tillage. Soil Technology, 5: 81-90.

Radulovich, R and Rodríguez, R. 1994. Conservación de suelos y agua. In TecnologíasProductivas Para Sistemas Agrosilvopastoriles de Ladera con Sequía Estacional.Chapter 2. R. Radulovich (ed.). Turrialba, Costa Rica, Centro Agronómico Tropical deInvestigación y Enseñanza. Serie Técnica, Informe Técnico / CATIE No. 222. 190 p.

Shaxson, F. 1997. New concepts and practices to land management in the tropics withemphasis on steeplands. Draft Soils Bulletin, AGLS/FAO, Rome.

References70


Annex 1Soil characterization procedures

Walk over the property with the farmer and in each field dig one, preferably two, soil pits to 60cm depth to enable the soils to be examined. The soil pits should be located in areas which aretypical of the overall field conditions, and preferably alongside a row of mature crops (Plate17). Estimate the slope, and examine the effective soil depth, stoniness, drainage and texture ineach soil pit in each field and record the values in Figure 12. Also record the soil fertilityaccording to the farmer’s opinion.

If contrasting areas are found within the field, differing in slope, stoniness, soil depth,drainage, fertility or crop performance, separate them out as distinct land units. Assign a smallletter of identification to each land unit. There may be one, two or more land units in each field,but generally there is only one, sometimes two.

The soil characteristics are evaluated as follows:

Slope: Measure the slope in the direction of the line of maximum slope in the field using anAbney level,1 and record it as a percentage. If it is not possible to measure the precise slope,estimate the slope range within which the slope occurs, i.e. 0 to 10 percent, 10 to 20 percent, 20to 50 percent, 50 to 60 percent, 60 to 70 percent, or >70 percent.

Effective soil depth: Examine each soil pit to identify the limit to which the crop roots havepenetrated. This is referred to as the effective soil depth. Layers which can restrict rootpenetration are rocks, concentrations of gravel and stones, compacted layers which may beplough pans, or impermeable horizons recognized by means of their grey colours (gleying).Observations on the distribution of roots gives the best indication of effective soil depth.Measure and record the effective depth in cm.

Stoniness: Estimate the stoniness of the soil in the upper 60 cm depth and express it in terms ofthe percentage of the soil volume occupied by stones. This can be relatively easily estimated byexamining the soil that has been removed from the pit.

Fertility: Register the fertility of the soil in the field as high, moderate, low or very low on thebasis of the farmer’s experience of that field. If analytical data already exist attach the data toFigure 12.

1 An Abney level is an optical instrument for measuring the slope gradient between an observer and a second

person of similar height standing on the line of maximum gradient some 20-50 metres directly up- or down-slopefrom the observer. The observer uses the Abney level to sight the second person (“aiming” at the secondperson’s eyes if the two people are of the same height; if not aiming slightly above or below eye level accordingto their height difference). By adjusting a level located on top of the instrument until the "bubble" is in the centreof the field of view, the slope gradient can be read directly from a vernier scale.

Annex 1: Soil characterization procedures72

Drainage: Examine the drainage state of the soil in each soil pit, and if possible auger or dig inthe bottom of the pit to a depth of 100 cm. Soil drainage status is evaluated according to thedepth below the soil surface at which more than 10 percent of light grey mottles (gleying) arefirst encountered (see Plate). The drainage status of the soil may be classed as well drained,imperfectly drained, poorly drained, or very poorly drained on the following basis:

>10 percent grey mottles at 0-25cm depth Very poorly drained>10 percent grey mottles at 25-50cm depth Poorly drained>10 percent grey mottles at 50-100 cm depth Imperfectly drained>10 percent grey mottles at >100 cm depth Well drained

Texture: Determine the texture of the soil in the upper and lower parts of each soil pit, andrecord the texture as very light, light, medium, heavy or very heavy. If there is a markeddifference in texture between the upper and lower parts of the soil pit, give both textures. Toevaluate soil texture add sufficient water to a volume of soil, of approximately 1 cubic inch, andmould it between the fingers to break down the soil aggregates until the consistency resemblesthat of soft putty and the soil is at its maximum stickiness. The sand content, cohesiveness andstickiness of the moist soil will indicate the texture as follows:

Sand content Cohesiveness Stickiness TexturePure sand Not cohesive Not sticky Very lightVery sandy Slightly cohesive Not sticky LightSlightly sandy Moderately cohesive Slightly sticky MediumSlightly sandy Very cohesive Sticky HeavyNot sandy Very cohesive, and difficult to mould Very sticky Very heavy

Subsoil excavated from a soilpit showing grey colours(gleying) indicative of poordrainage conditions


Annex 2Methods of marking contour lines

Contour lines may be marked out using an A-frame, a hose-level, or a plank-level. The hose-level is the most precise of the three methods, but care must be taken to avoid water spillage.The main advantage of the plank-level is that the procedure can be accomplished by one person.

THE A-FRAME

Construction of an A-frame

Three straight pieces of wood of 1.5 m long andabout 4 cm wide and 1.5 cm thick are used.

1. Join two of the three pieces of wood bycrossing them at one end and bindingtogether strongly to form two sides of theletter “A.” The distance between the twoopen ends should be exactly 2 m. Makesure they are bound tightly and will notmove.

2. Then join the third piece of wood to form the cross piece of the letter “A” at about twothirds of the way down from the apex.

3. At the apex of the “A” tie a length of string to which a small stone has been attached to actas a plumb line as shown in Figure A.2.1.

Calibration of the A-frame

1. Place the A-frame on flat ground and mark the position of the two legs on the ground, thenlightly mark the point at which the plumb line crosses the horizontal bar.

2. Pivot the A-frame through 180o placing the legs exactly on the spots previously marked,and lightly mark the position where the plumb line crosses the horizontal bar.

3. The reference point that shows where the A-frame is level lies in the middle of these twomarks, and should be permanently marked on the horizontal bar.

NOTE: If the A-frame is dismantled, it must be recalibrated before using again.

FIGURE A.2.1

Annex 2: Methods of marking contour lines74

If wind is a problem that frequently disturbs the plumb line, replace the horizontal bar bytwo horizontal planks of wood, with the plumb line hanging between them to reduce theswinging motion of the string.

Use of the A-frame to mark out contour lines

1. To mark out contour lines, start at the highest point where a contour line is required, placeone leg of the A-frame adjacent to a stake, then move the other leg up and down slope untilthe plumb line coincides with the reference mark on the horizontal bar.

2. Mark the position of the second leg with a stake, by making a depression in the ground, orby making a small cut in the soil surface with a hoe or pick-axe, then move the A-framepositioning the first leg at the marked position, and adjust the second leg until the plumbline again coincides with the reference mark on the horizontal bar, and mark the positionof the second leg in the same way.

3. Repeat the process marking the positions of the legs of the A-frame when the plumb limecoincides with the reference mark on the horizontal bar.

4. Check the alignment of the stakes or surface markings, correcting the contour line by eye,and marking it either with stakes or by cutting a shallow trench into the ground.

THE HOSE-LEVEL

Construction of the hose-level

1. The hose-level is constructed from two poles of 2 m length, and a clear plastic hose of 10to 25 m length of about 1cm in diameter.

2. The hose is securely attached at both ends to the two poles with the ends of the hoseprotruding 10 to 20 cm beyond the top of the poles.

3. Carefully fill the hose with water ensuring that no air bubbles are trapped inside.

4. Hold the poles side by side and adjust until the water level settles at exactly the sameheight on each pole. Mark this height on both poles which should be about 1.5 metresabove ground (see Figure A.2.2).

Use of the hose-level to mark out contours

This requires two people.

1. The first person should hold one pole upright at the starting position, which is marked witha stake.

2. The second person moves the other pole to another position estimated to be along thecontour.


3. Each time a pole is moved the water levels must be allowed to settle. If the water levelsettles above the mark on the second pole, move the pole up the slope; if it settles belowthe mark move the pole downslope. When the water level coincides with the marks on bothpoles, insert a stake, or mark the ground surface with a depression or a small cut at theposition of the second pole.

FIGURE A.2.2

Annex 2: Methods of marking contour lines76

4. Repeat the process marking the positions of the poles of the hose-level when the waterlevel coincide with the reference marks on both poles.


N.B. When moving the poles you should block the end of the tubes with your thumb to avoidany spillage of water.

THE PLANK LEVEL

Construction of the plank-level

The plank-level consists of a plank ofwood 4m in length supported by two legsat either end of 25 cm height. Acarpenter’s spirit level is placed on top ofthe horizontal plank (see Figure A.2.3).

Marking out contour lines with a plank-level

1. Place one of the legs of the plank-level on the starting point of thecontour line and mark the position on the ground.

2. Move the other leg up and down the slope until the spirit level shows the plank to be level,and mark the position of the leg.

3. Pivot the plank-level around it and repeat the process, marking the positions of the legswhen the spirit level shows the plank-level to be level.


FIGURE A.2.3

FAO TECHNICAL PAPERS

FAO SOILS BULLETINS

1 Soils of the arid zones of Chile, 1965 (E*)2 A survey of soils laboratories in sixty-four FAO

member countries, 1965 (E*)3 Guide on general and specialized equipment for soils

laboratories, 1966 (E*)4 Guide to sixty soil and water conservation practices,

1966 (E*)5 Selection of soil for cocoa, 1966 (E* F* S*)6 Aerial photo interpretation in soil survey, 1967

(C* E* F* S*)7 A practical manual of soil microbiology laboratory

methods, 1967 (E*)8 Soil survey interpretation and its use, 1967 (E*)9 The preparation of soil survey reports, 1970 (E* F* S*)10 Physical and chemical methods of soil and water

analysis, 1970 (E F S)11 Soil fertility investigations on farmers’ fields, 1970

(E F S*)12 The response of wheat to fertilizers, 1971 (E)13 Land degradation, 1971 (C* E*)14 Improving soil fertility in Africa, 1971 (E* F*)15 Legislative principles of soil conservation, 1971 (E*)16 Effects of intensive fertilizer use on the human

environment, 1972 (E)17 Trace elements in soils and agriculture, 1972 (E F S*)18 Guide to the calibration of soil tests for fertilizer

recommendations, 1973 (E S*)19 Soil survey interpretation for engineering purposes,

1973 (E F* S*)20 Fertilizer legislation, 1973 (E* S)21 Calcareous soils, 1973 (E* F*)22 Approaches to land classification, 1974 (E*)23 Management properties of ferralsols, 1974 (E)24 Shifting cultivation and soil conservation in Africa,

1974 (E* F S)25 Sandy soils, 1975 (E*)26 Planning and organization of fertilizer development in

Africa, 1975 (E*)27 Organic materials as fertilizers, 1975 (E* F* S*)28 S.I. Units and nomenclature in soil science, 1975 (E)29 Land evaluation in Europe, 1975 (E*)30 Soil conservation for developing countries, 1976

(Ar C* E* F* S*)31 Prognosis of salinity and alkalinity, 1976 (E)32 A framework for land evaluation, 1976 (C* E* F* S*)33 Soil conservation and management in developing

countries, 1977 (E F)34 Assessing soil degradation, 1977 (E*)35 Organic materials and soil productivity, 1977 (C* E)36 Organic recycling in Asia, 1978 (C* E*)37 Improved use of plant nutrients, 1978 (C* E)38/1 Soil and plant testing and analysis, 1980 (E)38/2 Soil and plant testing as a basis of fertilizer

recommendations, 1980 (E* S*)39 Salt-affected soils and their management, 1988 (Ar E)40 China: recycling of organic wastes in agriculture, 1977

(E F* S)41 China: azolla propagation and small-scale biogas

technology, 1978 (E* F S)42 Soil survey investigations for irrigation, 1979 (C* E F)43 Organic recycling in Africa, 1980 (E)44 Watershed development with special reference to soil

and water conservation, 1979 (C* E F S*)45 Organic materials and soil productivity in the Near

East, 1982 (E with Arabic summary)46 Blue-green algae for rice production � a manual for

its promotion, 1981 (E)47 Le recyclage des résidus agricoles organiques en

Afrique, 1982 (F)

48 Micronutrients and the nutrient status of soils: a globalstudy, 1982 (E)

49 Application of nitrogen-fixing systems in soilmanagement, 1982 (C* E F S*)

50 Keeping the land alive: soil erosion � its causes andcures, 1983 (E F S)

51 El reciclaje de materias orgánicas en la agricultura deAmérica Latina, 1983 (S*)

52 Guidelines: land evaluation for rainfed agriculture,1983 (C** E F S)

53 Improved production systems as an alternative toshifting cultivation, 1984 (E F S)

54 Tillage systems for soil and water conservation, 1984(C E F S*)

55 Guidelines: land evaluation for irrigated agriculture,1985 (C E F S)

56 Soil management: compost production and use intropical and subtropical environments, 1987 (E F S)

57 Soil and water conservation in semi-arid areas, 1987(C E F)

58 Guidelines: land evaluation for extensive grazing, 1991(E)

59 Nature and management of tropical peat soils, 1988(E)

60 Soil conservation for small farmers in the humidtropics, 1989 (E S)

61 Radioactive fallout in soils, crops and food, 1989 (E FS)

62 Management of gypsiferous soils, 1990 (Ar** E)63 Micronutrient assessment at the country level: an

international study, 1990 (E)64 A study of the reasons for success or failure of soil

conservation projects, 1991 (E F S)65 Status of cadmium, lead, cobalt and selenium in soils

and plants of thirty countries, 1992 (E)66 Manual de sistemas de labranza para América Latina,

1992 (S)67 Agro-ecological assessments for national planning:

the example of Kenya, 1993 (E)68 Field measurement of soil erosion and runoff, 1993 (E

F)69 Soil tillage in Africa: needs and challenges, 1993 (E)70 Land husbandry: components and strategy, 1996

(E F)71 Tillage systems in the tropics: management options

and sustainability implications, 1995 (E)72 Sustainable dryland cropping in relation to soil

productivity, 1995 (E)73 Agro-ecological zoning - guidelines, 1996 (E)74 Guidelines for quality management in soil and plant

laboratories, 1998 (E)75 New concepts and approaches to land management in

the tropics with emphasis on steeplands, 1999 (E)76 Land and crop management in the hilly terrains of

Central America: lessons learned and farmer-to-farmertransfer of technologies, 1999 (E S)

Availability: February 1997

Ar � Arabic Multil � MultilingualC � Chinese * Out of printE � English ** In preparationF � FrenchP � PortugueseS � Spanish

The FAO Technical Papers are available through the authorized FAOSales Agents or directly from Sales and Marketing Group, FAO, Vialedelle Terme di Caracalla, 00100 Rome, Italy.

This document presents technical guidelines for the trainers of farmer-extensionists in conservation-effective land management and

sustainable crop production for the hilly terrains of Central America.The emphasis of the document is on learning-by-doing, building on

farmers’ existing knowledge and experience, and promoting anunderstanding of the concepts of good land management and

sustainable crop production through discussions, and by analysing thecauses of problems, their effects and possible solutions.

lessons learned and farmer-to-farmer transfer of technologies · lessons learned and...

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