lessons from the nfl for managing college enrollment

7/31/2019 Lessons from the NFL for Managing College Enrollment

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Lessons from the NFL for Managing

College EnrollmentJerome A. Lucido January 2013

www.americanprogress.o


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Lessons from the NFL forManaging College Enrollment

Jerome A. Lucido January 2013


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Contents 1 Introduction and summary

3 A system out of balance

8 Striving for higher educations mythical Super Bowl

14 The National Football League as a model

of competitive cooperation

25 Conclusion

26 About the author

27 Endnotes


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1 Ceter or America Progress | lessos rom the nFl or Maagig Coege Eromet

Introduction and summary

Te process o college admissions does no suer rom lack o atenion. Sudens

and amilies oen obsess over i, media coverage is pleniul, and commercial

enerprises ha oer es preparaion, privae counseling, rankings, and guidebooks

capialize on i. Ye admission is bu one aspec o how colleges and universiies

manage heir enrollmens and impac educaional atainmen in he Unied Saes.

How colleges deermine who is recruied, who meris admission, who receives

suden aid and o wha variey, which classes are oered and when, and wha kind

o assisance is provided o sudens all comprise a complex sysem and an emergingeld known as enrollmen managemen. Ouside o he world o higher educaion

adminisraion, however, he erm enrollmen managemen has litle meaning. Bu

as he Unied Saes looks o increase he percenage is populaion enering and

graduaing rom college, his larger process mus be more ully undersood.

Ta colleges manage heir enrollmens only makes sense. Aer all, enrollmens

make up he bulk o insiuional revenue a universiies and colleges and sudens

bring he energy, diversiy, and alen ha comprise he poenial or learning and

academic success. So i is o be expeced ha colleges and universiies will manage

enrollmens o mee heir paricular missions, needs, and ineress. Wha can be

said, however, abou he way college enrollmens are managed on behal o he

public and naional ineres? Tis paper addresses his quesion by examining

insiuional enrollmen goals and he enrollmen decisions and sraegies ha are

used in service o hem. Furher, he paper addresses how insiuional goals may

be direced in greaer measure oward he public ineres. In doing so, a ramework

is provided or beter public inormaion and more inormed public policy wih

respec o college enrollmen in he Unied Saes.

Specically, his paper begins wih a ocus on he imbalance in higher educaionresuls in relaion o he educaional-atainmen needs o he counry. Nex i

idenies undamenal condiions o which insiuions respond when esablishing

enrollmen goals and highlighs he sraegies ha enrollmen managers employ

in balancing he compeing demands o equaliy o opporuniy wih insiuional

ambiions and revenue requiremens.


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Te paper esablishes ha enrollmen sraegies avor economically advanaged su-

dens and idenies public disinvesmen, poor economic condiions, and he highly

compeiive posiional markeplace o higher educaion as acors ha drive enroll-

men sraegies and lead o lopsided educaional resuls or he naion. I hen akes

a novel urn by adaping he unlikely example o he Naional Fooball League as a

promising model o moderae harmul compeiion, regain public rus, and ocuson educaional resuls as measures o qualiy, as opposed o he presen rankings-

cenered emphasis on characerisics o he incoming suden body.

Is common knowledge ha he NFL esablishes rules ha emper compeiive

pracices ha could harm he game o ooball and is member ranchises. Tese

rules include he banning o illegal perormance-enhancing subsances ha could

resul in a compeiive advanage, esablishing he roser size and payroll limis o

eams, and puting in place revenue sharing by all ranchises. Te inen o hese

rules is o ocus compeiion on he eld o play, conain coss, and permi small-

marke eams o compee wih hose eams wih greaer resources. Drawing onhis example, his paper develops he concep o a league o member insiuions

o esablish mechanisms o public inormaion, public policy, and insiuional

goal seting in order o ocus atenion on educaional resuls and broaden he

service o higher educaion o he naion. I also calls on educaion policymakers

and ohers o provide avorable condiions o allow such cooperaion o occur.

Specically, his paper suggess ha American higher educaion would be more

inclusive and resuls driven i colleges and universiies ormed a league o esablish

rules o compeiion and progress in he public ineres. Te goals o his Higher

Educaion League would be broader paricipaion, increased raes o success,

and reduced coss. League rules would ensure beter and more relevan public

inormaion abou college characerisics and college choice, clear and consisen

recruimen and applicaion guidelines, ull disclosure and uniorm mehods in

he deerminaion and delivery o suden nancial assisance, educaional qualiy

measured by suden learning and suden readiness o realize personal and soci-

eal goals, and he nururance o he alen in he K-12 pipeline.

Tis paper concludes by suggesing ha higher educaion leaders, public policy-

makers, philanhropic oundaions, corporae eniies, and ohers engage in andsuppor he exploraion, ormaion, and sar up o he league.

In sum, his paper examines he conics and radeos in college-enrollmen man-

agemen and presens a case or how he goals and sraegies pursued can be reca-

libraed o address he naional prioriies o educaional access and compleion.


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A system out of balance

In the broad context o the general welare, the overwhelming obligation o higher

education is the provision o education or all capable o realizing its benefts and

eeding these back in multiplied vigor into the general polity.

B. Alden Thresher, former dean of admission, Massachusetts Institute

of Technology, 19661

Les alk simply and direcly. Te uure o he Unied Saes depends upon how

well is inhabians apply heir knowledge and skills o advance economic prosper-

iy, o promoe an eecive and paricipaory democracy, and o consruc a civil and

humane sociey. We are no, aer all, a sociey based upon inheried privilege and sa-

ushe American Dream is premised on he assumpion o equaliy o opporuniy.

Bu how do we describe a sociey in which he pracice o educaionhe primary

means or advancing is peopleproduces college graduaes rom he mos advan-

aged o he populaion a alarmingly disproporionae raes? We canno argue ha

i is a meriocracy, or meriocracy suggess educaion ha is based upon alen and

drive. Tese qualiies are cerainly no he sole province o he advanaged. Nor is

i egaliarian since opporuniy in an educaion sysem wih widely disproporion-

ae resuls does no approximae equiy. One hing is clear: Tere is good reason o

wonder aloud wheher our curren educaional policies and pracices are providing

he equaliy o opporuniy ha we have espoused or decades.

Wha is he evidence? Naional educaional-atainmen saisics demonsrae haeighh graders who had a leas one paren who graduaed rom college and whose

amilies were in he upper-income quarile wen on o earn a bachelors degree a a rae

o 68 percen. In sark conras, sudens rom amilies in he lower-income quarile

and wihou a degreed paren atained a bachelors degree a a rae o jus 9 percen.2


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Among he same group o sudens who were orunae enough o ener a our-

year college, hose wih a leas one paren wih a bachelors degree and in he

upper- income quarile had a six-year college graduaion rae o 81 percen. Tose

rom amilies in he lower-income quarile and wihou a degreed paren earned

heir degrees wihin six years a rae o only 47 percen.3

In he ace o hese resuls come numerous repors ha a college educaion ma-

ers more han ever or he growh and susenance o he counry. Wih growing

numbers o jobs requiring possecondary educaion, wih low paricipaion and

graduaion raes among low- and middle-income sudens, and wih populaion

growh expeced primarily rom populaions who have hisorically low college

paricipaion raes, he sakes or he naion are high. 4

Te locus o concern wih regard o his difcul problem ends o be wha occurs

in he college admissions ofce. Indeed, he admission process suers no lack o

atenion and amiliariy. I is oen he source o consernaion or sudens and heiramilies, news coverage on he process is exensive, and commercial enerprises ha

oer es preparaion, privae counseling, rankings, and guidebooks have capialized

on i. Ye he admission process is bu one aspec o how colleges and universiies

manage heir enrollmens, which in urn impacs educaional atainmen in he

Unied Saes. Te mehodologies used by colleges and universiies o deermine

who is recruied, who meris admission, and who receives suden aid and o wha

variey, in addiion o seting course oerings and deciding wha kinds o suden

assisance is provided, all comprise a complex sysem and an emerging eld known

as enrollmen managemen. Ouside o he world o higher educaion adminisra-

ion, however, he erm enrollmen managemen has litle meaning. Ye now, as

America looks o dramaically increase he number o individuals who ener college

and earn degrees his larger process mus be more ully undersood.

Tereore, wha is examined here is he role o college and universiy enrollmen

sraegies ha are a once a source o hope or underserved sudens and a vehicle

or colleges and universiies o pursue mission, presige, marke posiion, and

nancial efcacy. Enrollmen managemen is a pracice replee wih dichoomies.

Colleges and universiies sruggle o balance heir public service missions agains

he nancial resources hey need o say aoa; bu a he same ime, hese sameinsiuions are engaged in inense compeiion wih each oher and are enguled

in a cosly markeing batle or recogniion in rankings ha mos generally con-

sider poor measures o educaional qualiy.


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Indeed, oday we nd a higher educaion sysem ha is ou o balance. I is a sys-

em ha is:

Sruggling o mee loy educaional missions while simulaneously maximizing

revenue and presige

Facing a crisis o ideniyknown as he bes in he world, i is nonehelesscaugh in a spiral o coss and compeiion ha hreaens o undermine wha

may be is greaes legacy: he upward mobiliy and srengh o he American

people hrough educaion Deserving o praise, someimes even love, bu one ha aces disinvesmen by

sae and naional governmens and agging public condence among hose i is

designed o serve Operaing in recessionary imes, which is causing he public o quesion he

value o a college degree a he same ime ha he naions long erm economic

uure urns on a more well-educaed populaion

In oher words i is a sysem hreaened by disinvesmen, a poor economy, and

misplaced ambiion in he drive or presige a a ime when i mus reocus isel

on is educaional mission and on he public rus ha i is charered o pursue.

The Xs and Os of enrollment management

When brough o bear on he very human problem o who is admited o college,

who enrolls in college, and who receives he wherewihal o complee college,

higher educaion urns o a new class o insiuional leaders o balance hese

dichoomies: enrollmen managers. Teir job is a difcul one. I i were rue ha

all hey needed o consider was educaing he sudens necessary or he Unied

Saes o wrie is nex chapers, and i he means or doing so were pleniul,

we would likely see a more reasonable balance o meriocracy and equiy. Tese

new leaders, however, mus mee muliple goals. Tey mus ideniy and enroll

he sudens who can pay he level o uiion needed o cover campus revenue

requiremens. Simulaneously, enrollmen leaders are expeced o produce resuls

ha gure prominenly in having heir insiuions leaprog each oher in college

rankings or in oher measures o presige. Tese include markers o academicseleciviy, including high-school grade poin average, es scores, percenage o

sudens in he op 10 percen o he high-school class, he number o applicaions

received, as well as he percenage o admissions graned, he number o admi-

ed sudens who enroll, and he percenage o sudens who ulimaely graduae.


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Broader social missions are achieved o he exen ha hey are done under hese

consrains. One noed proessional summed i up succincly, saying, I is my job

o manage he nexus o revenue, presige, diversiy, and access or he campus. 5

In plain English his means ha he enrollmen manager mus deermine which

sudens o recrui, which o admi, and which o provide nancial aid so haacademic programs are lled, he academic prole o he class advances, and

sufcien uiion revenue is generaed o mee campus objecives and ambiions.

Moreover, he enrollmen manager may also direc campus eors o increase

graduaion raes and insiue new programs ha have marke poenial. Indeed,

i is now common or hese leaders o be a he vice-presidenial level and be key

members o he senior sraegic managemen eam o heir campuses.6

A paricular ocus o his repor is he sraegies, oen seen as myserious, ha are

employed by enrollmen managers o mee he muliheaded hydra ha is heir se

o goals. Tese sraegies and enrollmen managers hemselves have been widelycriicized or conribuing o he sraicaion o educaional resuls in he Unied

Saes. As idenied in a recen aricle in he journal College and Universiy, Criics

have equaed enrollmen managemen wih a range o specic sraegies designed

o deliberaely shape enrollmen oucomes such as increasing seleciviy, opimiz-

ing ne revenue, and improving suden academic proleall in ways ha work

agains broad educaional values and he social good. Moreover, criics have

idenied enrollmen managemen sraegies as causal acors in he pervasive

pursui o presigehe arms racein American higher educaion.7

While a number o hese sraegies are oulined here, i is also imporan o address

he condiions ha undergird hese pursuis in order o nd beter public-inorma-

ion soluions and and o beter inorm public policy. Indeed, he posiion aken here

is ha enrollmen-managemen sraegies can be readily uilized o provide beter

and more encouraging inormaion o he naions underserved sudens; can simu-

lae and inorm beter academic and personal preparaion or college success; and

can ideniy, recrui, selec, and suppor sudens who can dierenially bene rom

he resources ha colleges and universiies devoe o he undergraduae experience.

Indeed, a sudy recenly published by he College Board, a nonpro educaionalorganizaion, noed, Lower-income sudens have similar or higher aspiraions han

higher-income sudens o atend college and are conden abou navigaing he col-

lege admission process. Te sudy also repored, Alhough boh lower- and higher-

income sudens say hey receive pleny o inormaion rom colleges, lower-income

The enrollment

manager must

determine whic

students to recr

which to admit,

which to provid

nancial aid.


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sudens are more likely o repor being inuenced by i.8 Tere are, however, srong

marke orces a work ha serve o discourage colleges and universiies rom acing

o achieve broader social objecives and hese orces will be addressed here as well.

Finally, a concepual ramework or common ground is developed o demonsrae

one way ha colleges and universiies may use heir sraegic resources o compee

on educaional grounds. o do so would widen college opions or all sudens. Insum, his paper examines he conics and radeos in college-enrollmen manage-

men and presens a case or how he goals and sraegies pursued can be recali-

braed o address he naional prioriies o educaional access and compleion.


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Striving for higher educations

mythical Super Bowl

Insiuional presige has always been a pursui o possecondary educaion. Tere

is no doub, however, ha he rise oU.S. News & World Repors lis o bes colleges,

along wih oher eors o rank U.S. insiuions o higher educaion and universi-

ies, has creaed he illusion ha insiuional qualiy can be readily measured and

numerically ordered. As he illusion gained prominence and power, i simulaed

acceleraed eors in he higher educaion communiy o improve insiuional

posiion in he rankings. Among oher hings, i gave rise o boh sancioned and

unsancioned inaion o applicaion couns and average SA scores, sleigh o handin he reporing o he resources devoed o undergraduae educaion, and aricial

deaion o college admission raes. In oher words, hough dismissed as he way

he game is played, colleges manipulae heir daa in order o mainain posiion or

rise in he rankings. In he bookShakespeare, Einsein, and he Botom Line, is auhor

David Kirp noes, Colleges have aken unsavory seps o improve heir repua-

ionor insance, by misrepresening he daa used in deermining US News rank-

ings. Te empaion o chea is considerable because he sakes are so high even

he mos selecive schools have cheaed.9

Tere is a joke old in enrollmen-managemen circles, which goes like his: Te

presiden o he college calls a meeing wih hree key enrollmen leaders on he

campushe admission direcor, he regisrar, and he direcor o insiuional

research. Te presiden says, I have quesion or each o you. How much is wo

plus wo? Te admission direcor, well-versed in he behavior o 18-year-olds and

ever wary o specic arges replies, Well, is our, plus or minus one or wo. Te

regisrar, solid keeper o academic records, replies, Why, Im quie cerain ha

i is our exacly. Ten, he direcor o insiuional research leans in close o he

presiden and whispers, Wha number do you wan i o be?

Funny, perhaps, bu i brings o mind he seroids problem in proessional spors.

Indeed, he public relies on he daa repored by insiuions when making educa-

ional decisions and i should be assured ha rused insiuions produce ruswor-

hy inormaion. How does his manies isel in enrollmen sraegy and pracice?


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Insiuions are savvy as o how rankings are calculaed and ailor heir daa o inu-

ence posiive resuls. SA and AC scores, or example, may appear alsely high by

no including all sudens in a rs-year class in he calculaion. Faculy members who

are only nominally devoed o undergraduae eaching may be included in resource

calculaions ha gure highly in rankings. Applicaion couns may be inaed by he

inclusion o shor-orm applicaions ha do no include sufcien inormaion omake and process a nal admission decision, a pracice ha decepively lowers admis-

sion raes and helps schools rise in rankings or a leas hold heir own.

Is his harmul or is i jus how he game is playeda raher harmless ac o lie?

Te ruh is ha cheaing is insidious because i creaes misrus, including among

college presidens who are loah o share oo much inormaion wih each oher.

Even i cheaing is no ubiquious or i i occurs episodically wihin campus daa

reporing, no one, i is said, is wihou sin. I his is he belie sysem, can cam-

puses be expeced o cooperae or he broader educaional good?

Moreover, such pracices unnecessarily discourage he less savvy or inexperienced

suden rom applying o he righ college or rom applying o college a all. I is

well documened ha lower-income sudens oen do no apply o colleges ha

would oherwise have acceped hem and rom which hey would have a beter

chance o graduaing. Tis is a subsanial loss o human poenial and has become

known as undermaching.10 Te lack o reliable public inormaion abou col-

leges is cerainly no he only cause o undermaching, bu more accurae and

relevan public inormaion, including he likelihood o admission, success, and

nancial assisance would be an imporan sep oward raising boh he aspiraions

and he atendance o sudens who are less well-served oday.

Manipulating applications

O course he inaion o college applicaion numbers and oher presige indica-

ors can be accomplished wihou over misrepresenaion. Applicaion couns,

or example, may be boosed by he recruimen o sudens who have a negligible

chance o being admited. Yield raes, he percenage o admited sudens who

enroll on he campus and an indicaor o atraciveness and marke posiion, canbe inaed by enacing early-decision plans in which an applicaion or admis-

sion requires a suden o pledge o enroll i admited. Somehing similar can be

accomplished by oher resricive early admission opions in which sudens are

permited o apply o only one school early. And here are oher ways o ensure


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higher yield raes as well, including he consideraion during admission decisions

o he demonsraed ineres o sudens, an indicaor which is calculaed by

keeping rack o how many imes a suden has conaced a school, atended ha

schools recruiing evens, visied he campus, or inerviewed wih an admission

ofcer or alumni represenaive. O course, low-income sudens canno demon-

srae he same level o ineres as oher more well-o-do sudens since hey can-no aord o visi campus, may be working during college airs or college nighs,

and because college recruiers simply do no visi heir schools wih he same

degree o requency, i a all, as hey do elsewhere.

Tese are jus a ew o he sraegies employed by some enrollmen managers o

saisy heir muliple masers. In he college-admission arena, eeciveness is eval-

uaed, in large measure, by applicaion couns, which mus be high; by admission

raes, which mus be low; by he number o ull-paying sudens, which mus be

maximized o boos uiion revenue; and by he academic indicaors o he incom-

ing class, which mus always be rising. Yield raes, no longer considered byU.S.News rankings, remain a key indicaor as campuses compee or marke posiion.

Indeed, Harvard College, which hardly needs more recogniion, recenly boased

o an 80 percen yield rae.11 Tese measures have much o do wih seleciviy, bu

hey are no measures o educaional resuls and hey do much o provide he aura

o exclusiviy ha is problemaic in college admissions.

In airness, and provided he daa are accurae, high applicaion couns give colleges

choice and sudens opporuniy. Low admission raes can give sudens a realisic

assessmen o heir chances. uiion revenues are maximized because some amoun

goes o nancial aid o sudens who canno aord he ull price. Addiionally, srong

academic indicaors are a reecion o he compeiion and academic rigor associ-

aed wih he learning environmen. Noneheless, he issues discussed earlier are

only a ew o he ways ha enrollmen sraegies operae o place inexperienced and

less wealhy sudens a a disadvanage in negoiaing he sysem.

Price, cost, public disinvestment, and missions adrift

In he bookTe Balancing Ac, Sandy Baum, noed higher educaion economis,documens he realiy ha colleges and universiies ace resource consrains.12

Indeed, many privae colleges bring in jus enough sudens and uiions o keep

hemselves aoa. Similarly, sae budge woes have resuled in slashed public

college and universiy budges, causing hese insiuions o look increasingly or


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sudens who can pay he ull cos o educaion even i his means abandoning

radiional service roles and rolling ou o sae and inernaionally or sudens.

Furher, insiuional unds used or nancial aid are mos oen generaed by

uiion revenue and as Baum explains, Many colleges would go under i hey gave

all o heir money o he poores sudens.13 She documens ha insiuions ace

a difcul balancing ac when i comes o pricing and he many orms o sudennancial assisance, including need-based aid, discouns, and meri scholarships.

One undamenal cause o his delicae balancing ac and o he srong urn o

public insiuions o marke-based pricing sraegies is public disinvesmen.

According o Michael McClendon o Vanderbil Universiy, he Unied Saes has

arrived a a poin where here is serious quesion as o wheher public universiies

are public anymore. McClendon noes ha since he lae 1970s, sae unding per

suden in higher educaion has declined rom $15 o every $100 o sae expen-

diures o only $7 o every $100.14 Indeed, here are now 59 public universiies

ha receive less han 10 percen o heir unding rom heir saesa number haMcClendon predics will climb o 100 public universiies in he near uure. In

Caliornia alone, sae appropriaions or he Universiy o Caliornia sysem have

been cu by $750 million in jus he las year.15 As a resul, his year marks he rs

ime ha he sysem received more money rom suden uiion han rom sae

aid. Increased uiions, however, covered only a quarer o he deci le by sae

cus. o place his in perspecive, sae appropriaions are he same as hey were in

1997 when here were 75,000 ewer sudens enrolled.16

Wha are he resuls o such disinvesmen? McClendon ells us ha we have seen

he emergence o he privaely unded public universiy, he increasing sraicaion

o opporuniy and qualiy wihin he public sysem o higher educaion, a growing

arms race in pursui o presige given he necessiy or markeizaion, and a growing

dispariy among he haves and he have-nos among he public universiies.17

Moreover, i is also well-documened ha an increasing percenage o he suden

aid provided by insiuions and by he saes is devoed o sudens wihou nan-

cial need.18 Some o his aid is in he orm o meri scholarships, primarily dened

as recogniion or ousanding academic achievemen and alen, o recrui

sough-aer sudens or boh educaional and marke posiioning purposesor, in he case o some saes, o reain alened sudens wihin he sae. Oher

non-need aid comes in he orm o uiion discouns, which are awards o enice

he enrollmen o candidaes who are able and willing o pay a leas a signican

porion o he uiion bill, bu who i is believed may enroll elsewhere unless a

Since the late

1970s, state

unding per

student in highe

education has

declined rom $

o every $100 o

state expenditu

to only $7 o

every $100.


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discoun is provided. Te higher up on he presige ood chain an insiuion is,

he lower discoun i has o provide. Similarly siuaed insiuions compee wih

one anoher by deepening discouns and, o course, sudens and amilies have

now learned o pi one school agains anoher. So, unless a school is receiving jus

enough uiion revenue o ge by, dierenial dollars are going o sudens wih

litle or no nancial need o improve he marke posiion o he schools. Te losersare sudens wih nancial need. Moreover, a recen repor suggess ha discoun-

ing may now be losing is eeciveness.19

Given insiuional nancial consrains and compeiive orces, here are sev-

eral ways ha low- o middle-income sudens are pu a a disadvanage. Firs,

insiuions will concenrae heir recruimen resources in geographic areas

where greaer wealh is presen. Nex, schools may limi he number o sudens

who require nancial assisance. Anoher approach is o be need blind, in oher

words unaware o amily resources, a he admission sage bu hen ail o provide

adequae nancial aid o mainain a sudens enrollmen. Tis is known as headmi/deny eec because inadequae aid has he same, i no more devasaing,

eec as denial. Finally, many insiuions mainain policies ha raion nancial

aid in a way ha leaves some porion o a sudens need uncovered. Te amoun

le uncovered is he gap and he pracice is known as gapping. Needless, o say,

sudens rom amilies wihou college experience or adequae resources nd all o

his very difcul o undersand and navigae.

o be clear, only he wealhies o insiuions can aord o be compleely need-blind

a admission and sill mee he ull need o every suden who enrolls. Mos schools

mus nd ways o say nancially sable, which limis he number o needy sudens

hey enroll, he amoun o nancial aid awards hey give, or boh. Tis duly noed,

he rise in discouning and meri awardsnow a widespread pracice across he

naionoccurs wihin a markeplace in which compeing insiuions mach prices

in an inaionary spiral hus urher disancing public policy and insiuional prac-

ice rom meeing he educaional needs o low- and middle-income sudens.

A positional marketplace

We have seen ha problems in college and universiy access develop when insi-

uional ambiions play ou in he compeiion or presige and marke posiion

and when insiuional nancing is weak or hreaened. In higher educaion hese

condiions exis in a posiional markeplace. Economis Rober Frank denes


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posiional markes as hose in which he value o an eniy depends on is posiion

relaive o ohers wihin he marke.20 Frank poins o higher educaion as a prime

example since insiuions compee in presige hierarchies. Tis is rue i you are

an elie insiuion, as was amply documened wih respec o Harvard, Princeon,

and Yale in Jerome Karabels Te Chosen,21 or i you are a regional public universiy

or a small privae college compeing wih oher schools in your caegory or sriv-ing o ener a new compeiive se.

Such markes are characerized by expensive arms races in which no compeior

dares o disarmspend lessor ear o losing marke share or posiion. In higher

educaion his spending occurs in cases such as he marke or prominen proessors,

enicemen o senior adminisraors who can produce and manage resources (like

enrollmen managers), price compeiion hrough meri scholarships and uiion

discouning, expendiures on atracive aciliies, and suden recruimen.

Illusraive is he case o uiion discouns. Les consider he ollowing example:Insiuion A and Insiuion B receive applicaions rom he same sudens.

One year Insiuion A oers hese sudens a $10,000 award o enroll. I gains

advanage over Insiuion B during ha year. During he nex year Insiuion B

maches or beas he scholarship oer and eiher regains is posiion or overakes

Insiuion A. Insiuion A hen responds and he cycle coninues. Tis is reminis-

cen o he classic prisoners dilemma in which he paries ac in selsh personal

ineres raher han choosing o cooperae when i is clear ha each would be

beter o cooperaing. As adaped o business, or in his case higher educaion,

soluions o he prisoners dilemma do, in ac, ideniy common ground in which

cooperaion leads o beter resuls. Indeed, we can look o one o he mos com-

peiive elemens o American sociey o nd an example.


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The National Football League as a

model of competitive cooperation

Imagine a Naional Fooball League, or NFL, where a ew eams, hose wih he

greaes resources, could always ouspend heir opponens or player alen, coach-

ing alen, raining aciliies, and he an experience. Tese well-o-do eams would

naurally win mos o heir games agains he weaker (poorer) ranchises and

would compee in an ever-escalaing arms race o overake heir similarly siuaed

rivals. Clearly, an NFL wihou each eam having an equiable chance o success

would no las long. Te richer eams would so dominae he poorer ones ha

an ineres would dwindle and revenues across he league would all. Moreover,ans living in he regions o he weaker ranchises would lodge proess wih he

league, and perhaps wih heir eleced ofcials, complaining abou unair compei-

ion. Tere is, aer all, an undeniable public ineres in he local eams. Tereore,

o proec and srenghen he overall league, he NFL imposes resricions on

harmul or waseul compeiion o keep he compeiion wihin he bounds o he

game isel. Tis permis small-marke eams o compee reasonably wih large-

marke eams and allows overall coss o be conrolled. Te NFL, alongside oher

proessional spors leagues, accomplishes his pariy primarily hrough salary caps,

player roser limis, and revenue sharing.22

Now imagine an American sysem o higher educaion where he insiuions wih

he greaes resources could ouspend heir compeiors or he bes sudens, he

bes aculy, he bes aciliies, and creae he bes campus experiences. Is no

hard o imagine because i is he realiy in higher educaion oday. You can nd he

resuls o ha se o condiions in he U.S. News and World Reporrankings o col-

leges and universiies. Te insiuions wih he mos resources and hereore he

bes marke posiion are always raed a he op o heir caegories. Indeed, in he

bookRemaking he American Universiy, Rober Zemsky, William F. Massey, and

Gregory R. Wegner noe quie plainly, he US News rankings measure markeadvanage.23 Moreover, William Durden, presiden o Pennsylvanias Dickinson

College, assers, Te U.S. News rankings are all abou money. Wih bu a ew

excepions, he rankings descend in value according o size o he endowmen and

overall wealh o a college or universiy.24 Te same view was oered by Graham


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Spanier, ormer presiden o Penn Sae Universiy, in Malcolm GladwellsNew

Yorkeraricle, Te Order o Tings: Wha I nd more han anyhing else is a

measure o wealh: insiuional wealh, how big is your endowmen, wha per-

cenage o alumni are donaing each year, wha are your aculy salaries, how much

are you spending per suden, said Spanier. Tere is no possibiliy ha we could

do anyhing here a his universiy o ge ourselves ino he op en or weny orhiryexcep i some donor gave us billions o dollars.25

Gladwell goes on o conclude:

Rankings are no benign. Tey enshrine very paricular ideologies, and, a a ime

when American higher educaion is acing a crisis o accessibiliy and aordabil-

iy, we have adoped a de-aco sandard o college qualiy ha is unineresed

in boh o hose acors. And why? Because a group o magazine analyss in an

oce building in Washingon, D.C., decided weny years ago o value seleciviy

over ecacy, o use proxies ha scarcely relae o wha heyre mean o be prox-ies or, and o preend ha hey can compare a large, diverse, low-cos land-gran

universiy in rural Pennsylvania wih a small, expensive, privae Jewish univer-

siy on wo campuses in Manhatan.26

As weve previously deailed here are numerous enrollmen sraegies ha are

designed o compee in he posiional marke o higher educaion, including:

Marke segmenaion: recruimen concenraion in wealhy geographic regions

and an increase in ou-o-sae and ou-o-counry recruimen (a he expense

o in-sae or U.S. residens, respecively) Marke manipulaions: a ocus on narrow measures o qualicaions (or exam-

ple, es scores), alsied or misleading public inormaion, and early-admission

programs and demonsraed-ineres programs ha disadvanage hose wih

litle college experience and low incomes Shi o nancial aid dollars rom needy sudens o discouns and meri-aid

programs or sudens wih litle or no nancial need Consideraion o amily resources in criical enrollmen policies such as limis

on admission spaces or hose unable o aord he ull price, and he processes

known as admi/deny and gapping

Unorunaely, oher such sraegies can be idenied. One o he unorunae

consequences o his posiional marke compeiion is he misrus ha has been

bred among and beween insiuions designed or higher purpose. Indeed, he


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presiden o one highly respeced liberal ars insiuion recenly lamened ha

(universiy and college) presidens share nohing wih one anoher or ear o giv-

ing away some minue advanage.

Compared o he NFLa paragon o American compeiivenessour colleges

and universiies are engaged in an unbridled, no-holds-barred compeiiononeha places hem in consan danger o valuing presige and ranking over mission

atainmen; marke posiion over educaional resuls. Tis is an imperec analogy,

o course, because here is no leagueno singular governing body o ensure

air compeiion among college and universiies. Which is also o say ha here

is no organizaion or ederaion o ensure ha all who are capable o reaping he

benes o higher educaion may reasonably compee o atain hem. Bu how

migh his change i insiuions o higher educaion, bolsered by he suppor o

governmens, oundaions, and he business communiy could nd a way o come

ogeher o compee over he educaional resuls and o level he playing eld?

What if there was a league for higher education?

Te ime is ripe o consider new perspecives on how o disarm he arms race

and nd a way ou o he prisoners dilemma. Tereore, in a spiri o playulness,

bu purposeully, le us propose a league or higher educaiona league ha

would boh serve he needs o is public (he educaional needs o sudens and

sociey) while also seeking wha is bes or he insiuions ha comprise i.

While here are cerainly oher analogies, meaphors, or heurisic devices ha could

be used o sep back and reconsider he enrollmen goals and pracices o possec-

ondary insiuions, he idea o a higher educaion league provides many opporu-

niies o reimagine our curren aciviies. Many will no doub objec o his idea on

he basis o insiuional auonomy or on he ideological grounds ha any resrain

on compeiion is harmul. Bu in he spiri o reasonableness, would anyone argue

ha he NFL has a more compelling public responsibiliy han higher educaion?

Similarly, could anyone responsibly objec i he compeiion were abou educa-

ional resuls raher han measures o saus and insiuional revenue?

Le us ask, hen, i here were a league (or an agency, or a consorium) or higher

educaion, how would i work? Wha reasonable limis migh i place on waseul

or harmul compeiion? How migh i cooperae o srenghen he overall ben-


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es provided by he league? How could governmens, hrough enlighened public

policy, as well as oundaions and businesses suppor he league? And why migh

colleges and universiies wan o paricipae?

A set of rules to govern competition

Imagining ourselves as league commissioners or a momen, our primary objec-

ive would be o engender compeiion on sricly educaional grounds. In oher

words, we would keep he game on he eld and away rom he many ineress

ha would lead i oherwise. Anoher aim would be o reduce he wase and he

harm caused by overheaed compeiion. Finally, our inen would be o ensure

more equiable resuls. Te members and supporers o our league should no nd

objecionable a join dedicaion o educaional values, a concenraion on educa-

ional resuls, and he benes o lower overall coss.

One preliminary noe mus be made. From 1954 o 1991 elie colleges and universi-

ies, including he Ivy League schools and heMassachusets Insiue o echnology,

ormed he Overlap Group, which me regularly o compare he nancial aid

packages oered o common applicans. Teir goal was o apporion he limied

nancial aid unds available among he applicans in such a way ha he maximum

number o sudens would bene.27 Te U.S. Deparmen o Jusice, however,

brough sui arguing ha he sharing o sudens nancial inormaion consi-

ued a conspiracy o se nancial aid awards a a xed level or any given applican,

hereby depriving sudens o he benes o price compeiion.28 Overlap Group

members argued, however, ha banning heir pracice would resul in a bidding

war scenario ha would diver resources rom he ruly needy by concenraing

hem on a ew highly qualied sudens. Moreover, hey argued, his heighened

compeiion would require increased revenues and higher uiions o all sudens.

Te sides setled wih a consen decree in which he Overlap Group, wih he

Massachusets Insiue o echnology absaining, haled heir meeings while

denying any wrongdoing and wih he Jusice Deparmen dropping he sui. Te

Massachusets Insiue o echnology hen ough he case on is own. Ulimaely,

he decision o he appeals cour saed, Overlap may in ac merely regulae compe-

iion in order o enhance i, while also deriving cerain social benes. I he rule oreasoned analysis leads o his conclusion, hen indeed Overlap will be beyond he

scope o he prohibiions o he Sherman Ac.29


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Indeed, while he Overlap Group has ceased o mee since 1991, and while he

Jusice Deparmen acion is oen cied as a reason no o cooperae, he decision

o he appeals cour in he Massachusets Insiue o echnology case and he

raionale or he exisence o he Overlap Group each provide a srong raionale

or reconsideraion o cooperaive arrangemens. In his spiri, le us consider a se

o rules or our league:

1. Ban steroids (hyped facts and figures)

Daa published would be relevan o suden decision making and would be clear,

accurae, consisen, reliable, and veried (drug esing). o mee hese crie-

ria, our schools would publish ranges o admission raes based upon academic

records, income levels, ehniciies, and geographic origin. Furher, our schools

would publish graduaion requencies based on hese same caegories. One such

requency disribuion would be based on he hisorical record o graduaion or aparicular campus, and ye anoher disribuion would be on he hisorical record

o sudens who began on ha campus and hen graduaed rom anoher.

Oher examples o mee our crieria or beter, more inormed public inormaion

could include answers o he ollowing quesions:

o wha exen does each college consider amily income in is decision o admi? o wha exen does each college mee he ull need o is sudens? I he college mees he ull need o is sudens, how? I no, how much are sudens expeced o pay rom heir own resources? How much loan deb can sudens expec o accrue during heir college career? Wha will be he naure o heir loan repaymens? Do he policies ha govern he graning o suden aid in he reshman year

remain he same each year? I hey change, how so? Wha is he admission rae a each college or sudens wihin ranges o creden-

ials and income levels? Wha is he success rae a each college or sudens wihin ranges o credenials

and income levels? How many sudens and wha percen o he rs year class is included in SA/

AC es score daa? Who is excluded and why (ahlees, special admis, spring admis, ec.)? Is spring erm admission available?


22/31


I so, how and when do sudens apply? When couning admission applicaions, wha crieria are used? Is a decision rendered and a suden inormed on every couned applicaion?

2. Everyone plays on the same field

Jus as he NFL has a common dra dae, our schools would compee using san-

dard deadlines and noicaion periods. Tese periods would be well publicized,

easily undersood, and ollowed by our members. o accomplish his our schools

migh use a common applicaion and educaional hisory daabase. Daa colleced

would permi much greaer and more accurae inormaion abou success across

he sysem and would provide realisic inormaion o he public, o high schools,

and oward he goal o resuls-oriened college maches or sudens. Indeed, agen-

cies already exis ha provide a common applicaion and ha rack suden enroll-

mens across he K-16 specrumhe Common Applicaion and he NaionalSuden Clearinghouse, respecively.

Wih respec o sudens a member insiuions, each would be expeced o le

he ollowing personal progress plans:

Four-year graduaion plan Four-year nancing plan Four-year work, experienial, and inernship plan

In addiion, each member insiuion would allow or personal circumsances

addendums o hese plans each year or up o six years.

3. Scoring would be based on results

Our measures o qualiy would be based upon he resuls achieved by sudens

while enrolled in our colleges and hese resuls would be deermined mindul o

incoming preparaion. Indeed, he Naional Resource Councils recen repor,

Improving Measuremen o Produciviy in Higher Educaion, recenly sug-gesed he same idea and provides a beginning ramework or consideraion.30

For illusraive purposes, consider he ollowing examples. By and large, he

naions mos selecive schools receive sudens on enry who presen superior


23/31


wriing, quaniaive, and inerpersonal skills. As a resul, hese schools may

or may no improve heir sudens grealy in hese areas. Tey will, however,

improve hem in many oher ways, including higher order hinking, undersand-

ing o world culures and economic sysems, dedicaion o public service, creaive

capaciies, and much more. Oher insiuions may receive many sudens on enry

who require improvemen in wriing, quaniaive reasoning, and criical hinkingskills. Tese schools may improve sudens in each o hese areas while also devel-

oping eamwork, problem solving, civic paricipaion, neworking and inerper-

sonal skills, and more. Addiionally, all o our schools may insill love o learning,

a deeper undersanding o human condiions and o human endeavors, and habis

o mind conducive o public engagemen.

Tese many areas mus be enumeraed and insrumens worhy o he cause mus

be consruced. Te College Learning Assessmen and he Naional Survey o

Suden Engagemen are examples o such insrumens, as is he cericae pro-

posal o he New Leadership Alliance or Suden Learning and Accounabiliy.31While each o hese examples has aws, hey are illusraive o he kinds o ou-

come measures ha mus be developed.

In our league here will be many ways o score. Wha will be criical is ha our

insiuions ake responsibiliy or he sudens hey admi in erms o learning,

personal growh, and compleion wih a recognizable se o resuls. o quoe

Richard Hersch, he creaor o he College Learning Assessmen, Measuring

learning hasn been ried and ound waning; i has been ound difcul and le

unried.32 Our sudens and our naion deserve our bes eor. Our league should

give i o hem.

4. Revenue sharing in the form of student aid

Wihou price seting and mindul o boh he disbanding o he Overlap Group

and he Massachusets Insiue o echnologys vicory on appeal, our league

would encourage sudens rom all income levels o compee or spaces and o be

successul in our schools. Among sraegies we may ollow are:

Using legal means o esablish reasonable mehods and ranges o need calcula-

ions o deermine he percen o need o be me by scholarships, grans, loans,

and solely by suden or amily resources.

Our students an

our nation dese

our best efort. O

league should g

it to them.


24/31


Producing our-year nancial aid award esimaes a enry, which would include

expeced gran, loan, and sel-unding oals over a our-year college career.

Tese esimaes would be binding wihin an agreed-upon range o error o

accoun or economic condiions and insiuional nancial variaions. Tis

measure would be deaionary wih respec o he price o college.

Reducing annually, by a negoiaed percenage, he amoun o insiuional und-

ing ha goes direcly o orms o non-need aid, including uiion discouns and

meri scholarships. Our compeiion is based upon our educaional resuls, no

he nancial incenives ha an insiuion can provide o overake a compeior.

Engaging in join undraising or suden aid, wih an emphasis on schools wih

a high percenage o need-eligible sudens. Tis would be a shared undraising

and idenicaion responsibiliy o league members, sae and naional govern-

mens, and oher sources o include heNaional Collegiae Ahleic Associaion,

corporaions, oundaions, and individuals, each o which can be expeced obene rom a more producive league. While hard o imagine in he curren

compeiive scenario, we can a leas sugges such an approach.

Wih respec o his secion o our rules, his encouraging news was recenly

repored in he Chronicle o Higher Educaion on June 5, 2012:

en colleges, universiies, and sysems have commited o presening cerain cos

and nancial-aid inormaion o incoming sudens as par o heir aid awards

saring in 2013, he Whie House announced on uesday. Te insiuions will

provide inormaion on wha one year o college will cos, he nancial aid avail-

able o help pay or i (wih a clear disincion beween grans and loans), he ne

cos afer gran aid is included, esimaed monhly paymens or ederal loans,

and heir sudens reenion, graduaion, and loan-deaul raes, according o a

Whie House news release.33
http://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2012/06/05/vice-president-biden-secretary-duncan-cfpb-director-cordray-and-college-http://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2012/06/05/vice-president-biden-secretary-duncan-cfpb-director-cordray-and-college-


25/31


5. Developing talent for and throughout the league

Not only should colleges do better at providing remedial help to those who need it,

but they should recognize that their obligations begin with prospective students.

Andrew Delbanco, chair of American studies, Columbia University, 201234

Our league would seek o develop alen ready o ake ull advanage o he educa-

ional opporuniies provided by our member insiuions. Tereore, our members

would accep responsibiliy or ariculaing preparedness sandards, or becoming

ull parners wih K-12 educaion in he developmen o college aspiraions and

success skills, and in creaing educaional and nancial planning guides or currenand prospecive sudens. Moreover, a designaed par o each campus recruimen

budge would be uilized o visi schools in nearby service areas or he purpose o

raising college aspiraions and or providing he inormaion necessary o ac upon

heighened expecaions. eacher educaion and curriculum updaes would emanae

rom our campuses wih greaer vigor, requency, and deph.

Wih respec o his exercise, hese rules are perhaps oo many, perhaps oo ew.

Tese hings can be deermined. Wha is imporan now, is o ideniy why col-

leges and universiies should wan o be in our league.

Why join the league?

Accountability is something that is let when responsibility is subtracted.

Pasi Sahlberg, director general of the Centre for International Mobility, the

Ministry of Education, Helsinki, Finland, 201135


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Jus as he Naional Fooball League seeks o proec all o is ranchises and raise

he level o he indusry, U.S. higher educaion has an enormous sake in liing is

level o perormance and is level o public accepance. Among he many benes

o a well-run league, ideally governed by is members, are he ollowing:

Improved and visible resuls o he sysem Reduced poliical pressure

Enhanced public regard and rus Preservaion o he nes sysem in he world a a ime when i is being hrea-

ened by reduced public resources, a difcul economy, and is own pracices Larger pool o knowledgeable sudens brough abou by an increase in naional

college-going raes Improved access o hose no currenly in he pipeline, eiher hose who believe

hey canno aord o atend or hose oo earul o apply o he insiuions ha

hey are qualied o atend

Increased recogniion ha each member can do beter by working ogeher oli he sysem

Reduced coss in unnecessary meri aid and discouning, recruimen expenses,

spiraling aciliies, and escalaing salaries or adminisraors and aculy supersars Improved abiliy o work wih policymakers o design educaionally valuable

public policy and o reclaim he public rus. Examples o hese may be: unding

sysems ha reward compleion no enrollmen; review o anirus noions ha

preven cooperaion; incenives o move meri aid o needy sudens; incenives

ha encourage invesmen in direc educaional oucomes as he new deniions

o presige; and, new measures o progress

In sum, insiuions should join he league o regain he public rus, o recoup

public invesmen, and o operae more ully in he spiri o heir missions and

heir public charers.

Public policy and the league

Considerable atenion in his paper has been paid o insiuional enrollmen

goals and sraegies in higher educaion. I is reasonable and appropriae o poinou, however, ha many o hese goals and sraegies are raional responses o he

condiions in which higher educaion operaes, and ha he acions o insiuions

are inuenced by incenives and disincenives in he public policy arena. Reduced

public invesmen in sae-suppored insiuions and he dri o sae suden aid


27/31


unds rom need-based awards o hose based on meri, are prime examples ha

move public insiuions more sharply o he marke and away rom he needs o

sudens who have litle college backing or experience. In oher words, ederal and

sae governmens have considerable leverage based on how hey und various

aspecs o he higher educaion enerprise.

In he case o he league, sae and ederal acions wih respec o disclosure o

accurae and represenaive inormaion, clariy in suden aid and in lending, and

he progress o insiuions oward geting a broader segmen o he U.S. popu-

laion in and hrough college, hold promise. Moreover, and paricularly a he

ederal level, he anirus mater concerning he Overlap Group has had a chilling

eec on cooperaive eors o reduce coss and share inormaion. In ligh o he

ruling on he Massachusets Insiue o echnologys appeal o he anirus case,

he chilling eec seems unwarraned. Indeed, he ederal governmen can go a

long way in paving he way or cooperaion by providing a clear signal ha he

ormaion o cooperaive consoria such as he league may, in he words o heappeals cour, serve o regulae compeiion in order o enhance i, while also

deriving cerain social benes, and urher ha such aciviy will be beyond he

scope o he prohibiions o he Sherman Ac.36

Finally, governmens in conjuncion wih oundaions and business eniies who

have an ineres in broadening educaional access and atainmen in he Unied

Saes may encourage he ormaion o leagues or similar consoria by unding

heir exploraion, ormaion, and sar-up phases. Insiuions o higher educaion

are held in public rus and should be expeced o perorm accordingly. o do so

a heir bes, hey mus have he suppor and parnership o he bodies ha are

eleced o serve he public, o eniies ha exis or he public welare, and o cor-

poraions ha would bene rom a more ully and broadly educaed populaion.


28/31


Conclusion

In our league we recognize ha our members are all insiuions held in public rus,

each wih service o he broader naional ineres as undamenal o is mission. We

recognize ha we have a sysem ha has become ou o balance, one in which he

pendulum has swung oo ar rom he needs o he public in he pursui o presige

and posiion. We recognize ha we mus cooperae more in order o compee beter

or our naion. We commi o reocusing on he real prizea Unied Saes ha real-

izes is democraic desiny in he paricipaion and dedicaion o is ciizens.

Tere are undoubedly oher meaphorical rames ha may be employed o recon-

sider college enrollmen policies and pracices. Ta duly noed, developing he

league presens numerous opporuniies o devise he mehods, and engender

he cooperaion, ha are needed o more ully align enrollmen managemen

resuls wih he public ineres. Indeed, we look orward o he day when each o

our universiy and college presidens sands beore an enering reshman, one who

oherwise would never have had he chance o atending college, and uters, Hey

kid, welcome o he league.


29/31


About the author

Jerome A. Jerry Lucido is research proessor and execuive direcor o he

Universiy o Souhern Caliornias Cener or Enrollmen Research, Policy, and

Pracice in he Rossier School o Educaion. Te cener he direcs is devoed o he

social bene o enrollmen policies and pracices in higher educaion. Prior o join-ing he aculy, he served as he Universiy o Souhern Caliornias vice provos or

enrollmen policy and managemen. He is a recen pas rusee o he College Board,

served as chair o he College Boards ask Force on College Admission in he 21s

Cenury, and as vice chair o he Commission on Access, Admission, and Success in

Higher Educaion. He has played a leading role in iniiaives o improve access or

low-income and underrepresened sudens and o design and execue eecive and

principled college admission and enrollmen managemen pracices. Lucido came

o he Universiy o Souhern Caliornia rom he Universiy o Norh Carolina a

Chapel Hill, where he advanced access and suden qualiy in par by eliminaing

he universiys early decision program in 2002, an acion ha was hailed by heWashingon Pos,Newsweek, and heNew York imes. He holds a docorae degree

in higher educaion rom he Universiy o Arizona, a masers o educaion degree

rom Ken Sae Universiy, and a bachelors degree in business adminisraion rom

Miami Universiy in Oxord, Ohio.

Acknowledgements

Te auhor would like o hank he ollowing scholars and praciioners or heir

valuable advice and assisance in he preparaion o his paper: Sandy Baum,

George Washingon Universiy; Rober Frank, Cornell Universiy; Don Heller,

Michigan Sae Universiy; Don Hossler, Indiana Universiy; David Kalsbeek,

DePaul Universiy; and William ierney, Universiy o Souhern Caliornia. Tey

are responsible or inspiraion and advice. Te auls o his work are he sole

responsibiliy o he auhor.


30/31


Endnotes

1 Braierd Ade Thresher, College Admissions and thePublic Interest(new York: Coege Etrace ExamiatioBoard, 1966).

2 Wiiam G. Bowe, Matthew M. Chigos, ad Michae S.McPherso, Crossing the Finish Line: Completing Collegeat Americas Public Universities (Priceto: Pricetouiversity Press, 2009).

3 Ibid.

4 The Coege Board Advocacy, Preservig the Dream oAmerica (2008). See aso The Coege Board Advocacy,Comig to Or Seses: Edcatio ad the AmericaFtre (2008).

5 Do Hosser, Editor Critiqe, The Enrollment Manage-ment Review22 (3) (2007).

6 David H. Kasbeek ad Do Hosser, ErometMaagemet ad Fiacia Aid: Seekig a StrategicItegratio, College & University84 (1) (2008): 211.

7 Ibid.

8 The Coege Board Advocacy & Poicy Ceter, Compex-ity i Coege Admissio: The Barriers Betwee Aspira-

tio ad Eromet or lower Icome Stdets (2011).

9 David l. Kirp, Shakespeare, Einstein, and the Bottom Line(Cambridge: Harvard uiversity Press, 2003).

10 Meissa Roderick ad others, From High Schoo to theFtre: Pothoes o the Road to Coege(Chicago:

The Cosortim o Chicago Schoo Research at theuiversity o Chicago, 2008). See aso Wiiam G. Bowe,Matthew M. Chigos, ad Michae S. McPherso,Crossing the Finish Line: Completing College at AmericasPublic Universities (Priceto: Priceto uiversity Press,2009). Aso see Sady Bam, Jeier Ma, ad KatheePayea, Edcatio Pays: The Beets o Higher Edca-tio or Idividas ad Society (new York: The CoegeBoard, 2010).

11 The Harvard Gazette, Yiedig to a Ivitatio: MoreTha 80% o Those Admitted to Harvards Cass

o 2016 Wi Atted, The Harvard Gazette, May 10,2012, avaiabe at http://ews.harvard.ed/gazette/story/2012/05/yiedig-to-a-ivitatio/.

12 Sady Bam, Baacig Act: Ca Coeges AchieveEqa Access ad Srvive I a Competitive Market?College Board Review, 186 (1998): 1217.

13 Ibid.

14 Michae K. Mcledo, The Shitig ladscape o u.S.Higher Edcatio: Impicatios or Strategic Erometleaders. Presetatio at the natioa Coci or Ero-met Poicy ad Paig Meetig. ( nashvie, May 31,2012).

15 Jeier Media, Caioria Cts Threate the Stats ouiversities, The New York Times, Je 1, 2012, avaiabeat http://www.ytimes.com/2012/06/02/s/caioria-

cts-threate-the-stats-o-iversities.htm?_r=2&=todaysheadies&emc=edit_th_20120602.

16 Mcledo, The Shitig ladscape o u.S. Higher Ed-catio: Impicatios or Strategic Eromet leaders.

17 Doad Heer, Fiacia Aid ad Admissio: TitioDiscotig, Merit Aid, & need-Aware Admissio. Pre-setatio at the Ceter o Eromet Research, Poicy,ad Practice Iaga Aa Coerece. (los Agees,Agst 5, 2008).

18 natioa Associatio o Coege ad uiversity BsiessOcers, 2011 Titio Discotig Stdy R eport(2011).

19 Persoa commicatio rom Robert H. Frak, H.J. lois Proessor o Maagemet ad Proessor oEcoomics, Johso Schoo o M aagemet, Coreuiversity, May 21, 2012.

20 Jerome Karabe, The Chosen: The Hidden History ofAdmission and Exclusion at Harvard, Yale, and Princeton(new York: Hoghto Mifi Harcort, 2005).

21 Robert H. Frak ad Phiip J. Cook, The Winner-Take-AllSociety: Why the Few at the Top Get so Much More thanthe Rest of Us. (new York: Pegi, 1996).

22 Robert Zemsky, Wiiam F. Massey, ad Gregory R. We-ger. Remaking the American University: Market-Smartand Mission-Centered. (Piscataway: Rtgers uiversityPress, 2005).

23 Wiiam Drde, A Power Critiqe o Coege Rak-igs, avaiabe at https://dickiso.ed/abot/presi-det/Coege-Rakigs-Critiqe/.

24 Macom Gadwe, The Order o Thigs: What

Coege Rakigs Te us, The New Yorker, Febrary14, 2011, avaiabe at http://www.ewyorker.com/reportig/2011/02/14/110214a_act_gadwe.

25 Ibid.

26 Stephe D. Browig, The Misgided Appicatio othe Sherma Act to Coeges ad uiversities i theCotext o Sharig Fiacia Aid Iormatio,BostonCollege Law Review, 33 (4). (1992): 763-796, avaiabeat: http://awdigitacommos.bc.ed/cgi/viewcotet.cgi?artice=1955&cotext=bcr.

27 Ibid.

28 Massachsetts Istitte o Techoogy, Atitrst casesetted, Press reease, December 22, 1993, avaiabe athttp://tech.mit.ed/Betis/ovrp-pr.htm.

29 Teresa A. Siva ad others, Improvig Measremeto Prodctivity i Higher Edcatio (Washigto:natioa Academies Press, 2012).

30 Adrew Debaco, College: What it Was, Is, and ShouldBe (Priceto: Priceto uiversity Press, 2012).

31 Richard A. Hersch, What Does Coege Teach?, TheAtlantic Monthly, november 2005, avaiabe at http://www.theatatic.com/magazie/archive/2005/11/what-does-coege-teach/4306/?sige_page=tre.

32 Becky Spiao, 10 Coeges Wi Provide Cost adFiacia-Aid Iormatio to Icomig Stdets,TheChronicle of Higher Education, Je 5, 2012, avaiabe athttp://chroice.com/artice/10-Coeges-Wi-Provide-Cost/132137/.

33 Debaco, College: What it Was, Is, and Should Be.

34 Pasi Sahberg qoted i A Partae, What Ameri-cas Keep Igorig Abot Fiads Schoo Sccess,The Atlantic Mobile, December 29, 2011, avaiabe athttp://m.theatatic.com/atioa/archive/2011/12/what-americas-keep-igorig-abot-ads-schoo-sccess/250564.

35 Massachsetts Istitte o Techoogy, Atitrst CaseSetted.
http://www.amazon.com/William-G.-Bowen/e/B001HD01NA/ref=ntt_athr_dp_pel_1http://www.amazon.com/s/ref=ntt_athr_dp_sr_2?_encoding=UTF8&sort=relevancerank&search-alias=books&ie=UTF8&field-author=Matthew%20M.%20Chingoshttp://www.amazon.com/William-G.-Bowen/e/B001HD01NA/ref=ntt_athr_dp_pel_1http://www.amazon.com/s/ref=ntt_athr_dp_sr_2?_encoding=UTF8&sort=relevancerank&search-alias=books&ie=UTF8&field-author=Matthew%20M.%20Chingoshttp://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/2012/05/yielding-to-an-invitation/http://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/2012/05/yielding-to-an-invitation/http://www.nytimes.com/2012/06/02/us/california-cuts-threaten-the-status-of-universities.html?_r=2&nl=todaysheadlines&emc=edit_th_20120602http://www.nytimes.com/2012/06/02/us/california-cuts-threaten-the-status-of-universities.html?_r=2&nl=todaysheadlines&emc=edit_th_20120602http://www.nytimes.com/2012/06/02/us/california-cuts-threaten-the-status-of-universities.html?_r=2&nl=todaysheadlines&emc=edit_th_20120602https://dickinson.edu/about/president/College-Rankings-Critique/https://dickinson.edu/about/president/College-Rankings-Critique/http://lawdigitalcommons.bc.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1955&context=bclrhttp://lawdigitalcommons.bc.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1955&context=bclrhttp://tech.mit.edu/Bulletins/ovrlp-pr.htmlhttp://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2005/11/what-does-college-teach/4306/?single_page=truehttp://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2005/11/what-does-college-teach/4306/?single_page=truehttp://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2005/11/what-does-college-teach/4306/?single_page=truehttp://chronicle.com/article/10-Colleges-Will-Provide-Cost/132137/http://chronicle.com/article/10-Colleges-Will-Provide-Cost/132137/http://m.theatlantic.com/national/archive/2011/12/what-americans-keep-ignoring-about-finlands-school-success/250564http://m.theatlantic.com/national/archive/2011/12/what-americans-keep-ignoring-about-finlands-school-success/250564http://m.theatlantic.com/national/archive/2011/12/what-americans-keep-ignoring-about-finlands-school-success/250564http://m.theatlantic.com/national/archive/2011/12/what-americans-keep-ignoring-about-finlands-school-success/250564http://m.theatlantic.com/national/archive/2011/12/what-americans-keep-ignoring-about-finlands-school-success/250564http://m.theatlantic.com/national/archive/2011/12/what-americans-keep-ignoring-about-finlands-school-success/250564http://chronicle.com/article/10-Colleges-Will-Provide-Cost/132137/http://chronicle.com/article/10-Colleges-Will-Provide-Cost/132137/http://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2005/11/what-does-college-teach/4306/?single_page=truehttp://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2005/11/what-does-college-teach/4306/?single_page=truehttp://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2005/11/what-does-college-teach/4306/?single_page=truehttp://tech.mit.edu/Bulletins/ovrlp-pr.htmlhttp://lawdigitalcommons.bc.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1955&context=bclrhttp://lawdigitalcommons.bc.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1955&context=bclrhttps://dickinson.edu/about/president/College-Rankings-Critique/https://dickinson.edu/about/president/College-Rankings-Critique/http://www.nytimes.com/2012/06/02/us/california-cuts-threaten-the-status-of-universities.html?_r=2&nl=todaysheadlines&emc=edit_th_20120602http://www.nytimes.com/2012/06/02/us/california-cuts-threaten-the-status-of-universities.html?_r=2&nl=todaysheadlines&emc=edit_th_20120602http://www.nytimes.com/2012/06/02/us/california-cuts-threaten-the-status-of-universities.html?_r=2&nl=todaysheadlines&emc=edit_th_20120602http://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/2012/05/yielding-to-an-invitation/http://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/2012/05/yielding-to-an-invitation/http://www.amazon.com/s/ref=ntt_athr_dp_sr_2?_encoding=UTF8&sort=relevancerank&search-alias=books&ie=UTF8&field-author=Matthew%20M.%20Chingoshttp://www.amazon.com/William-G.-Bowen/e/B001HD01NA/ref=ntt_athr_dp_pel_1http://www.amazon.com/s/ref=ntt_athr_dp_sr_2?_encoding=UTF8&sort=relevancerank&search-alias=books&ie=UTF8&field-author=Matthew%20M.%20Chingoshttp://www.amazon.com/William-G.-Bowen/e/B001HD01NA/ref=ntt_athr_dp_pel_1


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