Lesson Three

Pub Talk and the King's English

Objectives of Teaching1. To comprehend the whole text2. To lean and master the vocabulary and

expressions3. To learn to paraphrase the difficult sentences4. To understand the structure of the text5. To appreciate the style and rhetoric of the

passage.

Aims 1. To learn the methods in developing an

expository writing,esp. the use of examples

2. To know how to make good conversation

3. To trace the history of the King’s English

4. To analyse the features of spoken English

5. To appreciate the language features

Teaching Contents 1. Exposition 2. History of Britain 2. Detailed study of the text 3. Organizational pattern 4. Language features 5. The characteristics of spoken English

Time allocation1. Exposition and history (15 min.)2. Detailed study of the text (105 min.)3. Structure analysis (15 min.)4. Language appreciation (15 min.)5. The characteristics of spoken English (30

min)

Writing style a piece of exposition

What is King's English? What is pub talk?

Writing style The title of this piece is not very aptly

chosen. It misleads the readers into thinking that the

writer is going to demonstrate some intrinsic or linguistic relationship between pub talk and the king's English

Writing style Whereas the writer, in reality, is just discour

sing on what makes good conversation. He feels that bar conversation in the pub ha

s a charm of its own.

Writing style The writer illustrates his point by describing

the charming conversation he had with some people one evening in a pub on the topic “the King's English".

The thesis --- in the opening sentence of Para 1.

Writing style Conversation is the most sociable of all hu

man activities. The last sentence of the last par. winds up t

he theme by pointing out what is the bane ( 祸害） of good conversation ....... "talking sense“

Writing style The real thesis --- in the 3rd para. “Bar conv

ersation has a charm of its own”. A better title would be:

" The Art of Good Conversation“ "The Charms of Conversation"

The History of Britain 1.The native people in Britain Celts

--- Celt (language) 2. Roman Conquest 43 AD, ruled for 400

years Latin (language)

The History of Britain 3. In 449 Angles, Saxon, and Jutes from

Northwest of Germany , conquered the most part of England

English --- old English

The History of Britain 4. 9th century, Scandinavian conquest Danish

(language) 5. 11th century Norman Conquest for 400 yea

rs French (language) 6. British people conquered the conquest again.

English won its recognition. *

http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/timelines/britain/o_neo_bronze.shtml *

Detailed study of the text pub talk

--- conversation held in the public house The King's English

--- standard English

Detailed study of the text Conversation is the .....:

Conversation helps to promote an agreeable pleasant and informal relationship among people.

sociable ---- friendly; agreeable The smiths are a sociable family. We spent a sociable evening drinking the other

day. A sociable person is one who is friendly.

And it is an activity only of human…

-- And conversation is an activity which is

found only among human beings.

Animals and birds are not capable of

conversation.

intricate --- complicated The intricate computer requires a skilled

operator. an intricate argument / plot

design / pattern

indulge in --- enjoy; satisfy 容许自己享受； 尽情

allow oneself to have or enjoy He indulged heavily in conversation and drink.

indulge in He occasionally indulges in the luxury of a goo

d cigar. We indulge in an expensive supper after the co

ncert. Nazi madmen indulged in the torture of their vi

ctims before they killed them.

Par. 2 How to make good conversation?

What makes good conversation? 1. Anything can start a conversation. It does not

need a special topic to start a conversation. And once started, no one knows how or where it will end.

What makes good conversation? 2. What spoils the conversation is people who

think they have a lot of important things to say. He who would have anything important to say spoils the conversation.

3. Conversation is not for making a point.

What makes good conversation? 4. There is no winning in conversation. One

does not try to prove himself right and others wrong. We may argue but we needn't try to convince others that they are wrong and we are right.

make a point --- prove effectively truth of one‘s statement by argu

ment or in some other way. 立论； 证明观点 This is the first point I want to make. In this case he made a point.

在这一点上，他发表了自己的观点。

in a flash --- in a second In a flash he realized that they were presents fro

m his patients. Everything happened in a flash. a flash in a pan

They are ready to let it go. --- They are ready to give up the

opportunity to tell one of their best

anecdotes (because the conversation has

moved onto other subjects)

metaphor meander leap ---- river

1. flow slowly turning here and there2. jump over

metaphor Sparkle glow ---- fire

1. small flashes 2. bright light

mixed metaphor

meander/ sparkle --- smooth / peaceful leap / glow ---- exciting / heated

The writer in the same sentence compares conversation to river and fire as well.

Para 3 the real thesis ---

Bar conversation has a charm of its own

Why does the writer like bar conversation so much?

1. The writer is only a frequenter of pubs.2. Bar goers are not intimate friends. Bar/church, the place for people to

make friends. Bar plays an important role in social activities in the western world.

on the rocks --- infml cliché

1. wrecked or ruined Mr Jones' business was on the roc

ks. = His business was losing money an

d almost ruined.

on the rocks 2.with ice only

Sally ordered an orange juice on the rocks.

= Sally ordered an orange juice with ice cubes.

Marriage is compared to a ship wrecked on the rocks.

Ancient superstition:

1. get out of bed on the wrong sideget up on the wrong side of the

bed

Ancient superstition Getting out of bed on the "wrong side"

will bring you "bad" luck. The wrong side is usually the "left" side. When one get out of bed on the "wrong" side, it usually means you're in the "grumpy" or "bad" mood.

Go back to bed and get up on the right side.

Ancient superstition2. “Step on a spider... it is sure to rain”

This superstition is told to all children, because no one wants it to rain. Spiders generally live a long and healthy life.

3. The number 13 has often been thought to be a bad omen. People should never invite "13 guests to dinner. It is believed that one will die before the year is out .

Ancient superstition4. " Friday the 13th " is day to stay at

home and do nothing. It is doubly unlucky, when the 13th of the month falls on a Friday. "Bad" things will happen. Many people refrain from starting activities on the "13th" to make sure no evil will happen to them.

up-bringing --- the training and education

received while growing up His upbringing explains a lot about

his attitude towards women.

of one's own -- belong strictly to oneself

She has a mind of her own. 她颇有主见。 For reasons of his own, he refused to joi

n the club. 由于某些个人理由，他拒绝参加那个俱乐部。

delve – dig, research; investigate

delve into book 专研书本 delve into the past 调查过去的情况 If you delve into sth, you try to disco

ver new information about it.

two kinds of language:a) colloquial expression

on the rocks get out of bed on the wrong side

b) literary allusion 文学典故， 引喻 in reference to a person; event; story

"Musketeers of Dumas“ http://www.cadytech.com/dumas/biographie.php

The three Musketeers in Dumas' novel are very close friends. They supported each other with their fortune and their lives, yet they showed no curiosity in or tried to find out anything about each other's private life.

Para.1-3 Questions:1. How do you comment on the title?2. What is the first topic the writer puts for

ward?3. Do you think the writer sticks to this top

ic?4. What makes a good conversation?5. Why does the writer like bar conversatio

n so much?

Para. 4 Specific example. It may be used as a

transitional paragraph. In order to arouse the readers curiosity the writer didn't mention the topic until the next paragraph.

desultory ---- aimless, half-hearted (fml) 散漫

The word comes from the Latin "desultor" - leaper . Something that is desultory is done or happen in an unplanned and disorganized way, and without enthusiasm.

desultory There were some desultory attemp

ts to defend him. He began to look desultorily for a

nother apartment. a ~ conversation 漫谈 ~ research 漫无边际的研究 a ~ walk 漫步

commonplace -- ordinary, common

Disposable cigarette lighters are commonplace. Air travel has now become ~.

n. In earlier centuries the death of children was a commonplace.

alchemy --- magic1. the form of chemistry studied in the Middle A

ges, which was especially concerned with trying to discover ways to change ordinary metals into gold.

2. a literary use, the power to do sth. so well that it seems mysterious and magical the alchemy of his performance

affirmation --- a statement of your belief in and suppo

rt for them the denunciation of privilege and affirm

ation 指责特权 affirmation of equality 赞同平等

a term of criticism -- why? The King's English is a kind of

language one should try to use and imitate. Someone told me that the language should not be used. The term is criticizing instead of praising.

convict -- a person who has been found guilty

of a crime and sent to prison esp. for a long time

an escaped convict an ex-con 前科犯

barrier, obstacle, difficulty difficulty ---

-- the most general of the words and may be applied loosely to any troublesome state of affairs

to have difficulty in learning higher mathematics

the difficulty of driving a car through deep mud

barrier, obstacle, difficulty obstacle

-- something that one must either remove or go around before being able to proceed

The huge tree that had been blown down by the storm was an obstacle to traffic.

Ill health may be an obstacle to a child's progress in school.

barrier, obstacle, difficulty barrier

-- an obstacle that temporarily impedes progress but is not necessarily impassable.

Writers never tire of depicting the barriers that arise between parents and growing children.

barrier

The thick walls and moats of castles we

re built as barriers against attackers.城堡修筑厚实的城墙及护城河都是为了将其用作防御进攻的障碍物。

churl

-- (old use) a person of low birth, esp. a peasant

swing --- (cause to) change to a large degree

She swung from happiness to tears The value of the dollar swung downwards.

Par 8 History of English. T The writer here makes digression to show

conversation going on without focus.

out of snobbery

--- (in order) because they want to show

their superior taste in matter of food.

out of snobbery In English restaurants, esp, in high-class res

taurants, the names of the dishes on the menus are quite often in French. This is done out of snobbery because in the Western countries people consider French food to be the best.

out of snobbery But even if they wrote their menus in Englis

h, they would have to use many words, such as pork, beef, veal, poultry etc derived from French and which were first introduced into England by the Norman rulers.

snobbery ---

1. the attitude of someone who belongs to

or admires the higher social class of society,

and despises people of a lower social class

snobbery ---

2. the attitude of sb, who believes that his o

wn special tastes, interests and abilities are s

uperior to those of other people. snobbish / snob

rift --- fml, lit. 1. a crack, narrow opening made by breakin

g The sun appeared through a rift in the clouds.

2. (fig) division I'm afraid there's been a rift between us. A deep rift has started in their family life.

Par.10 example to show class distinction scamper ---

When people or small animals scamper, they move with small, quick, bouncing steps.

The mouse scampered into its hole.

turn up one's nose at -- a trite expression

show contempt for / ignore / score / consider sth not good enough

I wish my child wouldn't turn up his nose at vegetables.

turn up one's nose at My friend turns up his nose at anyone who has

n't had a college education.

-- turn up one's toes – to die (slang)

bilingual education --- using two languages in teaching

Since there are now some two or three million Americans of Latin American parentage whose language is Spanish, a recent movement has been for bilingual education, usually English and Spanish.

Under this plan, students whose first language is sth other than English receive instruction in that language as well as English, so as not to deprive them of equal educational opportunity.

bilingual education This proposal, which has been only sporadi

cally （不时发生地） implemented （执行，生效） has caused a great deal of controversy in the US.

bi + adj. --- meaning double, two, appearing twice

bimonthly 每月二次 biannual 每年二次 biplane 双翼飞机

into the shoes of --- (infml) in the position of experiencing what anot

her has to experience I'm glad I'm not in his shoe just now.

cultural humiliation --- The English must have felt greatly humiliated

when they were forced to listen to and use a foreign language and to accept a foreign language. So they took up arms against this cultural humiliation. The leader is Hereward the Wake.

Hereward the Wake 3image-1*

an Anglo-Saxon patriot and rebel leader, he rose against the Norman conquerors but was defeated.

This sentence means like Herewaaard the Wake, when the English rose against the Norman conquerors, they must have felt greatly humiliated when they were forced to listen to and use a foreign language to accept a foreign culture.

heirs to it --- "it" is not clear

1. the English we speak and write in America today also shows the French influence of that time. We have inherited this French influence on the English language.]

heirs to it 2. In America today we are facing the same pro

blem that existed in England 900 years ago. The problem of having two languages existing side by side.(English and Spanish)

Par 12 the history of the King's English

Newes -- archaic spelling Strange News of the Intercepting Certain Letters thou clipst the King's English ------ middle English

clip --- simplify abbreviate in speech or writing as "n'kyou" for

"thank you“ They gave him clipped and precise instructions. His plays are written in a very clipped style. A clipped style of language expresses things qu

ickly and clearly using as few words as possible.

God's patience... There will be a great trying of one's patience

and plentiful misuse of the King's English. No matter how patient you are, you won't be

able to bear him, because he will even try God's patience. God is more patient than any human being.

abusing – 1. take unfair or undue advantage of (one's patie

nce) 2. improper or incorrect use of language (the Ki

ng's English)

come into its own --- receive what properly belongs to one, esp acclai

m or recognition 获得应得的 She didn‘t really come into her own until she’d

won the election for Party leader. 才奠定了应有的地位

With the success of the Model T Ford, the automobile industry came into its own.

随着 T 型福特汽车的成功，汽车工业受到了应有的重视。

Elizabethans--- the famous writers in Elizabethan time (period) Shakespeare/ Milton

Simile Extended simile blow on a dandelion clock – seeds

multiplied – floated to the ends of the earth

To spread the English language is compared to the blowing of a dandelion clock.

English was spread far and wide by those famous writers.

"The King's English was no longer...“

The use of English was no longer restricted to a certain race or class. Now English is used both by the King and common people in England.

pejorative – disparaging, downgrading

(a word, phrase) that suggests that somebody or sth, is bad or worthless

I didn't think he is using inequality in a pejorative sense.

facetious --- comes from the French "faetie" -- a jest

joking esp. at an inappropriate time I became angry with that facetious boy. A phrase used pejoratively or facetiously is clea

rly lowered in importance and dignity.

underling(s) --- derog a person of low rank or position in relation to

another such as a servant

"English as it should be spoke“ The deliberate poor grammar used here reflects

the desire by some members of the lower classes to strip the language of any pretence, to keep it from being used in snobbish way.

Carlyle --- Thomas Carlyle (1795-1881)

a Scottish essayist and historian and a very strong voice in the intellectual circles of Victorian England.

Carlyleism 卡莱尔风格

harden -- become hard or forceful There exists a kind of danger. That's for us, wor

ds will become concrete things.

edict -- (fml) an official public order having the force of law,

which everyone must obey a firm, authoritative command or instruction

immune (to) 不受影响的 If you are immune to sth. that happens or is done,

you are not affected by it. He was immune to the flattery of others people. The American economy is proving surprisingly i

mmune to big fluctuations 波动 in interest rates. be ~ against attack be ~ from taxation

n. diplomatic immunity 外交豁免权

common sense --- 头脑，见地， 应有的判断力

practical good sense and judgment gained from experience, rather than special knowledge from school or study

common sense a person's natural ability to make good judgmen

ts and to behave in a practical and sensible way. 1. Although she is not very clever she's got a lot of c

ommon sense. 2. Haven't you enough ~ to know that it's unwise to

go swimming just after a big meal?

ultimatum --- a final statement of terms made by one party or

another. There is an implication of serious penalties if the terms are not accepted. The word comes from Latin “ultimatus” (last) and is obviously related to “ultimate” 最后通牒 ; 最后条件

ultimatum -- When Iran held American diplomats hostage,

ultimatums were issued by the Iranian now and then demanding concession from the Americans if their demands were not met.

Detailed study of the text The King's English sets up an excellent

standard for us to imitate for we can gain a lot of useful knowledge or information by studying it, but people should not forced to accept it.

Par 18 “so we may return…”

The writer realizes he has been digressing from his subject so he comes back to his central them -- conversation.

slips and slides – metaphor

to slide on a slippery surface, to lose one's footing, hence to make a mistake, fall into error

The English one uses is no longer absolutely correct.

Foster "Collective Poetry"

--- Aspects of the novel is a major study of the novel and Foster's most important critical work.

1939 -- move to the US 1946 -- became a citizen 1956--1961 --- professor of poetry at Oxford 1967 - awarded the national medal for literature

Foster THE DOG BENEATH THE SKIN 1935 皮下之狗 ON THE FRONTIER 1938 边界上 JOURNEY TO A WAR 1935 战地行 a

record of their experience to China

Foster NEW YEAR LETTER 1941 新年来信 FOR THE TIME BEING, A CHRISTMAS

ORATORIO 1945 暂时 FOR AGE OF ANXIETY 1947 Pulitzer

Prize 忧虑的年代

sinister the sinister corridor of our age – metaphor

the road we travel --- compared to a corridor in our age, people are traveling along a sinister

road doing all kinds of evil things. a sinister look on his face A rather sinister figure was walking about behind th

e bushes

sinister Foster's metaphor refers to the ugly and

frightening world of the 20th century which has indeed been a sinister corridor for mankind to walk down, fraught as it has been with danger on every side.

sit up— If sth, makes you sit up, it makes you pay sudde

n attention to what is happening Why don't you threaten to resign, -- that would

make them sit up.

great minds --- people with great minds distinguished eminent people

salon -- 1. A salon is a drawing room or large room for

entertaining guests. In 18th century France, such salons of the rich were often gathering places for persons of social and intellectual distinction.

salon -- 2. art exhibition "the Salon“ 3. parlor

a beauty salon literary salon

saloon --- 1. a grandly furnished room for the social use o

f a ship's passengers ( in a hotel0 2. sedan (car) for 4 to 7 passengers 3. a large public drinking place = bar Italian word "sala" = hall

rank— Sir Lady duke / duchess marquis / marchioness earl , count / countess viscount / viscountess baron / baroness the only difference ....

Detailed study of the text the sauces prepared by Mme. Deffand's cook an

d supreme chef, Brinvilliers, were equally terrible. The only difference between the two cooks lay perhaps in their different purpose /intention in preparing the sauces.

Organizational pattern 4 sections

Sect. I par.1-3 The writer puts forward the theses. 1. Conversation is the most sociable of all human ac

tivities. 2. Bar conversation has a charm of its own.

Organizational pattern Sect. II par. 4-11

an example to support the thesis no fixed topic --- the King's English -- Australia -- S

axon churls -- the language barriers The example has well explained where its charm lie

s.

Organizational pattern Sect. III par.12--19 more digressions (what the

writer thought about after the bar conversation the night before)

Para.12-15 He gives his personal reflection on the history and meaning of the King's English

Para.16-19 By the mentioning of dictionaries and salons of 18th Paris, he reveals his attitude towards the King's English

attitude: 1) not ultimatum 2) slips and slides

Organizational pattern Sect. IV. Para. 20--21 conclusion

Those people who ruin the conversation by trying to talk sense are just like chimpanzees who are not capable of conversation.

Language features conversational style

loosely organized informal language ---

to suit the theme

Language features Reasons for the informal style:

1. the title misleading The writer talks about the charm of conversation by

illustrations. "How to Make Good Conversation“ "The Charm of Conversation“

Language features 2. the thesis

We have two theses here a) Conversation is the most .... b) Bar conversation has a charm of ... (the real one)

Language features 3. the transition or digression

para.5 served as transition shift general discourse to specific one

Language features 4. two different kinds of language

a) colloquial expressions b) copious historical allusions literary allusions

Language features 5. mixed metaphors 6. no big and abstract words 7. sentence fragments

Exercise Paraphrase:

Conversation is an activity which is found only among human beings.

2. Conversation is not for persuading others to accept one's own idea or point of view.

  Exercise 3. In fact, those who really enjoy and skilled at

conversation will not argue to win or force other to accept their point of view.

4. People who meet each other for a drink in a bar are not close friends for they are not deeply absorbed or engrossed on each other's lives.

  Exercise 5. The conversation went on without knowing

who was right or wrong. 6. These animals are called cattle when they are

alive and feeding in the field, but when we sit down at the table to eat, we call their meat beef.

  Exercise 7. The new ruling class by using French instead

of English made it difficult for the English to accept or absorb the culture of the rulers.

8. The English language received proper recognition and became an official language.

  Exercise 9. The phrase "the King's English" has always b

een used disparagingly or jokingly by the lower classes.

10. There still exists in the working people a spirit of opposition to the cultural control of the ruling class.

  Exercise 11. There is always a great danger that we migh

t forget that words are only symbols and take them for things they are supposed to represent.

12. Even the most educated and literate people do not use standard, formal English all the time in their conversation.

Synonyms ignorant, illiterate uneducated unlearned

ignorant --- 无知 It implies a lack of knowledge, either generally

or on some particular subject He's quite ignorant. He's not stupid, merely ignorant. You know I'm entirely ignorant about these thin

gs.

illiterate --- 缺乏文化修养 With little or no education esp. unable to read a

nd write There is a large illiterate population in the coun

tryside. 在农村文盲占多数人口。 He is musically illiterate. 他缺乏音乐修养。

uneducated --- 没有受到正规的系统教育

It implies a lack of formal or systematic education

He's uneducated enough not to be your secretary.

unlearned It suggests a lack of learning, esp in a special fi

eld He was unlearned in the ways of the world. 他不通晓人情世故。 A lawyer is not unlearned profession. 律师是一个需要学问的职业。

scoff --- 嘲弄，嘲笑，专对普遍被人们所信任崇拜或敬重的事物，冷嘲热讽 speaking slightly and with derision of sth usuall

y accorded honor, reverence or respect by other

scoff He scoffs an advice given by his elders. 他对长辈的劝告总是冷嘲热讽。 Those who scoff history will be scoffed by hist

ory. 嘲弄历史的人们必将被历史所嘲弄。

They scoffed at his fervent patriotism. 炽热的爱国精神

sneer --- 带有强烈的感情色彩，侧重于面部表情或语言中所含的轻蔑嘲笑之意

sneer carries a much stronger feeling, as by a derision smile or scornful insinuating tone of voice

sneer It's very discouraging to be sneered at all the ti

me. 成天受讥笑是很令人泄气的。

jeer -- 侧重指用粗鲁的，侮辱性的言辞或粗俗的嘲笑来表示轻 It suggests openly insulting, coarse remarks or

mocking laughter. The crowd jeered at the prisoners.

jeer They jeered at the proposal put forward by the s

peaker. Don't jeer at the mistake or misfortunes of other

s. 不要嘲弄别人的错误或不幸。

gibe --- 不带恶意的取笑或捉弄人的笑骂 It implies a taunting or mocking without illwill My brother gibed at my efforts to paint a pictur

e. It‘s unkind to gibe at another's English.

flout -- 以不理不睬或视而不见的态度表示出轻视 It suggests a treating with contempt She flouted my offers of help and friendship.

她对我所提供的帮助与友情均嗤之以鼻。

The Characteristics of Spoken English the characteristics of spoken conversational

language those which interfere with and interrupt the

fluency of speech features of normal non-fluency

The Characteristics of Spoken English 1. Hesitation pauses (or filled pauses) 填补词语

Filled pauses are those which are plugged by stopgap noises such as "er""erm“

The Characteristics of Spoken English 2. False starts

These can take the form either of a needless repetition of a word, eg "I erI", or of a reformulation of what has been said eg. "you get taught you're taught to drive" the result is an ungrammatical sequence of words.

The Characteristics of Spoken English 3. Syntactic anomalies （不规则）

Often we fail to keep control of the syntax of what we are saying, and produce anomalous constructions which, if they are not entirely ungrammatical, would nevertheless be regarded as awkward and unacceptable in written composition eg. "We've got... you've got to take".

The Characteristics of Spoken English The voiced fillers er and erm, for example,

are useful delaying devices, so that we are able to continue holding the floor while we think of what next to say

The Characteristics of Spoken English fillers - or tag constructions

such as: you know, well, oh, you see, I mean mm, shall I say, I think

isn't it -- an invitation to the listeners to confirm the speaker's observation

On the syntactic level Conversation tends towards coordination rather

than subordination of clauses, for coordination simplifies the planning of sentence structure "and"'but".

On the syntactic level 1. Sentences are short and the structure is simpl

e. 2. Verbal phrases are simple.

seldom use passive voice often use present and past tenses

On the syntactic level 3. more use of none pre-modifiers 4, in conversation, there is more use of declarati

ve sentence than interrogative sentence(interrogation )

less frequent use of imperative sentence

On the lexical level (lexis) lexis is short, simple and easy to understand , pl

ainly colloquial, emotional, exaggerative

On the lexical level (lexis) 1. the use of basic verbs, seldom use different w

ords to describe the same thing or the same action.

2. a great deal of informal words, slang words and taboo, vogue words 时髦词

On the lexical level (lexis) 3.the use of emotional words and exaggerative

words 4.the use of vague terms 模糊词语

kind of, sort of, thing, whatsit, what'shisname, eg. I met old what'shisname in town this morning

things like that, like anything, for anything, somehow , somewhat

On the lexical level 5. the use of abbreviation or abbreviated verb fo

rms dorm = dormitory lab = laboratory flu = influenza ad = advertisement

On the lexical level 6. conversational gambits 套话

Excuse me, but... Sorry, but.. In my opinion

On the phonological level 1. an obvious feature in conversation is

abbreviated verb forms and negative forms I'm he's she'd wouldn't

2. use of stress, intonation pause

The Characteristics of Spoken English The pragmatic实用，语用学的 analysis of l

anguage can be broadly understood to be the investigation into that aspect of meaning which is derived not from formal properties of words and construction

but from the way in which utterances are used and how they relate to the context in which they are uttered.

The Characteristics of Spoken English The pragmatic实用，语用学的 analys

is of language can be broadly understood to be the investigation into that aspect of meaning which is derived not from formal properties of words and construction,but from the way in which utterances are used and how they relate to the context in which they are uttered.

The Characteristics of Spoken English

In pragmatics, much of what we learn comes from inference from the language, rather than from what is openly said. The "extra meanings" that we infer, and which account for the gap between overt sense and pragmatic force, may be called implicatures

The Characteristics of Spoken English The term "implicature" was proposed by the

philosopher HP Grice. He suggests that when people converse with one another they acknowledge a kind of tacit agreement 默契 to cooperate conversationally towards mutual ends. This agreement he calls the Cooperative Principle. When one abides by the cooperative principle, one agrees to act according to various rules, or rather Maxims 准则 .

The Characteristics of Spoken English

Grice has suggested four conversational maxims:1. The maxim of quantity 数量准则

Give the required amount of information -- not too much or too little

The Characteristics of Spoken English

2. The maxim of quality 质量准则 Do not say that for which you lack e

vidence or which you believe to be false.

The Characteristics of Spoken English

3. The maxim of relation 关联准则 Make your contributions relevant to th

e purpose in hand.A: I'm running out of ink.B. There is a shop round the corner.

The Characteristics of Spoken English

4. The maxim of manner 风格准则Avoid: obscurity 不明 , ambiguity 模棱两可 unnecessary prolixity 罗嗦