Lesson 2

Early Hominids Hunters and Gathers History Alive

Section 1: Introduction

Prehistoric humans left clues about their lives in cave paintings.Scientists call these prehistoric humans hominids.In this chapter, you will learn about five important groups of hominids.

Three kinds of history detectives that study the past are archaeologists, historians, and geographers.The study of hominids involves a fourth type, paleoanthropologists. Paleoanthropologists specialize in studying the development and culture of the earliest hominids.(Paleomeans ancient.)

In 1974, an American paleoanthropologist named Donald Johanson made an exciting discovery.While searching for artifacts under a hot African sun, he found a partial skeleton.The bones included a piece of skull, a jawbone, a rib, and leg bones.

After careful study, Johanson determined that the bones had come from a female hominid who had lived more than 3 million years ago.She is one of the earliest hominids ever discovered.Johanson nicknamed her Lucy,from the Beatles song Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds, which was playing at his celebration party.

What have scientists found out about Lucy and other hominids?How were these hominids like us?How were they different?What abilities did each of the five hominid groups have?Lets find out.

Donald Johanson with Lucy

Interactive Notebook

1. Think of your favorite superhero from a comic strip, book, or movie. In the space below, draw a simple picture of your superhero using lots of color and write his or her name. (on the next page)

2. List two or three capabilities your superhero has. In complete sentences, explain why these capabilities are important.

Section 2: Australopithecus Afarensis: Lucy and Her Relatives

Scientists usually give Latin names to groups of living things.(Latin was the language of the ancient Romans who ruled a great empire for a thousand years, starting about 500 B.C.E.)An anthropologistin Africa called the earliest known group of hominidsAustralopithecus(aws-tray-loh-PIH-thuh-kuhs), meaning southern ape. Donald Johanson called Lucys group Australopithecus afarensis.The second part of this name refers to the Afar Triangle, the part of Africa where Lucy was found.

Through their studies of Lucy, scientists have learned a lot about early hominids.By assembling her bones, they know something about what she looked like.Lucy was short compared with humans todaybetween 3 and 4 feet tall.She had a mix of ape and human features.Her arms were long, but her hands and feet were similar to a modern humans.She had a large head, and her forehead and jaw stuck out from her face.

The remains of other hominids like Lucy have been found in the same area.Scientists guess that Lucys relatives lived in Africa, about 3 to 4 million years ago.

How are hominids like Lucy related to later hominids and to us?Anthropologists often disagree about the answer to this question.One reason may be that anthropologists have so few clues to work with.Bones as old as Lucys are very hard to find.Even so, most anthropologists agree that Lucy and her relatives were very early forms of humans.

One discovery about Lucy was especially exciting.By studying her skeleton, scientists found out that she was a biped.That means she had thecapabilityto walk on two feet.This gave Lucy and her relatives many advantages compared with animals such as gorillas and chimpanzees.With their hands free, the hominids could gather and carry food more easily. They could also use their hands to defend themselves and their children.

This bipedtraitwas one key way in which Lucy resembled us.But in other ways, hominids like Lucy were quite different from modern humans.Lucys brain was only about one-third the size of ours.Scientists have not found any remains of tools from Lucys time.The study of Lucys remains indicate that these early hominids likely could not speak.

Interactive Notebook

1. In the image below, color or draw the key capability of this hominid. Label it.

2. In the space below, write the scientific name of this hominid. Then list any other nicknames for this hominid group.

3. Write the time period in which this hominid lived.

4. Explain why the capability you labeled was important for survival. Include the following term in your explanation:biped.

Section 3: Homo Habilis Handy Man

Homo Habilis: Handy Man

A second group of hominids was discovered by the husband and wife team of Louis and Mary Leakey.When the Leakeys were searching for evidence of early hominids in Africa, they discovered some hominid bones.The bones were scattered among artifacts that looked like tools.The Leakeys named their discoveryHomo habilis(HA-buh-lis), or Handy Man, in honor of this hominid groups ability to make tools.

Handy Man lived a little closer to our time than Lucy did, about 1.5 to 2 million years ago.Like Lucy, this group combined ape and human features.They also walked on two feet.But they were taller than Lucy.Their features were slightly more humanlike, and their brains were twice the size of hers.

Scientists have discovered Handy Man remains only in Africa.Sometimes, the bones of more than one Handy Man were found together.It is likely that these hominids lived in groups.This would have helped them survive.They could have worked together to protect themselves against animal attacks.They also could have collected food over larger areas of land.

The tools found by the Leakeys were an important clue about this hominid group.Their larger brains and their ability to use tools were key differences between the Handy Man group and hominids like Lucy.These traits show that Handy Man was more advanced and more like modern humans than Lucy was.

Handy Mans tools were very simple.These hominids used animal bones as digging sticks and rocks as chopping tools.They also made sharp pieces of stone for cutting.

Making a tool, even a simple one, takes thought and effort.First, the hominids had to think about what kind of tool was needed.Then, they had to plan how to make it.Finally, they had to craft the tool themselves and try using it.Handy Man may even have passed these early skills on to others.

The ability to make tools helped Handy Man live better and longer than Lucy and early hominids like her.The use of cutting tools allowed these later hominids to tear the meat from dead animals.Crushing tools may have helped them crack animal bones, to eat the marrow inside.Handy Man hominids may even have dug or made traps for small animals.

Section 4: Homo Erectus Upright Man

Homo Erectus: Upright Man

A third type of hominid was discovered in 1891 by a Dutchman named Eugene Dubois (doo-BWAH).While he and his team were searching for artifacts on the island of Java, off the southern coast of Asia, they found a new type of hominid skull.

In time, Dubois team discovered the bones of many more hominids.As scientists assembled the bones, they observed that these hominids stood up straight.Dubois named this hominid groupHomo erectus(UH-rek-tuhs), or Upright Man.(At this time, Lucy and Handy Man had not yet been discovered.)

Upright Man lived on Earth longer than any other hominid group, from 1.8 million to 200,000 B.C.E.Scientists believe that they were the first hominids tomigrateout of Africa.Their remains have been found in both Asia and Europe.

It is no wonder that scientists have found the bones of Upright Man in many places.This group of hominids was well-suited for traveling.They were taller and thinner than earlier hominidssome even reaching the height of modern humans.Their bones were very strong.And they were good walkers and runners.

The facial features of Upright Man looked more like those of modern humans than the faces of earlier hominids. Upright Man hominids had foreheads that were round and smooth.But they still had a large ridge above the eyes, a thicker skull, and a jaw that stuck out.

Like Handy Man, hominids in the Upright Man group were toolmakers.But their larger brains enabled them to invent more complex tools, including strong hand axes made of stone.

One of Upright Mans greatest advantages was the ability to use fire.Anthropologists have found burned animal bones in the same places as Upright Man remains.This is a clue that Upright Man may have used fire to cook animal meat.

Scientists arent sure whether these hominids were hunters or merely gatherers, finding dead animals to eat.But studies of their tools and teeth show that they ate more meat than earlier hominids did. They feasted on red deer, elephant, rhinoceros, goat, boar, and oysters.

The remains of an ancient campsite found in France have offered additional clues about how Upright Man lived.Scientists guess that this group built oval huts by covering posts with tree branches.The group kept a fire burning in the center of the hut.It is likely that group members sat and slept on animal skins.

They may have decorated their bodies with yellow-colored mud called ocher.

Scientists believe that Upright Man groups moved from place to place, building shelters with tools, and using fire to keep warm.These capabilities helped them travel farther and survive for longer periods than earlier hominids could.The ability to construct shelters allowed Upright Man to adapt to colder climates and live in areas without caves or other natural shelters.The ability to control fire helped them survive the cold, cook animal meat, and protect themselves from predators.

Interactive Student Notebook

1. In the image, color or draw the key capabilities of this hominid. Label each one.

2. Explain why each capability you labeled was important for survival. Include the following terms in your explanation:tools, clothing, weapons, artwork.

Section 5: Homo Sapiens Neanderthalensis

In 1856, some mine workers in Germanys Neander Valley found a skeleton.It had thick bones and a ridge above the eyes, but was also very humanlike.Today, most scientists consider this fourth group of hominids to be a distinct type ofHomo sapiens(Wise Man), the large-brained group that modern humans belong to.Scientists call this group Homo sapiens neanderthalensis, or Neanderthal (nee-AN-der-tahl) Man.

Neanderthals lived after Upright Man, from 200,000 to 28,000 years ago.Neanderthals lived in Africa, Europe, and parts of western Asia.

The appearance of the skeleton found in Germany led scientists to believe that Neanderthals walked hunched over, with their hands dragging on the ground.As it turned out, the skeleton was of an older man who had a bone disease.In reality, Neanderthals walked upright.They were shorter and stockier than modern humans, but they were also much stronger.

Most important, Neanderthals had large brains.They used theirintelligenceto become skilled toolmakers.More than 60 types of Neanderthal tools have been found.These tools required much more planning, skill, and knowledge than the tools made by earlier hominids.Neanderthals created knives, scrapers, and spear points.They learned how to make sharp, thin blades by breaking off the top of a rock and then chipping two or three sharp flakes from the original piece.

The ability to make better tools improved Neanderthals chances for survival.But their ability to work together helped even more.Neanderthals lived and traveled in groups.And they were the first early hominids to hunt in an organized group.

Scientists believe that Neanderthals may have had a sense ofcommunity.When members of a group died, their bodies were laid in burial mounds, along with hunting tools and flowers.This is a clue that Neanderthals cared about one another and had a sense of ritual.

When on a hunt, Neanderthals worked together to surround and trap an animal.Then they would close in and kill it with spears.Evidence suggests that if some hunters were injured, other group members would help them.

Paleoanthropologists have found some Neanderthal bones showing signs of serious breaks that had healed.These clues lead them to think that Neanderthals helped members of their group who were hurt or sick.

Scientists interpret these indications that Neanderthals cared for each other to mean that Neanderthals lived as a community.This capability would have given them benefits in surviving.For example, they would have been able to learn from the experience and the wisdom of older members of the group.

How exactly are Neanderthals related to the early modern humans?Scientists arent sure. Judging from the remains that have been found of both groups, Neanderthals existed side by side with early modern humans for about 10,000 years.No one knows the reason why Neanderthal populations disappeared.All we know for certain is that only one type ofHomo sapienssurvived to become early modern humans.

Interactive Notebook

1. In the image, label each key capabilities of this hominid.

2. In the space below, write the scientific name of this hominid. Then list any other nicknames for this hominid group.

3. Write the time period in which this hominid lived.

4. Explain why each capability you labeled was important for survival. Include the following terms in your explanation:groups, spears, community.

Section 6: Homo Sapiens Sapiens Double Wise Man

In 1879, an eight-year-old Spanish girl named Maria was off exploring a cave with her father when she made an amazing discovery.She found a cave room filled with ancient paintings of deer, bison, wild horses, and boars.They were the first prehistoric cave paintings ever discovered.

The people who created these ancient cave paintings were the earliest members of our own group,Homo sapiens sapiens(SAY-pee-enz), or Doubly Wise Man. Homo sapiens sapiens first appeared about 150,000 years ago.Most scientists believe that they originated in Africa.From there, they spread to Europe, Asia, and Australia.Eventually, they migrated to North and South America, probably traveling across land bridges, which were later covered by water.

The first modern humans looked more like us than the Neanderthals did.They had high, rounded skulls, large brains, small teeth, and slender bones.But their bodies were not as well adapted to the cold as those of Neanderthals.Early modern humans may have survived because of their ability to create better tools, shelter, and clothing.

As toolmakers, early modern humans were even more skilled than Neanderthals.They attached thin blades to bone, antler, and stone to create a wide variety of tools.They made tools used for engraving and sculpting.They fashioned needles for sewing animal skins together.They also built shelters of earth and stone.

These prehistoric humans were also better hunters than earlier hominids.They made hooks and spears to catch fish. Most important, they invented the spear thrower and the bow and arrow.Armed with these weapons, they could hunt from a distance, making hunting much safer.

Through their artwork, early modern humans left behind a fascinating record of their lives. They left paintings on the walls of their caves.Artists also carved and shaped images out of clay, bone, flint (a hard mineral), and ivory.They even created musical instruments.

Prehistoric artists created a variety of images.Some images came from the world around them, like the animals they hunted.Some images came from their imaginations, such as mythical creatures.These early artists also made patterns using shapes. Paleoanthropologists think the artists may have signed their work with handprints.

Why did early modern humans create art?Many scientists believe that they painted to express themselves.Some think that pictures were used to teach children.Others think that images had religious purposes.

One thing is certain.These early humans did not merely exist in their world.They had many feelings about it and created images to communicate those feelings.They had the ability to express thoughts to others through pictures and symbols.Some scientists believe that these abilities were able tocontributeto the development of complex language, one of the capabilities that makes us fully human.

Interactive Notebook

1. In the image, label each key capabilities of this hominid.

2. In the space below, write the scientific name of this hominid. Then list any other nicknames for this hominid group.

3. Write the time period in which this hominid lived.

3. Explain why each capability you labeled was important for survival. Include the following terms in your explanation:tools, clothing, weapons, and art work.

Wrap Up

In this chapter, you learned about the capabilities of five hominid groups.

Lucy and Her RelativesA scientist found the bones of a hominid who lived more than 3 million years ago in Africa.He nicknamed the bones Lucy.Lucy belonged to the groupAustralopithecus afarensis.She had the capability to walk on two feet.

Handy Man and Upright ManThe groupHomo habilis, or Handy Man, was taller than Lucy and had the capability to make simple stone tools.The groupHomo erectus, or Upright Man, were the first hominids to migrate out of Africa into Asia and Europe.They stood up straight and had the capability to make tools, fire, and shelters to protect them from the cold.

Neanderthal Man and Doubly Wise ManThe group scientists calledHomo sapiens neanderthalensis, or Neanderthal Man, had large brains, made complex tools, and lived in communities.Homo sapiens sapiens, or Doubly Wise Man, made more complex tools, were skilled hunters, and created artwork.

Enrichment Essay

Piecing Together the Story of Early Hominids

Have you ever put together a jigsaw puzzle?You start with a picture that shows what the completed puzzle will look like.Then you fit the pieces together until they make up that picture.

Suppose, though, that you didnt have a picture to work with, but only the pieces?Even worse, what if most of the pieces were missing?How hard would the puzzle be then?

Thats the situation facing scientists who study early hominids.These scientists are trying to understand how and when early hominids developed. The puzzle pieces they work with are bits of bone that are millions of years old.Scientists know that they have only some of the pieces.Each new find gives them another clue to work with.

Gradually, the overall shape of the picture becomes a bit clearer.For instance, scientists today agree that hominids first appeared in Africa.But only 60 years ago, even this much of the picture was unclear.It took many finds to convince scientists that Africa was the birthplace of early hominids.

Each of these finds was the result of hard, patient work.Here you will learn about some other important pieces of the hominid puzzleand the people who found them.

The Taung Child

In 1924, an anthropologist named Raymond Dart examined an ancient skull that had been found in a quarry in Taung, South Africa.The skull belonged to a young, apelike creature.It became known as the Taung Child.Dart gave the fossil a more scientific name:Australopithecus africanus. This name is Latin for southern ape from Africa.

The Taung Child was the firstAustralopithecusfossil ever found.It is 2 to 3 million years old.Dart was thrilled by the discovery.He thought it showed that the earliest hominids appeared in Africa.Other scientists disagreed.At that time, many of them believed that hominids first appeared in Asia. Over the next 20 years, a Scottish anthropologist, Robert Broom, collected more and moreAustralopithecusfossils in Africa.By the 1940s, most scientists had to agree that Dart was right.

"Nutcracker Man"

Far to the north, Mary Leakey found more puzzle pieces at Olduvai Gorge in East Africa.Mary and her husband, Louis, had spent 30 years searching the gorge for hominid remains.In 1959, Mary found hundreds of bits of bone.When she pieced them together, they made up the skull of a previously unknown type of hominid.The fossil was nicknamed Nutcracker Man for its large jaw.Today it is calledAustralopithecus boisei.It is more than 1.7 million years old.

More evidence was found by Mary and Louiss son, Richard Leakey.Richard found his first fossil when he was just six years olda part of an extinct pig.As a young man, he began leading expeditions in East Africa.

Richard made many important finds, including skulls and other bones of Homo habilisandHomo erectus.In 1970, he found another Nutcracker Man fossil.

Richards most famous discovery came in 1984, near Lake Turkana in Kenya.Most hominid fossils are small parts of the body.The new find was a nearly completeHomo erectusskeleton.Known as the Turkana Boy, it is about 1.6 million years old.

Richards wife, Meave, has also hunted fossils in Africa.Among her finds are still more species of early hominids.Richard and Meaves daughter, Louise, has worked with Meave on field expeditions, continuing the proud Leakey tradition.

Footprints at Laetoli

Mary Leakey made many finds during her long career.The one that excited her the most was a truly fantastic discovery:hominid footprints more than 3.5 million years old!

Marys team spotted the footprints in 1976 at Laetoli.This site is about 30 miles south of Olduvai Gorge.The footprints were found in a layer of volcanic ash.Apparently, a volcano erupted shortly after the footprints were made.When the ash hardened, it preserved the footprints.

Besides being amazingly old, the footprints were important for another reason.The creatures that made them had walked upright on two feet.The footprints were even older than the famous fossil nicknamed Lucy.They showed that hominids were walking upright at a very early date.

A Truly Ancient Hominid

Tim White, an American anthropologist, helped excavate the Laetoli footprints.He also worked with Donald Johanson, who found Lucy.Whites own teams have made a number of other finds.One of them pushed hominid history even farther back in time.

In 1994, White was working in Ethiopia.An African member of his team discovered hominid fossils that proved to be 4.4 million years old.The fossils had a very ancient combination of apelike and humanlike features.

White and his co-workers called the new speciesArdipithecus ramidus.The wordramidmeans root in the Afar language of Ethiopia.The researchers thought that the fossil was very close to the root of the hominid family tree.

These discoveries, and many more like them, are helping scientists to piece together the story of early hominids.Scientists often argue about exactly how the pieces fit together and what the big picture looks like.Meanwhile, they keep on looking.They know that there are many more pieces of the puzzle scattered around Africa, waiting to be found.

Interactive Student Notebook

Follow the directions below to complete the Common Core Activities.Your answers will be sent to your teacher.1

Create a cover for an issue ofDig It!magazine that highlights the discoveries of scientists studying early hominids. Your cover must include

an imaginative subtitle. attractive visuals of three discoveries made by scientists studying early hominids. brief captions that describe each discovery and explain why it is important to the study of early hominids. writing that is free of grammar and spelling mistakes. other colorful and creative touches.

Lesson 3

From Hunters and Gathers to Farmers

Section 1: Introduction

Scientists have identified and studied five important groups of hominids.Like the hominids before them, early modern humans hunted and gathered their food.In this chapter, youll read about how early people learned, over thousands of years, to produce food by farming.

Humans discovered farming toward the end of the Stone Age.This period gets its name from the stone tools prehistoric people made and used.Historians divide the Stone Age into two periods.The first is the Paleolithic Age, or Old Stone Age.During this period, people got food by roaming from place to place to hunt wild animals and gather nuts, berries, and seeds from the plants they found.

By about 8000 B.C.E., some people had learned how to raise animals and crops for food. This knowledgeenabledthese people, for the first time, to live in one place.The Neolithic Age, or New Stone Age, had begun.

This gradual shift from hunter-gatherers (food collectors) to farmers (food producers) is one of the most important advances in human development.People built permanent shelters.They settled in larger communities.Together, they produced what they needed. People developed new skills and made a variety of things that improved the quality of their lives.Over time, they also began to exchange goods with people in other communities for the things they lacked in their own villages.In this chapter, you will explore the many ways in which the development of farming changed human life.

Interactive Notebook

1. Think about one way that the invention of the computer changed peoples lives. Complete the following sentences to explain what life was like before the computer, and today.

In the past, ...

2. But today, ...

Section 2: From Old Stone Age to New Stone

The Old Stone Age, orPaleolithic Age, began about 2 million years ago, with the first tool making hominids, and lasted until about 8000 B.C.E.It was during this time period that early modern humans developed.Like the hominids before them, early humans were hunter-gatherers.They wandered from place to place, hunting animals and gathering plants for food.Often, they took shelter in caves.Prehistoric cave painters left clues about their way of life.

The New Stone Age, orNeolithic Age, began when people started to farm and produce their own food.The discovery of farming did not happen all at once.Over thousands of years, people gradually learned to raise animals and plant crops.They eventually began to rely on these farms for their food.Now, rather than having to roam long distances in search of things to eat, people could settle down in one place.

The Neolithic Age began around 8000 B.C.E. and lasted until about 3000 B.C.E.,when people learned to make tools out of metal instead of stone.During this time, farming developed in many places throughout the world, including parts of Europe, Africa, Asia, and the Americas.

Many Neolithic settlements were located in theFertile Crescent, east of the Mediterranean Sea, where the land was fertile(good for growing crops).Here, people built towns such as Jericho (JER-ih-koh),Catal Hoyuk(CHAHT-ul hoo-YOOK), and Jarmo (see map).

People in settlements like these lived very different lives from earlier hunter-gatherers.They could now concern themselves with other matters such as building permanent shelters and forming larger communities.They could make better tools and clothing.And they could swap items they had with other communities to get the things they lacked.As you will see, these changes made life safer, more comfortable, and more interesting.

Interactive Notebook

1. Briefly describe what life was like in the Paleolithic Age and the Neolithic Age.

2. Where were many Neolithic settlements located and why?

Section 3: Creating a Stable Food Supply

During the Paleolithic Age, people obtained food by hunting animals and gathering plants. They did not have a stable, or dependable, food supply.Wild plants and animals grew scarce when people stayed in one area for too long.And hunting was dangerous.Hunters were often injured or killed.

Gradually, people found ways to lessen their dependence on hunting and gathering. Instead of gathering wild plants, people discovered that they could plant seeds and harvest crops.Over time, farmers learned which seeds produced the most crops in the areas where they lived.

Early farmers also learned how todomesticateanimals, to raise and use them for peoples needs.They raised sheep, goats, and cattle for the meat.Goats and cattle also provided milk.Mules helped carry heavy loads and pull plows.

These two developmentsthe growing of crops and the domestication of animalsare calledagriculture.The Neolithic Age began with the invention of agriculture.For the first time, people had some control over their food supply.Lets explore why this change was one of the most important advances in all of history.

Section 4: Making Permanent Shelters

The first great change agriculture brought about was the use of permanent shelters. During the Paleolithic Age, people had lived in caves or rough, tent like structures.These weretemporaryshelters because hunter-gatherers werenomads.They had to move often, to follow the wild animal herds or to find new plants to eat.As people settled down to farm during the Neolithic Age, they built shelters that were more permanent.

In many areas, people used mud bricks, packed together, to build houses that were round orrectangularin shape.Sometimes, people added stones and tree branches to the mud to strengthen the walls and roof.These houses had openings high in the walls.Historians believe that people may have climbed ladders to reach the openings and enter the house.

Inside were several rooms.Places to store food were built right into the floor.Pits for cooking were also dug into the floor, and lined with clay.People may have filled the pits with water, dropping in hot stones to make the water boil for cooking.

The development of permanent shelters was important in several ways.Houses gave people protection from harsh weather and wild animals. Houses made life more comfortable.People could cook food in new ways.The long-lasting shelters enabled people to settle together in larger communities.

Section 5: Establishing Communities

The ability to raise food by farming allowed people to settle in permanent shelters.These structures, in turn, enabled people to form larger communities.In Paleolithic times, small bands of perhaps 20 to 60 people wandered from place to place in search of food.As people began growing food, they settled down near their farms.As a result, towns and villages grew up, like those at Jericho (in present-day Israel) and Catal Hoyuk (Turkey).

Living in communities made it possible for people to organize themselves more efficiently.They could divide up the work of producing food and other things they needed. While some people grew crops, others built houses and made tools.

Village dwellers also learned to cooperate to do a task more quickly.For example, toolmakers could share the work of making stone axes and knife blades.By working together, they could make more tools in the same amount of time.

With many of their basic needs now met, people had more time and energy for other activities.They could invent new ways of making their lives more comfortable and much safer.Larger communities could defend themselves more easily against their enemies.The Neolithic town of Jericho, for example, was protected by strong stone walls.All of these changes in farming villages led to growing populations.

Section 6: Developing New Jobs

Having a stable food supply allowed people to develop new kinds of jobs.In Paleolithic times, peoples main job was finding enough food to survive. With farms providing steadier supplies of food, Neolithic people could develop more specialized skills.

A good example is the town of Catal Hoyuk, which dates back to about 6000 B.C.E. Historians believe that the townspeople of Catal Hoyuk worked in a variety of jobs.Besides farmers, there were weavers, basket makers, toolmakers, and traders.

Focusing on one job at a time gave people the opportunity to improve the ways they worked.In Catal Hoyuk, farmers learned how to grow more than 14 kinds of food plants.Clothing makers developed a way to spin and weave.They wove natural fibers such as wool and linen into comfortable cloth. In some regions, people mined flint so that stoneworkers could create sharper tools.

Neolithic people didnt merely want to survive.They wanted to make themselves, and their surroundings, more beautiful.They decorated their pottery and baskets with geometric shapes.Stoneworkers learned to polish stones to make shiny jewelry and mirrors.House builders added special rooms to honor the gods and goddesses they believed in.

One effect of the development of different jobs was to inspire workers to improve their skills.This led to newer and better ways of doing things.And different jobs added much greater variety to community life.

Interactive Notebook

1. What was the most important job in the lives of Paleolithic people?

2. Answer each question for Neolithic Nick.

Why was the development of different jobs important?

3. Why did Neolithic people decorate pottery and polish stones?

4. What were some of the specialized jobs of the townspeople of Catal Hoyuk?

Section 7: Beginning of Trade

Anothermajorchange introduced in Neolithic times was the growth oftrade.Paleolithic hunter-gatherers rarely traded with other groups.They were mostly concerned with the animals, plants, and otherresourcesthey found nearby.As people settled in towns and villages, trade became a more common activity.

Usually, people trade to get resources they do not have in their own area.As Neolithic people became more skilled in their crafts, they wanted materials that would improve the strength and beauty of the things they made.Getting those resources became the job of traders.

Traders often traveled hundreds of miles in search of these materials.They crossed mountains on foot, rode donkeys across deserts, and sailed the Mediterranean Sea on ships.

What kinds of things were traders looking for?Popular items included flint and obsidian.Obsidian is a black glass found at volcanic mountains. Craftspeople used it to make knife blades, arrowheads, and mirrors.People also traded for beauty products like shell ornaments and a red ore calledhematite.Women rubbed hematite on their lips and cheeks to make them redder.

The growth of trade allowed people to make use of more resources.It also brought them into contact with people from distant places.These contacts helped spread ideas and knowledge throughout the ancient world.

Interactive Notebook

1. What resources did Paleolithic people use?

2. Why was the growth of trade important?

3. Why did Neolithic people trade?

4. How did Neolithic people conduct trade?

Wrap It Up

In this chapter, you learned how the development of farming changed peoples lives between the Paleolithic Age and the Neolithic Age.

A Stable Food SupplyDuring the Paleolithic Age, people lived as nomads, obtaining their food by hunting animals and gathering plants.Gradually, people discovered they could grow crops and domesticate animals.These two developments are called agriculture.Agriculture marked the beginning of the Neolithic Age.

Shelters and CommunitiesAs people began to farm, they built permanent shelters and formed communities.Towns and villages grew up near farms.

Jobs and TradeLiving in communities allowed people to improve how they lived and worked.They created new jobs and traded for the resources they needed.

Enrichment Essay Neolithic Societies around the World

Youve learned about the shift from hunting and gathering to farming.This change in peoples way of life had enormous consequences.In fact, it is often called the Neolithic Revolution.

Your study of this dramatic change focused on the earliest Neolithic settlements in western Asia.But over time, humans made the shift to farming in many other places as well.

Lets take a closer look at where and why the Neolithic Revolution happened.To understand this story, we need to take a step back and look at what came before the shift to farming.

Pre-Neolithic Societies

Between about 100,000 and 35,000 B.C.E., early humans spread from Africa to Europe, Asia, and Australia.Humans first migrated to the Americas from Asia as long ago as 25,000 B.C.E.

Like their hominid ancestors, these early humans were hunter-gatherers.They used their intelligence and tool making ability to adapt to many kinds of environments.For example, those who lived near lakes and rivers learned to fish.In central Africa, people used barbed bone points to catch large catfish as much as 80,000 years ago.Near oceans and seas, people learned to collect shellfish and hunt sea mammals and seabirds.

Elsewhere, bands of hunters worked together to stalk and kill large animals.Different groups became skilled in hunting the kinds of animals that lived in their area.In parts of Western Europe, people specialized in hunting reindeer.Farther east, they hunted horses.In central Asia, hunters killed mammoths (a kind of hairy elephant).In the plains of North America, they hunted giant bison, mammoths, and mastodons (a hairy, elephant-like creature).

Humans adapted in other ways as well.They made animal skins into clothing.They fashioned tools and art from bones, ivory, and antlers.In the Ukraine, in Eastern Europe, one team of scholars found an entire village made of mammoth bones.

Adapting to a Change in Climate

Modern humans first appeared during the last great ice age.During ice ages, temperatures are cold, and glaciers cover much of the Earth.The most recent ice age reached its peak about 20,000 years ago.Vast sheets of ice covered much of Europe, Asia, and North America.Hunter-gatherers adapted to the cold by using fire for warmth, making clothing of animal skins, and taking shelter in caves.

By 8000 B.C.E., the cold period had come to an end.Earth began getting warmer.Glaciers melted and retreated north.This change called for new adaptations.

The new conditions were less friendly to large ice-age mammals like the mastodons.Hunting had already reduced their numbers.Now many of them became extinct.Some animals that were adapted to the cold, such as reindeer and elk, moved north.Familiar plants also disappeared, while other kinds of animal and plant life became more abundant.Forests spread over much of Europe and Asia.

Humans adapted to these changes in two main ways.Most learned to collect and hunt more kinds of plants and animals.This was especially true in forested areas and in places such as Eastern Europe and North America, where large animals still roamed.Others made a much bigger adaptation. Gradually, they learned to collect the seeds of useful plants and replant them.They began domesticating (taming) wild animals.This was the beginning of farmingthe biggest change in humans way of life in all of history.

Neolithic Societies

People didnt learn to farm all at once.They started raising plants from seeds while continuing to hunt and gather much of their food.Gradually, some groups learned to rely on farming for most of their food.This shift marks the beginning of the Neolithic Revolution.

As you have learned, the shift to farming happened first in western Asia around 8000 B.C.E For the first time, people could settle down in one place instead of wandering about in search of plants and animals to eat.

Over the next few thousand years, Neolithic societies appeared in other parts of the world.By about 5000 B.C.E., there were farming communities in parts of Europe, Asia, and Africa.Several major centers of Neolithic culture were located in fertile river valleys.Among them were the valleys of the Nile River (Egypt), the Indus (India), and the Huang He and Chang Jiang rivers (China).

Some groups in the Americas also discovered farming.People grew squash in Mexico as early as 8000 B.C.E., though settled villages came much later.By 2500 B.C.E., there were thriving Neolithic settlements in Central America and in Peru.

Adapting to Local Conditions

Like hunter-gatherers, early farmers had to adapt to local conditions.They grew the plants and domesticated the animals that thrived in their areas.

Early farmers in western Asia grew wheat and other cereal grains, and domesticated wild goats and sheep.In eastern Asia, farmers grew millet and rice and raised a type of chicken.

In Mexico, people grew plants that were native to the Americas, such as squash and maize (corn).In Central America, people grew cotton along with food crops like corns, beans, and squash.They used cotton to make fishing nets as well as cloth.People in the high mountains of Peru grew potatoes and domesticated llamas.

Farmers had to adapt in other ways as well.In Egypt, farmers relied on the regular flooding of the Nile River to water their lands.In other places, farmers learned to store water and build irrigation systems.People in different areas built shelters out of local materials, such as mud brick, stone, and timber.

Over time, great civilizations grew up around the early centers of Neolithic culture.Farming villages grew into cities, states, and empires.A new chapter in the human story had begunone that continues to this day.

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Enrichment Activity

Part 1:Pre-Neolithic Societies

Using the first two sections of the essay, answer these questions:

1.On what continents were human communities located by 25,000 B.C.E.?2.List two examples of how these hunter-gatherers adapted to their environment.3.What environmental changes had happened by about 8000 B.C.E.?4.In what two main ways did people adapt to these new conditions?

Part 2:Neolithic Societies

Using the last two sections of the essay, create an annotated map.Follow these steps:

1.Ask your teacher for an outline map of the world.2.Pick any three of the following regions where human communities were located:western Asia, eastern Asia, Egypt, Mexico, Central America, Peru.3.For each region you select, draw a visual on the appropriate area of the map that represents an adaptation people made to their local environment.4.Next to each visual, write a short caption that identifies the region and the adaptation.

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