less developed countries and the good society chapter ten pearson publishing 2011

Less Developed Countries and the Good SocietyChapter Ten

Pearson Publishing 2011

Less Developed Countries

• This chapter examines differences in degrees of democracy among less developed countries and the consequences for citizens’ lives.

• Developing countries are much more diverse than developed countries in terms of per capita income, labor productivity and technology, modern conveniences, occupation, and levels of urbanization.

• Moreover, developing countries are very diverse politically:• Some are very democratic, scoring a +10 on the Polity IV

scale (e.g.: Chile or Costa Rica),• Others have much lower democracy scores.

• We will evaluate the characteristics of these second group of developing countries using case studies.


Case Study Selection

• Nigeria• weak democracy

• Brazil• electoral democracy

• Iran• electoral

authoritarianism

• Each case study will illustrate a different level of democracy in developing countries...

• Why these case studies?• They all have large populations.• They represent different levels of economic

development.• They are from different regions of the

world.• They are all important to the United States

and other advanced democracies.


Weak Democracies

• Characteristics of weak democracies:• Have regularly scheduled elections but democracy is

weakly institutionalized• Political rights to free and fair elections are often violated• Minority rights and civil liberties are violated• Political parties are based on personality and patron-client

relations rather than programs• Often weak states with little autonomy or capacity• Have weak foundations in society (groups in society are

only weakly committed to democracy)• Examples:• Kenya, Haiti, and Nigeria• Polity IV scores range from +4 to +7


Nigeria

• Africa’s most populous country and the world’s 7th largest oil exporter

• Still, Nigeria is one of the poorest countries.• Gained independence from Britain in 1960• The artificial borders created by British

colonialism enclosed more than 250 ethnic groups.

• Colonialism’s damaging legacies for Nigeria:• a weak sense of nationhood (due to ethnic and

religious differences)• “divide and rule” tactic used by the British

to pit the ethnic groups against each other ensured ethnicity was the primary societal cleavage in independent Nigeria

• a system based on personal rule of “big men” rather than rule of law

• the creation of an active and interventionist state

Historical Background


Nigeria’s Timeline

• 1960.............gained independence from Britain

• 1960-1966....first democratic period

• 1966-1970....civil war • Igbo ethnic group attempted to secede

• Over one million deaths

• 1970-1979....military rule

• 1979-1984....second democratic period

• 1984-1999....military rule following a coup d'état• Military rulers became increasingly predatory

• General Sani Abacha (1993-1998) was considered the “last despot.”

• 1999..............current constitution created a federal system

Table 10.1Pearson Publishing 2011

Nigeria - The State

• Nigeria has a weak state that is unable to maintain law and order, provide essential infrastructure, meet its citizens’ basic needs, or ensure civil and political rights.• Many parts of the oil-producing Delta Region are

controlled by insurgents and criminal gangs.• Cities in the center and north have had violent clashes

between Christians and Muslims.• Electricity is erratically supplied by the state-managed

Power Holding Company (PHC).• One important explanation is the rampant corruption and

patronage of “big men.”


Nigeria’s Government

• Federal System• Power is divided between

central government and 36 states.

• Balance of power heavily favors federal government.

• Presidency• Popularly elected to four year

terms• 2-term limit• Appoints Federal Executive

Council, which must represent all 36 states.

• Federal System• Power is divided between

central government and 36 states.

• Balance of power heavily favors federal government.


terms• 2-term limit• Appoints Federal Executive

Council, which must represent all 36 states.

• Legislature• Bicameral National Assembly• Lower House is popularly elected.• Upper House has 3 representatives

from each state.• Court System• Consists of a Supreme Court,

Court of Appeal, and state court system

• 12 northern states can establish courts based on Muslim/Shari’a law

• Military• Recent efforts to professionalize

the military


Comparative Political Analysis: Dying of CorruptionComparative Political Analysis: Dying of Corruption

Problem• Mosley & Uno explore the

relationship between corruption and population health

• How does corruption affect a country’s ability to improve public health care facilities and citizens’ overall health?

Methods & Hypotheses• Hypothesis - the lower the

corruption in a country’s government, the better the health of the population

• Sample of 180 countries• Scatter diagrams and

statistical tests


Comparative Political Analysis: Dying of CorruptionComparative Political Analysis: Dying of Corruption

Operationalizing Concepts

1. Quality of Government is the ability of the government to exercise public power based on impartiality. They use the World Bank’s rule of law and government effectiveness measures, and Transparency International’s Corruption Perceptions Index.

2. Healthy Life Expectancy is defined as “the average number of years that a person can expect to live in ‘full health’”.

3. Controls include the level of economic development.

Results• The authors find that the higher the quality

of government the longer the healthy life expectancy

• Controlling for country income level does not change the results - quality of government matters in both rich and poor countries when it comes to public health.


Nigeria - State & Society

• Political parties in Nigeria are weak and do a poor job of linking citizens to the state.• They do not offer competing programs, but instead compete

for votes by winning over ethnic and religious leaders who can mobilize blocs of votes.

• They maintain strong regional bases (rather than national) and have strong ties to ethnic groups.

• The most successful party is the People’s Democratic Party (PDP) led by Hausa-Fulani “big men.”

• Civil society has become more active in politics since the end of military rule through business and trade unions but ethnic and religious differences still hinder successful cooperation.


Nigeria - Political Culture

• While opinion surveys in 2000 found that 84% of Nigerians supported democracy. But there are many problems preventing its development:• Weak social and economic capital• Weak generalized trust• Corruption and cheating is taken for granted• Strong patron-client relationships• Ethnic, religious, and other identity cleavages

• The lack of trust often turns into violence.• Ex: conflict between Christians and Muslims in the city of

Jos• By 2005 support for democracy had dropped to 25%.


Nigeria - Political Economy

• Neither military nor civilian governments have successfully sustained economic development in Nigeria until recently.

• Much of the economy is based on rents (e.g.: oil).• Few institutions have provided incentives to invest in

industry. Property rights, market regulation, and infrastructure are also absent.

• Recent reforms have made steps in the right direction:• Banking and finance reforms• Privatization of over 100 state enterprises• GDP grew at 7% annually between 2003 and 2007


Electoral Democracies

• An intermediate category between full and weak democracies

• Characteristics of electoral democracies:• Political parties compete and campaign openly in regular

elections, but they are not as free and fair as full democracies

• Civil and political rights are not fully protected• Political parties rely heavily on patronage or ethnic identity• Have a greater state capacity than weak democracies• Also have stronger societal foundations than weak

democracies• Large inequalities exist in wealth and political power

• Examples:• Brazil, Mexico, India, Indonesia


Brazil

• Has had strong economic growth over the past decade, but also has one of the most unequal income distributions in the world.

• Gained independence from Portugal in 1822• Independence did little to alleviate the

strains of a divided social structure (European elite and African slaves)

• Periods of economic growth and stagnation have further emphasized economic and political polarization in Brazil.

• Economic emphasis has been on state-led industrialization and corporatism by both civilian and military governments



Brazil’s Timeline

• 1500s...........colonized by Portugal• 1822.............gained independence from Portugal• 1822-1964....civilian rule - strong Presidents

• 1930-1945 - President Getulio Vargas focused on middle class, industrial workers rather than landed elites

• 1964-1985....military rule following coup d'état• 1968-1980 - economic growth over 10% annually

• 1908s - prolonged economic stagnation

• 1985..............return to civilian rule• 1988..............democratic rule under new constitution

Figure 10.1Pearson Publishing 2011

Brazil - The State

• Brazil has a relatively strong state: • It effectively maintains authority across the country,

collects taxes, and implements policies.• It has produced one of the most effective anti-HIV/AIDS

strategies in the world.• Patronage is balanced by skilled professionals in key

agencies.• In other areas Brazil’s government has not performed

well:• Compared to other countries in its income level it has not

successfully promoted literacy, improved health care, or controlled violence.


Brazil’s Government

• Presidential System• The President is elected

separately from the Legislature.


terms• 2 consecutive-term limit• Constitutional powers are

weakened by a fragmented party system and bureaucracy

• Presidential System• The President is elected

separately from the Legislature.


terms• 2 consecutive-term limit• Constitutional powers are

weakened by a fragmented party system and bureaucracy

• Legislature• Bicameral• Lower House is popularly elected

to four year terms.• Upper House has 3 representatives

from each state.• Court System• Consists of both federal and state

courts• The President nominates members

to the Supreme Court, who are confirmed by the Senate

• Localities• Each of the 26 states elects a

governor and local legislature


Brazil - State & Society

Brazil is one of the world’s

most unequal societies.

• Brazil scores higher than Costa Rica, US, Germany and Sweden in income inequality ratings.

• 2% of landowners own approximately 50% of the country’s farmland.

• Clientelism has become common practice in urban and rural areas alike.

• Political leaders use state corporatism to divide members of the lower classes from each other further.• Ex: into different labor unions for different

sectors• Makes it easier for upper and middle class

citizens to maintain their privileges and harder for poorer citizens to improve their lives


Political Parties in Brazil

• Until recently political parties in Brazil were highly fragmented.

• Because Presidents require legislative coalitions to pass policy, paying off legislators is commonplace.

• The Workers’ Party (Partido dos Trabalhadores) is an exception.• President Lula da Silva took power in 2003• Party members are much more program-oriented than other

parties


Racial Politics in BrazilRacial Politics in Brazil

• Racial differences in Brazil are “fluid and ambiguous” with many intermediate categories of black and white.

• Racism is considered a constitutional crime, but despite these guarantees Brazil remains stratified by race.• Citizens of African descent are more likely to live in poverty

and be illiterate

• These cleavages did not emerge until the 1990s when President Cardoso began addressing racial inequalities and supported affirmative action policies.


Brazil - Political Culture

• Brazilians support the need for a strong state which takes an active role in the economy.

• The right to political equality for all citizens has not always been valued by elites - rather, elites have supported a hierarchical system in which a political class rules.• This political culture of inequality has been reinforced by a very

conservative Catholic Church hierarchy in Brazil.• Since 1988 there has been more support for democracy and

equal rights, though Brazilians still accept a greater role for the state in the economy.

• Brazilians are extremely critical of politicians and parties.• There exist very low levels of generalized trust• In 2005 only 9% of respondents said others could be trusted.


Brazil - Political Economy

• Rapid state-led industrialization dominated Brazil’s economic strategy from the 1930s to the 1980s. And it was much more successful than in Nigeria.• Brazil started at a higher level of industrialization in the first

place.• Most of the growth in Brazil was driven by privately-owned

firms.• The bureaucracy was more competent in Brazil than Nigeria

• Two major drawbacks of state-led industrialization in Brazil:• Recurrent economic crises (1973-1979 and 1980-1995)• Disregard for the welfare of poor Brazilians


Electoral Authoritarianism

• Distinguishing feature is their use of competitive multiparty elections to mask authoritarianism

• Characteristics of electoral authoritarianism:• Officials are chosen in competitive elections but electoral

rules are tilted strongly to favor the ruling party.• Full civil and political rights are frequently denied to

opposition groups and their supporters.• The most stable regimes have a strong ruling party

• Examples:• Egypt, Malaysia, Russia, Iran


Iran

• A theocracy - religious leaders rule• History dates back 2500 years to Persian

Empire• Turkish invaders from 1501-1772 converted

the country to Shiite Islam (the smaller of the two major branches of Islam)

• Currently an electoral authoritarian regime - while the public directly elects the President and Parliament, the Supreme Leader (religious leader) is not elected and holds most power.



Iran’s Timeline

• 1501-1772....ruled by Turkish Empire• 1921-1951....monarchic government under Shah

• Initiated in 1921 by Col. Reza Khan

• 1951-1954....democratic government• 1954-1979....monarchic government under Shah

• Shah was reinstated and supported by a CIA-backed coup d’etat

• 1979.............Iranian Revolution• Led by Islamic cleric Ruhollah Khomeini and fellow clerics

• 1979-1989....theocratic government under Ayatollah • 1989-present...electoral authoritarianism to maintain

Khomeini’s regime

Iran - The State

• Iran’s government, while having elements of democratic election, is ultimately governed by the most powerful office - that of the Supreme Leader.• His responsibility is to safeguard the legacy of the 1979

Islamic Revolution.• The Iranian state often ranks among the lowest in

effectiveness and highest in corruption in the world.


Iran’s Government

• Supreme Leader• Appoints head of judiciary and

has direct control of Revolutionary Guards

• Appoints Council of Guardians who can block bills deemed incompatible with Islamic law

• Overseen by the popularly elected Assembly of Experts, though membership is approved by the Council of Guardians

• Supreme Leader• Appoints head of judiciary and

has direct control of Revolutionary Guards

• Appoints Council of Guardians who can block bills deemed incompatible with Islamic law

• Overseen by the popularly elected Assembly of Experts, though membership is approved by the Council of Guardians

• Presidency• Popularly elected for 4-year

term• Controls budget and appoints

Cabinet (with parliamentary approval)

• Women cannot be President• Legislature• Unicameral - Majles• Popularly elected for 4-year terms• Women can be members• Legislative power is controlled by

appointed religious leaders


State-Society Factions in Iran

Societal Faction Beliefs

Conservatives

Oppose democracy and insist religious leaders stay in power; Do not support pluralism of ideas; Oppose the development of a modern industrial economy; Support Khomeni and the development of Iran’s nuclear program - e.g.: Supreme Leader Khameini

Pragmatists

Seek to promote economic growth and industrialization; Politically seek more democracy and less repression of dissent; Do not support conservative cultural restrictions. - e.g.: Hashemi Rafsanjani (President 1989-1997)

Reformists

Believes Islam and democracy can coexist; Want the Supreme Leader to defer to elected branches of government; Seek even more loosening of cultural restrictions and an opening with the West. - e.g.: Mohammed Khatami (mid-level cleric)

Principlists

The most recent faction to emerge - composed of younger leaders who believe the older generation has become corrupt; Argue for a return to revolutionary principles; Strongly critical of the US and Israel. - e.g.: President Mahmoud Admandinejad

Iran - State & Society

• All political parties are formally banned in Iran, though informal parties have reemerged. They do not have the advantages of organization, membership, or roots in society.

• Most political leaders are linked to groups in society through patron-client relations.

• Business and union organizations are tightly controlled by labor laws and clientelism.

• The Green Movement• Drew groups supporting Hossein Mousavi during his 2009

election campaign against President Ahmadinejad• A social movement, and so is decentralized• The regime responded violently and seeks to repress the

Green Movement.


Institutions and Power

• If a democratic political culture is necessary for successful democracy, what makes up such a culture?• Akbar Ganji: “based

on mutual trust, tolerance of diversity and difference, and readiness to compromise”

• Iran has none of these qualities

• Iranian national political culture is distinguished by a combination of great pride in their history and resentment toward the defeats outsiders have visited on it.

• Islam also shapes Iran’s political culture• A clear majority of Iranians support

democracy, but not the self-expression values necessary for creating democracy.

• Only 11% agree that others can be trusted• Differences are not well tolerated• Most believe it is the government’s job to

provide jobs and other necessities.• Private ownership of businesses is distrusted.


Iran - Political Economy

• Ayatollah Khomeini and his successors have made strides in improving the lives of poor Iranians• Poverty rates have dropped and healthcare improved• Access to education for girls• More women graduate from college than men

• The strategy has been an “interventionist-redistributive social contract” where the state intervenes to subsidize key costs in exchange for support.• Funded largely with oil and gas revenues (70% of the economy)

• Economic problems are real, however - slow growth rates, high inflation, and high unemployment• Compounded by a disproportionately young population and

growing labor force


Comparing Capabilities

• How do each of our case studies perform in our criteria for a Good Society?

• Evaluating performance will provide clues as to which type of regime best meets the needs of its citizens

• Consider:• Infant Mortality• Literacy Rates• Crime Rates• Voice and Accountability

• Overall:• Brazil outperforms Nigeria and Iran


Conclusions

• Electoral democracies (e.g. Brazil) tend to do a better job of enhancing citizens’ capabilities than the other regime types we considered.

• Authoritarian regimes do not have an advantage over democracies in promoting economic development

• Finally, while Brazil and Iran have both brought down infant mortality rates and increased educational opportunities, Brazilians have more opportunity to participate effectively in political choices that affect their lives than poor Iranians.


Critical Thinking Questions

• Why has Nigeria had so little success in achieving economic and human development despite huge revenues from oil?

• Brazil is set to become a major oil exporter in the next few decades. What are the likely effects of dramatic increases in oil revenues on Brazil’s politics?

• Why are broad-based associations and political parties more important for the improvement of capabilities for poor Brazilians than for wealthier Brazilians?


Critical Thinking Questions

• If the goal is to improve capabilities does it really make any difference whether poor families in Iran get better health care through authoritarian or democratic means?

• Why have reformers in Iran not been more successful in their struggles with conservatives and principlists to liberalize politics and cultural policy?


less developed countries and the good society chapter ten pearson publishing 2011

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