lens perspective -culture theories

Defining Theoretical PerspectivesCULTURE IS A MATRIX OF INFINITE POSSIBILITIES AND CHOICES. FROM WITHIN THE SAME CULTURE MATRIX WE CAN EXTRACT ARGUMENTS AND STRATEGIES FOR THE DEGRADATION AND ENNOBLEMENT OF OUR SPECIES, FOR ITS ENSLAVEMENT OR LIBERATION, FOR THE SUPPRESSION OF ITS PRODUCTIVE POTENTIAL OR ITS ENHANCEMENT. - WOLE SOVINKA, NIGERIAN NOBEL LAUREATE

Defining Theoretical Perspectives A theoretical perspective is a set of assumptions

or paradigms about reality; they are the philosophical positions or frameworks we use for asking certain questions about society and its people. They are also the philosophical positions or frameworks for then interpreting the answers we arrive at.

Theoretical perspectives can be thought of as the “lenses” through which we view and interpret reality. For example, sociologists use these “lenses” with the assumption that social systems such as “society” and “family” actually exist. It assumes that culture, social structure, statuses, and roles are social forces which are worthy of study. If we start from that perspective, then we can use those assumptions to explain world events, such as gender role inequality, or the economic disparity in the caste system.

Not every theory is going to make the same assumptions or interpret results the same way. Just as two people can watch the same movie and have differing opinions about its merit, theoretical perspectives can have differing views on the same event or issue.

Lenses of Perspective There are several theoretical perspectives through

which we can view and interpret culture. Some of these perspectives include the structural functionalist perspective, conflict perspective, symbolic interactionist perspective, cultural materialist perspective, and feminist perspective - these will be some of the “lenses” used in this course.

Feminist Theory Perspective Feminist theory is a contemporary sociological theory that examines the nature of

gender inequality. It examines such themes as gender oppression, objectification, patriarchy, women's social roles, experience, interests, and feminist politics.

At the core of Feminist theory is the idea that women have been systematically oppressed and that men have been historically dominant because of complex historical, cultural and social processes.

Feminist theory aims to use knowledge about the status of women and men in society for the purpose of bettering women’s lives. While there are different types of feminist theories, each with their own interpretation of the status of gender relations, all feminist theorists argue that change is needed to achieve equality between the sexes.

Simone de BeauvoirFocus of Study Simone de Beauvoir was an existentialist; her book

The Second Sex is considered a foundational text in feminist philosophy. In the book, de Beauvoir examined the oppression of women through time and analysed the many historical reasons why women have been viewed as “inferior”.

A key idea in de Beauvoir’s philosophy is that “One is not born, but rather becomes, a woman.” In her opinion, baby girls were not born feminine, but rather socialized to become passive and alienated.

Another key idea in de Beauvoir’s philosophy is the concept of the Other – she believed that humans naturally defined themselves by subjugating others – and that until women were no longer viewed as the Other, they would not be emancipated.

“Woman is shut up in a kitchen or in a boudoir, and astonishment is expressed that her horizon is limited. Her wings are clipped, and it is found deplorable that she cannot fly. Let but the future be opened to her, and she will no longer be compelled to linger in the present.” (The Second Sex, 1949)

Contemporary Application

Simone de Beauvoir would say that in order to understand a culture, one must analyse the messages imposed by society upon its women.

She would examine a culture to see which groups of people are treated as “Others” and therefore oppressed because of ethnicity, race, socioeconomic status or gender. de Beauvoir would view a culture in which all individuals are respected as equal and fellow creatures as the most progressive culture.

She would be particularly concerned with the socialization of gender roles found in the modern media: “The lie to which the adolescent girl is condemned is that she must pretend to be an object, and a fascinating one, when she senses herself as an uncertain, dissociated being, well aware of her blemishes.”

Bell Hooks

Focus of Study Hooks’ focus is on central themes such as culture,

gender, race and class, which she defines collectively as “white supremacist capitalist patriarchy”. The need to define these terms as such is a way for hooks to acknowledge that all of these themes are interconnected and function simultaneously, not as separate parts.

As a woman of color, she believes that in order to understand her reality at the moment of reflection, it needs to be viewed through this lens.

As part of being an educator, hooks views education as the practice of freedom and teaches the significance of media for contemporary culture through this collective lens.

“No other group in America has so had their identity socialized out of existence as have black women.... When black people are talked about the focus tends to be on black men; and when women are talked about the focus tends to be on white women.”(Ain’t I a Woman. 1981)


In order to understand a modern culture, hooks would examine the burden placed upon women of colour. She does not believe in infighting in the feminist movement, but believes in an inclusive feminist theory where differences are acknowledged and there is an acceptance of each other.

Women of colour occupy a space where they are ‘boxed’ in by specific stereotypes as defined by colonial history. When women of color speak out, they are often regarded as difficult or even angry, which bell explains as being a result of “white supremacist capitalist patriarchy”.

This experience is not associated with white men or women or even black men. Hooks would also question any stratification among women in society based on race.

Structural Functionalist Perspective Structural Functionalism is a theoretical understanding that proposes

society is a complex system of individuals, institutions, and groups that work collectively to promote solidarity and stability to meet specific social needs.

For example, many ethnocultural groups, in order for social life and ancestral recognition to survive, build communities that provide its members with the necessary goods and services to ensure that the needs of that group are fulfilled. These groups work with other groups to promote respect for shared space in the greater community.

Herbert Spencer

Focus of Study Spencer focused on understanding

society as an interdependent collection of special social structures (families, work, government, church, etc.) that is like the body.

The bones, muscles and organs do individual jobs (structures), but together - and put together a particular way (functions) - they make sure the body (society) works as a whole. "Life is a the continuous adjustment of

internal relations to external relations"(The Principles of Biology, 1855)


Cultures can be understood best in how they specialize handling the challenges of time.

Cultures are like organisms, adapting to the challenges of their surroundings or "structures", and HOW they make these adaptations and the interactions and "functions" they provide help to explain the society and the culture as it moves to an equilibrium.

Every structure in society provides a function - understanding what that is to understand the culture.

An accountant's skills do not help when trying to survive in the desert!

Talcott Parsons

Focus of Study Parsons had two main points of focus: a)

an individual’s understanding of how they fit into society such that it functions at its best; and, b) an individual’s motivation to reach personal goals in a society's structures, as this pursuit benefits society as a whole.

Instead of big institutions working independently towards a collective balance, Parsons focused on the individual's experience in this endeavour and assigned personal motivations (driven by cultural norms and values) significant importance.

“The functions of the family in a highly differentiated society are not to be interpreted as functions directly on behalf of the society, but on behalf of personality."(Functions of the Family, 1955)


Looking at the responsibilities an individual has towards his/her role(s) in a stable society is key to understanding culture to Parsons. Understanding the role of the individual and the responsibility they have to their function in society unlocks the keys to cultural understanding.

For example, Parsons spoke of "the Sick Role" - that is, how a person is expected to act and be responsible when sick because being sick does not contribute to the equilibrium of a 'healthy' society.

As such, there are those who get ill and are expected to do what they can to get well, and those who are blamed for their illness because they caused it (smokers).

Conflict Theory Perspective Conflict theories are perspectives in Sociology that emphasize the social,

political, or material inequality of a social group. Proponents of conflict theory believe that our world is characterized by a continual struggle between competing groups.

Conflict theories focus on power differentials - how social order is maintained by domination and oppression, with the power in the hands of those privileged groups that have the greatest political, economic, and social resources.

For example, the long history of the mistreatment of Indigenous peoples by the Canadian government has created a divide causing political, social, economic and cultural upheaval in Indigenous communities and on Indigenous lands.

Karl Marx

Focus of Study Marx’s theories focused mainly on

society, economics and politics, otherwise known collectively as Marxism.

His belief was that society progresses through class struggle which is a conflict between the bourgeoisie – the greedy, ruling upper class that controls production, and the proletariat –the labour class that provides the labour for that production.

“History is not like some individual person, which uses men to achieve its ends. History is nothing but the actions of men in pursuit of their ends.”


In order to understand a modern culture, Marx would examine the conflicted relationship between the "haves" and the "have-nots".

This conflict could take on a variety of forms, such as a political protest or opposing ideologies . Marx's most famous quote is "Workers of the world, unite. You have nothing to lose but your chains!" - and modern conflict theorists would say that this call to action is still relevant to the struggling working class in many cultures today.

This conflict could take on a variety of forms, such as a political protest (for example, the recent youth-led protests over unemployment in Spain), or opposing ideologies (the North American promotion of Black Friday versus Buy Nothing Day).

Other examples of modern class conflict in which Marx would take interest are indirect violence (deaths resulting from unsafe working conditions of clothing factories in Bangladesh) and the direct, violent overthrowing of the privileged class (Arab spring in Egypt).

Cornel West

Focus of Study West’s theories often focus on economics politics,

spirituality and ethical issues concerning race in American society.

One concept presented by West, is that the primary obstacle to positive race relations in the United States is the feeling of nihilism – a sense of worthlessness amongst most people of colour.

Understanding that race and racism are an ingrained part of the history of America prompts the realization that racism cannot be eliminated without first acknowledging that in America ‘race matters’.

“Nihilism is a natural consequence of a culture (or civilization) ruled and regulated by categories that mask manipulation, mastery and domination of peoples and nature.”(Cornel West, The Cornel West Reader)


West would say that to understand a culture, one must examine the rights and freedoms of its minorities, and the conflict that these minorities experience, with the privileged majority.

Thus, race is a reality in a society dominated by class systems and hierarchies which could lead to conflict. He would further acknowledge that amongst the majority of disadvantaged Americans are in fact racialized people. West would highlight this as a shocking example of privilege and oppression in American culture.

This conflict could take on a variety of forms, such as a political protest like the Occupy Wall Street Movement which was the public’s response to a class war against the poor and working people.

Symbolic Interactionist Perspective

Symbolic interaction theory analyzes society by addressing the subjective and conventionalized meanings that people impose on objects, gestures, words, events, and behaviors.

For example, one of the many ‘rites of passages’ amongst youth culture is the consumption of alcohol. News reports and studies have shown that this is dangerous behavior, but youth continue to participate because drinking is often seen as a symbol of what is ‘cool’.

Herbert George Blumer

Focus of Study Blumer focused on extending Mead's thinking and

on the fact that people create society by interacting with one another. All of the meanings attached to things, the language used to explain the meaning in those attachments, and the thoughts associated to those attached meanings are what make a society's culture.

“Human society is to be seen as consisting of acting people, and the life of the society is to be seen as consisting of their actions".(Symbolic Interactionism: Perspective and Method. 1969, pp. 83-84)


Blumer would say that the way a culture works is found in how it interprets objects, symbols and human interactions. How we see people acting and reacting to their world and others in relation to our own reactions helps us understand the culture of a place.

For example, we know a swastika to be associated with both peaceful Buddhist culture and destructive Nazism.

A black cat in the UK is considered good luck, while in North America it is bad. Belching at the end of a meal is considered okay in Hungary, but less so in Canada.

George Herbert Mead

Focus of Study Mead focused on understanding human

reality/truth through human interactions and the meaning we attach to those interactions. That is, the truth is not "out there" - it is in the meaning we place on objects and interactions that creates our own, personal truth. What we think of things and interactions is what makes up our world view.

"Social psychology is especially interested in the effect which the social group has in the determination of the experience and the conduct of the individual member" George Herbert Mead.


When examining cultures, we must look at how /what people do, say and think about things. Mead said that perceptions of the buyer (realizing the seller values the money over the thing being bought) and the seller (realizing the buyer values the thing being bought over the money) are what drive human economic (and other!) interactions.

It is their perceptions that drive their interaction - they see themselves as co-actors in this social exchange, relying on the others' perceptions in order to interact.

For example, though smoking is known to be bad for one's health, those that value the "coolness" of smoking do it anyway and thus can be understood as creating their own reality of the act of smoking.

Or, more light-heartedly, in the movie Shrek people are immediately afraid of Shrek because he is an ogre - based on the symbolism of what people perceive ogres to be.

Cultural Materialist Perspective Cultural materialist perspective is an anthropological theory that contends

that environment, resources, technology, and other material things are the major influences of cultural change.

For example, consider the rise of fast food chains in developing countries. One can question whether the motive for this is easier access to fast food that will benefit the local people, but cultural materialists might argue that the benefit is to the investors who are rewarded with sufficient monetary gain.

Raymond Williams

Focus of Study Williams (and others) are considered early developers

of critical thinking/analysis and focused on texts as the evidence of cultural understanding.

Essentially, they believed that one could best understand text by looking at 4 things: Historical Context (when was it written?),Theoretical Method (what informed that writing? Thinking around it), Political Commitment (What political bent are they taking? Marxist, Conservative, etc) and Textual Analysis (to what degree is the text or does the text draw on the MAJOR works in the field = what is accepted as "THE word").

In this way, Williams believed that you could understand the 'dominant voice' of a culture based on who is saying what, why, when and how.

"Language is, then, positively a distinctly human opening of and opening to the world: Not just a distinguishable or instrumental but a constitutive faculty." (Marxism and Literature, 1977)


A good way to understand this is to look at the way famous characters are presented in literature. Writing, in context, helps understand the cultural beliefs of the society at the time.

One might study the presentation of women, people of colour and youth in popular media and text, to determine what this says about our perspectives of ourselves at the time of this material's production and why is it being written that way now.

For example, Shylock in Shakespeare's The Merchant of Venice is portrayed as a scheming, horrible man who wants his "pound of flesh" as reparation for a debt. He is written hatefully by Shakespeare and his Jewish-ness emphasized and stereotyped to make a point to his audience.

In the late 1600's in England, Jews were considered individuals to be wary of and often maligned in society both economically and politically.

Marvin Harris

Focus of Study Harris focused on taking a scientific approach

to understanding culture. This view is Marxist-driven (that the dynamic between classes determine culture) but adds that other influences such as infrastructure (social institutions, gov't, economics, and technology), structure (kinship and cultural systems) and superstructure (religion and ideology) determine cultures.

In this sense, cultural materialists are less likely to believe, as the Marxists do, that culture evolves towards something inevitable - rather, it evolves according to many variables that cannot be predicted, and therefore must be studied scientifically.

"I hold it perniciously false to teach that all cultural forms are equally probable and that by mere force of will an inspired individual can at any moment alter the trajectory of an entire cultural system in a direction convenient to any philosophy.“ (Cannibals and Kings, Origins of Cultures, 1977)


How people/societies react/relate to a range of issues says something about that society. The elements of a society's culture both explain and are explained by the context of the where and when their items are understood in a scientific process.

For example, understanding why men wear ties can be interpreted as a 'badge' worn by those who are above physical labour. Jewish & Muslim bans on eating pork are acknowledgement of the cost of keeping pigs (which eat the same as humans) and give so little, compared to the economy of keeping less expensive animals that give more back to the farmer (goats, sheep, cows = milk, meat, hides).

lens perspective -culture theories

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