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Lecture 1 (20/10/2011): Theoretical approaches to explaining first language acquisition

How do children acquire their mother tongue? There are three theoretical approaches to this question:

1. Behaviourist

Behaviourism is a term which is used when referring to the school of psychology, the study of observableand measurable behaviour and the psychological theory of learning (1940s and 1950s).

In 1957. B.F. Skinner published a paper entitled “Verbal behaviour” in which he proposed the following ideasabout language:

- Language acquisition is behaviour that can be explained in the same way as other sorts of behaviour. It isbelieved that language, i.e. verbal behaviour is overwhelmingly the result of factors which are not inherent in thespeaker or hearer, but external to him/her.

- These factors are stimulation from the environment (other human beings), leading to response andconsequent reinforcement, of lack of it.

- The process of language learning (the way the behaviourist saw it) could be described as follows:The baby associates the sound of its mother’s voice with pleasure; the baby babbles in a random fashion, but

is more likely to repeat those elements of its babbling that echo pleasurable sounds made by the mother. Later themother tends to reward the child for making sounds approximating to adult speech, the child finds that suchimitations are reinforced and is therefore more inclined to imitate mother or other adults.

Criticism of behaviourist theoryThis kind of thinking does not explain the production of sound sequences which are not heard by child but

are nevertheless produced by him/her. It only offers a reasonable way of understanding how children learn some ofthe regular and routine aspects of language. In the same year when B. F. Skinner published Verbal behaviour (1957),Noam Chomsky published a response with arguments against the hypothesis that verbal behaviour is primarily theresult of stimulus-response reinforcement mechanism.

2. Innatist

Noam Chomsky speaks about the “innateness of language”. This view proposes that children’s minds are notblank slates to be filled merely by imitating language they hear in the environment. Children are born with specialability to discover for themselves the underlying rules of a language system. The view that language is in some senseinnate, derives from three sources:

a) A study of the biology of language

The features that enable the production of speech are only found in human anatomy. There wereexperiments with chimps (Vicky, Washoe, Sarah) trying to teach them to use language. A parallel exists between thedevelopment of language and motor development of children up to the age of four, both being closely related tophysical development. Language is a natural part of human development. (See also: The Critical Period Hypothesis(CPH), Lenneberg – natural experiments: Victor and Genie

b) A linguistic study of language from a particular standpoint

There is an evident capacity in the child for understanding and producing sentences which he could neverhave heard. Chomsky has argued that there must be some kind of “language acquisition device” (L. A. D.) in thehuman child, which is capable of absorbing the language he hears around him/her.

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INPUT (all language heard by child) L. A. D. OUTPUT (language produced by child)

The child gradually discovers the underlying system of grammatical rules and uses the discoveries to formulate hisown utterances. He needs only a limited amount of language in his environment, enough to enable him to check thelanguage he hears against his hypothesis, and to reject this hypothesis if it does not fit. The child acquires acompetence – a knowledge of his language, which may or may not be reflected in his actual use – his performance.Performance is affected by many variables in the environment and in the individual himself. Performance is never adirect reflection of the speaker’s competence.

c) The work of certain psycholinguists who have used this particular linguistic model

The Language Acquisition Device (LAD) must have two parts – one consisting of the child’s “linguisticuniversals” knowledge and the other which is a means of processing the input, i.e. all the language with which thechild comes into contact.

Criticism of innatismSome researchers argue that innatists have placed too much emphasis on the “final state” (competence),

and not enough on the developmental aspect of language acquisition. Connectionists argue that language does notrequire a separate “module of the mind” but can be explained in terms of learning in general. They claim that whatchildren need to know is essentially available in the language they are exposed to (see Computer simulations).

3. Interactionist

Language develops as a result of the complex interplay between the uniquely human characteristics of thechild and the environment in which the child develops. The emphasis is put on child-directed speech, or thelanguage which is adjusted in ways to make it easier for them to understand. Some of the earlier interactionspositions:

- Piaget claimed that language is one of symbol systems developed in childhood, which is used to representknowledge that children have acquired through physical interaction with the environment.

- Vigotsky said that language develops entirely from social interaction (see Zone of proximal development).Children who are exposed to language in the absence of one-to-one interaction do not develop language

normally (see Case study: Jim).

Recap

Children do imitate and practice. Practice can explain how some aspects of language (word meanings,language routines) are learned. The acquisition of complex language seems to depend on some knowledge thatenables them to process the language they hear and go beyond this. Interaction is necessary for the normaldevelopment of language.

Conclusions

Behaviourism and connectionism may explain the acquisition of vocabulary and grammatical morphemes.Innatism may explain the acquisition of complex grammar. Interactionism may help to understand how childrenrelate form and meaning, how they interact in conversations and how they learn to use language appropriately.

Readings: Lightbown & Spada (1999) “How Languages are Learned” (Chapter 1)

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Lecture 2 (27/10/2011): Second language acquisition: The role of the first language

Historical overviewIn the post-war year up to 1960s there was a belief that most of the difficulties facing L2 learners were

imposed by their mother tongue. Second language acquisition was understood as habit-formation. The first languageintrudes into the process of second language acquisition, i.e. the first language interferes with the the smoothacquisition of the second.

InterferenceProactive inhibition refers to the way in which previous learning prevents or inhibits the learning of new

habits. Interference is the result of proactive inhibition. Errors occur due to the different ways of expressing thesame meaning in L1 and L2. For example: A Croatian speaker might say “I have twenty years.” because the sentencein Croatian language goes like this: “Imam dvadeset godina.”.

TransferBehaviourist learning theory claims that transfer takes place from the first to the second language. In case of

negative transfer, there is proactive inhibition and errors occur. On the other hand, positive transfer happens incases when the first and the second languages are similar, and this does not result in errors.

AssumptionDifferences between the first and the second language create learning difficulties which result in errors.

Similarities between the first and second language facilitate rapid and easy learning.

ErrorsErrors were viewed as undesirable and as the result of non-learning, and therefore should be avoided. This

led to conclusion that errors should also be predicted. Classroom practice should help learners to overcome theeffects of the negative transfer.

Contrastive analysis hypothesisContrastive analysis hypothesis exists in two forms: the strong form and the weak form. According to the

strong form, L2 errors can be predicted by identifying the differences between L2 and L1. The weak form claims thata contrastive analysis can be used to identify which errors are result of the interference.

Contrastive studies: usual procedure1. Description: formal description of the two languages2. Selection: items or areas known through error analysis to present difficulties are selected for comparison3. Comparison: areas of difference and similarity are identified4. Prediction: areas that are likely to cause errors are identified

ProblemsThere is a linguistic problem of comparison. For example, an item in the first language might be absent in the

target language, or an item in the first language has a different distribution from the equivalent item in the targetlanguage, or one item in the first language becomes two items in the target language.

CriticismEmpirical findings say that about one third of all learners’ errors are the result of interference (although

results vary: 3% (Dulay and Burt, 1973) to 50% (Lott, 1983)). Additionally, there is a problem of distinguishingbetween interference and developmental errors, or assigning error to either of these categories.

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Conclusions:L1 interference is not the primary cause of learner errors. The Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis is not capable

of providing an adequate explanation of second language acquisition.

Theoretical criticismLanguage acquisition could not be explained in terms of habit-formation theory. The notion of interference

was challenged. Difference-difficulty-error relationship (see more on this topic). There was no theoretical basis for“translation equivalence” (structural and communicative similarities). Contrastive analysis should comparepragmatic and linguistic aspects of the two languages. Contrastive analysis does not incorporate variability analysis(linguistic and non-linguistic contexts).

Practical criticismContrastive analysis failed to predict errors. Pedagogic purpose was not achieved. Error is evidence of

hypothesis testing.

Development of Contrastive Analysis HypothesisThe difficulty predicted by CA might be realized as avoidance instead of error. Research results prove that CA

may be successful in predicting comprehension errors and avoidance of structures (i.e. learners’ L1 may predict theextent to which the learners avoid the use of some structures.)

Findings have shown that interference appears to be more likely when there is “a crucial similarity measure”between the first and the second language. Errors should not have single cause (multi-factor approach).

Cognitive frameworkL1 interference-learner strategy, i.e. a strategy for communicating where there are insufficient L2 resources.

“The L1 is a resource of knowledge which learners will use both consciously and subconsciously to help them shiftthe L2 data in the input and to perform as best as they can in L2. Precisely when and how this resource is put to usedepends on a whole host of factors to do with the formal and pragmatic features of the native and target languages(i.e. linguistic factors) on the one hand, and the learner’s stage of development and type of language use (i.e. psychoand sociolinguistic factors) on the other hand.” (Ellis, 1985: 40)

Readings: Ellis, R. Understanding Second Language Acquisition, Chapter 2

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Lecture 3 (04/11/2011): Learner interlanguage

Learner languageUp until the late 1960s second language learners’ speech was usually regarded as the incorrect version of L2.

Errors were believed to be the result mainly of transfer from L1. However, research has shown that not all errors canbe explained in terms of the L1 transfer alone. Many studies have shown that many errors can be explained in termsof learners’ attempts to discover the structure of the language being learned. That is to say, many aspects oflearners’ language could not be explained by Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis (CAH).

Error analysis (EA)Error analysis set out to discover and describe different kinds of errors in an effort to understand how

learners process second language data. It is an approach to the study of SLA which includes an internal focus onlearners’ creative ability to construct language.

Structures of child language are described and analysed as grammatical systems in their own right (ratherthan in terms of how they are “deficient” in comparison to adult norms.

P. Corder points out to the following in “The significance of learner errors” (1967):- errors are sources of insight into the learning processes- errors provide evidence of the system of language which a learner is using at any particular point in thecourse of L2 development- errors provide evidence of the strategies or procedures the learner is using in his “discovery of thelanguage”- errors are a sign that the learner is exploring the new system rather than just experiencing “interference”from old habits

The procedure for analysing learner errors (Ellis, 1994)- Collection of a sample of learner errors- Identification of errors (errors vs. mistakes, Corder)- Description of errors (classification of errors)- Explanation of errors (causes, Corder: interlingual errors, intralingual or developmental errors)- Evaluation of errors (how “serious” the error is)

Shortcomings of EA- Ambiguity in classification (in terms of cause of an error)- Lack of positive data (focus on errors alone does not necessarily provide information on what the L2 learner

has acquired)- Potential for avoidance (absence of errors may result from learners’ avoidance of difficult structures)

Interlanguage (IL)The term interlanguage was introduced in 1972 by Selinker to refer to learner’s developing second language

knowledge, or to the intermediate states (or interim grammars) of a learner’s language as it moves toward the targetL2. Interlanguage is a language system in its own right which differs from both L1 and L2 during the course of itsdevelopment: it is a third language system.

Characteristics of Interlanguage- Systematic it is governed by rules at any point of development- Dynamic the system of rules changes frequently- Variable differences in context result in different patterns of language use- Reduces system both in form and function

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Difference between Interlanguage development in SLA and L1 acquisition- Language transfer- Transfer of training- Strategies of second language learning- Strategies of second language communication- Overgeneralization of the target language linguistic material- Fossilization (e.g. foreign accent)

Natural order of acquisitionStudies of L1 acquisition have determined the following acquisition order (R. Brown A First Language (1973)):

1. Progressive –ing2. Plural –s3. Past irregular4. Possessive –s5. Articles a/the6. Past regular –ed7. Third person –s8. Copula be9. Auxiliary be

L2 morpheme acquisition order (Dulay and Burt (1974)) is similar but not identical to L1 morphemeacquisition order. Further research has shown that there are regular sequences in acquisition of some constructionsby both children and adults (e.g. negation, questions and relative clauses).

Variability in interlanguage- Systematic variability- Contextual variability- Situational context- Linguistic context- Non-systematic variability- Free variabilityNot all interlanguage variability is contextual. The learner may possess two or more forms which he uses to

realise the same range of meanings.

Readings:- R. Ellis: Understanding Second Language Acquisition, Chapter 3 (“Interlanguage and the natural route of

development”)- M. Saville-Troike (2006) Introducing Second Language Acquisition, Chapter 3 (“The linguistics of Second

Language Acquistion”, pp 31-44)

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Lecture 4 (10/11/2011): Individual learner differences and SLA

Intelligence

Intelligence can be defined as the general set of cognitive abilities involved in performing a wide range oflearning task. It is closely connected with working memory and language aptitude.

There are two kinds of language ability (Cummins, 1979):

1. Cognitive/academic language ability (CALP): the dimension of language proficiency which is stronglyrelated to cognitive and academic skills

2. Basic interpersonal communication skills (BICS): the skills required for oral fluency which also includesociolinguistic aspects of competence

Hypothesis: “intelligence is the factor where CALP is concerned, but less so where BICS are involved”.Research findings (Genese, 1976): intellingence was strongly related to the development of academic L2

French language skills (reading, grammar and vocabulary). It was mainly unrelated to ratings of oral productive skillsby native speakers.

Conclusion: intelligence may influence the acquisition of some skills with SLA (e.g. skills utilized in the formalstudy of L2), but it is much less likely to influence the acquisition of oral fluency skills. There is no evidence thatintelligence affects the route of acquisition that is evident in spontaneous language use.

Issues related to relationship between intelligence and language aptitude: there are three types ofintelligence (Sternberg, 2002):

- analytical intelligence: the ability to analyse, compare and evaluate- creative intelligence: the ability to produce novel solutions to problems- practical intelligence: the capacity to adapt, to shape and to select environments suited to one’sabilities

Positive implications: different types of intelligence are implicated in different aspects of languageproficiency.

Working memory

According to Eysenck (2001), working memory is a memory store of very limited capacity that holdsinformation for a few seconds.

Baddeley And Hitch’s (1974) model of working memory includes the following components:1. The phonological loop2. The visual sketchpad3. The central executive

Individuals’ working capacity differs.According to research findings, learners with greater working memory capacity achieve better results on

language skills tests.There are some issues:

- To what extent working memory is to be considered a separate individual difference factor?- What is the relationship with language aptitude?- “It is likely that working memory serves as an arena in which the effects of other components of

aptitude are integrated.” Sawyer and Ranta (2001)

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Language aptitude

Language aptitude is defined as a special ability for learning languages. Learning quickly is the distinguishingfeature of aptitude. There are several aptitude tests, the aim of which is to predict whether individuals will beefficient learners of a foreign language:

- Modern Language Aptitude Test (MLAT), 1959- Pimsleur Language Aptitude Battery (PLAB), 1966

There are four types of abilities:1. The ability to identify and memorize new sounds.2. The ability to understand the function of particular words in sentences.3. The ability to figure out grammatical rules from language samples.4. Memory for new words.

Research findings: In the long run, language aptitude is probably the single best predictor of achievement ina second language.

Issues regarding the role that language aptitude plays in language learning:1. Research findings show that the relevance of language aptitude for informal and formal

learning is present. Language aptitude predicts successful learning in learners with informal as well as formallanguage experience.

2. Regarding the question whether there is any relationship between L1 language skills andlanguage aptitude, research findings suggest that language aptitude is a factor in L1 language skills as well as L2proficiency.

3. To what extent and in what ways is language aptitude related to the process of L2acquisition? Research findings suggest that different aspects of language aptitude may be implicated in differentkinds of language processing. Different aspects of language aptitude operate differently during the course of adultlanguage learning (phonemic- coding ability plays a major role in the early stages; memory ability is involved in allstages)

Personality

Personality characteristics and second language learning:- extroversion- inhibition- self-esteem- empathy- dominance- talkativeness- responsiveness

Research findings are mixed. The following difficulties have been identified:- problems with identification and measurement- personality variables may be a major factor only in the acquisition of conversational skills.

Readings:- Ellis, R. Understanding Second Language Acquisition, Chapter 5 (pp 110-114, 119-122)- Ellis, R. The Study of Second Language Acquisition, Chapter 13 (pp 645-659, 672-676)- Lightbown, P.M. & N. Spada How Languages are Learned, Chapter 3 (pp 51-56)

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Lecture 5 (18/11/2011): Motivation and Anxiety

Motivation

Motivation is one of the major ID (individual differences) variables which significantly affects languagelearning success. It is the primary drive to start language learning, as well as the “driving force” behind the long andoften tedious learning process. All other factors include motivation to some extent.

There are three phases of L2 motivation research:I. The social – psychological period (1959-1990)II. The cognitive – situated period (end of the 1980s /beginning of 1990s)III. The process – oriented period (2000)

I. The social – psychological period (1959-1990)This is the period when the first important studies in L2 motivation were conducted. One of them is Wallace

Lambert and Robert Gardner’s study Attitudes and Motivation in Second Language Learning (1972), conducted inCanada. This was a longitudinal study which lasted for 12 years. These researches were interested in the uniqueCanadian situation where Anglophone and Francophone communities live together and where L2 it the mediatingfactor between these two communities.

The main idea of this study was that the students’ attitudes toward the L2 group influence how successfulthey will be in incorporating aspects of that language. They thought that the students would be successful inacquiring L2 only if they are psychologically ready to accept the L2 community. Unlike other school subjects, foreignlanguage is not socioculturally neutral field! Learning of a foreign language involves alteration of self-image,adoption of new social and cultural behaviours, all of which has impact on the social nature of the learner. This kindof socio-psychological approach was accepted all over the world.

There are two kinds of motivations according to Gardner’s theory:1. Integrative motivations:

- Integrativeness: integrative orientation, interest in foreign languages, attitudes towards theL2 community

- Attitudes toward the learning situation: attitudes towards the language teacher and the L2course

- Motivation: effort, desire and attitude toward learning2. Instrumental motivation:

- has to do with concrete benefits that language proficiency might bring about- however, this is not a part of Gardner’s core theory

II. The cognitive – situated period

macroperspectivemicroperspectivecommunity language classroom

They talk about two types of motivations:1. Intrinsic motivation – there is no apparent reward except the activity itself; people engage in the activities

for their own sake2. Extrinsic motivation – students anticipate a reward (grades, positive feedback)

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III. The process – oriented periodThe most important researcher of this period is Hungarian linguist Zoltan Dornyei. According to his approach,

motivation is dynamic and it changes over time. There is a temporal variation, daily “ups” and “downs” ofmotivations. It is in continual fluctuation.

The process model of L2 motivations includes the following stages:1. Preactional stage: selecting goals and tasks2. Actional stage: maintaining and protecting the generated motivation (quality of experience,

autonomy, teacher’s influence, rewards)3. Postactional stage: retrospective evaluation

The L2 motivational self system includes the following visions of one might become (possible selves):1. Ideal L2 self: all the attributes a person would like to possess2. Ought-to L2 self: attributes one believes one ought to possess3. L2 learning experience: motives related to the immediate learning environment

Language Anxietiy

Language anxiety is can defined as “the subjective feeling of tension, apprehension, nervousness and worryassociated with an arousal of the autonomic nervous system” (Spielberger, 1983).

Research finding suggest that foreign language anxiety can be distinguished from other types of anxiety.Foreign language anxiety can have a negative effect on the language learning process, which is the reason why itshould be studied.

Sources of foreign language anxiety can be categorised into five groups:1. learners’ competitive natures: students tend to become anxious when they compare themselves

in the class and find themselves less proficient2. fear or experience of “loosing oneself” in the target culture: “culture shock” (Oxford, 1992);

emotive states associated with the state of anxiety; emotional regression, panic, anger, self-pity

3. communication apprehension: arising from learners’ inability to adequately express maturethoughts and ideas

4. fear of negative evaluation: arising from the learners’ need to make a positive social impressionon others

5. test anxiety: apprehension over academic evaluation

There are three types of anxiety:1. trait anxiety: a more permanent predisposition to be anxious; an aspect of personality2. state anxiety: apprehension that is experienced at a particular moment in time as a response to a

definite situation3. situation-specific anxiety: anxiety which is aroused by a specific type of situation or event such as

public speaking, examinations or class situation

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A model of the role of anxiety in the developmental process (based on MacIntyre and Gardner, 1991)STAGE TYPE OF ANXIETY EFFECT ON LEARNING

Beginner Very little, restricted to state anxiety Learner expects to be nervous andperforms poorly.

Post-beginner Situation anxiety develops if learnerdevelops negative expectations

based on bad learning experiences.

Learner expects to be nervous andperforms poorly.

Later Poor performance and continuedbad learning experiences result in

increased anxiety

Continued poor performance

According to this model:- learners initially experience little anxiety- language anxiety develops if learners have bad learning experiences- in some learners anxiety reduces as they develop- the higher the linguistic competence, the higher the number of good learning experiences- both too much and too little anxiety may hinder the process of successful second language learning

Apart from the previously mentioned types of anxiety, according to the effect it can have on a personexperiencing it, anxiety can be categorized into the following two types:

1. debilitative anxiety (harmful anxiety)2. facilitative anxiety (helpful anxiety)

For example, the feeling of nervousness before giving a public speech is (in experienced speakers) often asign of facilitative anxiety.

There are three different positions regarding the relationship between language anxiety an languagelearning:

1. anxiety facilitates language learning2. anxiety has a negative impact on language learning3. language anxiety is the result of difficulties with learning rather than their cause

Readings:- R. Ellis, The Study of Second Language Acquisition, Chapter 13, pp 677-697- H. D. Brown, Principles of Language Learning and Teaching, Chapter 6, pp 161-164 & pp 168-175

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Lecture 6 (01/12/2011): Age and second language acquisition

Age factor is a variable that has most frequently been considered. It can be described reliably and precisely.A very common belief that children are better language learners than adults needed to be submitted to empiricalinvestigation. Still, age is a complex issue and there is a lack of agreement in the conclusions about the age and SLA.

The effects of age- theoretical considerationsThe Critical Period Hypothesis (CPH) says that there is a specific and limited time period for language

acquisition. Critical period is a biologically determined period of life when language can be acquired more easily andbeyond which time language is increasingly difficult to acquire. Some researchers (eg. Lenneberg, Bickerton) madestrong statements in favour of a critical period before which and after which certain abilities do not develop.Optimum age for language acquisition falls within the first ten years of life (Penfield and Robert, 1959). During thisperiod the brain retains plasticity. With the onset of puberty this plasticity begins to disappear.

Neurobiological considerationsHow might neurological development affect second language acquisition? There is process called

Lateralization. As human brain matures, certain functions are assigned, or lateralized to the left hemisphere of thebrain, and certain other functions to the right hemisphere. The neurological capacity for understanding andproducing language, which initially involves both hemispheres of the brain, is slowly concentrated in the lefthemisphere. Evidence for this claim are certain injuries. Injuries to the right hemisphere cause more languageproblems in children than in adults. In children who underwent surgery of the left hemisphere no speech disordersresulted, whereas which adults almost total language loss occurred.

Cognitive explanationsAdolescents and adults have the ability to comprehend language as a formal system. Children do not

respond to language as a form. For them language is a tool for expressing meaning. Cognitive development accountsfor the greater ease with which young children learn languages.

Young children possess prerequisites for automatic language acquisition (they see only similarities, lackflexible thinking, are self-centred, do not possess meta-awareness, do not have social attitudes towards the use ofone language as opposed to another). Older children (around the age of 12) recognise similarities and differences,think flexibly, become de-centred, possess strong meta-awareness, hold strong social attitudes towards the use oftheir own language and the target language.

Affective explanationsAcculturation is a process of adjusting and adapting to a new culture. There are four stages of acculturation

(Brown, 1980):1. Initial excitement and euphoria2. Culture shock3. Culture stress4. Assimilation and adaptation to the new culture

Young adults are less culture-bound than adults. They move through stages of acculturation more quickly.

Neufeld: “primary” and “secondary” levels of languagePrimary levels of language include large functional vocabulary, basic mastery of pronunciation and

grammatical rules. All learners have an innate ability to acquire primary levels.Secondary levels of language include complex grammatical structures and different language styles. Children

are more likely to achieve secondary levels than adults because they are more motivated to be accepted by theirpeer groups.

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Some general conclusionsLearners appear to process linguistic data in the same way (route) irrespective of how old they are. The

order of acquisition goes like this:- present progressive –ing- prepositions in, on- plural –s- past irregular- possessive –‘s- uncontractible copula is, am, are- articles a, the- past regular –ed- third person regular –s

The rate and success of SLA appears to be strongly influenced by the age of the learner. Older learners learn better, i.e. they reach higher levels of proficiency. The learners who progress most rapidly are adolescents. Number of years of exposure and starting age affect the level of success. The longer the exposure to the L2, the better overall communicative fluency of the learners. Starting age determines the levels of accuracy achieved, particularly in pronunciation.

PronunciationPeople around the age of puberty do not acquire native-speaker pronunciation of the second language.

Possible causes are neuromuscular plasticity, cerebral development, sociobiological programmes, socioculturalinfluences. However, there are exceptions to the rule. The question of why does loss of plasticity affectpronunciation but not other levels of language remains. One possible answer is that the process of the lateralizationand localization of language functions is gradual, while different aspects of language are affected at different stagesin this process.

Readings:- R. Ellis, Understanding Second Language Acquisition, Chapter 5, pp 104-110- D. Brown, Principles of Language Learning and Teaching, Chapter 3, pp 54-74- P. M. Lightbown & N. Spada, How Languages are Learned, Chapter 3, pp 60-70

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Lectures 8 & 9 (05/12/2011): Input, interaction and SLA

Input is defined as language that learners are exposed to. Interaction is a discourse jointly constructed bythe learner and his/her interlocutors. Intake is input which is attended to.

InputInput can be non-interactive (text that learners listen to or read) or it can arise out of interaction.

The role of input in language development

1. Behaviourist theories of L2 acquisitionAccording to behaviourist theories of L2 acquisition there is a direct link between input and output. The

teacher models the input and in that way provides suitable stimuli. Learner than imitates what he is exposed to.Acquisition is controlled by external factors, and the learner is passive.

2. Mentalist theoriesThis approach views input as a trigger that sets off internal language processing. Learner internal factors are

emphasized and the learner is a “grand initiator”.

3. Interactionist theoriesThe idea is that interaction provides learners with input containing the data they need for the acquisition.

Additionally, interaction provides learners with the opportunities to experiment through production and to receivefeedback on these attempts.

The concept of caretaker speechCaretakers (mothers, fathers and others) simplify their speech when they talk to children. This kind of speech

has certain properties:- it is motivated by the caretaker’s desire to be understood- caretaker speech is structurally simpler than the language adults use with each other- caretaker speech is about here and now- it is characterized by interactional modifications (frequent checking comprehension, repeating all or

parts of their children utterances)

Foreigner talkForeigner talk is a form of caretaker speech. It is used by the native speakers when communicating with non-

native speakers. Modifications that native speakers make when talking to non-native speakers are:- slowing down- repeating- restating- changing wh-question to yes/no questions (e.g. instead of asking Where are you going? asking Areyou going home?)

Teacher talkTeacher talk refers to the teacher’s use of language in the classroom situation. It is the language of classroom

management when it is in the target language. It is considered to be the main source of comprehensible input thelearner is likely to receive. Here are some of the modifications in teacher talk with low level students:

- Slower rate of speech

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- Frequent and longer pauses- Exaggerated and simplified pronunciation- Basic use of vocabulary- Lower degree of subordination- More declaratives and statements than questions- More self-repetitions

Methods for investigating input and interaction

1. Descriptive methods include the following phases:- collection of samples of learner language- transcription of samples (broad or narrow transcription)- methods of analysis:

discourse analysis (eg. Lyster and Ranta: typology of corrective feedback) conversational analysis (eg. Schwartz: turn taking and repair)

2. Experimental methodsFor example, different groups of learners complete the same communicative task in different interactive

conditions with the aim of investigating the effect that different interactive conditions might have on learners’acquisition of a particular language feature.

3. Self-report methodsFor example, diary studies carried out in order to investigate the kinds of requests for input expressed by L2

learners.

4. Introspective methodsIntrospective methods investigate what learners attend to in the input they are exposed to. Examples of

these methods are:- think aloud tasks (protocols) learners are asked to say aloud what they are thinking as they concurrentlyprocess a written text- stimulated recall learners are asked to retrospectively consider what they were thinking at the timewhen they were previously exposed to some input

- immediate recall learners are asked to recall what they just heard (or said) immediately after hearing(saying) it

The study of communication in the classroom

1. Interaction analysis (Flanders, Moskowitz and others) – category systems for analysing the communicative uses ofthe teacher’s and learners’ language2. Discourse analysis (Sinclair and Coulthard, Brazil, Montogmery) – it describes not only the function of individualutterances, but how these utterances combine to form larger discoursal units.

The structure of exchanges:I – R – F

T: What time is it, Susan? (Initiates)L: Three o’clock. (Responds)

T: Good girl. (Feedback)

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Discourse studies show how meaning is negotiated in a classroom context, and how the input is shaped tothe requirements of the learner’s language processing mechanisms.

Comprehensible input and Krashen’s Input Hypothesis

Comprehensible input is the kind of input that can be understood by a learner. Input can be madecomprehensible in a number of ways:

- through simplification- with the help of the context- by negotiating non-understanding or misunderstanding

Krashen’s Input Hypothesis states that “we acquire (not learn) language by understanding input that is littlebeyond our current level of (acquired) competence.”

IntakeIntake is the portion of input that learners notice and therefore take into temporary memory. Intake may

subsequently be accommodated in the learner’s interlanguage system (i.e. become part of long-term memory).

What affects the learner selection from the input he receives?Possible answers to this question are:

- the ways pieces of data are presented- socio-affective factors (e.g. motivation), affective filter (Krashen)- the nature of the internal processing mechanism- learner strategies

Readings- R. Ellis, Understanding Second Language Acquisition, pp 127-164

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Lectures 10 & 11 (13/12/2011): Learner strategies

Some definitions:- “An attempt to develop linguistic and sociolinguistic competences in the target language.” (Tarone, 1981)- “Techniques approaches or deliberate actions that students take in order to facilitate learning, recall of bothlinguistic and content information.” (Wenden, 1987)- “Behaviours or actions which learners use to make language learning more successful, self-directed and enjoyable.”(Oxford, 1989)- “Processes which are consciously selected by learner and which may result in action taken to enhance the learningor use of a L2, through the storage, recall and application of information about that language.” (Cohen, 1998)- “Conscious or unconscious techniques or activities that an individual invokes in language learning, use or testing.”(Purpura, 1999)

Measuring learner strategies:- Questionnaires (e.g. SILL – Strategy Inventory for Language Learning)- Diaries- Interviews- Personal histories

Classification of strategies (O’Maley and Chamot, 1996)1. Cognitive strategies: strategies involving analysis, transformation and synthesis of learning materials

- Rehearsal (or repeating)- Organization: grouping and classifying words- Inferencing: using information to guess meaning- Summarizing- Imagery- Transfer- Elaboration: linking ideas contained in new information or integrating new ideas with known

information2. Metacognitive strategies (processes)

- selective attention (e.g. planning to listen to key words)- planning the organisation of discourse- monitoring or reviewing (attention to a task, comprehension or production)- evaluating or checking comprehension

3. Socio-affective strategies- cooperation- questioning for clarification- self-task: using mental control to assure oneself that a learning activity will be successful or to

reduce anxiety about a task

Characteristics of learner strategies- they refer to both approaches, actions and techniques- they are problem-oriented- learners are aware of the strategies they use and can identify them- learning strategies involve linguistic and non-linguistic behaviour- they involve cognitive, metacognitive and affective aspects- the choice of learning strategies depends on the learning task and learner preferences

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Factors influencing choice of learner strategies1. Learner factors (research findings)

- age: adults use more sophisticated and generalized strategies- motivation: highly motivated learners use more strategies relating to formal practices- learning style- learner beliefs: learners who emphasized the importance of learning tended to use cognitive

strategies- learners’ experiences with language

2. Social and situational factors- the language being learnt can influence strategy choice- social strategies are rare- learning setting in the classroom- type of task- gender

Learning strategies and language learningWhat is the relationship between the two? Do learners develop high proficiency because of the strategies

they use or is it learners’ proficiency that determines the choice of strategies? The effects of strategy training are notalways beneficial.

Shortcomings- the lack of a sufficient rigorous definition of learning strategies- the problem of measurement (questionnaires, diaries, personal histories, interviews)- a lack of any theoretical account of how learning strategies relate to the psycholinguistic processes involved

in L2 acquisition

Strategic and non-strategic IL use

Strategic competence- “Verbal and non-verbal communication strategies that may be called into action to compensate for

breakdowns in communication due to performance variables or insufficient competence.” (Canale and Swain, 1980;30)

- “Learners should be encouraged to use communication strategies and must be given opportunities to usethem.” (Canale, 1983)

Communication strategies

Communication strategies are strategies resorted to when the second language learner has difficulty withcommunication. They are “a systematic techniques employed by a speaker to express his meaning when faced withsome difficulty” (Corder, 1983).

Communication strategies in terms of social interaction- “ a mutual attempt of two interlocutors to agree on a meaning in situations where requisite structures do

not seem to be shared” (Tarone, 1983)- “ Interactional perspective of communication strategies is best tackled by discourse analysis.” (Ellis, 1985)

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Psychological approach to communication strategies- “Communication strategies are potentially conscious plans for solving what to an individual presents itself

as a problem in reaching a particular communicative goal.” (Faerch and Kasper, 1983)- “Psycholinguistic plans which exist as part of the language user’s communicative competence. They are

potentially conscious and serve as substitutes for production plans which the learner is unable to implement.” (Ellis,1985)

- “The choice and availability of communication strategies will depend on different factors such as social andinteractional context.” (Faerch and Kasper, 1983)

Types of communication strategies (Faerch and Kasper, 1983)1. Reduction strategies

- Learners solve communicative problems by changing the communicative goal. Corder (1983) callsthese “risk-avoiding” strategies.

2. Achievement strategies- Learners attempt to increase their resources in order to realize their communicative intentions.

According to Corder these are “risk-taking” strategies. Achievement strategies have a potential learning effect.Types of communicative strategies

1. Retrieval strategies- They are used when the learner has difficulties in locating specific IL items but decides to persevere,rather than use a compensatory strategy.

2. Compensatory strategies- Compensatory strategies are achievement strategies aimed at solving problems in the planningphase due to insufficient linguistic resources. They can be divided into non-cooperative andcooperative strategies. In non-cooperative strategies learners try to solve problems bythemselves. Cooperative strategies involve the help of another person and consist of director indirect appeals.

Classification of non-cooperative strategies with regard to linguistic resources the learner draws on when trying tosolve the problemA) L1/L3 based strategies (the learner draws resource on a language other than the L2)

i. Code-switching the learner uses a form in the non-L2 languageL: I went... er sanjkati.

ii. Foreignizing the learner uses a non-L2 form but adapts it to make it appear like a L2 formL: I would like to know when it comes to the point of being happy how do you definite happiness.

iii. Literal translation the learner translates an L1/L2 formL: She has deep blue eyes and blue hair.

B) Inter-/intralingual transfer (the learner generalizes an IL rule, but the generalization is influenced by theproperties of the corresponding L1 structures)

L: Michael was haymaker... he was drunk... he was in the middle ages.

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C) L2 based strategies (the learner makes use of alternative L2 forms)i. Generalization the learner fills the gaps with IL items which they would not normally use in such

contextsL: In case my eyes are sick I would...

ii. Paraphrase the learner replaces an L2 item by describing or exemplifying itL: I mean sport that are connected with water.

iii. Word coinage the learner replaces an L2 item with an item made up from L2 formsL: You put it in er... frying place.

iv. Restructuring the learner develops an alternative constituent planL: Her first novell was... er... she wrote that novel in 1920.

Cooperative strategiesDirect appeal the learner overtly requests assistance

L: And when we came home, I went to see the doctor, and... they put me a kako se kaže gips?

ReadingsEllis, R., The Study of Second Language Acquisition, pp 703-723

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Lecture 12 (14/12/2011): Form-focused instruction and SLA

Form focused instruction (FFI) refers to instruction with direct intervention. Direct intervention means thatthe instruction specifies what it is that the learners will learn and when the learners will learn it. That means thatthere is prior specification of the language forms and functions as well as their linguistic realizations. It is aimed at“skill getting”.

Theoretical positions on the necessity of formal instruction

1. The “zero option”This position advocates the abandonment of formal instruction. For example, Krashen talks about a

distinction between acquisition (implicit knowledge) and learning (explicit knowledge). He claims that learning doesnot contribute to the development of the kind of implicit knowledge needed for normal communication. The non-interface hypothesis states that learning does not become acquisition.

2. Instruction as facilitation (The facilitative position)Although formal instruction is not necessary to acquire an L2, it helps learning by speeding up the process of

natural acquisition. There are four versions of the facilitative position:A) The Interface HypothesisBy practising, explicit knowledge becomes implicit, i.e. declarative knowledge is converted into

procedural knowledge. Instruction facilitates acquisition by supplying learner with conscious rules, and by providingpractive to enable them to convert the conscious, “controlled” knowledge into “automatic” knowledge.

B) The Variability HypothesisInstruction can directly affect the learners’ ability to perform structures in some kinds of use but not

in others. Its effect will be evident in planned language use (careful style) but not in unplanned language use(vernacular style).

C) The Teachability HypohesisAccording to Pienemann (1985) “instruction can only promote language acquisition if the

interlanguage is close to the point when the structure to be taught is acquired in the natural setting (so thatsufficient processing prerequisites are developed)”. He considered that it is only applied to developmental features(not to features that can be acquired at any stage).

D) The Weak Interface HypothesisFormal instruction acts as an aid to acquisition by preparing learner for subsequent acquisition.

Instruction helps learners to pay selective attention to form and form-meaning connections in the input. Formalinstruction has a delayed effect.

Research

When it comes to experimental studies, a true experiment requires the following:1. Random sampling from a well-defined population2. Random distribution of participants into groups3. A control group

These studies should include a pre-test to ensure that groups are equivalent at the beginning of the study,and a post-test (immediate and delayed) to establish whether any immediate effects of the instruction are durableand also whether the effects only become evident after a period of time.

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Choice of linguistic targetThe key criterion is problematicity. The choice of the feature that constitutes a learning problem could be

based on:- previous empirical findings- grammatical complexity (problem: there is no convincing linguistic theory of grammatical complexity,

relative to the learner’s level of proficiency and the learner’s L1)- what is currently known about acquisition sequences (identification of the developmental stages)

The measurement- Metalinguistic judgements Learners evaluate the appropriateness of grammaticality of L2 target

structures presented in a series of isolated sentences.- Selected response Learners choose the correct response from a range of alternatives (e.g. MC test)- Constrained constructed response Learners produce the target form within a highly controlled linguistic

context (e.g. fill-in-the-gap tests)- Free constructed response Learners produce the target form in a task that involves meaningful

communication

FindingsThe findings about the effects of formal instruction on the route of SLA are mixed. Morpheme and

longitudinal studies indicate that formal instruction does not affect the natural route. It seems that it influencesknowledge only at the careful end, not on the vernacular end.

The findings about the effects of formal instruction of the rate/success of SLA indicate that the instructionaids the rate/success of SLA.

Regarding the effects of instruction on L2 pragmatic development, teachability of L2 pragmatic features wasinvestigated in a number of studies. Findings are also mixed. The extent to what the choice of target features affectsthe success of the instruction is still to be considered.

ConclusionsLearners who receive form focused instruction (FFI) will learn faster and progress further than those who do

not. Certain L2 features may only be acquirable with FFI. On the other hand, many of the features can be learntnaturally.

Some studies have shown that FFI can sometimes have negative effects. For example, form focusedinstruction (FFI) directed at features which are normally simple but functionally complex may result in their overuse.

Form focused instruction can work by facilitating the process involved in natural L2 acquisition.Form focused instruction can teach learners metalinguistic facts about L2 and thereby contribute to their

explicit knowledge. Explicit knowledge is of value in itself as it is available for formulating and monitoring utterances,especially in planned language use. There is also evidence that that explicit knowledge can assist learners’ acquisitionof implicit knowledge.

Form focused instruction can result in implicit as well as explicit L2 knowledge.The effects of form focused instruction may or may not be evident immediately and may or may not be

durable.The type of instruction influences learning outcome (e.g. input based, explicit as opposed to implicit,

inductive vs. deductive, error inducing production practice and corrective feedback)Individual difference factors mediate the effects of FFI.

ReadingsEllis, R., Understanding Second Language Acquisition, pp 215-248

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Lecture 14 (16/01/2012): Theories of Second Language Acquisition

The role of theory in SLA is to describe and explain the nature of second language acquisition, i.e. thecategories which constitute the learner’s interlanguage at any point in development.

The term explanation in SLA may refer to:- Cognitive processes: the acquisition sequence and order and the process responsible for it (how?);

“assembly mechanisms” (Ellis, 1984)- Initiating factors: the learner’s motivation for learning (why?); “power mechanisms” (Ellis, 1984)

Approaches to theory building1. Theory-then-research

- develop a theory- predict from the theory- test the prediction, i.e. carry out a research- modify the theory (if necessary)- test a new prediction

An example of theory-then-research approach: Gardner and Lambert’s studies on the effects of motivationand attitudes in 1972.

2. Research-then-theory- select a phenomenon for investigation (formulate a research question)- measure its characteristics- collect data and look for systematic patterns- formalize significant patterns as rules describing natural events

An example of research-then-theory approach: the longitudinal studies of individual L2 learners.

Four theories of SLA

1. The Acculturation ModelAcculturation is “the process of becoming adapted to a new culture” (Brown, 1980). The premise of this

model is that “second language acquisition is just one aspect of acculturation and the degree to which a learneracculturates to the target language group will control the degree to which he acquires the second language”(Schumann, 1978).

Acculturation is determined by social distance and psychological devices (affective factor). When socialand/or psychological devices are great, the learner’s language is pidginized. When pidginization persists the learnerfossilizes.

2. Discourse theoryAccording to this theory, the language model should be considered in terms of how the learner discovers the

meaning potential of language by participating in communication. It attempts to describe the process of secondlanguage acquisition. The term process refers to the external (?) processes, i.e. those that can be observed in face-to-face interaction.

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3. The Monitor Modeli. The acquisition learning hypothesisii. The natural order hypothesisiii. The monitor hypothesisiv. The input hypothesisv. The affective filters hypothesis

4. The Variable Competence ModelThis model is based on the distinction between the process of language use and the product. The product is

a continuum of discourse types ranging from unplanned (e.g. everyday conversations, brainstorming in writing) toplanned (lecture, careful writing) types.

Process has to do with distinction between linguistic knowledge (rules) and the ability to make use of thisknowledge (procedures). (see Competence vs. Capacity, Widdowson)

The product is the result of:1. a variable competence2. variable application of procedures for actualizing knowledge in discourse

The Variable Competence Model claims that they are related.- Variability of the learner’s rule system- Automatic/non-automatic (with reference to the access to L2 knowledge)- Analytic/unanalytic (with reference to the mental representation of the knowledge)

Procedures:- Primary processes (responsible for engaging in unplanned discourse) they draw on knowledge that is

unanalysed and automatic, e.g. semantic simplification- Secondary processes (responsible for engaging in planned discourse) they draw on the knowledge that

is analysed, e.g. monitoringPrimary and secondary processes account for the variability of language-learner language and for

acquisition. Development occurs as a result of:- acquisition of new L2 rules through participation in various types of discourse- activation of L2 rules which initially exist in either a non-automatic unanalysed form or in an analysed form

so they can be used in unplanned discourse

ReadingsEllis, R., Understanding of Second Language Acuisition, pp 248-283.