lecture -power amplifier
DESCRIPTION
Lecture - power amplifierTRANSCRIPT
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Lecture #10
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IB >> 0
Three transistor operating modes:
IB = 0 IB > 0
Cutoff Linear (PC > 0)
Saturation
PC = 0 in both of these modes
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• Amplifier efficiency
– an important consideration in the design of power amplifiers is efficiency
– efficiency determines the power dissipated in the amplifier itself
– power dissipation is important because it determines the amount of waste heat produced
• excess heat may require heat sinks, cooling fans, etc.
supplythefrom absorbed power
load the indissipatedpowerEfficiency
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Concept Preview • Efficiency is most important in power amplifiers.
• Poor efficiency means that much of the input power is converted to heat.
• Class A amplifiers operate at the center of the load line and have a large quiescent current flow conducts for the entire signal cycle and has the lowest efficiency
• Class B amplifiers operate at cutoff and have no quiescent current flow. It conducts for only half of the signal cycle. They are usually operated in push-pull configurations. They have crossover distortion
• Class AB reduces crossover distortion.
• A class C amplifier conducts for less than half of the signal cycle.
• A class D amplifier switches between cutoff and saturation.
• Bridge amplifiers provide four times the output power and
eliminate the output coupling capacitor.
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Power Amplifier
PIN Efficiency =
Input signal
POUT
POUT
PIN
Output signal
HEAT = PIN - POUT High efficiency means less heat.
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Efficiency
• The dc power supplied to an amplifier is
PIN = VCC x IDC
• Efficiency = POUT/PIN x 100%
• The maximum efficiency for Class A
amplifiers with a dc collector resistance
and a separate load resistance is 25%.
• Class A is usually not acceptable when
watts of power are required.
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0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
1.0 1.2
1.4 A
B
C
AB
The class of an amplifier is determined by the bias
which establishes the Q-point.
Class C is established by reverse biasing the base-emitter junction.
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Conduction Angles & theoretical max. efficiencies:
• Class A = 360o 50 %*
• Class B = 180o 78.5 %
• Class AB @ 200o (between A & B)
• Class C @ 90o 100 %
*Class A amplifiers are seldom driven to maximum output and typically provide much less efficiency.
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t
IC
t
IC
t
IC
t
IC
ISAT
A B
C D
The major classes of amplifier operation
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Class and efficiency quiz
If POUT = 100 W and PIN = 200 W, the efficiency is _________. 50%
The efficiency of an ideal amplifier is __________. 100%
When efficiency is poor, too much of the input is converted to ________. heat
An amplifier that conducts for the entire cycle is operating Class _______. A
An amplifier that conducts for half the cycle is operating Class _______. B
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Class C power amplifiers
• Class C amplifier is obtained if the output current conduction angle is less than 180
• Class C have a greater efficiency than both class A and class B
• Class C also have larger distortion compared with the A and B
• Class C amplifier is used when there is no variation in signal amplitude and the output circuit contains a tuned circuit to filter out the harmonics
• Class C amplifier is used for applications similar to FM Modulation
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Class C power amplifiers • The output of the class C conducts for less
than 180 of the AC cycle
• The Q-point is below cutoff as shown below
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Power Amplifiers Class C
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Class C power amplifier
The circuit shown to the left will be considered in analysis of the class C amplifier
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Class C power amplifier
The amplifier efficiency can be computed from the following equation
The output power is the AC power flowing in the load resistance
The input power is the supply power which can be determined from the multiplication of the supply voltage and the average collector current
The main step in the analysis is to compute the average collector current which is explained in the next slide
DC
AC
i
o
P
P
P
P
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Class C power amplifier
According to the figure shown to the left, the collector current is given by
Where ID is given by
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Class C power amplifier
The direct collector current is determined by its average value which is given by
It is desired to find the current as a function of the angles θ1 and θ2 rather than t1 and t2
This can be achieved by using the following mapping and
2
1
)sin(1
t
t
DpCav dtItIT
I
11 t
22 t
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Class C power amplifier
The average collector current can be rewritten as
By evaluating this equation we may have the following expression
To simplify the notation, the conduction angle will be defined as
2
1
)sin(1
dtItIT
I DpCav
ICav
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Class C power amplifier
By substituting the conduction angle expression into the average collector current equation we get
Now the supplied input power can be written as
If the output RLC circuit is a narrow band filter tuned to the fundamental frequency of the current pulses, then the output power will be
)cos(sin
pCC
CavCCi IV
IVP
)cos(sin
p
Cav
II
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Class C power amplifier
Where I1 is the amplitude of the fundamental current components which is determined by the trigonometric Fourier series as shown below
By solving the previous equation we may have
The output power now can be written as
)2sin2(4
1212
121
pCC
CCO
IVIVRLIP
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Class C power amplifier
The efficiency of the amplifier can be written as
A plot of the efficiency as a a function of the conduction angle is shown below
)cos(sin4
2sin2121
CavCC
CC
i
O
IV
IV
P
P
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Class C power amplifier design
• There are four important design parameters are of great importance for PA design in general
• These parameters are
– The output power
– Transistor power dissipation
– Maximum collector to emitter voltage VCEmax
– The maximum transistor output current Ip
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Class C power amplifier design • The maximum collector current is given by
• Since • The collector current can be rewritten as
• The maximum current in terms of the output
current can be written as
• Note that the value of the collector voltage VCC can be written as
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Class C power amplifier design • Now the maximum collector current can be
rewritten as
• A normalized peak collector current is defined as
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Class C power amplifier design • A plot of the normalized peak current
versus the conduction angle is shown below
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Class C power amplifier design • The power dissipated in the transistor is given by
• Note the value of Ip can be expressed as
• From we can conclude that
• If the value of Ip is substituted in the PT equation then
2)cos( 1IV
SinIV
PPP CCPCCOiT
cos1 M
p
II
2sin2
2 1
II p
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Class C power amplifier design • The power dissipated in the transistor is
given by
• Or PT can be rewritten as
2)
2sin2
cossin(2 1
1
IVIVP CC
CCT
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Class C power amplifier design
• A normalized plot of PT/PO versus theta is shown below
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Class C power amplifier design example
Example: Design a class C amplifier that will deliver 5-W average power to a 50 Ω load at a frequency of 1 MHz using a transistor with a safe power dissipation rating of 0.5 W
Solution:
The average output power is given by
Or
VPRVCC OL 4.2255022
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Class C power amplifier design example
Solution: Since the allowable power dissipation is The maximum conduction angle can be found
from the graph shown in slide 19 or by solving the PT/PO equation
The value of the normalized current corresponds to this angle is refer to the figure
The peak collector current is given by
5.57
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Class C power amplifier design
• An alternate design procedure for class C amplifiers is – Select the power supply
– Select the transistor
– Determine the maximum output power without exceeding the transistor ratings
– The transistor then can be driven to its maximum allowed value of output current
– Determine the value of the load resistance that twill result in the maximum current according to
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Class C power amplifier design
• Now the transistor power equation can be modified as
• The normalized transistor power dissipation is given by
• Where
cos1
)2sin2()cos(sin4)(
f
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Class C power amplifier design
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Class C power amplifier design example 2
• Example 2: Determine the maximum output power and the conduction angle of a class C amplifier using a transistor with maximum power dissipation rating of 4 W and a maximum output current of 1.5 A. The supply voltage is 48 V
Solution:
The normalized maximum transistor dissipation is given by
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Class C power amplifier design example 2
Solution:
The conduction angle for maximum normalized transistor power P΄T is found to be as
If we refer back (PT/PO vs θ ) plot we find that the value of PT/PO which corresponds to this angle is
The output power now can be found as
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Class C power amplifier design example 2
Solution:
Finally the value of the load resistance that results in this output power is given by
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Class C • Class C amps are never used for audio circuits.
• They are commonly used in RF circuits.
• Class C amplifiers operate the output transistor in a state that results in tremendous distortion (it would be totally unsuitable for audio reproduction).
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Basic class C amplifier operation (non inverting).
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Basic class C operation.
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Class C waveforms.
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Tuned class C amplifier.
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Tuned class C amplifier with clamper bias.
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Class C
• However, the RF circuits where Class C amps are used, employ filtering so that the final signal is completely acceptable.
• Class C amps are quite efficient.
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Class B
• A class B output stage can be far more efficient than a class A stage (78.5 % maximum efficiency compared with 25 %).
• It also requires twice as many output transistors…
• …and it isn’t very linear; cross-over distortion can be significant.
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Class B • Class B amplifiers are used in low cost designs or
designs where sound quality is not that important.
• Class B amplifiers are significantly more efficient than class A amps.
• They suffer from bad distortion when the signal level is low (the distortion in this region of operation is called "crossover distortion").
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Class B • Class B is used most often where economy of design
is needed.
• Before the advent of IC amplifiers, class B amplifiers were common in clock radio circuits, pocket transistor radios, or other applications where quality of sound is not that critical.
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Power Amplifiers
Crossover
distortion
Complementary Symmetry Power Amplifier (Class-B)
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Power Amplifiers
Biasing the Push-Pull Amplifier (Class-AB) (OCL)
To overcome crossover distortion, the biasing is adjusted to just overcome the
VBE of the transistors; this results in a modified form of operation called class
AB. In class AB operation, the push-pull stages are biased into slight
conduction, even when no input signal is present.
Power Calculation is the same as class-B
}VCC
}VCC
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Power Amplifiers
Single-Supply Push-Pull Amplifier (OTL)
The circuit operation is the same as that described previously, except the
bias is set to force the output emitter voltage to be VCC/2 instead of zero
volts used with two supplies. Because the output is not biased at zero
volts, capacitive coupling for the input and output is necessary to block
the bias voltage from the source and the load resistor.
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Power dissipation of the class B output stage
versus amplitude of the output sinusoid.
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Class AB • Class AB is probably the most common amplifier
class currently used in home stereo and similar amplifiers.
• Class AB amps combine the good points of class A and B amps.
• They have the improved efficiency of class B amps and distortion performance that is a lot closer to that of a class A amp.
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Eliminating crossover distortion in a transformer-coupled push-pull amplifier. The diode compensates for the base-emitter drop of the transistors and produces
class AB operation.
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Load lines for a complementary symmetry push-pull amplifier. Only the load lines for the npn transistor are shown.
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Single-ended push-pull amplifier.
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A Darlington class AB push-pull amplifier.
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A Class AB push-pull amplifier with correct output voltage.
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Incorrect output waveforms for the amplifier in previous Figure.
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Class AB
• With such amplifiers, distortion is worst when the signal is low, and generally lowest when the signal is just reaching the point of clipping.
• Class AB amps use pairs of transistors, both of them being biased slightly ON so that the crossover distortion (associated with Class B amps) is largely eliminated.
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• Distortion in push-pull amplifiers
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• Improved push-pull output stage arrangements
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– BJT POWER TRANSISTOR
EXAMPLE
Determine the required ratings
(current, voltage and power) of
the BJT.
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– BJT POWER TRANSISTOR
EXAMPLE – Solution
For the maximum
collector current; 0@CEV
A 38
24max
L
CCC
R
VI
For the maximum collector-
emitter voltage; 0CI
V 24max CCCE VV
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– BJT POWER TRANSISTOR
EXAMPLE – Solution
The load line equation
is;
The load line must lie
within the SOA
LCCCCE RIVV
The transistor power
dissipation;
LCCCCCLCCCCCET RIIVIRIVIVP 2
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– BJT POWER TRANSISTOR
EXAMPLE – Solution
The maximum power occurs when
02 LCCC RIV
0C
T
dI
dP
i.e. when
or when A 5.1CI
At this point; V 12 LCCCCE RIVV
and; W18 CCET IVP
Differentiating
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– BJT POWER TRANSISTOR
EXAMPLE – Solution
Thus the transistor ratings are;
W18
V 24
A 3
max
max
T
CE
C
P
V
I
In practice, to find a suitable transistor for a given
application, safety factors are normally used. The
transistor with
will be required.
W18 V, 24 A, 3 maxmax TCEC PVI
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A large-signal amplifier can also be called a power amplifier.
This class A amplifier has a large quiescent collector current.
C
B E
VCC = 18 V
RL = 12 W RB = 1.2 kW
CC b = 60
IB = VCC
RB
18 V
1.2 kW = = 15 mA
IC = b x IB = 60 x 15 mA = 0.9 A
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0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
1.0 1.2
1.4
VCE in Volts
IC in A
5 mA
0 mA
25 mA
20 mA
15 mA
10 mA
ISAT = VCC
RL
18 V
12 W = = 1.5 A
Q
This is a Class A amplifier.
PC = VCE x IC = 7.2 V x 0.9 A = 6.48 W
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0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
1.0 1.2
1.4
VCE in Volts
IC in A
5 mA
0 mA
25 mA
20 mA
15 mA
10 mA Q
This is a Class B amplifier.
PC = VCE x IC = 18 V x 0 A = 0 W
Its quiescent power dissipation is zero.
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0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
1.0 1.2
1.4
5 mA
0 mA
25 mA
20 mA
15 mA
10 mA
The collector signal is too distorted for linear applications.
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C
B
C
B E
E
+VCC
The complementary-symmetry Class B push-pull amplifier has acceptable
linearity for some applications.
NPN
PNP
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NP
N
PN
P
Class B
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C
B
C
B E
E
+VCC
Since the base-emitter junction potential is 0.7 V, there is some crossover distortion.
NPN
PNP
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C
B
C
B E
E
+VCC
Crossover distortion is eliminated by applying some forward bias
to the transistors (class AB).
NPN
PNP
1.4 V
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0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
1.0 1.2
1.4
VCE in Volts
IC in A Q
The quiescent power dissipation is moderate for class AB.
The efficiency is much better than class A.
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82
Push-pull amplifiers
Push-pull operation helps to increase values of input and output impedances and to additionally suppress even harmonics
2 , 0
0, sin c
c1
Ii
2 , sin
0, 0
c
c2I
i
first transistor collector current
second transistor collector current
RL
T1 T2
Vb Vcc
ic1
ic2
iL
icc
n2
n1
n1
Ic
2
Ic
2
Ic
2
Ic
2
Ic0
ic1
ic2
icL icc
For 50% duty cycle of each device (ideal Class B) with driving sinusoidal voltage:
Being transformed through output transformer T2, total collector current:
sin cc2c1L Iiii
Current flowing in center tap of primary winding of transformer T2:
sin cc2c1cc Iiii
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83
Push-pull amplifiers
sin sin L L cL VRIv
c
2
0
ccco 2
2
1 IdiI
ccc0
2VIP
cccout2
1VIP
%5.78 4
0
out @
P
P
Ideally, even-order harmonics are canceled as they are in-phase and combined in center tap of primary winding of output transformer
RL
T1 T2
Vb Vcc
ic1
ic2
iL
icc
n2
n1
n1 To eliminate losses, it is necessary to connect bypass capacitance to this center point
As for 50% duty cycle, third- and higher-order odd harmonics do not exist, ideally sinusoidal signal will appear in load
Total DC collector current
For zero saturation resistance when collector voltage amplitude Vc = Vcc and equal turns of winding when VL = Vc, DC and fundamental output powers
Maximum theoretical collector efficiency that can be achieved in Class B operation
![Page 84: Lecture -Power Amplifier](https://reader036.vdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022081721/55cf922b550346f57b944179/html5/thumbnails/84.jpg)
POWER TRANSISTOR
Transistor limitations
• Maximum rated current,
• Maximum rated voltage,
• Maximum rated power.
The maximum rated power is related to the maximum
allowable temperature of the transistor.
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– BJT
Large-area devices – the geometry and doping
concentration are different from those of small-signal
transistors
Examples of BJT rating:
Parameter
Small-signal
BJT
(2N2222A)
Power BJT
(2N3055)
Power BJT
(2N6078)
VCE (max) (V) 40 60 250
IC (max) (A) 0.8 15 7
PD (max) (W) 1.2 115 45
b 35 – 100 5 – 20 12 – 70
fT (MHz) 300 0.8 1
POWER TRANSISTOR
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![Page 87: Lecture -Power Amplifier](https://reader036.vdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022081721/55cf922b550346f57b944179/html5/thumbnails/87.jpg)
Summary & Revision and some extra Material
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Amplifier Power Dissipation
P1 = I
12R
1
P2 = I
22R
2
ICQ
RC
RE
R1
R2
VCC
I1
I2
ICC
PC = I
CQ2 R
C
PT = I
TQ2 R
T
PE = I
EQ2 R
E
IEQ
The total amount of power being dissipated by the amplifier, Ptot , is
Ptot = P1 + P2 + PC + PT + PE
The difference between this total value and the total power being drawn from the supply is the power that actually goes to the load – i.e. output power.
Amplifier Efficiency
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Amplifier Efficiency • A figure of merit for the power amplifier is its efficiency, .
• Efficiency ( of an amplifier is defined as the ratio of ac output power (power delivered to load) to dc input power .
• By formula :
• As we will see, certain amplifier configurations have much higher efficiency ratings than others.
• This is primary consideration when deciding which type of power amplifier to use for a specific application.
• Amplifier Classifications
%100)(
)(%100
dcP
acP
powerinputdc
poweroutputac
i
o
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Amplifier Classifications • Power amplifiers are classified according to the percent of
time that collector current is nonzero.
• The amount the output signal varies over one cycle of operation for a full cycle of input signal.
vin
vout
Av Class-A
vin
vout
Av Class-B
vin
vout
Av Class-C
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Efficiency Ratings
• The maximum theoretical efficiency ratings of class-A, B, and C amplifiers are:
Amplifier Maximum Theoretical
Efficiency, max
Class A 25%
Class B 78.5%
Class C 99%
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Class A Amplifier
• output waveform same shape input waveform + phase shift.
• The collector current is nonzero 100% of the time.
inefficient, since even with zero input signal, ICQ is nonzero
(i.e. transistor dissipates power in the rest, or quiescent, condition)
vin
vout
Av
![Page 93: Lecture -Power Amplifier](https://reader036.vdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022081721/55cf922b550346f57b944179/html5/thumbnails/93.jpg)
Basic Operation
Common-emitter (voltage-divider) configuration (RC-coupled amplifier)
RC
+VCC
RE
R1
R2
RL
vin
ICQ
I1
ICC
![Page 94: Lecture -Power Amplifier](https://reader036.vdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022081721/55cf922b550346f57b944179/html5/thumbnails/94.jpg)
Typical Characteristic Curves for Class-A Operation
![Page 95: Lecture -Power Amplifier](https://reader036.vdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022081721/55cf922b550346f57b944179/html5/thumbnails/95.jpg)
Typical Characteristic
• Previous figure shows an example of a sinusoidal input and the resulting collector current at the output.
• The current, ICQ , is usually set to be in the center of the ac load line. Why?
(DC and AC analyses discussed in previous sessions)
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DC Input Power
RC
+VCC
RE
R1
R2
RL
vin
ICQ
I1
ICC
The total dc power, Pi(dc) , that an amplifier draws from the power supply :
CCCCiIVdcP )(
1III
CQCC
CQCCII )(
1II
CQ
CQCCiIVdcP )(
Note that this equation is valid for most amplifier power analyses. We can rewrite for the above equation for the ideal amplifier as
CQCEQiIVdcP 2)(
![Page 97: Lecture -Power Amplifier](https://reader036.vdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022081721/55cf922b550346f57b944179/html5/thumbnails/97.jpg)
AC Output Power
R1//R
2
vcev
in
vo
ic
RC//R
LrC
AC output (or load) power, Po(ac)
Above equations can be used to calculate the maximum possible value of ac load power. HOW??
L
rmso
rmsormsco
R
vviacP
2
)(
)()()(
Disadvantage of using class-A amplifiers is the fact that their efficiency ratings are so low, max 25% .
Why?? A majority of the power that is drawn from the supply by a class-A amplifier is used up by the amplifier itself.
Class-B Amplifier
![Page 98: Lecture -Power Amplifier](https://reader036.vdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022081721/55cf922b550346f57b944179/html5/thumbnails/98.jpg)
IC
(mA)
VCE
VCE(off)
= VCC
IC(sat)
= VCC
/(RC+R
E)
DC Load LineIC
VCE
IC(sat)
= ICQ
+ (VCEQ
/rC)
VCE(off)
= VCEQ
+ ICQ
rC
ac load line
IC
VCE
Q - point
ac load line
dc load line
L
PP
CQCEQ
CQCEQ
o
R
VIV
IVacP
82
1
22)(
2
%25%10022
1
%100)(
)( CQCEQ
CQCEQ
dci
aco
IV
IV
P
P
![Page 99: Lecture -Power Amplifier](https://reader036.vdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022081721/55cf922b550346f57b944179/html5/thumbnails/99.jpg)
Limitation
![Page 100: Lecture -Power Amplifier](https://reader036.vdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022081721/55cf922b550346f57b944179/html5/thumbnails/100.jpg)
Example Calculate the input power [Pi(dc)], output power [Po(ac)], and efficiency [] of the amplifier circuit for an input voltage that results in a base current of 10mA peak.
RC
RB
+VCC
= 20V
IC
Vi
25b
W20Wk1
Vo
%5.6%100
6.9)48.0)(20(
625.0)20(2
10250
2
250)10(25
20
1100020
20
4.10)20)(48.0(20
48.05.482)3.19(25
3.191
7.020
)(
)(
)(
232
)(
)(
)(
)()(
)(
W
W
W
@
W
dci
aco
CQCCdci
C
peakC
aco
C
CCsatc
B
P
P
WAVIVP
WA
RI
P
peakmApeakmAII
VVV
AmAV
R
VI
VAVRIVV
AmAmAII
mAk
VV
R
VVI
peakbpeakC
CCcutoffCE
CCCCCEQ
CQ
B
BECC
BQ
b
b
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Transformer-Coupled Class-A Amplifier
Input
+VCC
RE
R1
R2
RL
N1:N
2
Z2
= RL
Z1
A transformer-coupled class-A amplifier uses a transformer to couple the output signal from the amplifier to the load.
The relationship between the primary and secondary values of voltage, current and impedance are summarized as:
LR
Z
Z
Z
N
N
I
I
V
V
N
N
1
2
1
2
2
1
1
2
2
1
2
1
N1, N2 = the number of turns in the primary and secondary V1, V2 = the primary and secondary voltages I1, I2 = the primary and secondary currents Z1, Z2 = the primary and seconadary impedance ( Z2 = RL )
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Transformer-Coupled Class-A Amplifier
• An important characteristic of the transformer is the ability to produce a counter emf, or kick emf.
• When an inductor experiences a rapid change in supply voltage, it will produce a voltage with a polarity that is opposite to the original voltage polarity.
• The counter emf is caused by the electromagnetic field that surrounds the inductor.
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Counter emf
10V
+
-
+
-
10V
SW1
10V
+
-
+
-
10V
This counter emf will be present only for an instant.
As the field collapses into the inductor the voltage decreases in value until it eventually reaches 0V.
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DC Operating Characteristics The dc biasing of a transformer-coupled class-A amplifier is very similar to any other class-A amplifier with one important exception : the value of VCEQ is designed to be as close as possible to VCC.
Input
+VCC
RE
R1
R2
RL
N1:N
2
Z2
= RL
Z1
VCE
IC
IB
= 0mA
DC load line
The dc load line is very close to being a vertical line indicating that VCEQ will be approximately equal to VCC for all the values of IC.
The nearly vertical load line of the transformer-coupled amplifier is caused by the extremely low dc resistance of the transformer primary.
VCEQ = VCC – ICQ(RC + RE)
The value of RL is ignored in the dc analysis of the transformer-coupled class-A amplifier. The reason for this is the fact that transformer provides dc isolation between the primary and secondary. Since the load resistance is in the secondary of the transformer it dose not affect the dc analysis of the primary circuitry.
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AC Operating Characteristics
Input
+VCC
RE
R1
R2
RL
N1:N
2
Z2
= RL
Z1
VCE
IC
IB
= 0mA
DC load line
ac load line
IC(max)
= ??
~ VCEQ
~ VCC
~ 2VCC
Q-point
1. Determine the maximum possible change in VCE
•Since VCE cannot change by an amount greater than (VCEQ – 0V), vce = VCEQ.
2. Determine the corresponding change in IC
•Find the value of Z1 for the transformer: Z1 = (N1/N2)2Z2 and ic = vce / Z1
3. Plot a line that passes through the Q-point and the value of IC(max).
•IC(max) = ICQ + ic
4. Locate the two points where the load line passes through the lies representing the minimum and maximum values of IB. These two points are then used to find the maximum and minimum values of IC and VCE
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Input
+VCC
RE
R1
R2
RL
N1:N
2
Z2
= RL
Z1
R1//R
2
vcev
in
ic
Z1
vo
VCE
IC
IB
= 0mA
DC load line
ac load line
IC(max)
= ??
~ VCEQ
~ VCC
~ 2VCC
Q-pointICQ
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Maximum load power and efficiency
The Power Supply for the amplifier : PS = VCCICC
Maximum peak-to-peak voltage across the primary of the transformer is approximately equal to the difference between the values of VCE(max) and VCE(min) : VPP = VCE(max) – VCE(min)
Maximum possible peak-to-peak load voltage is found by V(P-P)max = (N2 / N1)V PP
The actual efficiency rating of a transformer-coupled class-A amplifier will generally be less than 40%.
N1 : N
2
RL
VPP V
(P-P) max
![Page 108: Lecture -Power Amplifier](https://reader036.vdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022081721/55cf922b550346f57b944179/html5/thumbnails/108.jpg)
There are several reasons for the difference between the practical and theoretical efficiency ratings for the amplifier :
1. The derivation of the = 50% value assumes that VCEQ = VCC . In practice, VCEQ will always be some value that is less the VCC .
2. The transformer is subject to various power losses. Among these losses are couple loss and hysteresis loss. These transformer power losses are not considered in the derivation of the = 50% value.
![Page 109: Lecture -Power Amplifier](https://reader036.vdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022081721/55cf922b550346f57b944179/html5/thumbnails/109.jpg)
• One of the primary advantages of using the transformer-coupled class-A amplifier is the increased efficiency over the RC-coupled class-A circuit.
• Another advantage is the fact that the transformer-coupled amplifier is easily converted into a type of amplifier that is used extensively in communications :- the tuned amplifier.
• A tuned amplifier is a circuit that is designed to have a specific value of power gain over a specific range of frequency.
![Page 110: Lecture -Power Amplifier](https://reader036.vdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022081721/55cf922b550346f57b944179/html5/thumbnails/110.jpg)
In class B, the transistor is
biased just off. The AC signal
turns the transistor on.
The transistor only conducts
when it is turned on by one-
half of the AC cycle.
In order to get a full AC cycle
out of a class B amplifier, you
need two transistors:
• An npn transistor that provides the
negative half of the AC cycle
• A pnp transistor that provides the
positive half.
Class B Amplifier
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Class B Amplifier
• Since one part of the circuit pushes the signal high during one half-cycle and the other part pulls the signal low during the other half cycle, the circuit is referred to as a push-pull circuit
![Page 112: Lecture -Power Amplifier](https://reader036.vdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022081721/55cf922b550346f57b944179/html5/thumbnails/112.jpg)
Input DC power
• The power supplied to the load by an amplifier is drawn from the power supply
• The amount of this DC power is calculated using
• The DC current drawn from the source is the average value of the current delivered to the load
dcCCdci IVP )(
![Page 113: Lecture -Power Amplifier](https://reader036.vdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022081721/55cf922b550346f57b944179/html5/thumbnails/113.jpg)
Input DC power
• The current drawn from a single DC supply has the form of a full wave rectified signal, while that drawn from two power supplies has the form of half-wave rectified signal from each supply
• On either case the average value for the current is given by
• The input power can be written as
pdc II
2
pCCdci IVP
2)(
![Page 114: Lecture -Power Amplifier](https://reader036.vdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022081721/55cf922b550346f57b944179/html5/thumbnails/114.jpg)
Output AC power
• The power delivered to the load can be calculated using the following equation
• The efficiency of the amplifier is given by
• Not that
• Therefore the efficiency can be re-expressed as
L
pL
L
ppL
acoR
V
R
VP
28
)()(
)(
L
pL
pR
VI
)(
![Page 115: Lecture -Power Amplifier](https://reader036.vdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022081721/55cf922b550346f57b944179/html5/thumbnails/115.jpg)
Output AC power
• The maximum efficiency can be obtained if
• The value of this maximum efficiency will be
![Page 116: Lecture -Power Amplifier](https://reader036.vdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022081721/55cf922b550346f57b944179/html5/thumbnails/116.jpg)
Power dissipated by the output transistors
• The power dissipated by the output transistors as heat is given by
• The power in each transistor is given by
![Page 117: Lecture -Power Amplifier](https://reader036.vdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022081721/55cf922b550346f57b944179/html5/thumbnails/117.jpg)
Example
Example 1: For class B amplifier providing a 20-V peak signal to a 16-Ω speaker and a power supply of VCC=30 V, determine the input power , output power and the efficiency
Solution:
The input power is given by
The peak collector load current can be found from
pCCdci IVP
2)(
![Page 118: Lecture -Power Amplifier](https://reader036.vdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022081721/55cf922b550346f57b944179/html5/thumbnails/118.jpg)
Example
Solution:
The input power is
The output power is given by
The efficiency is
WP dci 9.23)25.1(302
)(
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Maximum power dissipated by the output transistors
• The maximum power dissipated by the two transistors occurs when the output voltage across the load is given by
• The maximum power dissipation is given by
![Page 120: Lecture -Power Amplifier](https://reader036.vdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022081721/55cf922b550346f57b944179/html5/thumbnails/120.jpg)
Example
Example 2: For class B amplifier using a supply of VCC=30 V and driving a load of 16-Ω, determine the input power , output power and the efficiency
Solution:
The maximum output power is given by
The maximum input power drawn from the supply is
![Page 121: Lecture -Power Amplifier](https://reader036.vdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022081721/55cf922b550346f57b944179/html5/thumbnails/121.jpg)
Example
Solution:
The efficiency is given by
The maximum power dissipated by each transistor is
![Page 122: Lecture -Power Amplifier](https://reader036.vdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022081721/55cf922b550346f57b944179/html5/thumbnails/122.jpg)
Class B Amplifier circuits
• A number of circuit arrangements can be used to realize class B amplifier
• We will consider in this course two arrangements in particular
1. The first arrangement uses a single input signal fed to the input of two complementary transistors (complementary symmetry circuits)
2. The second arrangement uses two out of phase input signals of equal amplitudes feeded to the input of two similar NPN or PNP transistors (quasi-complementary push-pull amplifier)
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Complementary symmetry circuits first arrangement
• This circuit uses both
npn and pnp transistor to construct class B amplifier as shown to the left
• One disadvantage of this circuit is the need for two separate voltage supplies
![Page 124: Lecture -Power Amplifier](https://reader036.vdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022081721/55cf922b550346f57b944179/html5/thumbnails/124.jpg)
Complementary symmetry circuits • another disadvantage of this circuit is the
resulting cross over distortion
• Cross over distortion can be eliminated the by biasing the transistors in class AB operation where the transistors are biased to be on for slightly more than half a cycle
![Page 125: Lecture -Power Amplifier](https://reader036.vdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022081721/55cf922b550346f57b944179/html5/thumbnails/125.jpg)
Class B Output Stage
A class B output stage.
Complementary circuits.
Push-pull operation
Maximum power-conversion efficiency is 78.5%
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Transfer Characteristic
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Crossover Distortion
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Class AB biasing to solve crossover distortion
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Complementary symmetry circuits
• A more practical version of a push-pull circuit using complementary transistors is shown to the right
• This circuit uses to complementary Darlington pair transistors to achieve larger current driving and lower output impedance
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Second arrangement
• As stated previously the second arrangement which uses two equal input signals of opposite phase has to be preceded by a phase inverting network as shown below
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Quasi-complementary push pull amplifier second arrangement
• In practical power amplifier circuits it is preferable
to uses npn for both transistors • Since the push pull connection requires
complementary devices, a pnp high power transistor must be used.
• This can be achieved by using the circuit shown
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Example
Example: For the circuit shown, calculate the input power, output power and the power handled by each transistor and the efficiency if the input signal is 12 Vrms
Solution: The peak input voltage is The output power is
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Example
Solution: The peak load current is The dc current can be found from the peak as The input power is given by The power dissipated by each transistor is given by
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Crossover Distortion
If the transistors Q1 and Q2 do
not turn on and off at exactly
the same time, then there is a
gap in the output voltage.
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Class B Amplifier Push-Pull Operation
• During the positive
half-cycle of the AC
input, transistor Q1
(npn) is conducting
and Q2 (pnp) is off.
• During the negative
half-cycle of the AC
input, transistor Q2
(pnp) is conducting
and Q1 (npn) is off.
Each transistor produces one-half of an AC cycle. The transformer combines the
two outputs to form a full AC cycle.
This circuit is less commonly used in modern circuits
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Amplifier Distortion
If the output of an amplifier is not a complete AC sine wave,
then it is distorting the output. The amplifier is non-linear.
This distortion can be analyzed using Fourier analysis. In
Fourier analysis, any distorted periodic waveform can be
broken down into frequency components. These
components are harmonics of the fundamental frequency.
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Harmonics
Harmonics are integer multiples of a fundamental frequency.
If the fundamental frequency is 5kHz:
1st harmonic 1 x 5kHz
2nd harmonic 2 x 5kHz
3rd harmonic 3 x 5kHz
4th harmonic 4 x 5kHz
etc.
Note that the 1st and 3rd harmonics are called odd harmonics and the
2nd and 4th are called even harmonics
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Harmonic Distortion
According to Fourier
analysis, if a signal is not
purely sinusoidal, then it
contains harmonics.
138
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Harmonic Distortion Calculations
The total harmonic distortion (THD) is determined by:
100A
A%Ddistortion harmonic nth %
1
nn
100DDDTHD %23
23
22
Harmonic distortion (D) can be calculated:
where
A1 is the amplitude of the fundamental frequency
An is the amplitude of the highest harmonic
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Power Transistor Derating Curve
Power transistors dissipate
a lot of power in heat. This
can be destructive to the
amplifier as well as to
surrounding components.
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Power Dissipation
• The load power
• Maximum load power
L
oL
R
VP
2ˆ
2
1
L
CC
VVL
oL
R
V
R
VP
CCo
2
ˆ
2
12
ˆ
2
max
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Power Dissipation
• Total supply power
• Maximum total supply power
CC
L
os V
R
VP
ˆ2
L
CC
VV
CC
L
os
R
VV
R
VP
CCo
2
ˆ
max
2ˆ2
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Power Dissipation
• Power-conversion efficiency
• Maximum power-conversion efficiency
CC
o
V
V̂
4
%5.78ˆ
4ˆ
max
CCo VVCC
o
V
V
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Power Dissipation
• Power dissipation
• Maximum Power dissipation
L
oCC
L
oD
R
VV
R
VP
2ˆ
2
1ˆ2
max2
2
2ˆ
2
maxmax
2.02
ˆ
2
1ˆ2
L
L
CC
VVL
oCC
L
oDPDN
PR
V
R
VV
R
VPP
CCo
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Class AB Output Stage
A bias voltage VBB is applied between the bases of QN and QP, giving rise to a bias current IQ . Thus, for small vI, both transistors conduct and crossover distortion is almost completely eliminated.
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A Class AB Output Stage Utilizing Diodes for Biasing
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A Class AB Output Stage Utilizing A VBE Multiplier for Biasing
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Amateur Radio Extra Class
Amps & Power Supplies
• E1XXX… A push-pull type amplifier reduces or eliminates even-order harmonics.
• E7B17… A grounded-grid amplifier has low input impedance.
• E7B07… A vacuum-tube power amplifier can be neutralized by feeding back an out-of-phase component of the output to the input.