lecture notes materials and ecological engineering

Faculty CiTG / Section Materials & Environment

Delft University of Technology

CT4100 Ecological Engineering for Civil Engineers

Course structure and topics



CT4100 Course structure and topics

Course scheme can be found on Blackboard under CT4100 ‘Announcements’: ‘Lecture schedule and topics’

Course structure:•

26 lectures→ 16x Theory and background Ecological Engineering for

Civil Engineers: Focus on sustainability issues→ 10x Delft research and practical examples

•

2 Case Studies→ 1: Energy systems for the future: literature study→ 2: Ecological Engineering in practice: students presentations

Examination(CT4100 grade: [average case studies = 30%] + [examination = 70%])Case studies + examination obligatory for obtaining final grade,Average ≥6, and minimum level each part 5.5




Goal of CT4100:

•

Obtain understanding of ecological engineering and sustainability principles (theory and facts) and learn how to apply these for Civil Engineering practices

•

Society (including more and more companies!) demand application and integration of sustainable products and processes in practice:

•

Become pro-active: develop new ideas (technical applications) and be able to discuss and advise stakeholders on civil engineering sustainability issues



Companies and sustainability

Policy statement by BAM Civiel

bv, January 2010 (www.bamciviel.nl):




Goal of CT4100:•

What should be known, learned, memorized?

•

All information provided in the lectures

•

Lecture presentation pdf files will be posted on Blackboard under ‘Course Documents’ / ‘Course 2010_2011’

•

Typical / examples type of examination questions listed on last page lecture presentations




Main topic: Sustainable civil engineering practices

Definition Sustainable development:'Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the presentwithout compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs'

-

Brundtland Commission of the United Nations on March 20, 1987 -




Sustainability and the 3P’s concept

People – Planet – Profit (Prosperity)Coined in 1998 by John Elkington

for corporate decision making

People: the social consequencesPlanet: the ecological (environmental) consequencesProfit: the economic profitability




Sustainability and the 3P’s concept

The 3P’s sustainability concept is gradually becoming more and more adopted in Corporate Governance:

Companies want

to take socio-environmental responsibility!

Moreover, respecting environmental and social issues generally results in saving money on the longer term and thus to increased profits!

= =




Sustainability thus involves socio-economic-environmental issues of which the following three categories

are commonly considered important:

1. Raw (finite) materials depletionIncluding: -

materials -

fossil fuels -

biodiversity

-

water (quality and quantity)-

land use (e.g. depletion, desertification)





are commonly considered most important:

2. Emission of harmful substancesIncluding: -

global warming (greenhouse) gasses (with CO2

being only one of many!)-

acidification -

smog (fine dust) -

ozon

layer depletion -

toxic components





are commonly considered most important:

3. Social factorsIncluding: -

human wellbeing

-

human rights -

child labor -

working conditions -

equality (gender) -

participation (employee) -

animal wellbeing




For sustainable civil engineering practices all three categories are thus considered important:

1. Depletion of (finite) materials2. Emission of harmful substances 3. Social factors

A healthy environment (or sound ecosystem functioning) forms the base for all three categories!




Ecological engineering for civil engineers comprises the relationshipbetween civil engineering practices and sound ecosystem functioning

Sustainability thus plays a central role in ecological engineering

Nine specific principles define the framework of ecological engineering for civil engineers

The topics and structure of course CT4100 closelyrelate to these nine principles




Nine important ecological engineering principles:

1. Apply natural ecosystem functions (Ecosystem approach)2. Prevention of damage to ecosystems and human wellbeing3. Mitigation of damage to ecosystems and human wellbeing4. Compensation of damage to ecosystems and human wellbeing5. Restoration of damaged ecosystems 6. Use of renewable resources7. Minimize emissions of harmful substances8. Recycling of matter: ‘waste as resource’9. Integrate nature and economy: internalize environmental costs




Apply sustainability and 9 principles to civilengineering practices, e.g. consider the building cycle:

Design, construction, maintenance, demolition of the built environment

Design

Construction

Maintenance

Demolition

For all stages:1. Depletion of

raw (finite) materials

2. Emission of (harmful) substances

3. Social factors

‘The building cycle’




Course structure and topics:

1. Introduction and overview Ecological Engineering (L1+2)2. Nature: Ecosystem functioning, goods and services (L3)

Examples ecological engineering using ecosystem functioning: 3. Wastewater treatment (L4)4. Integration ecosystem functioning in urban (built) environment (L 5)

5. Prevention

–

mitigation

–

compensation: Effect of Infrastructure on natural ecosystems (Rural environment: Landscape Ecology) (L6+7+8)

6. Roads and environmental effects (prevent/mitigate/compensate)

(L11+12)7. Legal instrument: Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) road development (L13)8. Restoration

of disturbed ecosystems: Bio-remediation (L9+10)9. Renewable

energy and building materials (L14)10. Environmental costs: The Ecocost

Value / Ratio Model and other Sustainability Assessment Tools (15+16)

Case study 1: Minimize emissions: Energy systems for the future (L14)




Course structure and topicsDelft ecological engineering research

11. Application of Geopolymers

to minimize CO2

emissions (17+18)12. Bio-based Geo-

and Civil engineering

research program: Smart Soils (L19+20)13. Building with Nature: Coastal defense and eco-engineering (L21+22)14. Development of Self-healing materials

to minimize raw material use, maintenance and emissions (L23)

15. Application of nature in the urban environment: Green Facades

(25+26)

Case study 2: Ecological Engineering in practice (L24+27)




All course topics and case studies thus relate to one or more ecological engineering principles:

Topics 1-10: mainly theory and background

Topics 11-15: ecological engineering related research in Delft



Course topics and ecological engineering principles

1. Introduction and overview Ecological Engineering

1. Ecosystem approach2. Prevention3. Mitigation4. Compensation5. Restoration6. Renewable resources7. Minimize emissions8. Recycle9. Integrate Economy and Ecology




2. Nature: Ecosystem functioning, goods and services

1. Ecosystem approach9. Integrate Economy and Ecology




3. Wastewater treatment

1. Ecosystem approach7. Minimize emissions8. Recycle




4. Integration ecosystem functioning in the urban (built) environment

1. Ecosystem approach6. Renewable resources7. Minimize emissions8. Recycle




5. Effect of Infrastructure on Landscape Ecology

2. Prevention3. Mitigation4. Compensation




6. Roads and environmental effects





7. Legal instrument: Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) road development





8. Restoration of disturbed ecosystems: Bio-remediation

1. Ecosystem approach5. Restoration




9. Renewable energy and building materials

1. Ecosystem approach6. Renewable resources7. Minimize emissions




10. Environmental costs: The Ecocost Value / Ratio Model and other sustainability assessment tools

2. Prevention3. Mitigation4. Compensation6. Renewable resources7. Minimize emissions8. Recycle9. Integrate Economy and Ecology




Case study 1: Minimize emissions: (Renewable) energy systems for the future

6. Renewable resources7. Minimize emissions




Topics 11-15: Ecological Engineering related research in Delft

11. Application of Geopolymers to minimize CO2 emissions

6. Renewable resources7. Minimize emissions8. Recycle




12. Bio-based Geo- and Civil engineering research program: Smart Soils

1. Ecosystem approach6. Renewable resources7. Minimize emissions




13. Building with Nature: Coastal defense and eco-engineering

1. Ecosystem approach2. Prevention6. Renewable resources7. Minimize emissions8. Recycle




14. Development of Self-healing materials to minimize raw material use, maintenance and emissions

6. Renewable resources7. Minimize emissions




15. Application of nature in the urban environment: Green Facades

1. Ecosystem approach2. Prevention3. Mitigation4. Compensation5. Restoration7. Minimize emissions




Case study 2: Ecological engineering in practice




Ecological Engineering principles

Summary




Questions

1. What is the definition of ‘sustainable development’

according to the (1987) Brundtland

Commission of the United Nations?

2. What is in relation to sustainability ‘the 3P’s concept’, what do the 3P’s stand for?

3. Name the 3 sustainability categories

which are commonly considered important.

4. Which 9 specific sustainability principles

form the basis for ecological engineering for civil engineers?

5. Give (1-5) examples of Delft research programs related to ecological engineering



Ecological Engineering for Civil Engineers

Introduction

• What is Ecological Engineering?

• Ecological Engineering and Sustainability

• Ecological Engineering principles

• Some examples



What is Ecological Engineering?




Ecosystems and the built environment

Apparent conflict between natural ecosystem functioning…




Ecosystems and the built environment

…and e.g. human transportation needs (infrastructures)




General definition of Ecological Engineering(when the field was established in the 1960s, not specifically for civil engineering)

Ecological Engineering is the design of sustainable ecosystems that integrate human society with its natural environment for the benefit of both

[Howard T. Odum; also see background information paper Mitsch and Jørgensen 2003]

http://www.cfw.ufl.edu/ecological_engineering.asp



Ecological Engineering and Sustainability



Ecological Engineering and Sustainability

Sustainable development is dealing with our future in the present time! Taking into account that the result of present actions will effect other people another place, at a another time.

The Balancing Act

Sustainable development

is dealing with our future

in the present time!

Taking into account that

the result of present actions will effect other people

another place, at another time

Sustainable development is dealing with an environmental, economical

and social

fair future –

your future, our future and their future. Make your mind up and act,

be a part of the development. If you don’t, you will be a part

of the development anyway!

http://www.balancingact.dk/

Jens Galschiot(Danish sculptor)



Sustainability

Definition Sustainable development

'Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to

meet their own needs' [Brundtland Commission of the United Nations on March 20, 1987]



Sustainability

Sustainability and 3 P’s concept:People – Planet – Profit (Prosperity)

(coined by John Elkington 1998)

People: the social consequences

Planet: the ecological (environmental) consequences

Profit: the economic profitability



Sustainability

People – Planet – Profit(preceding versions of the 3P’s in relation to sustainability:)

As formulated by the Brundtland Commission of the United Nations in the report ‘Our Common Future’

(1987, World Commission on Environment and Development):

• ‘The downward spiral of poverty (People) and environmental degradation (Planet) is waste of opportunities and of resources. In particular it is a waste of human resources (People). These links between poverty, inequality (People) and environmental degradation (Planet) formed a major theme in our analysis and recommendations

• What is needed now is a new era of economic growth (Profit) that is forceful and at the same time socially (People) and environmentally (Planet) sustainable’



Sustainability

People – Planet – Profit

Also, in 1993 the World Council for Sustainable Development defined eco-efficiency as:

• ‘The delivery of competitively priced goods and services (Profit) that satisfy human needs and bring quality of life (People), while progressively reducing ecological impacts (Planet) and resource intensity, throughout the life cycle, to a level at least in line with the earth’s estimated carrying capacity (Planet)’



Sustainability

People – Planet – Profit

• Since 1987 the sustainability concept became more and more adopted by companies, and only in 1998, John Elkington coined the 3P’s terminology in relation to sustainability for corporate decision taking:

‘Equal weight should be given to the following three aspects, the social (People) consequences of the total life cycle of a product, its

ecological (Planet) consequences, and its economic profitability (Profit)’

Since then, the 3P’s concept in relation to sustainability became more widely used



Sustainability

Specifically important sustainability aspects for civil engineering practices:

• Depletion of finite resources (environment = planet)

• Emission of harmful substances (environment + health issues = planet + people)



Sustainability

Depletion of finite resources:E.g.:

• Fossil fuels• Rare earth metals• Minerals, e.g. Phosphorous

But also

• Land / soil use• Ecosystems (forests, oceans)• Biodiversity

• Etc.



Sustainability

Emission of harmful substancesE.g.:

• Heavy metals• Fine dust particles - Example -• Greenhouse gases• Persistent organic

pollutants• Excess nutrients

(eutrophication)• Etc.



Emission of (toxic) substances - Example -

POPs (persistent organic pollutants)

• Dioxins, released from numerous industrial processes, including incineration and the chlorine chemical industry

• Brominated flame retardants, used in many consumer products, particularly electronic devices such as computers

• Tributyltin (TBT), an anti-fouling pesticide used in many ship paints

• Chlorinated paraffins, used as industrial lubricants, flame retardants, waterproofing agents and plasticisers

• Lindane, an organochlorine pesticide

These chemicals, very similar to PCBs and DDT (compounds which production is already banned in Europe), even in low to very low concentrations,

degrade only slowly in the environment and can accumulate in humans and animals. Examples of these chemicals are:



Emission of (toxic) substances - Example -

POPs (persistent organic pollutants)

• Mass mortalities of seals in the Wadden Sea, the Baltic Sea, the Mediterranean and along the coast of the British Isles in the 1970s and 1990s

• Illness and deaths among dolphins and harbour porpoises in the North Sea, the Baltic Sea and the Mediterranean, for example in the period 1990-1992

• The extinction of sea snails in the Wadden Sea and parts of the North Sea since the 1970s. These populations have still not recovered

Once in the environment, such compounds can not be retrieved:Costs of these consequences not included

in the sales price of these products!

Elevated tissue levels of POPs

have been implicated in a number of observed problems in wildlife populations. Some examples:




1. Apply natural ecosystem functions (Ecosystem approach)

Plant- or microbial processes for cleaning, recycling, and improvement of wellbeing

Example: Application of green facades in the urban environment




2/3/4: Prevention – Mitigation – Compensation




2. Prevention• Always try to prevent damage to nature / ecosystems and human

wellbeing:

• E.g. build not in sensitive areas if not absolutely needed




3. Mitigation• If construction is needed, avoid / minimize damage as much as

possible!

Example: The eco-road

fits well into the surrounding landscape



4. Compensation• If damage can not be avoided, compensate elsewhere to restore

nature / ecosystem value


Example: forest plantation elsewhere




5. Restore ecosystem disturbancesBioremediation: use natural processes (e.g. bacterial conversions) to

clean-up polluted areas

Example: application of oil-degrading bacteria for oil-spill treatment




6/7/8

# Renewable resources# Minimize emissions

# Recycle




6. Renewable resources• Use renewable resources as much as possible, avoid use of finite

resources

Example: sunlight instead of fossil fuels for energy generation




7. Minimize emissions• Try to avoid emission of harmful substances as much as possible

Example: technical applications, such as CO2 captivation and storage




8. Recycle• Follow Nature in its element cycling, i.e. efficient and no waste

production: ‘waste as resource’

Example: composting Concrete aggregate recycling




9.

# Integration of economy and ecology




9. Integration of economy and ecology:Internalize external (prevention) costs

for fair competition sustainable and non-sustainable

materials and practices

Example: impose eco-tax on harmful products



Ecological Engineering

- Examples -



Ecological Engineering - Examples -

Eco-design of a village in Austria (by Hundertwasser)

Application of nature in the built environment (principle 1)




• Agro / housing combination: heating & cooling

Principle 1+6: ecosystem functions (agro) in combination with renewable resources




• ‘Living machine’ for cleaning of wastewaterFrom chain to cycle: Waste water recycling on local scale

Principle 1+6: Ecosystem function and recycling




• An ecological sound barrier for noise reduction

Principle 1+3: Habitat for plants and animals (Krijn

Giezen) and noise mitigation




• A helophyte filter system for cleaning road run-off

Principle 1+7: Ecosystem function and reduction of emissions




• Roadside verges

15 % of the Dutch flora depends on roadside vergesPrinciple 1+4+7: Ecosystem function and compensation and minimize emissions




• Rail / road fauna passage

Prefab culvert with fauna passagePrinciple 3: mitigate ecosystem damage (fragmentation)




• Rail / road fauna passage

Eco-passage overcrossing an highwayPrinciple 3: mitigate ecosystem damage (fragmentation)




• More ideas?



Ecological Engineering: Conclusions

Overall objective:• Seek sustainable balance between natural and human dominated

areas and activitiesMain principles:

1. Ecosystem approach2. Prevention3. Mitigation4. Compensation5. Restoration6. Renewable resources7. Minimize emissions8. Recycling9. Integrate nature and economy



Further reading / background information

• Hein van Bohemen (2005) Chapter 5: Ecological Engineering. In: Ecological Engineering – Bridging between ecology and civil engineering

• Mitsch WJ and Jorgensen SE (2003) Ecological engineering: A field whose time has come. Ecological Engineering 20:363-377



Questions

• What is the general definition of ‘Ecological Engineering’ as formulated by Howard T. Odum in the early 1960’s?

• … and definition of ‘Sustainable Development’ as formulated by the Brundtland Commission of the United Nations in 1987?

• What is the 3P’s concept in sustainability, and who and when coined the term in relationship to corporate decision making?

• Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) such as dioxins represent an example of harmful emissions. Give two reasons why emissions of such compounds are considered a health threat even when emitted concentrations are very low?

• Name the 9 ecological engineering principles

• Give a practical example for (1-9) ecological engineering principles



CT4100


•

Ecosystem goods & services

•

Biodiversity




Info from publication office

http://portal2.nottingham.ac.uk/cpi/Funded_Projects/Chinese_Views_of_EU/EU_logo.gif




‘How complex and unexpected are the checks and relations between organic beings,

which have to struggle together’

Charles Darwin: The origin of Species (1859)




Ecosystems are basis of all human life and activities

•

The goods and services

they provide are vital to:→ Sustaining well-being, and to → Future economic and social development

•

The benefits

ecosystems provide include:- Food

- Air- Water

- Timber-

Purification

-

Soil formation-

MedicationsEtc.




Human activities

are destroying biodiversity

and altering the capacity of healthy ecosystems

to deliver this wide range of goods and services

→ In the past, societies often failed to take account of the importance of ecosystems

→ Scientists are predicting that an increase in world population to 8 billion by 2030

could lead to dramatic shortages of:

1.

Food,

2. Water

3. Energy




The loss of services from natural ecosystems will require costly alternatives

→ Investing in preservation

of ecosystems now will save moneyin the long run!

→ Important for our welfare

and long-term survival

→ Greater awareness of the economic value

of ecosystem goods and services is needed among decision-makers and the public

→ If decline of ecosystems is not stopped, a high price

has to be paid in the future!




Important topics:

1.

Humanity

needs ecosystem goods and services

2.

Biodiversity

loss is destroying ecosystem functions

3.

Valuing

ecosystem goods and services

4.

International (EU)

actions

needed for ecosystem conservation

5.

Example: The ‘Natura

2000’

network

to protect ecosystems



1. Humanity needs ecosystem goods and services




Definitions:

•

An ‘ecosystem’

is a complex and dynamic combination of living organisms

(plants, animals, micro-organisms) and the natural environment, existing as a unit, and depending on one another

•

‘Biodiversity’

comprises all the living elements

of these partnerships




-

Example of an ecosystem -

A meadow

is an ecosystem in which insectspollinate flowers

and grasses

→ Cattle

feed on these plants and their manure broken down by (micro)organisms

in the soil helps in turn to nourish

the plants

→ Each element of the cycledepends

on others for survival




-

Example of an ecosystem -

Coral reefs

form ecosystems in which fish

and coral

formations, rock

and seawater

interact together

→ Some 500 million peopleworldwide use coral reefs for tourism, fishing, pearl culture

and other activities




‘Goods’

produced by ecosystems include:

•

Food (vegetables, meet, fish etc)

•

Water

•

Fuels

•

Timber

→ Thus mainly physical products




‘Services’

produced by ecosystems include:

•

Water and air purification

•

Natural recycling of waste

•

Soil formation

•

Pollination

•

Regulatory mechanisms:–

Climate–

Populations of plants, animals, insects etc

→ Thus mainly ‘processes’




Four

different kinds of services

can be identified:

1.

Provisioning

services: supply

of the goods

2.

Regulating

services: govern climate, rainfall, water quantity (flooding), waste, spread of disease

3.

Cultural

services: spiritual welfare, experience of beauty, recreation, inspiration

4.

Supporting

services: soil formation, photosynthesis, nutrient cycling (basis for growth and production)




Important consideration:

Because many of these goods and services

have always been freely available, with no markets and no prices, their true

long-term value is not included in society’s estimates!

(see ‘valuing ecosystem services’

further on)



2. Biodiversity loss is destroying ecosystem functions




‘Biodiversity’

comprises all the living elementsof an ecosystem

•

Biodiversity, essential to ecosystem functioning. A high biodiversity stabilizes (and buffers) the different ecosystem functions.

However, biodiversity in many natural ecosystems is

decreasing rapidly. Causes are among others:

•

-

Land-use change-

Agricultural intensification-

Pollution -

Climate change-

Urbanization-

Over-exploitation-

Introduction of exotic species (compete with local species)




Restoration of lost biodiversity

is costly and sometimes impossible

Some facts:

Recent studies show that:

#

40%

of existing agricultural land

risks over-exploitation

#

80%

of European protected habitat types

(suitable living spaces) are under threat

#

60%

of coral reefs

probably disappeared by

2030

#

11%

of world natural areas

compared to 2000 level lost by 2050

#

In the last 100 years, human activities multiplied species extinction

by 50-1000 times!




Important social consideration:

•

Particular poor people

in developing countries are most at risk from biodiversity loss as they often rely directly

on ecosystems goods and services




Conclusions

biodiversity loss:

Preserving ecosystems

is both:→ Ethical duty

and → Practical necessity

for current and future generations

Biodiversity

and ecosystem functioningare closely linked

and are essential to (human) life:

Can not be exploited without paying a price!



3. Valuing ecosystem goods and services




How to value ecosystem goods and services in financial terms?

→ In Potsdam, March 2007, Environment Ministers from the world’s major economies agreed to launch a global study on the economic benefits of biological diversity, comparing the costs of loss and of effective conservation measures

→ This resulted in a ‘TEEB’

(The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity)

study




•

May 2008: first publication of TEEB study, initiative of the European Commission, Germany, and partners, estimated:

→

Annual loss of ecosystem services €

50 billion

→

2050: loss of terrestrial biodiversity 7% of GDP

The study recommended to:

→ End environmental harmful subsidies

→ Create ‘markets’

for ecosystem services




How to value ecosystem goods and services in financial terms?

•

2nd

phase of TEEB study (2008-2010) will propose:

→ Detailed framework for the economic valuation

of ecosystem services

→ Take ecosystem

value

into account in decision-making

at all levels




Further facts and problems:

Ecosystem goods and services

may become increasingly rare

(and costly) over time

•

Example:

Real value

of clean water supply usually much higher than we pay for

In May 2008 the city of Barcelona had to import water from elsewhere due to long-term drought and loss of ecosystem water retaining and storage capacity:

Costs €

22 million / month!




The European Environment Agency (EEA)

analyses the relationship between economic sectors

and their reliance and impacts

on ecosystem goods and services

•

These data should be used for policy-making and local management

of natural resources

Example:

EEA calculates the global value of wetlands services

(water purification and carbon absorption) at

€

2.5 billion / year!




Tools to protect ecosystem services:Currently payment programs

for ecosystem services are developed in many countries:

•

Goal:

provide adequate rewards

to landowners who protect ecosystem services that are valuable to society



4. EU actions on ecosystem conservation




The EU is one of the 191 Parties to the UN Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD):

→ Recent CBD initiative: Set standards to ensure sustainable bio-fuel production (e.g. do not compete with food production, do not destroy ecosystems for bio-fuel crop plantations)

→ Inclusion of biodiversity

in climate change

negotiations

→ Criteria for marine protected areas

(MPAs)

→ Development of a new action plan

to reduce the rate of loss of biodiversity: 20 ‘SMART’

targets for 2020 (specific, measurable, ambitious, realistic, time-bound)




In 2000 the United Nations

launched a global Millennium Ecosystem Assessment initiative (MA):

→ Goal:

Assess the consequences of ecosystem change for human well-being and advise on actions that could be taken to respond to harmful changes

•

In 2005 the MA reported that two-thirds of the Earth’s ecosystem services are in decline or threatened

•

The EU

is committed, as part of the global MA follow-up initiative, to develop a sub-global assessment (SGA)

for the European Regions, due in 2015




The EU Biodiversity Action Plan (2006)

sets out what needs to be done to halt the loss of biodiversity by 2010:




→ The mid-term assessment (2008) showed difficulty in meeting the target: all partners need to step up and maintain efforts after 2010 as well

•

See also further reading: EU Biodiversity Action Plan: 2010 assessment

The souslik Spermophilous

citellus

is declining as a result of increasingly intensive agricultural practices




Further EU actions:

•

Earmarking of millions of euro in external aid for biodiversity conservation

•

Inclusion of Sustainability Impact Assessments

(SIAs) in trade negotiations → Political/legal tool to enforce sustainability practices

(see also lecture13 EIA: Environmental Impact Assessment)

•

Sharing the benefits of genetic resources

(an ecosystem product) in a fair way

http://labexkorea.files.wordpress.com/2010/05/brazilian-platform-of-genetic-resources.jpg




EU policy-makers are changing their perspective and are integrating ecosystem health into policies:

(more legislative tools)

•

EU Directive on pesticides:

greater protection for specific (economically interesting) species, e.g. bees

•

EU rural development policy 2007-2013:

financial compensation for farmers who sign up to environmental commitments

(protection of ecosystem goods and services valuable for society)



5. The ‘Natura

2000’

network



5. The ‘Natura

2000’

network

Natura

2000

is a network of more than 25 000 conservation sites

all over the EU

•

It provides extensive

ecological as well as socio-economic benefits:

-

Spread/exchange of species between sites: increases/stabilizes biodiversity

-

Tourism

-

Recreational activities

-

Ecosystem goods and services such as:

-

Flood control-

De-pollution of water-

Nutrient recycling



5. The ‘Natura

2000’

network

EU Commission

initiative in 2007-2008, valuing ecosystem functions:

•

Assessment of costs and

socio-economic benefits

of the network and individual protection sites



Conclusions



Conclusions

•

Understand link between biodiversity, ecosystem functioning

(ecosystems functioning) and human profits (socio-economical)

•

Ecosystem goods

and services

(biodiversity) represent socio-

economic value

•

Economic valuing of ecosystem functions is difficult, but important for policy-making: internalize external (environmental) costs

of anthropogenic actions (pay for disturbances)



Conclusions

Apply Ecological Engineering principles

for Civil Engineering practices

to protect environment (biodiversity

and ecosystem goods and services):

1. Ecosystem approach2. Prevention3. Mitigation4. Compensation5. Restoration6. Renewable resources7. Minimize emissions8. Recycle9. Integrate nature and economy

(See also lecture 1-2: Introduction Ecological Engineering)




•

EU Biodiversity Action Plan 2010

•

EU Biodiversity Action Plan 2010 Assessment

•

RS de Groot, MA Wilson and RMJ Boumans

(2002) A typology for the classification, description and valuation of ecosystem functions, goods and services. Ecological Economics 41: 393-408

•

R Costanza

et al. (1987) The value of the World’s Ecosystem Services and Natural Capital. Nature 387: 253-260

•

HM Pereira et al. (2010) Scenarios for Global Biodiversity in the 21st

Century. Science 330: 1496-1501

•

C Perrings

et al. (2010) Ecosystem Services for 2020. Science 330: 323-324



Questions

•

Give a definition for an ‘Ecosystem’•

What are ‘Ecosystem services’, give 4 examples•

What are ‘Ecosystem goods’, give 4 examples•

Anthropogenic actions tend to result in a decrease of ecosystems’

biodiversity, give (up to 7) possible reasons

•

Valuing of ecosystem functions is difficult. However, in March 2007 in Potsdam, the Environment Ministers of the world’s leading economies decided to launce a ‘TEEB’

study. What does ‘TEEB’

stand for?-

The TEEB study estimated the annual loss of ecosystem services at ?Euro-

and the costs of loss of terrestrial biodiversity in 2050 at ?%

of GDP•

Governments can apply legal instruments to protect ecosystem functioning. Give two examples of such instruments

•

What is the main goal of the ‘Millennium Ecosystem Assessment Initiative (MA)’

launched in the year 2000 by the United Nations? -

As a result the EU launched in 2006 the ‘Biodiversity Action Plan’, what was the main goal of that program?

•

What is the ‘Natura

2000’

network, and give 2 examples of its ecological and socio-

economic benefits



CT4100


Example Ecosystem functioning and practical engineering application using biological processes:

A wastewater treatment plant




The problem:

•

Wastewater containing excess organic compounds, nutrients and harmful substances

must be cleaned before use as resource for drinking water or being released to rivers and streams (surface waters)

•

Wastewaters derived from domestic sewage or industrial sources can thus not be disposed off for -

Public health-

Recreational / economic / aesthetic

reasons




Some figures:

•

About 15 000 wastewater treatment facilities

exist in the United States

•

A ‘small’

plant treats about 3.8 million liters of wastewater per day

•

Collectively: 160 billion liters per day




Some figures:•

How much is 160 billion liters per day? → 64 Arena stadiums!

•

(for comparison: worlds daily crude oil production = 13.4 billion liters = 5.4 Arena stadiums)

Volume Amsterdam Arena = 2.5 billion liters




Treated are domestic + industrial waters

•

Domestic waters

are made up of:

-

Sewage (black water)-

‘Gray water’

(water from washing, bathing, cooking)-

Food processing




•

Industrial wastewaters

contain:

-

Petrochemical compounds- Pesticides-

Foods- Plastics-

Pharmaceutical products-

Heavy metals etc.




Pretreatment:

•

Toxic compounds

must be removed from waters before entering the wastewater plant:

•

Pretreatment

is generally a mechanical process

in which larger debris is first removed

•

Pretreatment

could also involve biological processes

to remove highly poisonous substances

such as cyanide and heavy metals

→ For the latter, specific microorganisms are needed




Workings of a typical wastewater treatment facility for

domestic sewage treatment



Domestic sewage treatment

Treatment stages:

•

Sewage treatment is a multistep process

employing both physical and biological

treatment steps:

•

1.

Primary

treatment

•

2.

Secondary

treatment

•

3.

Tertiary

treatment



1. Primary treatment

Primary treatment

of sewage consists only of physical separations:

1.

Large object are removed

using a series of grates and screens

2.

The effluent is left to settle for several hours to allow suspended solids

to sediment

→ After primary treatment the water still contains a high nutrient load

and must be further treated to reduce the organic load to acceptable levels before release



2. Secondary treatment

Secondary treatment

involves a series of microbiological processes:

1.

Anoxic

secondary treatment

2.

Aerobic

secondary treatment

Anoxic

Aerobic



1.

Anoxic secondary treatment

Anoxic treatment:

•

Anoxic sewage treatment involves a complex series of digestive and fermentative reactions

for the removal

(decrease in concentration) of organic compounds, and is carried out by different bacterial species

•

The efficiency

of a treatment process is expressed as

the percentage decrease in biological oxygen demand (BOD) (although oxygen is not actually involved in the anoxic process!)

•

BOD is a measure of the amount of dissolved oxygen consumed by microorganisms for the oxidation of organic and inorganic matter

→ A well-operated plant removes >95% of initial BOD(thus realize that a direct relationship

exists between theoretical oxygen consumption rate

and actual amount of organic compounds

present!)



1.


•

Anoxic treatment

is specifically employed in treatment of waters containing much insoluble organic matter

such as fiber and cellulose

•

Degradation takes place in large enclosed tanks called sludge digestors

or bioreactors. Many different types of microorganisms are involved (high biodiversity needed!)

Sludgedigestors



1.


Four important anoxic microbial degradation processes:

1.

Macromolecular compounds

are first enzymatically

digested

(polysaccharidases, proteases, lipases) into

soluble compounds

cellulose→ sugars

proteins→ amino acids

fats→ fatty acids



1.


Four important anoxic microbial degradation processes:

2.

The soluble compounds are fermented to a mixture of fatty acids, H2

(hydrogen), and CO2

3.

Fatty acids are further fermented

to acetate, H2

and CO2

4.

The intermediate products acetate, H2

and CO2

are finally converted to methane

by methanogenic

bacteria:



1.


Reactions

carried out by methanogenic

bacteria:

1.

CH3

COOH

(acetate) → CH4

(methane) + CO2

2.

4 H2

+ CO2

→ CH4

+ 2 H2

O

•

Thus major products of anoxic sewage treatment

are CH4

and CO2

•

Methane

can be collected and used as energy source

to drive electric generators for heat and power production

•

CH4

→ energy source•

CO2

→ greenhouse gas



2.

Aerobic secondary treatment

Aerobic treatment

•

Most common aerobic decomposition treatments

make use of the trickling filter

or activated sludge

method

•

In both systems microorganisms

degrade organic matter to carbon dioxide

(CO2

), ammonia

(NH3

), nitrate(NO3

-), sulfate

(SO42-), and phosphate

(PO43-)

← tricklingfilter

activated sludge →



2.


Reactions

carried out by aerobic bacteria:

→ E.g. Glucose:

C6

H12

O6

(from polysaccharides)

C6

H12

O6

+ 6 O2

→ 6 CO2

+ 6 H2

O

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Glucose_chain_structure.svg



2.


Reactions

carried out by aerobic bacteria:

→ E.g. Methionine:

C5

H11

NO2

S (sulfur-containing amino acid from proteins)

C5

H11

NO2

S

+ 7.5 O2

→ 5 CO2

+ H2

SO4

+ NH3

+ 3 H2

O

CO2

→

greenhouse gasH2

SO4

→

sulfuric acidNH3

→

ammonia (NH4+

ammonium = fertilizer)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Methionin_-_Methionine.svg



2.


A trickling filter•

A trickling filter consists of a 2m-thick bed of crushed rocks on top of which the wastewater is sprayed

•

The liquid slowly passes through the bed, the organic matter adsorbs to the rocks, and the microbial growth and organic compound conversion

takes place



2.


Activated sludge process•

Most common treatment system. The wastewater is mixed and aerated in a large tank. Slime-forming bacteria grow and form flocs

which degrade (oxidize) the dissolved

organic compounds

•

The effluent containing the flocs

is pumped in a holding tank where the flocs

settle

•

The flocs

are collected and sent to the anoxic sludge digestor



2.


Activated sludge system (aerobic)

Flocs

holding tank(anoxic)

http://www.water-technology.net/projects/chicago/



2.


•

The residence time

of waste water in the aerobic activated sludge tank is 5 –

10 hours. During this short period most of the soluble organic matter is adsorbed to the flocs

•

The BOD

of the liquid

is reduced by up to 95% and the liquid can be released

•

Most of the BOD is now contained in the settled flocs

(thus mainly in form of degradable organic matter)

•

→ The main BOD reduction

thus occurs in the anoxic sludge digestor

to which the flocs

are transferred and degraded



Aerobic + anoxic treatment

Overall wastewater treatment scheme:

Aerobic and anoxic treatmentsare thus partly cyclic



3. Tertiary treatment

Tertiary treatment

is

not always employed as it is expensive

•

The most complete method of sewage treatment includes tertiary treatment as it involves physico-chemical treatments

such as precipitation, filtration, chlorination to sharply reduce levels of

inorganic nutrients, specifically phosphate and

nitrate

•

The final effluent water is so free of nutrients that it is unable to support extensive microbial growth. If tertiary treatment is skipped, the effluent water does still contain high concentrations of N and P nutrients, which lead to eutrophication

of surface water (extensive growth of bacteria and algae)



Water purification

Wastewaters treated as described so far are generally of a quality that they can be discharged into rivers and streams,

but is not suitable for drinking

•

For drinking water further treatment is needed:

-

Removal of pathogenic microorganisms

(chlorination)-

Decrease of turbidity-

Elimination of taste and odor (chlorination)-

Reduction of harmful chemicals

Calcium hypochlorite

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Calcium_hypochlorite.png



Conclusions wastewater treatment

•

Wastewater treatment is mainly a bio-based process, thus an example of applying an ecosystem approach

in civil engineering

•

Organic compounds are converted to CO2

, CH4

and inorganic nutrients

•

Two kinds of secondary treatment are used:

1. Anoxic: predominant production of CH4

and CO2

2. Aerobic: microbial cells (flocs) and CO2



Ecological Engineering considerations

•

A wastewater treatment system represents a complex community (ecosystem) of microorganisms

•

Conventional wastewater treatment converts organic compounds to CH4

(fuel), CO2

(greenhouse gas)

and inorganic nutrients

(can result in eutrophication, i.e. excess nutrients)

•

Challenges:

1. Removal of excess nutrients: e.g. ‘Helophyte filters / Constructed wetlands’

(see lecture 5)

2. Reduction of CO2

emission: Technical solutions? (see lecture 5)



Questions•

Why is wastewater treatment necessary, and what are the main compounds that need generally to be removed before treated wastewater can be released to natural surface waters?

•

What are typical microbial reaction products after conversion of

organic compounds during anoxic and aerobic conditions respectively? Indicate for each product whether it is a beneficial or rather harmful product and why

•

What is the meaning of BOD in wastewater treatment. What are the

two main processes in ‘secondary wastewater treatment’

and which one is responsible for the highest BOD decrease?

•

To which of the 9 ecological engineering principles does wastewater treatment relate and why?

•

Wastewater is usually treated in different stages; which are these and in which ones does biology (microorganisms) play a major role?

•

Wastewater treatment is an example of how nature can be applied for civil engineering purposes. Why is a high biodiversity (microbial diversity) important in wastewater treatment?




Integration ecosystem functions in the urban (built) environment

•

Previous topics:

1. Ecosystem goods and services

2. Wastewater treatment



Integration ecosystem functions

Examples of sustainable integrated approaches in the urban environment

Coupling energy demand and waste emissions:

1. The Energy Factory (energiefabriek.com)

2. Greenhouses as energy source (leveninhoogeland.nl)

3. Bio-energy village Jühnde (bioenergiedorf.de)



The Energy Factory

The Energy Factory(energiefabriek.com)

http://www.aaenmaas.nl/natuurtoptien/



The Energy Factory

Renewable energy from wastewater

•

Wastewater

contains a lot energy in form of organic compounds. It would literally be a waste to transform all these into CO2

(an important greenhouse gas) during wastewater treatment

•

The 26 water boards

(Waterschappen) in the Netherlands treat approximately 1.5 billion cubic meter of sewage a year

with the aid of 350 sewage treatment plants (STPs).

This process

uses a great deal of energy and produces the same amount of CO2

as 80,000 cars. This situation has to change!

•

This is the reason behind the Energy Factory: the water boards in the Netherlands have joined forces and developed a strong ambition to convert sewage water into green energy

on a large scale, at a local level, and thus possibly become energy neutral. This will result in a considerable CO2

reduction, achieving a better environment both now and in the future



The Energy Factory

An enthusiastic group of water board employeeshas its mind set on an ingenious plant, which will convert incoming effluent at water boardsinto energy for internal use, and possibly also for use by third parties. In short, water boards as energy producers, which will ultimately also benefit consumers



The Energy Factory

The baseline:Demand for energy

is rapidly increasing

all over the world, at the same time we want to become less dependent on fossil sources

of energy and are aware of the fact that global oil and gas reserves will not last forever

We also need to reduce the negative impact on our climate

caused by the use of fossil fuels such as oil and coal

Global warming

has to be brought to a halt. We could make a successful switch to clean energy by making extensive use of sustainable sources of energy

such as wind and solar power, making substantial energy savings and introducing green innovations

It is time to take a closer look at existing technologies

and processes and perhaps change

them



The Energy Factory

The Energy Factory concept:

•

Effluent contains energy. Sewage Treatment Plants (STPs)

receive large quantities of effluent, thus energy

•

The goal is thus to use the energy that comes in at one end, to supply energy to processes that require energy at the other end

•

This is already taking place at the bigger STPs, but could be rolled out more widely

•

350 STPs

as 350 new sources of energy that will enable water boards to meet their own energy needs and may even leave them with enough energy

to supply

others as well



The Energy Factory

The aim of the project was:

•

To develop a waste processing concept that would enable the water boards to treat sewage water, possibly in combination with other energy-rich organic streams (such as manure, green waste or industrial residual streams) and at the same time supply energy, such as green electricity, green gas and heat



The Energy Factory

How to convert STPs into Energy Factories?First the facts:

•

Water boards buy 600 GWh

a year for their treatment activities. Fermentation of sludge produces 150 GWh

•

Their total consumption

is thus 750 GWh•

For the purpose of comparison: Nuon

generates 667 GWh

of sustainable electricity each year

•

Water boards consume 29 million m3 of natural gas each year •

An average household consumes 3000 kWh and 1600 m3 of gas per year

•

The electricity consumption of the water boards is equal to the electricity consumption of 250.000 households



How to convert STPs into Energy Factories?

First the facts:

•

If

water boards would be

Energy-neutral, they would be able to save the equivalent of

the energy consumed by the population of Rotterdam

•

In the Netherlands 25% of all STPs

generate electricity by means of sludge fermentation

(see previous lecture ‘wastewater treatment’:1. soluble compounds are fermented to a mixture of fatty acids, H2

(hydrogen), and CO2

2. Fatty acids are further fermented

to acetate, H2

and CO2

3. Acetate, H2

and CO2

are converted to methane

by methanogenic

bacteriaFinal products fermentation: H2

, methane and CO2

)




Electricity generation by means of sludge fermentation:•

The diagram shows what the energy balance at a common wastewater treatment plant is like:




Thus at the moment:

•

Energy generating sewage treatment plants generate30 to 50% of the energy they consume

•

30% of the sludge produced is converted into

methane

gas, which is turned into electricity with the aid of a gas engine with a maximum efficiency of 40%. The residual heat can often also be useful, for instance to heat the fermentation process

•

Energy recovery from the treatment of 100.000 p.e. generates

a maximum capacity of 100 kW, the electricity consumption of 250 households (thus 50% of input!)




•

The current sewage treatment plants would need to generate at least double the amount of energy

from the same amount of sewage to become energy neutral

(let alone become net energy suppliers!)

•

How to achieve the goal set

by long-term agreements on energy efficiency, i.e. 500.000 p.e./year

have to be treated in an energy neutral manner




First consider the Potential energy from treatment:

•

If more organic material

(energy) is sent to biomass conversion/sludge fermentation, this produces more energy. At the same time, less energy is consumed

(less energy input needed) as a result of the biological treatment: an absolute win-win situation!

•

The

question

is how much energy the wastewater represents

and whether it is possible to generate that energy more efficiently




•

The chemical composition of the sewage water represents an energetic capacity of 1,6 MW,

and this could result in an improved conversion in a modern plant:




Thus, energy-neutral wastewater treatment is possible already with the use of existing technologies

•

For modern treatment this means:→ Improved sedimentation→ Application of improved gas engine

(39% efficiency) → Side-stream treatment

for nitrogen removal

•

However, still, the chemical energy content

of the influent contains

as much as eight times the amount of energy required

to run the treatment process!




It thus appears potentially possible for a wastewater treatment plant to produce a supply by:

1. Simply replacing the gas engine with a fuel cell (60% efficiency instead of 39%)

2. It is also possible with the aid of a heat pump to use the heat energy of the effluent. The effluent cools down a couple of degrees, as

a result of which an extra supply potential of a couple of MW is created; enough to meet the heating needs of thousands of households




Sewage treatment plants should therefore be able to produce a surplus of both electricity and heat for supply to third parties

This means that it is possible to have energy supplying sewage treatment plants!




Three options to change current plants to new Energy Factories:

Basic: expansion of the plant with proven technologies, this creates an energy-neutral situation and is currently already possible to achieve

Plus: the basic scenario with the application of a fuel cell

and an extra pre-treatment step prior to the sludge treatment, so that net energy supply occurs. This scenario can be realized within the next 2 years

Super: the plus scenario, whereby fermentation makes way for the supercritical gasification of sludge. This option generates plenty of energy, but will take a few more years to develop



Basic

The basic variant:

Expanding existing plants to energy-neutral ones by:1. Applying improved sedimentation2. Side stream treatment

for nitrogen removal3. Improved gas engine

(39% efficiency)



Plus

The plus variant: net delivery

This scenario involves expanding the basic variant with:4. A fuel cell5. An extra pre-treatment step for sludge

(CAMBI) for improved fermentation



Super

The super variant: net delivery

An elaboration of the plus scenario by:6. Replacing fermentation by supercritical gasification of sludge

(no sludge waste production anymore, thus no final treatment needed,

however, technique needs further 5 years development…) 7. Treatment of the residual salt slurry: waste to resource!

No sludge removal needed



Useful energy facts

•

Gas yield 1 kg COD = 0,35 m3 methaneEnergy content of 1 kg COD

= 0,35 m3 x 35,9 MJ/m3= 12,6 MJ

Capacity of 1 kg COD/hour = 12600 kJ/3600 sec= 3,5 kW (theoretical)

•

Energy sewage water(on average) = 15 W/v.e.Specific heat of water = 4,18 kJ/kg.K-1Vaporisation

heat of water = 2,26 MJ/kg500 m3/h water DT= 5 °C increase

= 4,18 x 500.000 x 5= 10.500 MJ/h= 2,9 MW thermal

•

Gas engine efficiency= 37,4% electrical= 45% thermal

•

Fuel cell efficiency= 60% electrical= 35% thermal

•

Energy consumption in the Netherlands = 100 billion kWh electrical+ 50 billion m3 natural gas

Energy consumption of householdsHeat = 1.600 m3 natural gas per year

= 1,7 kW thermal

Electricity = 3000 kWh= 0,35 kWe

Green energy, The NetherlandsWindmills = 800 to 1200 kWh/year

per m2 rotor surface

Solar cells = 50 to 100 kWh/m2 panel

Grey energy, The NetherlandsNatural gas = 1,78 kg CO2 per m3Electricity = 0,6 kg CO2 per kWh



Greenhouses as energy source

Project Hoogeland (Naaldwijk):Functional greenhouses for warming and cooling

of living quarters

Warming/

Cooling




Application of innovative sustainable climate systems:

•

Modern greenhouse

tomato growers (cooperation ‘Prominent’) supply warming and cooling

for new living

block ‘Hoogeland’, Naaldwijk

NL:

Result: 40% reduction CO2 emission

The greenhouse as energy source




System description

•

Summer period:

greenhouses produce surplus heat

and store

this in subsurface aquifer, cold water is used for

cooling

(both houses and greenhouses)

•

Winter period:

stored warm water used for heating

•

Core of system is the heat pump

which delivers heating, cooling

and warm tap water



Cold waterWarm water

ProminentGreenhouses Heat pump

Summer: warm water , cold water

Winter: warm water , cold water

Heat exchanger




•

Heat pumps

have the ability to move heat energy

from one environment to another, and in either direction. A (ground-source) heat pump uses an intermediate fluid (a refrigerant) which absorbs heat as it vaporizes

and releases the heat when it condenses

•

Since a heat pump moves 3 to 5 times more heat energy

than

the electric energy

it consumes, the total energy output is much greater than the input. This results in net thermal efficiencies greater than 100%

for most electricity sources. Traditional combustion furnaces and electric heaters can never exceed 100% efficiency, but heat pumps provide extra energy by extracting it from the ground

A simple stylized diagram of a heat pump's vapor-compression refrigeration

cycle: 1)

condenser, 2)

expansion valve, 3)

evaporator, 4)

compressor Source: Wikipedia

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7d/Heatpump.svg

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vapor-compression_refrigeration




•

Heat pumps

provide wintertime heating

by extracting heat from a source and transferring it to the building

•

In theory, heat can be extracted from any source, no matter how cold, but a warmer source allows higher efficiency

•

In the summer, the process can be reversed so the heat pump extracts heat

from the building and transfers it to the ground

•

Ground source heat pumps must have a heat exchanger

in contact with the ground or groundwater to extract or dissipate heat

•

The efficiency of ground source heat pumps can be improved by using seasonal thermal storage. If heat loss from the ground source is sufficiently low, the heat pumped out of the building in the summer can be retrieved in the winter

•

These principles are used to provide renewable heat

and renewable cooling to all kinds of buildings




Ecological engineering principle:

1. Minimize (CO2 ) emissions

2. Recycle: ‘Waste heat’ as resource



Bio-energy village Jühnde

Figure 1:The bio-energy plant

in the idyllic village Jühnde




The concept:

•

Many studies have proven that a hundred per cent

energy supply from Renewable Energy Sources

is possible

•

But still many people are skeptical

whether this would be possible to achieve in practice

•

The bioenergy

village Jühnde

in northern Germany switched

its power supply to Renewable Energies completely

http://www.wege-zum-bioenergiedorf.de/fileadmin/bioenergiedorf/wettbewerb_bioenergiedoerfer_2010/Juehnde_Barlissen/zp_JuehndeBar_29.10.2010-2.jpg





A bio-energy plant for generation of renewable energy

•

Jühnde

installed a bio-energy plant

consisting of:→ a 700 kW biogas

installation and → a 550 kW wood chip

heating plant to provide electricity and heat

•

The plant is exclusively fuelled with local resources

•

The biogas is gained from the liquid manure

of 800 cows and 1,400 pigs, grass and other plants

•

It generates 4,000,000 kWh

of electricity annually






A bio-energy plant for generation of renewable energy

•

In

summer the generated heat is sufficient for heating and hot water, in winter the wood chip heating plant joins in

•

The bioenergy

village Jühnde

attracts many visitors

who experience on-site that a hundred per cent energy supply from Renewable Energy Sources is utopia no longer

but a serious alternative with ecological, economical and regional advantages over conventional

energy supply systems

•

It has been estimated that the participating households save €750 per year

in energy costs




The biogas and wood chip plant:

Manure

Biomasswaste

Wood chipsBack up system




Ecological engineering principle:

1. Renewable (energy) resources

2. Recycle: ‘Waste (manure, wood chips) as resource’

3. Minimize (CO2 ) emissions



Background information / further reading

•

Energy factory –

Water boards inside out

•

Def-Klimaatbrochure

(in Dutch)

•

Bio-gas village



Questions

•

A current average sewage treatment plant recovers about (how much percent) of the energy input?

How could this possibly be improved (name 3 out of 7 technical possibilities) to become energy neutral or even energy supplying, as is e.g. proposed by the ‘Energy Factory’

consortium?

•

Describe a concept, using at least one technology, how coupling of greenhouses with living quarters could substantially reduce overall energy consumption

Name at least 2 ecological engineering principles which relate to this concept

•

Explain the working principle of a ‘heat pump’

and give an example of how/where it can be applied to reduce CO2

emissions

•

Describe how the German village ‘Jühnde’

was able to switch completely to 100% energy supply from renewable resources, which two technical installations were necessary to achieve this objective?



CT4100


Landscape ecology (ecosystems) and infrastructures



Landscape ecology and infrastructures

Apparent conflict between natural ecosystem functioning…




…and human transportation needs (infrastructures)




What is landscape ecology?

It is the science of studying and improving relationships

between urban development

and ecological processes (ecosystem functioning) in the environment

The term landscape ecology was coined in 1939 by Carl Troll, a German geographer

In his work he used aerial photography for studying relationships between vegetation types and environmental components




Topics1. Some basic principles of landscape ecology

2. Effects of roads and traffic: habitat fragmentation

3. Policy to counteract the impact of transportation infrastructure

4. ‘Defragmentation’

and other examples of eco-engineering

5. Road ecology -

the ecological value of roadside verges;

vegetation and fauna

Hans de Vries

Centre for Traffic and Navigation

http://english.verkeerenwaterstaat.nl/english/




1. Some basic principles

of landscape ecologyImportant

concepts

/ notions:

- Fragmentation

-

Stepping stones

- Corridors

-

Dispersal barrier

-

Source and Sink

-

Road side verges



1.

Some basic principles of landscape ecology

National governments have to manage 1. Main road (rail)

and 2. Main waterways infrastructures



1.


Landscape ecological

integration

of infrastructure:

from

prevention

of damage

towards

increased

ecological

value



1.


New infrastructure results in:

1.

Increase in road density

2. Fragmentation

of landscapes / ecosystems

3.

Disappearance of ‘green networks’i.e. hedgerows, wooded banks etc



1.


-

Habitat fragmentation -

(Habitat: the natural environment in which an organism lives)

1. Inhibits dispersal

of species

2. Number of suitable habitats

(minimum sizes required) decrease

3. Infrastructures form additional barriers, increase isolation

-

‘Stepping stones’

or ‘corridors’

(e.g. hedgerows) -

1.

Can connect

fragmented landscape patches / ecosystems

2.

Active measures such as fauna passages and ecological verge management may improve connectivity



1.


-

‘Stepping stones’

-

Smaller landscape patches close enough

to each other can provide ways for species to migrate

between largerlandscape patches / ecosystems



1.


-

‘Corridors’

-

Roads and railroad tracks form barriers

for species to migratebetween landscape patches / ecosystems (Figure 3).

However, they can be changed to ‘corridors’

when activelycombined with suitable verges

(e.g. hedgerows) and ecoducts(fauna passages) to allow species to migrate (Figure 4)



1. Some basic principles of landscape ecologyFragmentation:

Larger areas with mono-cultures, very low biodiversity



1.


Hedgerows:

Connections

betweenfragmented areas; thuscan function as a corridorfor organisms to migratebetween habitats (or patches)



1.


A ‘Meta-population’

of a species is composed of several (sub) populationsliving in different areas

(Figure A). If migration

between areas becomes limiteddue to e.g. infrastructure, sub populations become isolated and may go extinct

Local extinction can be followed by re-colonization

from surrounding populations if dispersal is possible (again)

A road may thus act as a dispersal barrier, preventing re-colonization



1.


-

‘Habitat as ‘Sink’

or ‘Source’

-

1.

A ‘habitat’

is a living area for a plant or animal species

2.

A ‘Sink’

habitat for a specific species has a non-sustaining birth-death ratio

and depends on immigration from other habitats

3.

A ‘Source’

habitat is an area in which a population of a given species can reach a positive balance between births and deaths and thus act as a source of emigrating individuals



1.

Some basic principles of landscape ecology-

‘Road side verges’

-

1.

Road side verges

are for many species not ideal habitats as these areoften relatively small (narrow) and dangerous (due to traffic)

2.

However, road side verges may be used by certain species to migratebetween isolated habitat patches. Road side verges (if wide enough)can thus connect isolated areas

and increase the total connected areato a minimum size required for survival of certain species









5. Road ecology -



Hans de Vries






2. Effects

of roads

and trafficImportant

concepts

/ notions:

- Habitat fragmentation

-

Connectedness

- Connectivity

-

Scale

- Hierarchy

-

Road effects

- Loss of habitat

-

Disturbance

- Barrier effect

-

Corridor

- Function of road side verges

-

Nitrogen deposition



2.

Effects

of roads

and traffic-


Habitat fragmentation



2.

Effects

of roads

and traffic

1.

Negative:

Dissection and reduction

of the habitat area available to a given species

→ caused directly by 1.

habitat loss

(e.g. due to land-take)

→ or indirectly by 2.

habitat isolation

(e.g. due to barriers)

2.

Positive:

1.

Dispersal of plant species via cars (e.g. seeds on tires) or road side animals (but can also introduce ‘intruder’

species)

-




2.

Effects

of roads

and traffic

Habitat fragmentation

as such is thus not always negative:

2.

Natural isolation may enhance area species diversity

(unique biotopes)

3.

Increase landscape diversity

-




2.

Effects

of roads

and traffic

Difference between connectedness

and connectivity:

(1)

connectedness:

How well are landscape features connected

(2)

connectivity:

How well can species move between places

→ Knowledge of scale

(size) and hierarchy

(ecosystem structure) are important for understanding ecological patterns en processes within the landscape

→ Necessary condition in order to successfully counteract habitat fragmentation, e.g. scale of landscape in relation to scale of road network



2.

Effects

of roads

and traffic-

More road effects on the ecosystem -



2.

Effects

of roads

and traffic-

Road effects -



2.

Effects

of roads

and traffic

-

1. Loss of habitat -



2.

Effects

of roads

and traffic

-

Loss of habitat -Land take

by transport mode:

Mode Type Width (m) Size (ha/km)

railway conventional 26 2,6

HSR upgrade 32 3,2

HSR new 35 3,5

road(# lanes)

2x1 32 3,2

2x2 54 5,4

2x3 60 6,0

2x4 72 7,2



2.

Effects

of roads

and traffic

Netherlands (NL)•

125.000 km road:•

-

rural 68.000 km•

-

urban 57.000 km•

55.000 ha road verge = 2% NL, •

Compare: protected nature area = 4% NL•

motorways 3.100 km•

unpaved roads 11.000 km•

15.000 ha motorway verges

-

Loss of habitat -



2.

Effects

of roads

and traffic

-

Loss of habitat -



2.

Effects

of roads

and traffic

Average size of land parcels

not

fragmented by motorways:-

Loss of habitat -



2.

Effects

of roads

and traffic

-

Disturbance -



2.

Effects

of roads

and traffic

bree

ding

den

sity

noise load dB(A)

all species together

-

Disturbance -



2.

Effects

of roads

and traffic

-

Disturbance -

Disturbed bird habitat: 15-20%



2.

Effects

of roads

and traffic

-

Disturbance -

road mortality

‘Barrier effect’

successful crossing



2.

Effects

of roads

and traffic

Road casualties

most visible, annual toll in The Netherlands:

→ 2-10 million birds

→ 0,5 -

1 million rabbits and hare

→ 0,3 -

0,5 million hedgehogs

→ 500 –

800 badgers

Estimated 5 –

10 million vertebrates (= approx. 3 casualties / week / km1 road)

-

Disturbance -



2.

Effects

of roads

and traffic

Example specific mammal species:

Hedgehog research (6 years)

6 –

9 %

of the population killed by traffic

2 -

3 times more males killed than females

Peak in July

High risk spots: wooded banks, forest edges, etc. crossing roads

-

Disturbance -



2.

Effects

of roads

and trafficExample specific mammal species:

Hedgehog research (6 years)



2. Effects

of roads

and traffic-

Barrier effect -



2.

Effects

of roads

and traffic

-

Barrier effect -



2.

Effects

of roads

and traffic

-

Barrier effect -

Badger

Squirrel

Mouse

Effects species dependentM

orta

lity

effe

ct

Barrier effect



2.

Effects

of roads

and traffic

-

Barrier effect -

→ Some species may not experience any physical or behavioural barrier, whereas others may not try to even approach the road corridor.

→ To effectively mitigate the barrier effect, the relative importance

of the inhibiting factors

on individual species must be established

Effects species dependent:



2.

Effects

of roads

and traffic-

Barrier effect -Animal movements along and across a railway and road

http://www.fugleognatur.dk/gallery_showlarge.asp?ID=55865



2.

Effects

of roads

and traffic

-

Barrier effect -

→ Infrastructure causes a loss and degradation of habitat due to disturbance effects

(grey area) and isolation



2.

Effects

of roads

and traffic

-

Barrier effect -

→ With increasing infrastructure density, areas of undisturbed habitat (white) are reduced

in size and become inaccessible



2.

Effects

of roads

and traffic

-

Barrier effect -

→ Remnant fragments of suitable habitat may eventually become too small and isolated to support local populations, resulting in extinction



2.

Effects

of roads

and traffic

-

Barrier effect -

→ The critical threshold in road density

is species-specific, but will also depend on landscape and infrastructure characteristics



2.

Effects

of roads

and traffic

In agricultural areas

the splitting of habitats is less severe than in natural areas:→ Lower biodiversity:

high number of fewer species present→ No

(hardly) rare species

present

-

Barrier effect -



2.

Effects

of roads

and traffic

-

Corridor function of road side verges -

The corridor function

differs with respect to the surrounding landscape:

A)

Open, agricultural landscapes:Richly vegetated corridor verges can provide a valuable habitat for wildlife and facilitate movement (corridor function); Can also act as ‘source’



2.

Effects

of roads

and traffic

B)

Forested landscapes:Open and grassy verges introduce new edges and can increasethe barrier effect on forest interior species; Can act as ‘sink’

-






2.

Effects

of roads

and traffic

C)

Verges

may also serve as sources of species spreading

into new habitats or re-colonising

vacant areas

-






2.

Effects

of roads

and traffic

-

Other effects of roads and traffic:

-

Nitrogen

deposition

-

→ Traffic emissions contribute to the excessive deposition of nitrogenin vulnerable habitats. Nutrient-poor vegetation types and species disappear



Further/background reading

•

Hein van Bohemen

(2005) Chapter 9: Main ecological and landscape ecological principles in road construction and hydraulic engineering. In: Ecological Engineering –

Bridging between ecology and civil engineering

•

Hein van Bohemen

(2005) Chapter 12: Fragmentation of nature by roads and traffic

and its defragmentation: prevention, minimization, mitigation, compensation effects, and conservation, restoration and development of ecological values. In: Ecological Engineering –


•

Hein van Bohemen

(2005) Chapter 14: Infrastructural landscapes: from theory to practice. In: Ecological Engineering –




Questions•

In relation to the scientific field of 'Landscape Ecology', what

is the meaning of the terms 'fragmentation', 'stepping stones', 'corridors', 'dispersal barrier' and 'source and sink'

•

Explain how 'road side verges' as part of civil engineering infrastructural works can positively contribute to ecosystem functioning (e.g. in relationship to the terms stated above)

•

What is a 'habitat'•

What is the typical function of 'hedgerows' in relation to landscape ecological engineering?

•

What is a 'meta-population', and what specific negative role can infrastructure play in its decline?

•

Give one example of a negative and two examples of possible positive effects of roads and traffic on the environment in relation to habitat fragmentation

•

What percentage of total country area is taken up by roads in the Netherlands: 0.5, 1, 2, 4, 8 or 16%? And by protected nature area: 0.5, 1, 2, 4, 8

or 16%?•

Why is the barrier effect of roads often less severe in agricultural areas compared to nature areas?







4. ‘Defragmentation’ and other examples of eco-engineering

5. Road ecology - the ecological value of roadside verges;


Hans de Vries






3. Policy to counteract the impact of infrastructure

- National measures

-

European measures

- Defragmentation policy

-

Habitat and Bird directives

- Fauna measures -

Natura

2000

- Ecological Main Structure




Nature conservation in the Netherlands: legal instruments

•

# Flora and Fauna Act (into force in 2002)→ aims to protect plant and animal species

•

# Nature Conservation Act (established 1998, into force in 2005) → aims to protect nature areas

•

Boths

Acts include aspects of the EU:

# Habitats Directive and # Wild Birds Directive

•

and international # CITES treaty (Convention on international trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora)




‘Defragmentation’

in the Netherlands:

→ 1990

Defragmentation policy made official by government

→ 1993 ‘No net loss’

principle adopted, start defragmentation programat existing motorways

→ 2010

Approx. 600 fauna measures at motorways: 6 ecoducts, 200 badger tunnels, 300 small fauna tunnels, 4 large fauna tunnels, 170 modified engineering structures

→ Long range defragmentation program for national and provincial roads, railroads and waterways

- National (Dutch) measures -




In 1990 the Dutch government launched theNational Ecological Network

(also named Ecological Main Structure EMS)Program

→ EMS important concept and tool for counteracting fragmentation

→ National plan, regional elaboration by provinces

→

Will be part of the European ‘Natura 2000’ network




Principles and objective of EMS:

→ Connect

core natural areas (>500 ha)

→ Using ecological corridors

→ Network consisting of:-

‘Arteries’

(national)-

‘Veins’

(regional)-

‘Capillaries’

(local)

→ Connection zones:Within 20 years (2000-2018):

-

5000 km corridors-

725.000 ha-

involves >100 million €




Implementation in national legislation of:

# Birds Directive (1979):

-

Protection of 194 endangered species-

Designation of Spatial Protection Areas

(SPAs)

# EU Habitats Directive (1992):- Promote maintenance of Biodiversity-

Conservation

of 450 endangered animals and

500 plants-

Conservation of

200 rare and characteristic habitat types-

Establishment of

the EU wide Natura

2000 ecological network

The Birds and Habitats Directives form the backbone of EU nature protection legislation

- International (European) nature conservation policies:




Spatial Protection Areas

(SPAs)and rare and characteristic habitat types(defined under Birds and Habitats Directives)are part of the EMS and Natura

2000Ecological networks



The ‘Natura 2000’ network




Natura 2000 is a network of more than 25 000 conservation sites all over the EU

•

It provides extensive

ecological as well as socio-economic benefits:

-

Spread/exchange of species between sites: increases/stabilizes biodiversityand ecosystem functioning

-

Stimulates tourismand recreational activities

-

Ecosystem goods and services such as:

-

Flood control-

Cleaning of water-

Waste/Nutrient recycling








5. Road ecology - the ecological value of roadside verges;


Hans de Vries







- Prevention -

Mitigation -

Compensation

- Building with Nature

-

River Ecology

- Filtering wetlands

-

Eco-passages

- Traffic disturbances

-

Connecting habitats

- Compensation measures



4. ‘Defragmentation’ and examples of eco-engineering

Defragmentation strategy:

1. Prevention (avoidance)

2. Mitigation (minimizing)

3. Compensation

of ecosystem fragmentation by infrastructure




Avoiding habitat fragmentation by:

→ No road construction (look for alternatives)

→ Choice of route: not through sensitive area / least impact corridor

→ Tunnel construction

Defragmentation: prevention

All feasible alternative solutions have to be investigated before making a final decision on whether and where to build a road




In some area’s new roads are considered unacceptable, e.g. through unique or sensitive area’s such as EMS or Natura 2000 sites





The eco-road fits well into the surrounding landscape with minimal negative impact on nature and the environment

Defragmentation: mitigation




Mitigation:

Mitigating strategies / programs to reduce the impact of civil engineering by:

1. Building with nature

2. Separating / shielding the impact source from the area/species to be protected

-

Traffic measures such as wildlife detection, speed limitations

-

Adaptation of surroundings (configuration of the landscape)

3. Connecting protected area’s / populations by the use of:

-

Fauna passages such as ecoducts, -

Modification of existing constructions (bridges etc.)




1. Building with Nature:

- Developing new knowledge for sustainable lay-out of coastal, deltaand river areas

- Design based on ecosystem using natural processes

- Based

on

ecosystem knowledge, using

nature as“dynamic

motor”

-

Nature as basis for establishing infrastructure, with

meeting the infrastructural

and economic

needs

Mitigation:

Mitigating strategies:




Nature development Confined Disposal Facility IJsseloog

- Example ‘building with Nature’ -




Nature development CDF IJsseloog


Confined disposal facilities (CDFs) are one of the most widely used technologies for managing contaminated sediments

The effectiveness

of a CDF in containing contaminants depends on the design, construction, operation,

and management of the facility

IJsseloog

is an Island type CDF. This makes it rather easy to combine the CDF with other functions as - Marinas, - Recreation and - Nature enhancement

Clay and peat that became available by the construction of the site has been used to create wetlands and marshland on the outer bank of the cdf:

Waste as resource!





Ecological improvement





More examples of using waste as resource (sustainable building):

uses of dredged material in road construction, banks, covering, dikes




More examples of environmental use of dredged material:

Haringvliet nature development,

Construction of artificial islands for nature





IJssel delta nature development

Dredged material from maintenance (2 Mm3) is used to create islands near the mouth of the river IJssel

for nature development. Sandy (clean) dredged material was used

to construct an outer ring filled with finer dredged material including peat (category 1, lightly contaminated)





Measures:

→ Water quality high priority

→ Restoring natural character of river

→ Cleaning up polluted sediments

→ Fish migration: fish ladders

→ Natural embankments

→ Fauna exits

- Example mitigation: Improvement of river ecology -




- Mitigation - Fish passages: Co-operation between ecologists and engineers

Physical structure




Fauna exitFauna exit

To prevent animals from drowning, fauna exit ramps are made along canal banks



4. ‘Defragmentation’ and examples of eco-engineeringIn urban area’s, infrastructure could be designed and maintained

in a more sustainable way:→ Multi-functional use of limited space may benefit both people and the environment!




Ecological engineering can be used to construct biotopes:

The construction of run-off filtering wetlands is an example of integrating different interests

Experiments with run-off filtering wetlands now take place on a limited scale

- Example: filtering wetlands for pollution mitigation -




- Example mitigation of ecosystem fragmentation: building Eco-passages -

Veluwe




- Example: Decrease (mitigate) disturbance by traffic -

Natural sound barriers




Natural sound barriers




a/b Reduction

traffic mortality by fencing

+ crossing facilities

e.g. eco-ducts/passage

c/d

Elimination

of barrier effect linking isolated habitats

Mitigating actions:




Connecting habitats and species

Elimination

of barrier effect

linking isolated habitats




Ecoducts

Front view: lowered highway




EcoductsTop view




The A1 ecoduct near Kootwijk




Wildlife overpass across a high-speed railway in France




Overpass for wildlife and agricultural use in Germany

For wildlifeFor agri-traffic




For wildlife

For traffic

Design for both ecological passage and public traffic




Large underpass for wildlife, combining an unpaved road and a stream




Needed: tunnel 30-40 cm diameter under the road together with badger fencing

Badgers are protected in The Netherlands, but they still fall victim to

the traffic




Some 600 badger tunnels have been constructed and most of them work




Warning signs have little effect




Special amphibian tunnel: appropriate fencing is crucial as well




Special amphibian tunnel: Germany is most experienced with using these measures. A lot of research has been done here




The design of viaducts should enable animals to use the verges crossing under the road




A vegetated river or canal bank enables ground dwelling species to cross a road safely




A wall of tree stumps offers shelter and cover to smaller mammal species




Research has shown organic rubble structuresto be effective for many species




Artificial strips or banks as catwalk for animals under roads




So called ‘eco-culverts’ are pre-designed




A ‘catwalk’ for wildlife along river banks




Special kerbstoneswith gentle slopes are designed enabling toads to cross local roads




Ditches are very important in the Dutch landscape, along roads they can provide good amphibian habitat

Mitigate habitat loss:




Crossing of deer is a problem in many areas




Total damage of wildlife car collisions in the USA is estimated 1,4 billion € / YIn Switzerland (7 million inhabitants) the amount is estimated 42 million € / Y




Effectiveness of special wildlife warning reflectors are studied:No conclusive evidence of significant effectiveness so far

Mitigate road accidents with wildlife:




A modern warning systemfor crossing game developed in Switzerland:a system with sensors warn drivers when an animal approaches the road




Compensation measures

If prevention and mitigation are not enough, the ‘no net loss’ principle requires additional compensation

for loss of nature





New wet habitat created in the vicinity of a road project





In several European countries comprehensive directives exist for compensating habitat loss, e.g. change of former agricultural land

into (semi) natural wetlands





An artificial nesting wall for Sand martins (or Bank swallows) was build to compensate for the loss of nesting habitat in a road construction sand depot



Further/Background reading•

Spatial Development and the National Ecological Network. Publication by the Ministry of Agriculture, Nature and Food Quality, Ministry of Housing, Spatial Planning and theEnvironment 2009

•

Hein van Bohemen

(2001) Infrastructure, ecology and art. Landscape and urban planning 59:187-201



Questions-1•

Name 2 Dutch and 3 International legislative instruments (laws) related to nature conservation, and which have implications for civil engineering activities

•

In which year did the Dutch government officially started a defragmentation policy program counteract impact of infrastructure on the environment: 1960 –

1970 –

1980 –

1990 or 2000, and what was the name of that program? Give 5 examples of physical (civil engineering) fauna measures (structures) that were developed and applied in relation to that program?

•

What is the main objective of the ‘Ecological Main Structure’

program which was launched in 1990 by the Dutch government? How many thousand hectares of nature are is planned to be involved in this program by the year 2018: <100, 250, 500, >700?

•

Which three of the nine ecological engineering principles mainly

apply to defragmentation strategies in relation to infrastructure development, and explain their meaning

•

In some areas construction of new roads are considered unacceptable, and here the ‘prevention’

principle has to be applied. For what type of areas does this hold, and which Dutch and EU nature protection programs relate to these area’s?

•

Name 2 possible mitigating strategies which could be applied in relation to the phenomenon of ‘fragmentation’

due to infrastructure development, and explain their meaning•

One of three possible mitigating strategies to reduce the impact

of civil engineering practices is the concept of ‘Building with Nature’. Explain the concept and give two examples of its practical application



Questions-2•

Give two examples of physical (civil engineering) structures which can contribute to mitigation of civil engineering practices in rivers, and six to mitigate harmful effects of transportation infrastructure on landscapes (ecosystems)

•

Which one of the nine ecological engineering principles relates to the ‘no net loss’

principle, and give two practical engineering examples of possible measures that could be undertaken









5. Road ecology -



Hans de Vries





5. Road ecology -

the ecological value of roadside verges

- Maintenance management

-

Biodiversity

- Refuge

-

Habitat value

- Corridor function

-

Gradients

- Vegetation types

-

Special habitat

5. Road

ecology

-

the ecological

value

of roadside

verges



5. Road ecology -


The road as a habitatThe road as a habitat



5. Road ecology -


In the Netherlands:

→ 3.100 km

national roads

→ Cost of road maintenance: 500 million €

/ year

= 160.000 €

/ km

→ Road-side maintenance

35 million €

= 7% of budget

→ 12.000 ha of road verges

= 29.000 €

/ ha

→ Fauna measures

on existing roads: 1% of budget

Road maintenance, verges, fauna measures:



5. Road ecology -


ZOAB (very open asphalt concrete) makes a good habitat for weedsWeed control without

the use of herbicides

poses a new challenge



5. Road ecology -


In contrast to some decades ago, only 0.5%

of the total grassland area is natural or semi-natural



5. Road ecology -


1930Dikes and verges:

rich in species

2000(semi-) natural grasslands:

Only 3000 ha = 0.5% of all grasslands

→ Verges of roads and dikes

were used by farmers for cattle and hay

→ Many of these verges were species-richand covered by flowers

→ Until some fifty years ago

these pictures were very common



5. Road ecology -


Strategies to improve nature quality

outside the existing nature areas:Urban areas

and infrastructure

comprise vast territories and therefore offer possibilities to develop nature



5. Road ecology -


1950-1970:

→ Mowing

(mulching)

6-10 times / year

→ Herbicides/pesticides

→ Fertiliser

→ Nutrient-rich soil

→ Low ecological values



5. Road ecology -


1970-1980:

Changing management:

→ More ecology

→ Mowing

(cutting) 1-3 times / year

→ Removal of the hay (nutrients)

→ No fertilisers

→ No herbicides/ pesticides



5. Road ecology -


Netherlands:

→ 1600

plant species

Road

verges:

→ 780

plant species

→ Important for

agrestal

plants

(weeds

growing

on

cultivated

land)



5. Road ecology -


0

5

10

15

20

25

ext.

rare

very

rare

rare

quit

e r

are

unco

mm

on

quit

eco

mm

on

com

mon

very

com

mon

ext.

com

mon

Rareness of plant species in road side verges

%

Netherlands

road side verges

→ Road side verges

have many common plant species→ Only very few rare species

present→ However, some grassland species

mainly occur in road verges



5. Road ecology -


-

Management measures -

→ About 80%

of all road verges

is grassland→ Mowing

once or twice a year

and removing the hay leads eventually to 1)

a species-rich

grassland

Contribution to nature protection:



5. Road ecology -


Leaving strips of vegetation unmown

will offer 2)

shelterfor smaller animals

during winter season

-

Management measures -




5. Road ecology -


→ Road verges

can have a high nature value, specifically in countries sufferingfrom major ecological destruction of nature and landscape (Netherlands)

→ Countries with less nature loss

show less interest in road side verges



5. Road ecology -


→ Recent investigation showed motor-way verges

had three times more plant species than the adjacent agricultural fields:

→ Can be 3)

a source

for species distribution




5. Road ecology -


→ In the Netherlands, many road verges are surrounded by intensively managed agricultural landscape

with very low nature values→ The verges are 4)

the last refuge

for extensively managed, semi-natural vegetation types and thus make an important contribution to nature protection




5. Road ecology -


→ Aquatic biotopes

are very common in the Netherlands, However, clear, nutrient-poor water is not very common

→ Many places alongside motorways

appear to support water

and bank vegetation types

that are rich in species



5. Road ecology -


→ Verges can be ecologically managed

to be optimised either for -

Habitat value

or -

Corridor function→ Most countries where verge maintenance is ecologically adapted

seem to give priority to the habitat function

of the verge

group of species significance (under conditions) effect

Mustelidae

(weasels) part of habitat, corridor --

large mammals minimal --

hare/rabbit/hedgehog part. habitat -

mice/voles full habitat, part. habitat, corridor ++/-

bats part. habitat, corridor -/+

birds part. habitat --/-

reptiles/amfibians part. habitat, corridor? -/+

invertebrates full habitat, part. habitat, corridor ++/-

plants habitat, corridor?? ++/-

Significance of verges as habitat / corridor species dependant:



5. Road ecology -


Conclusion of some studies:

→ Verges are most important for

-

Plants

(mushrooms included),

-

Some groups small mammals,

-

Invertebrates

→ Less important / suitable

for other species.



5. Road ecology -


- Gradients -

→ If road verges are wide enough, slow gradients

can be developed, e.g. between woodland and herbaceous vegetation, thereby offering more habitat quality

to the fauna



5. Road ecology -


-

Vegetation types -

→ Arrhenaterion

most common

type of vegetation

Arrhenaterion



5. Road ecology -


-

Vegetation types -

On dry sandy soil

heath land can be found. The purple flowering heather

offers a nice view to car drivers

Ericaceous communities



5. Road ecology -


-

Vegetation types -

Vegetation of

nutrient-rich soil

Even if the vegetation is not very valuable botanically spoken, wild flowers can offer a nice view to motorists

Anthriscus and Rumex

Aegopodium community



5. Road ecology -


→ Road sides / verges can act as corridors

e.g. saline vegetation

spreads along

roads due to use of de-icing salt

-

Vegetation types -



5. Road ecology -


The Yellow rattle or Rhinantus

indicates good soil qualityfor nutrient poor grassland

communities

-

Vegetation types -



5. Road ecology -


-

Special habitat -

Road verges

appear to be surprisingly important for e.g. grasshoppers and crickets



5. Road ecology -


-

Special habitat -

No less than 34 of the 40 plus species found in the Netherlands are also found on road verges,

including a large number of relatively rare species



5. Road ecology -


-

Special habitat -

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

ext.

sca

rce

very

scarc

e

scarc

e

quit

esc

arc

e

unco

mm

on

quit

eco

mm

on

com

mon

very

com

mon

ext.

com

mon

rareness of grasshopper species in road verges

%

The most important reason why grasshoppers prefer road verge habitat is the absence of

nutrient-poor grassland

in most agricultural areas



ConclusionsLandscape ecology and infrastructures

1.

Close co-operation of ecological

and civil engineering

disciplines within the road administration

strongly improves mutual understanding

2.

In international co-operation

there is a growing exchange of information and experience

3.

In addition to budget, ecological management

requires the right attitude

In the Netherlands, previously separate Ministry of Infrastructure and Ministry of Environment

now merged into one single Ministry of Infrastructure and Environment





•

Hein van Bohemen

(2005) Chapters 9, 11, 12: Ecological Engineering –





Questions•

Give three reasons why ‘road side verges’

can make a positive contribution to nature protection

•

Give three possible active management actions which can result in an increase of species richness in road side verges

•

Which two specific functions could road side verges provide for fauna?•

What does the term ‘gradient’

mean in relation to road side verges and why could it be of importance?

•

For some fauna species road side verges represent a valuable habitat as elsewhere natural habitat areas are rapidly declining. Give an example for

a fauna species, and explain why particularly road side verges are important for this

species

1www.geo.citg.tudelft.nl

Introduction to Ecological Engineering in the Sub-surface

CT4100Timo [email protected] 2781969Room: KG.00.540

mailto:[email protected]


What is the sub-surface?

• Volume below our feet (all the way to the core of the earth 6500 km)• Crust (20 to 120 km thick) • Lots of volume, lots of properties, ...• http://www.earthscrust.org/earthscrust/science/historic/andriji.html


Layered system

• Sediments in different times• Young country

• North Sea Basin• Developed by sediments of the Rhine, Meuse and Scheldt

• Basin is sloping towards the middle, • layers of same age in Roermond and 50 m, in Alkmaar at 500 m...

• Grain size sediments reflect position in basin, and sorting processes

source: Atlas van Nederland, deel 13: Geologie, 1985


Development in the holocene & Soils in the Netherlands

http://avn.geog.uu.nl/index13.html

http://avn.geog.uu.nl/index13.html


Soils, layered systems

February 14, 2011


Sources of Soil & Groundwater contamination


Types of contamination

• Identify properties and behavior of contamination• Solubility in water and in other liquids• Volatility• Density• Degradability• etc.


http://www.enbridgecasslake.com/casslake/main.aspx?id=12429

http://www.enbridgecasslake.com/casslake/main.aspx?id=12429


Cleaning up soil contamination

• Dig & dump• Active in-situ remediation• Passive in-situ remediation


1997/1999 2007http://www.bnl.gov/community/cleanup/Groundwater.asp

http://www.bnl.gov/community/cleanup/Groundwater.asp


Major speed up due to realization that bacteria can degrade contaminants

• Mid 1990's more and more evidence from monitoring

• Much cheaper

• How protective?

• → monitoring technology improved

• → change in paradigm

• → slow implementation in regulations


Biogeochemical degradation of contaminants


Proof of Natural Attenuation

• Measurement strategy• What do we look for?• Why?• What can we measure?• Where and when?• How sure are we of the results?


Metabolism is driven by oxidation-reduction (redox) reactions. These involve transfer of electrons


Reaction and component stochiometry

• Most important chemical elements:

• C,H,O,N,S,P,Fe,Cl, etc...

• Combine in a wide range of compounds

• organic (substrates) like Glucose: C6H

12O

6

• ions like nitrate (NO3-) or iron(II), Fe2+

• contaminants like Per (Cl2-C=C-Cl2, or C2Cl4)


more positive

oxidized/reduced formspotential acceptor/donor

more negative


H2O

H2

O2

H2O

NO3-

N2 MnO2

Mn2+

Fe(OH)3

Fe2+

SO42-

H2S CO2

CH4

Oxic

Sub-oxicanaerobic

Sulfidic

Methanic

Aerobes

Denitrifiers

Manganese reducers

Sulfate reducers

Methanogens

Iron reducers

The redox-couples are shown on each stair-step, where the most energy is gained at the top step and the least at the bottom step. (Gibb’s free energy becomes more positive going down the steps)


Chlorinated solvents


Life cycle of a plume...


Eco-engineering principles adhered to:

Seek sustainable balance between natural and human dominated areas and activitiesMain principles:

1.1.Ecosystem approachEcosystem approach2.2.PreventionPrevention3.3.MitigationMitigation4.Compensation5.5.RestorationRestoration6.Renewable resources7.Minimize emissions8.Recycling9.9.Integrate nature and economyIntegrate nature and economy


Some informative websites

• http://www.bodemrichtlijn.nl/ (Richtlijn herstel en beheer (water) bodem kwaliteit

• http://www.senternovem.nl/Bodemplus/index.asp (Dutch governmental agency for soil contamination related issues, result of institutionalization …)

• http://www.claire.co.uk/ (Same for the UK)...• http://www.eugris.info/ (… for the EU)• http://www.clu-in.org/ (… for the USA)

http://www.bodemrichtlijn.nl/

http://www.senternovem.nl/Bodemplus/index.asp

http://www.claire.co.uk/

http://www.eugris.info/

http://www.clu-in.org/


Soil (ecosystem) functions

• Food and other biomass production

• Environmental Interaction: storage, filtering, and

transformation

• Biological habitat and gene pool

• Source of raw materials

• Physical and cultural heritage

• Platform for man-made structures: buildings, highways


BioGeoCivil

• Use Soil ecosystem functions as inspiration for solving

engineering challenges

• BioGrout

• Biological Corrosion Protection

• Biological prevention of subsidence

• BioSealing

• ...


BioGrout


Questions

• Why do micro-organisms degrade organic contaminants?• What do we mean by the ”redox ladder”?• What is the sequence in which micro-organisms consume electron

acceptors?

• Why is the sub-surface a layered system?• Give 6 (ecosystem) functions of the soil?• Give an example of engineering in an urban setting which utilizes these

ecosystem functions.



CT4100


Roads and environmental effects

Marcel KoelemanHead

Airquality

groupDCMR-Environmental

Protection

Agency

Rijnmond/Rotterdam




Introduction,

main categories of disturbances:

1)

Soil-

and 2)

water pollution

3)

Air pollution, road-

and water traffic

4)

Noise hindrance

•

Effect of climate change on roads: adaptation

•

Mitigation in 2030



Ecological engineering principles

1.

Ecosystem approach

2.

Prevention

3.

Mitigation

4.

Compensation

5.

Restoration

6.

Renewable resources

7.

Minimize emissions

8.

Recycle

9.

Integrate Economy and Ecology





Introduction



Introduction

The problem:

•

Infrastructure

requires space,and therefore competes

with other functions:

E.g. living, working, recreation, nature

•

Competition

is not only for space, but also for function

/ performance

•

Sustainability

requires ‘sufficient space’

for all functionsin an area



Introduction

The problem and resulting Policy:

How to distribute available space (in a sustainable way)

over the different functions?



Introduction

The Netherlands:

Ca. 3.200 km motor way

Ca. 1.000.000 houses within 1km of a motor way



Introduction

Potential environmental effects of roads:

•

Noise

(tires / engines)

•

Air pollution

(fuel combustion: fine dust and (climate) gasses)

•

Soil-

and water pollution

(contaminated runoff water)

•

Ecological disturbances

(e.g. habitat fragmentation)

•

Health effects



IntroductionPollutants (contaminants)



Introduction

Space requirements new roads:

→

Subjected to (inter) national legislation,

Environmental Impact Assessment

needed

•

Governmental sustainable strategies:

→ Prevention

–

Mitigation

–

Compensation

and Spatial reallocation

measures



Introduction

Prevention

of spatial conflicts:

•

Careful spatial planning

in combination with

Environmental Impact Assessment

analyses



Introduction

Mitigation


•

Taking measures to limit emissions

•

Reduce effect

of contaminant emissions



Introduction

Compensation


In practice applied for:

•

Ecological

compensation

•

Recently also for Climate Change effects



Introduction

Spatial reallocation:

•

Removal

of one of the spatially conflicting functions

(Can also be grouped under ‘Mitigation’

or ‘Prevention’)



IntroductionTools for impact assessment

Comparison to set Norms

for environmental aspects




Soil and water pollution



Soil and water pollutionEmission and dispersion mechanisms:

Evaporation, precipitation, adsorption, run off, deposition



Soil and water pollutionSoil and water pollution dispersion

Emission sources

to tofrom




Air and water pollution related strategies :

Prevention:

Avoid

vulnerable landscapes and soils (ecosystems)

Mitigation:

Adapt

type of pavement and implement sewerage system (technical solutions)




Mitigation measures:

1. CollectionGully / sewerDitches Sedimentation tanks

2. Purification systemPhysical chemicalWetlands / reed bedsCompost filter

3. SealingSoil with clay / organic materialClayLiningFoilSoil fixation

4. Vehicle barrierMetal crash barrierConcrete barrierSoil bank

5. MiscellaneousBinding agentNoise barrierWind breakHard shoulderCleaning road surface

Criteria for implementation:

1. Effectivity

collection runoff

2. Effectivity

collection dispersion

3. Effectivity

removal organic compounds

4. Effectivity

removal heavy metals

5. Technical practicability

6. Use of space

7. Experience

8. Implementation costs

9. Exploitation costs

Consider possible mitigation measures

with respect to criteria:



Soil and water pollution- Example -

Mitigation

measure:

type of road

pavement

Dense asphalt ZOAB:Porous asphalt

wind

water

compare




Comparison of treatment efficiencies:





and water traffic




and water trafficAir quality along highways

2000

2010< 30 ug/m330-40 ug/m3> 60 ug/m3

NO2

concentration




and water traffic

PM10

–

Total Rotterdam harbor

Establish activity

and its contribution to air pollutionto undertake most effective mitigating measure




and water trafficEstablish activity

and its contribution to air pollutionto undertake most effective mitigating measure

PM10

–

Shipping Rotterdam harbor




and water traffic

Identify ‘hotspot’

to undertake most effective mitigating measure

22,5

25

27,5

30

32,5

35

0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000

Distance

PM10

con

cent

ratio

n (µ

g/m

3)Traff ic+ background

Background

Motorway junction

PM10




and water trafficIdentify ‘hotspot’

to undertake most effective mitigating measure

Transect

NO2-concentrations




and water trafficContribution to emissions

and concentrationsContribution to PM10 emissions

54%

9%

11%

26%

industry/energy road traffic shipping other

Contribution to PM10 concentration

4%7%

8%

2%

79%

industry/energy road traffic shipping other background

→ Impact of sources

depends enormously on source height

and distance

to location

→ Background concentrations

are huge compared to local contributions:

i.e. the two main factors which determine local concentrations




and water trafficBackground concentrations of pollutants

National institutes,e.g. PBL in the Netherlands, deliver maps

with background concentrations of pollutions

Obtained values are mostly based on modeling

and validation with local measurements

PBL: Netherlands EnvironmentalAssessment Agency

(Planbureau

voor

de Leefomgeving)




and water trafficEstablishing air quality: Measuring

or Modeling?

Measuring:

Plus-

‘The real reality’

(concentrations)

Minus-

Expensive

-

Represents the situation on one specific and limited spot

-

Not suitable for spatial planning use

-

Not distinctive in different sources of pollution




and water traffic

Modeling:Plus

-

Relatively cheap

-

Suitable for prognostic analysis

-

Good insight in spatial dispersion

-

Insight per source category

Minus-

Less precise (conversion known emissions concentrations)

-

Uncertainty input = uncertainty output

Establishing air quality: Measuring

or Modeling?




and water traffic

Best of both worlds:

-

Measuring in limited amount of locations

-

Prognostic: modeling

-

Diagnostic: measuring + modeling

-

Measurements as calibration and validation of themodeling

Establishing air quality: Measuring

or Modeling?




and water trafficAir pollution and policy

1.

Strong indications relations

traffic related emissions/public health effects

2.

Bottle-necks NO2

and PM10Without additional measures, some bottle-necks still exist for NO2

and PM10

in the Netherlands in 2011/16

3.

Measures to achieve EU directions limit values

for NO2

in 2011/2016 are estimated to cost 400 to 1700 Million Euro

4.

National Cooperative Program on Air quality




and water traffic

Fine dust: PM10

vs

PM2,5

Health-

PM2,5

more harmful than PM10 (dust particles ≤

2.5 or 10 µm respectively)

- PM2,5

more anthropogenic

than PM10

EU legislation-

Intervention value:

25 µg/m3 from 2015-

ECO-value: 20 µg/m3 from 2020

-

Contribution traffic

(vehicles as well as shipping)

PM2,5

= +/-

PM10




and water trafficStrategies to

prevent

–

mitigate

–

compensate

for air pollution:

Prevention:

-

Development of non-combustion technologies for traffic

-

and/or clean combustion technology based on hydrogen,hybrid technology, and electricity

Mitigation:

-

Technical measures: examples next slides

Spatial reallocation:

-

Replacements

of e.g. schools




and water trafficMitigation

–

Technical measures

Reduction

Example:

Catalyst

at 25%

Dutch inland

shipping; NO2





–

Technical measures

Reduction

Example:

Catalyst

at 100%

Dutch inland

shipping; NO2





–

Technical measures

Reduction

Example:

Catalyst

at total

EU

inland

shipping; NO2





–

Technical measures

Example:

Speed reduction

Overschie

at the A13

Situation:→ Intensely

used

highway

(150.000 vehicles

per 24 hours) close to dense

population

areas

Measure:→ Limitation max. speed from 100 to 80 km/hour→ Strictly maintained: 100% chance on fine → Extensive air quality and noise measurement

and modeling program to evaluate effects

Results:→ Decrease

10 to 20% of contribution

of localtraffic

to NO2

/NOx

concentration

levels→ Decrease

of noise

with

3 dB→ Improvement

of traffic

flow

rates




and water traffic

Mitigation

–

Technical measures

Example:

Noise

barriers

and air quality

Barrier 4 m, effect 10 m behind: NO2

-14%,

PM10

-34%

Barrier 10 m, effect 10 m behind: NO2

-35%,

PM10

-45%




Noise hindrance



Noise hindrance

•

Ca. 3.200 km motorway•

Ca. 1.000.000 houses

within

1km of a motorway•

Number

of houses

per dB(A)

CONTOUR Points Houses Inhabitants50-55 29750 496900 113300055-60 11580 175800 39780060-65 3970 49900 11150065-70 1150 12000 2610070-75 440 4200 9300

75-140 210 1700 4200Total 47100 740400 1681900

Hindrance caused by Noise



Noise hindrance

→ By 2010:-

Road traffic noise

emission is down by 2 dB

-

No increase of the number of houses subjected to trafficnoise levels of over 70 dB(A)

-

Relative decrease of number of houses subjected to noise levels of over 65 dB(A)

→ By 2030:-

A yet-to-define ‘good acoustic quality’

must be accomplished in both cities and rural surroundings (e.g. Natura

2000)

Noise policy



Noise hindrance

Prevention-

Low speed areas-

Offices instead of houses

Mitigation-

Noise barriers

Spatial reallocation-

Replacement of e.g. schools

Strategies to prevent

–

mitigate

–

compensate

for Noise hindrance:



Noise hindranceMitigation

–

Technical measures

Example:

Noise

barrier

with

T-top

> -2/-3 dB(A) vs

conventional noise barrier



Noise hindranceMitigation

–

Technical measures

Example:

Double layer

porous

asphalt

(DPAC)Upper layer:

-

5 or 8 mm max chippings -

20 mm thick, 22 % voids, 5.2 % binderLower layer:

-

13 mm max chippings -

30 mm thick, 20 % voids, 5.0 % binder

The binder is a high-viscosity SBS-modified binder

Source: IPG/Sandberg/Masuyama; 2005




Climate and adaptation




Effects of Climate Change on Roads

Policy:

→ Focus on safety and availability of infrastructure

Targets:

→ Sufficient mobility space

Measures:

→ Impact on design, construction, use and maintenance



Climate and adaptationPossible effects

climate change on infrastructure and road use:

1.

Decrease number of frost days

2.

Increase hot and dry periods:

low water periods on rivers

3.

High temperatures: increase ozone

concentrations along highways

4.

High temperatures + high intensity lorry traffic: damage to road

pavement by track shaping

5.

Increase winter-

and summer rainfall:

-

Road traffic: water nuisance, lowering speed, less sight, less traffic safety

-

Inland shipping: extreme (high as well as low) water levelslimits use of rivers




Considerations

for Infra-planning:

1. Soil stability

2. High temperatures: effect on bitumen

3. Increase frequency/intensity showers: road drainage, prevention inundation

tunneled roads

4. More flexible design specifications needed:

innovations

like roll-pavement, floating roads, flexible road constructions




Consequences

for Infra-planning:

Positive:

→ Extended working period due to

-

Decrease in number of days with frost

-

Decrease summer rainfall

Negative:

→ Increase in number of showers with high intensity



Climate and adaptationPolicy sensitivity analysis

effect Climate Change on infrastructural branches

Road

Rail

Aviation

Inland

shipping

Sea

shipping

Time scale

Severe effect

Mild effect

Substantial effect




Adaptation

strategies

will

be

a mix of measures:

Prevention

Mitigation

Compensation

Spatial

reallocation

Effects climate change on Infrastructure and road use




Adaptation to Climate Change:Revisiting Infrastructure Norms

What is adaptation?

Adaptation

means anticipating the adverse effects

of climate change and taking appropriate action

to prevent or minimize the damage they can cause. Early action will save on damage costs later

Adaptation strategies are needed at all levels of administration, from the local up to the international level

Source: EU against climate change, adapting to climate change, 2006




PolicyThree recommended changes to current infrastructure policies:

1.

Incorporate climate forecasts

more effectively in infrastructure capital and maintenance decisions

2.

Reconsider

the location of new and updated infrastructure investments

3.

Update

infrastructure design standards.

Source: James Neumann, Adaption to climate change, revisiting infrastructure norms, 2009




Mitigation in 2030



Mitigation in 2030

Needs

for physical infrastructure:

→ Focus

on future

performance

andfunctionality

of (high) ways



Mitigation in 2030

1.

Make inventory demands

of society in 2030

-

Functional demands infrastructure

2.

Technical translation

to:

-

Materials

-

Construction

-

Design

Methodological strategy



Mitigation in 2030

1.

Shortage

of:

-

Mobility

capacity

-

Clean environment

-

Energy

-

Space

2.

Demand

for:

-

Increased

mobility

-

Increased

individual

demands

Society in 2030:



Mitigation in 2030

Multifunctional

Smart

Mitigation strategies:

Smart and Multifunctional use of space



Mitigation in 2030

Smart Road

Energetic Road

Modular Road



Mitigation in 2030

Goals:

1. Save space:

Multifunctional

use

of space

2. Function

specific

design

-

Major reduction

of noise

→ Technological

improvements:

-

Modular

constructions-

Prefab production-

Tailor

made solutions-

Improved

quality

assurance



Mitigation in 2030

1.

New technologies

should be fast to apply

(and to remove

again!)

2.

100 km/h, i.e. 30% max

speed reduction

(improvement

air quality)

3.

Major reduction

of traffic

noise, more than

5 dB(A)

4.

Permeability

as poreus asphalt, but

improved

durability

5.

Modular

constructions

(re-use)

6.

Prefab production

(faster

implementation, less

traffic

jams)

7.

Implementation new technologies:-

sensors, clean energy, etc

Technical properties required to reach set goals(increased mobility, safer, cleaner, durable: sustainable):



Mitigation in 2030Examples innovative developmentsThe Very

Silent

Sound Module



Mitigation in 2030Examples innovative developments

The Rollable

Road



Mitigation in 2030Examples innovative developments

Modie-slab



Mitigation in 2030

The Easy RoadExamples innovative developments



Mitigation in 2030

‘Sufficient

space’

in 2030?

Energy efficiency, modular (re-use), prefab, improved durability etc:

Lower consumption of non-renewable resources, lower emissions, improved safety

→ improved sustainability



More examples of sustainable road developments:

BAM project: ‘The emission-free road’http://www.emissielozeweg.nl/portalen/Emissieloze_weg/menu/Algemeen/index.jsp

Technical solutions for:

→ Noise→ Greening→ Light→ Air quality→ Water quality

/ quantity→ Energy

http://www.emissielozeweg.nl/portalen/Emissieloze_weg/menu/Algemeen/index.jsp



BAM project: ‘The emission-free road’

Technical solutions for Noise:

GROAB(Grof

open asfaltbeton) Course Open Asphalt Concrete. 3-layered ZOAB plus very open top layer for maximum noise absorbance: reduction up to 7 dB(A) compared to conventional road decks

SoundKiller30 dB(A) noise absorbing screen

consisting of completely plant overgrown compact construction. Plantation can additionally

contribute to fine dust and N-oxides removal. Contributes furthermore to greening of urban settings




Technical solutions for Greening:

ITGIntegral technical greening. Plantations substantially

improveroad climate: reduce wind and noise while improving air quality. Reduced wind can safe car fuel and thus emissionsof harmful substances. Plantations take up CO2

, up to 6.5 tons / ha, and improves water buffering capacityof road side verges




Technical solutions for Light:

Light

and visibility

are essential for road safety, however, too much light can negativelyaffect nature and environment. Light pollution can technically

effectively be reducedwithout compromising safety

while at the same time reducing energy consumption

LuxfaltBetter reflection of light

through application of white pigments or aggregates in the asphalt top layer. Reduces need for public lighting and thus safes energy consumption and CO2

emission

SmartLedsEfficient lighting reduces energy consumptionand CO2

emission.

Leds

light intensity can be easily adapted to traffic needs. Long lifetime

resulting in reduced maintenance costs




Technical solutions for Air quality:Fine dust

and

Nitrous oxides

emissions

threaten human health. Concentrations are limitedby law (international norms). Breaching norms has consequences, e.g. building can be stopped. Clevertechnologies can provide solutions:

CleanScreenReduces noise and improves air quality.

Consist of noise barrier and attachedpermeable layer capable of filtering air

for fine dust removal

and absorption of nitrous oxides

DustKillerOpen porous construction containing plantation.

Fine dust

and nitrous oxides are filtered

by theplants and noise is simultaneously reduced. Fits

into the landscape due to integration of plants

Particle AbsorberJointly developed by BAM-TUD system absorbs fine dust particles (PM10) using a nature-inspired electrostatic concept




Technical solutions for Water:

Rain water

can quantitatively (e.g. flooding) cause problems to infrastructure, but also transportharmful substances emitted by traffic away from roads into the environment. Technical adaptationscan provide facilitate water storage and filtration:

SouterRainRoad construction with water-storing capacity. Can act as bufferin times of excess water deposition.

Run-off stopperDesign of road side verges as water run-off

filter. Plant strip acts as first filter system for Removal of contaminants, and can be combinedwith helophyte filter system in attached ditches /

water ponds, also serves for storage of excess water




Technical solutions for Energy:

Emission of greenhouse gasses, particularly of CO2

,

affect climate, and is mainly dueto energy consumption. Focus should therefore be on energy saving and reduction of CO2

emission

LWT

(light wind turbine)Small wind turbine

for placement on energy-consuming road systems.Provides 1000-3500 kWh per year and stores energy for use during low/now wind periods. Makes roads self-energy supplying

and eliminates CO2

emissions

LEAB

(low energy asphalt beton)Special BAM developed asphalt mixture which is processedat 95ºC instead of at 165ºC saving

a lot of

energy

and thusreduction of CO2

emission





•

Hein van Bohemen

(2005) Chapter 11 and Appendix 11: Ecological Engineering –




Questions•

Roads and corresponding traffic can negatively affect the environment. What are the four main categories of disturbances?

•

Road infrastructure facilitates transportation but also requires

space, and therefore competes with other space-requiring functions useful to society. Give 3 examples of such competing functions

•

Construction of new roads is subjected to (inter)national

legislation. What is legally required in most countries before road constructions can be undertaken, and what are three typical governmental sustainable strategies in relation to this?

•

Name four typical mechanisms which can be involved in dispersal of traffic pollutants•

What are the main factors which determine the local concentration of a contaminant? Which two methods are commonly applied to quantify concentrations, and give one advantage and one disadvantage of for each method

•

Which two type of compounds in relation to traffic emissions are

most problematic, i.e. pose a risk for health and which current emissions are often higher than set

norms allow?•

Technical measures can be taken to mitigate negative effects of roads and traffic on: 1) noise, 2) air quality, 3) water quality and quantity and 4) energy consumption. Give two examples for each of the four categories

•

Roads and traffic can influence the future climate, e.g. through

emission of greenhouse gasses. However, future climatic changes can also have its impact on future roads. Give two potentially positive and three negative impacts of global warming on future road durability