“It is a grand and beautiful sight to see man emerge somehow from nothing by his own efforts; dissipate, by the light of his reason, the shadows in which nature had enveloped him; rise above himself; soar by means of his mind into the heavenly regions; traverse, like the sun, the vast expanse of the universe with giant steps; and, what is even grander and more difficult, return to himself in order to study man and know his nature, his duties, and his end.” — Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Discourse on the Sciences and the Arts

We ended last class with the challenge of Socrates – the challenge to begin thinking philosophically. The first step from our great teacher is to accept our ignorance, to step out of childhood into adulthood. I am sure to most of you this process seems to be one of a movement into darkness, into some deep cavern of nothingness where there is nothing to orient us. Immanuel Kant has a different vision, a different metaphor. He begins his work saying that Socrates’ teaching is at the same time a loss and a gain and what we, those so few who take the journey are able to gain, is “Enlightenment”. Think of this as a light, as something which has turned on which has not ever been there before, a great light of reason to be able to look at both the world and ourselves – for the first time.

Kant’s What is Enlightenment

I. Defining Enlightenment

(a) “Enlightenment is man’s emergence from his self-imposed immaturity. Immaturity is the inability to use one’s own understanding without guidance from another. This immaturity is self-imposed…”

o Immaturity translates “Unmundigkeit” which literally means “mouthless” or “not being able to speak for oneself”. In the legal sense we are “Unmundigkeit” when we cannot enter contracts (b/c we are a minor or insane). These people are spoken for by a Vormunder or guardian. An unmundig person is not responsible for themselves and is assigned by custom or court a person to manage their affairs.

o So, without Enlightenment, we are mouthless b/c we don’t have the courage to use our understanding without guidance from another – so, we must say Sapre Aude! (Dare to use our understanding!)

o Examples of why we stay immature – our guardians: (1) Book give us our understanding (theory/cognition) (2) Spiritual director gives us our conscience (practice/morality) (3) Doctors give us our diet (organismic nature)

(b) Enlightenment modifies relations of will, authority, use of reason o Notice how the idea of “danger” pops its head up here. There is real fear by when we try

to modify the will, our idea of authority, and the use of reason for a person or society – people scare those who are in authority positions.

o As Milton says, “But now, with a most inhuman cruelty, they who have put out the people’s eyes, reproach them of their blindness…”

o Kant says that the danger is not really that great, but he is downplaying that which Socrates showed us last time – he doesn’t talk about the collective “we” except that we need the whole to gain Enlightenment

o Kant says that people will make mistakes because it is difficult if not impossible for a single person to get themselves out of this state of ignorance since they are fond of it. They like the rules and formulas which they have been given and will not throw off these shackles. This is a basic lesson you must learn, everyone is afraid at first to think for themselves.

(c) Ambiguity (collective process and individual task/obligation) o Kant then says that the project of Enlightenment might be better put to a society – why

is this? Discuss Rousseau’s idea of amour propre. This can be defined as “self-love”, but it is the self-love as seen through another’s eye. This is why we need society, since much of our desire to action if because we have an all seeing eye of the society always watching us, always telling us what to do, and we need this at first when we are immature (think about Santa, God, and all the other things we tell children are watching them)

o Kant thinks that if people are free they will become Enlightened, but Kant also thinks that this must be a slow more conservative process and not a revolution – why? Revolution can overthrow a power, but it cannot reform thinking since the new power will just have their own un-enlightened prejudices.

II. Defining Escape

(a) Realms of obedience and reason must be distinguishedo Public (free) vs. Private (submissive) uses of reason

(a) 'Private' = use of reason in society we must obey (think about the rules for how we are to drive on the road, if we are a soldier we must fight, as a citizen I must pay taxes, as a priest I must do my offices duty, etc.); here we use our reasoning to decide how to achieve the ends which have been laid out by others

Private here means deprived of freedom and accountable to a particular authority

(b) 'Public' = the use or reason by a scholar to the literate world (freedom of the pen; note that this was not had at the time!)

Why do we need this? We need this because we need an area in our lives which is unrestricted by rules, where we are safe to think any thought, where we are not bound by any ends of another person

Kant says in another work of his which we are not reading that human beings, “should not be led by instinct, nor be provided for and instructed by ready-made knowledge; instead, he should produce

everything for himself.” This means that man is an animal and he needs a master and that master must be himself.

Notice that Kant says that we cannot and should never bind ourselves with oath to an unalterable symbol in order to guard people – he is talking about theology here and trying to make progress in history; This argument works for all beliefs – political, religious, etc. So, what do we say here, can we enact a belief that we think people should be bound to at all times and in all places?

III. Assessing our present situation

“If it is now asked, “Do we presently live in an enlightened age?” the answer must be, “No, but we do live in an age of enlightenment.”

o Problem: Religious issues. We need leaders who are not just “tolerant” of other religious positions, but take it as their duty to prescribe nothing to people. This alone will allow people the freedom to think and to be enlightened.

o So, why does Kant dislike this idea of tolerance? Kant focuses on religion for two reasons

o (1) Rulers have no interest in assuming a guardians role in science and the artso (2) This form of immaturity is the most pernicious and disgraceful of all

Kant says that we must have:o An Enlightened ruler with an army behind him to do thiso Civil freedom which will lead to spiritual freedomo A government which treats people not as machines, but in accord with their dignity

THE VALUE OF PHILOSOPHY - OUTLINE

What is the value of philosophy?o Science and pragmatists doubt if philosophy is useful; this is a result of not

understanding the ends of different disciplines Science’s end – using inventions to better the life of mankind (utility) Philosophy’s end – directly benefits individuals mind’s and indirectly society

through the effects of individualso What are the prejudices of “practical men”?

Practical men are those who only recognize material needs Analogy: Food for the body vs. food for the mind

If we were to create a society which had its material needs met, we would still need more to create a valuable society

Philosophy gives food for the mind and it is only those who do value these that think philosophy is a waste of time

What are the ends of philosophy?o Philosophy’s end is knowledge – but what kind?

Knowledge that unifies and systematizes the sciences Knowledge that results from critically examining our convictions, prejudices, and

beliefso Problem: Philosophy has not provided many definite answers to its questions as science

has Answer 1: The definite knowledge it has attained becomes a separate discipline Ex. Astronomy, mathematics, physics, psychology, sociology, etc. Answer 2: Many questions cannot be answered

Does the universe have a purpose? Is it just atoms in the void? Is consciousness permanent and giving rise to indefinite growth, or is it

just an accident on a small planet? Are good and evil important to the universe? Only man? Whether these questions are discoverable or not, we have not found

one yet, but they are important and we must examine all the approaches to them (why?)

Challenge to Answer 2: We can find answers to these fundamental questions Religious answer: We can prove basic religious claims Reply: We must take a survey of human knowledge and find out its

methods and limitations. Russell thinks this shows that we will most likely never find answers to these questions

Philosophy’s value must not be from claiming answers to these problems, because we do not have definite knowledge here

The value of philosophy comes from its uncertaintyo Those who go through life imprisoned to their prejudices from “common sense”, from

society of its age or place, and from our own minds think the world definite, finite and obvious

o Philosophy opens up the world to questioning and the everyday world becomes interesting

o Philosophy cannot tell us true answers, but it can show many possibilities we have never thought of; this removes from us the feelings of certainty and increases out knowledge; it removes our dogmatism and keeps alive wonder

The value of philosophy comes from how great the objects which it contemplates are and the freedom it gives us from our dogmatism

o Those who live by instinct shut off the world to their own private interests; the world is only see as it can help or hinder us, it becomes a place of personal wishes

This is a life of constant strife between desire and the powerlessness of our willo The philosophic life is calm and free due to it leaving our private world in ruins

If our life is to be great, we must exist our prison of desire Philosophic contemplation gives us escape

o It views the world impartially, not as “us versus them” as everything else doeso It does not try and prove that the world is here for man, but allows its desire for

knowledge which does not alter its objects in advance It is not “means-end” reasoning (i.e., instrumental reasoning) It seeks to discover the infinity of the universe and through contemplation

achieves to share in its infinity Philosophy merges the self and not-self

o A great soul is not found through instrumental reasoning; we cannot make the universe into ourselves

Man is not the measure of all things, truth is not man-made Those of believe such a doctrine fear that their word might not be law

o Philosophy enlarges the not-self and thereby the self contemplating the not-self Everything that is private, habit, and self-interest distorts the object and impairs

knowledge Personal and private things make the intellect a prison Free intellect sees as God would, without a here and now, without hopes and

fears, without custom and tradition, with calmness and dispassion; this knowledge is impersonal

Philosophy values the abstract and universal knowledge, not accidental knowledge (we must see how our own sense-organs distort and reveal)

Results of Philosophic Contemplationo The mind becomes free and impartial in its actions and emotionso Its purposes and desires as part of the whole

Impartiality in contemplation is the desire for truth Impartiality in action is the desire for justice Impartiality in emotion is the desire for universal love

o This shows that contemplation enlarges the objects of thought, action, and emotion and makes us citizens of the universe

If we become citizens in this universe we gain freedom and liberation from our narrow hopes and fears

Summary: Philosophy is not to be studied for definite answers, but for the sake of the questions themselves because these enlarge our conception of what is possible, enrich our intellectual imagination and diminish dogmatism which closes the mind against speculation. Above all, we do philosophy because through contemplating the universe, the mind is made great and becomes capable of the union with the universe, its highest good.