lecture notes - 6 - june 13th

7/29/2019 Lecture Notes - 6 - June 13th

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DEVELOPING THROUGH

THE LIFESPANChapter 5 - Continued


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SECOND EXAM

Thursday, June 20th

35-40 multiple choice questions

It will cover chapters 4-5.

Most questions will come from lectures and associated sections in the text.

Remember to bring your questions to class: questions # 5-8.

Also, I will set up a discussion forum(should be up by Friday, June 21st). Besure to post one multiple-choice question(Ill post more details about it onPsychPortal)


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Attachment refers to an emotional bond with a specific person that is enduringacross space and time.

Many investigators believe that childrens early relationships with parents influencethe nature of their interactions with others from infancy into adulthood, as well astheir feelings about their own worth.

INFANCY AND CHILDHOOD - SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

Attachment:


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Rene Spitz

Rene Spitz, a French psychoanalyst, made films of infants in orphanages that showeddespite receiving good physical care, including proper nourishment and health care,

with no attachments to a primar y caregiver , they sufered: physically and

psychologically retarded.

Manyinfants seemedunmotivated to live: death rate was about 37% over two years.

Why happens in the absence of attachment?

1887 - 1974


http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VvdOe10vrs4


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Harry Harlow

Harry Harlows work with monkeys who were deprived of all early socialinteractions (because they exhibited severe social disturbances - bit and rocked themselves,avoided other monkeys, etc) strongly supported the view that healthy emotional and

social development is rooted in childrens early social interactions with adults.

Why happens in the absence of attachment?

1905 - 1981



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Harry Harlow

But what is important for attachment?

1905 - 1981


http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OrNBEhzjg8I

All videos in this series:


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Harry Harlow


1905 - 1981



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Harry Harlow


1905 - 1981



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Harry Harlow

Harry Harlows experimental work with monkeys suggested that a variable he calledcontact comfort is important for the formation of attachments between infants

and primary caregiver.


1905 - 1981



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John Bowlbyproposed attachment theory which posits that children are biologicallypredisposed to develop attachments with caregivers as a means of increasing thechances of their own survival.

The attachment figureprovides an infant or toddler with a secure base, or a sense of

security, that makes it possible for the infant to explore the environment.

John Bowlby

1907 - 1990



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Bowlbys four phases of attachment:

1. Preattachment Phase (birth to 6 weeks)

The infant produces innate signals that bring others to his or her side and iscomforted by the interactionthat follows.

John Bowlby

1907 - 1990



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2. Attachment-in-the-Making Phase (6 weeks to 6 to 8 months)

The phase in which infants begin to respond preferentially to familiar people.


John Bowlby

1907 - 1990



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3. Clear-Cut Attachment (6 to 8 months and 1.5 years)

Characterized by the infants actively seeking contact with their regularcaregivers and typically showing separation protest or distress (peaking atabout 13.5 months)when the caregiver departs.


John Bowlby

1907 - 1990



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4. Reciprocal Relationships (1.5 years to 2 years)

Involves children taking an active role in developing working partnerships withtheir caregivers.


John Bowlby

1907 - 1990



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Throughout this process , th e ch ild de velo ps an internal working model ofattachment, which consists of a mental representation of the self, of attachmentfigures, and ofrelationships in general.

This working model guides childrens interactions with caregivers and other people

in infancyand atolder ages.

John Bowlby

1907 - 1990



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Mary Ainsworth developed alaboratory procedure called The Strange Situationto assess infants attachment to their primary caregivers.

In this procedure, the child is exposed to a number of episodes , including twoseparations and reunions with the caregiver and interactions with a stranger when

alone andwhen the caregiver is in the room.

Mary Ainsworth

1913 - 1999



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The Strange Situation: Step-by-Step

Mary Ainsworth

1913 - 1999



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The Strange Situation: Step-by-Step

Mary Ainsworth

1913 - 1999


http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QTsewNrHUHU


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Mary Ainsworth developed alaboratory procedure called The Strange Situationto assess infants attachment to their primary caregivers.

In this procedure, the child is exposed to a number of episodes , including twoseparations and reunions with the caregiver and interactions with a stranger when

alone andwhen the caregiver is in the room.Using this procedure, Ainsworth identifiedthree attachment categories.

Mary Ainsworth

1913 - 1999



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1. Secure Attachment (~62-68%)

Child has ahigh-quality relationship withhis or her attachment figure.

Theyuse caregivers as asecure base for exploration.The infant may be upset when the caregiver leaves but is happy to see thecaregiver return, recovering quickly from any distress.

Ainsworths three attachment categories:

Mary Ainsworth

1913 - 1999



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1. Secure Attachment (~62-68%)


Mary Ainsworth

1913 - 1999


http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PnFKaaOSPmk&feature=related

All videos in this series:


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2. Insecure Resistant/Ambivalent (~9%)

Children are clingy and stay close to their caregiver rather than explore theenvironment or play with toys.

Tend to becomevery upset when the caregiver leaves them alone in the room.

When the caregiver returns, they are not easily comforted and both seek comfortand resist eforts by the caregiver to comfort them.


Mary Ainsworth

1913 - 1999



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2. Insecure Resistant/Ambivalent (~9%)


Mary Ainsworth

1913 - 1999



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3. Insecure Avoidant (~15%)

Children seem somewhat indiferent toward their caregiver and may even avoidthe caregiver.

Often indiferent when caregiver leaves and indiferent or avoident when thecaregiver returns.

Ifthese children become upset when left alone, they may be as easily comforted byastranger as bythe caregiver.


Mary Ainsworth

1913 - 1999



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3. Insecure Avoidant (~15%)


Mary Ainsworth

1913 - 1999



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4. Disorganized/Disoriented (~15 %)

Children have no consistent way of coping with the stress of the StrangeSituation.

Their behavior is often confused or even contradictory, and they often appeardazed or disoriented.

Subsequent to Ainsworth a fourth category was identified:

Mary Ainsworth

1913 - 1999



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Children who were securely attached as infants seem to have closer, moreharmonious relationships with peers than do insecurely attached children.

Secure attachment in infancy also predicts positive peer and romanticrelationships and emotional health in adolescence.

Securely attached children also earn higher grades and are more involved inschool than insecurely attached children.

Does Security of Attachment Have Long-Term Efects?

Note:

Parent-child interactions predict a childs social and emotional competence at thatage better than measures of attachment at younger ages.

So its likely that childrens development can be better predicted from thecombination of both their early attachment status and the quality of subsequentparenting than from either factor alone.


Factors Associated with the Security of Childrens Attachment


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A crucial factor that contributes to the security of an infants attachment isparental sensitivity.

Secure attachment may be fostered by:

Being consistently responsive to the needs of an infant Mutual smiling, laughing, making sounds at one another Engaging in coordinated play

Insecure attachment may be fostered by:

Being inconsistently responsive to the needs of an infant Often reject infants attempts at physical closeness Exhibiting frightening or disorienting behavior


What factor(s) is most important for secure attachment?

Mary Ainsworth

1913 - 1999



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Is there a causal relationship between parental sensitivity and security ofattachment?

Intervention Study- Daphna van den Boom (1994, 1995)

Half of a group of mothers of 6-month-oldbabies at some risk for insecureattachment were randomly assigned to a condition in which sensitivity was

trained, with the remaining half in a comparison condition.

Three months later, more of the infants of the mothers in the experimentalgroup were securely attached(62%)thanwerethose in the control group (22%).

The diferences in attachment were still apparent when the children were 18months, 24 months, and 3 years old.

Results of intervention studies like these indicate a causal relationship betweenparental sensitivity and security of attachment.



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Parenting Styles and Practices

Parenting styles are parenting behaviors and attitudes that set the emotionalclimate of parent-child interactions.



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Authoritative Parenting

Relationship is reciprocal, responsive; highin bidirectional communication

Demanding

Undemanding

Supportive Unsupportive

Parent is accepting and child-centered Parent is rejecting and parent-centered

Parent expects much of child

Parent expects little of child



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Authoritative

Style Parent Characteristics Child CharacteristicsSet clear limits for their children and firm aboutenforcing them; allow considerable autonomywithin those limits; attentive and responsive tochildrens needs



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Authoritarian Parenting

Relationship is controlling, power-assertive;high in unidirectional communication

Demanding

Undemanding







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Authoritative

Authoritarian


Non-responsive to childrens needs; enforcedemands through threats of punishment;oriented towards obedience and authority;expect children to comply without question



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Permissive Parenting

Relationship is indulgent; low in controlattempts

Demanding

Undemanding







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Authoritative

Authoritarian

Permissive

Rejecting-Neglecting



Responsive to their childrens needs; do notrequire that their children regulate themselvesor act in appropriate or mature ways



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Relationship is indulgent; low in controlattempts

Rejecting-Neglecting Parenting

Relationship is rejecting or neglecting; uninvolved

Demanding

Undemanding







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Authoritative

Set clear limits for their children and firmabout enforcing them; allow considerableautonomy within those limits; attentive andresponsive to childrens needs

Authoritarian


Permissive

Responsive to their childrens needs; do notrequire that their chi ldren regulatethemselves or act in appropriate or matureways


Do not set limits for/monitor their childrensbehavior; not supportive, often rejecting,neglectful; tend to be focused on their ownneeds

Style Parent Characteristics Child Characteristics



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http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kdsDwVOMgwY



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Authoritative


Authoritarian


Permissive







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http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aAYqssSUD8w&feature=related



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Authoritative


Authoritarian


Permissive







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http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=h-Isc5Z6pzs&feature=related



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Authoritative


Authoritarian


Permissive







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http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eYIYwGtkUiE



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Authoritative


Authoritarian


Permissive







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Rejecting-Neglecting Parenting



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Authoritative


Authoritarian


Permissive




Style Parent Characteristics Child CharacteristicsCompetent; self-assured; popular; able to controltheir own behavior; low in antisocial behavior; asadolescents, high in social and academiccompetence and positive behavior

As children, tend to be unhappy and unfriendly,with boys affected more than girls; as adolescents,low in social and academic competence

As children, they tend to be impulsive, lacking inself-control, and low in school achievement; asadolescents, misconduct and drug use relativelyhigh

As infants, attachment problems; as children, poorpeer relationships; as adolescents, tend to showantisocial behavior, poor self-regulation, drug use,low academic and social competence



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Parenting Style and Personality of Children

Practice Description Personality of Children

AuthoritarianParents impose rules and

expect obedience.

Low self-esteem and social

skills

PermissiveParents submit to childrens

demands.

Aggressive and Immature

AuthoritativeParents are demanding but

responsive to their

children.

High self-esteem, self-reliance and social

com etence



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For example, authoritarian child-rearing practices seem to be associated with lessnegative consequences in Chinese and first-generation Chinese-American familiesthan in Euro-American families.

We should be cautious in generalizing results to other cultures:

What might account for this?

Whereas Chinese children may perceive such parenting as involving and

caring, Euro children may perceive it as mean and cruel.



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ADOLESCENCE - COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

Developing Reasoning Power

Adolescents ability to reason gives them a new level of social awareness. In

particular, they may think about the following:

Their own thinking What others are thinking What others are thinking about them How ideals can be reached (become critical of society, parents and even themselves)

Duringearly teen years, reasoning tends to be self-focused: But mom, you dontreally know how it feels to be in love (Elkind, 1978).


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Development of Moral Reasoning

Lawrence Kohlberg

1927-1987

Gain rewards oravoid punishment

Uphold laws and rules

Before age 9

EarlyAdolescence

Beyond EarlyAdolescence

Establish self-defined, basicethical principles

Kohlberg(1981, 1984) sought to describe the development of moral reasoning by posingmoral dilemmas to children and adolescents: Should a person steal medicine to save aloved ones life? Identified three basic levels of moral reasoning:



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Development of Moral Feeling

Besides arriving at right and wrong via reasoning, we might also do so via ourfeelings.

Jonathan Haidt


Is consensual incest morally wrong?Most people seem revolted by the idea and agree its morally wrong. Whenpressed to give reasons as to why, however, people seem to struggle, often justresorting to, It just is!


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Moral Reasoning vs. Moral Feeling

The Trolley Problem

Flip the switch?

Most people will flip the switch: theywill kill one to save five.

Push the fat man?

Most people will not push the fatman: they will not kill one to save five.



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The Trolley Problem

Only frontal cortical areas (associated with

deliberative reasoning and cognitive control) lightup during this judgment.

Moral reasoning rules!

Both frontal cortical areas (associated with

deliberative reasoning and cognitive control) andareas associated with processing emotionalinformation and conflict resolution light up duringthis judgment.

Moral feeling wins out!

BUT those with damage to a part of the braininvolved in processing emotional information are

far more likely than normals to push the fat man.

Cold Cognitive Moral Reasoning Hot Affective Moral Reasoning

Moral Reasoning vs. Moral Feeling



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Until puberty, neurons increase their connections. However, at adolescence, selectivepruning of neurons begins. Unused neuronal connections are lost to make otherpathways more ecient.

During adolescence, neurons in the frontal cortex grow myelin, which speeds upnerve conduction. This process, however, isnt completed until the early 20s.

This evidence, in part, led the SupremeCourt in Roper vs. Simmons (2005) to rulethat it is unconstitutional to impose capital punishment for crimes committed

while under the age of 18.

Dec Grey Matter

Inc White Matter (Myelination)

http://www.phschool.com/science/science_news/articles/teen_brains_trial.html

An article for your own interest (not examinable):


Moral Responsibility


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Empathy and Delay of Gratification

Moral education programs teach kids:

1. Empathy for others feelings

2.To delay gratification

Kids better at delaying gratification became more socially responsible, academicallysuccessful (e.g., average 210 points higher on SATs) and productive.

Walter Mischel (1960s)- Marshmallow Test



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Forming an Identity

Erik Erikson

1902-1994

Erik Erikson, a Danish-American-German developmental psychologist, forwarded astage model of social development in which each stage has its own psychosocial

task- a crisis that needs resolution. Adolescence wrestle with their identity.

ADOLESCENCE - SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT


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Forming an Identity

In Western cultures, manyadolescents try out diferent selves before settling intoa consistent and comfortable identity.

In general, early tomid teen years are associated with low self-esteem/poor self-

concept while later teen years and early adulthood are associated with higherself-esteem/stronger self-concept.

Mostyoung people seem to develop a sense of contentment: 81% agreed I wouldchoose my life the way it is right now; the other 19% agreed I wish I were somebodyelse.



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Parental and Peer Attachment

Kids become more independent of their parents as they grow older.

Kids become more influenced by their peers as they grow older (teens tend tobecome herd animals).

Teens that have good (bad) relationships with their parents tend to feel happy(unhappy), healthy(unhealthy) and do well(poorly) in school.



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EMERGING ADULTHOOD

Emerging adulthood spans ages 18-25. During this time, young adults may livewith their parents and attend college or work. On average, emerging adults marry intheir mid-twenties.


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ADULTHOOD

Physical Development - Middle Adulthood - Physical Changes

Muscular strength, reaction time, sensory abilities and cardiac output begin todecline after the mid-twenties.


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ADULTHOOD

Physical Development - Middle Adulthood - Sex Life

Only 30% of Canadians surveyed age 40 to 64 rated their sex life as lessenjoyable than during their twenties.

In an American Association of Retired Persons sexuality survey, it was not until age 75

or older that most womenand nearly half of menreported little sexual desire.


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ADULTHOOD

Physical Development - Later Life - Sensory Abilities

After age 70, vision, hearing, distance perception, and the sense of smelldiminish.

After 80, neural processes slow down, especially for complex tasks.


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ADULTHOOD

Physical Development - Later Life - Motor Abilities

At age 70, our motor abilities also decline(e.g., muscle strength, reaction time, andstamina). Fatal accidents also increase around this age.


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ADULTHOOD

Cognitive Development - Memory

As we age, recalling names becomes increasingly dicult(Crook and West, 1990).


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ADULTHOOD

Cognitive Development - Memory

Though recall declines with age, recognition memory remains intact(Schonfield andRobertson, 1966).


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ADULTHOOD

Cognitive Development - Intelligence

Cross-sectional evidence suggests decline whereas longitudinal evidencesuggests stability in intelligence over the lifespan.

Cross-sectional studies involvestudying diferent individuals at thesame point in time (so measuringreasoning in a group of people made upof 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70 year olds).

L o n g i t u d i n a l S t u d i e s invo lvestudying the same individuals

repeatedly over time (so measuringthe same people when they are 20, then30, then 40, then 50, etc).

Can you think of why the two diferent designs yield diferent results? (Hint: howmight 20 year-olds difer from 80 year-olds in terms of the conditions in which

they grew up?)


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ADULTHOOD

Cognitive Development - Intelligence

Fluid intelligence(the capacity to think logically and solve problems in novel situations,independent of acquired knowledge.) declines with age whereas crystallizedintelligence(the ability to use accumulated knowledge and experience)increases with

age.


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ADULTHOOD

Social Development -Well-being

Surveys indicate life satisfaction does not change markedly over the lifespan.


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INFANCY AND CHILDHOOD - THE BRAINS PLASTICITY

I didnt get a chance to show this in class. But this is the video I told you about earlier of thelittle girl that had half a hemisphere removed. It shows how remarkably resilient and,importantly, plastic the brain (especially a childs brain) can be!

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VaDlLD97CLM


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QUESTION #7

Timmy is at Sea World watching Shamu (the killer whale show) with his parents. After theshow they get up to leave and in the hustle and bustle Timmy gets separated. Timmy wandersaround on his own for a while and eventually ends up at the Sea Lion exhibit. He gets a kickout of the funny noises the sea lions make. Suddenly he feels a hand on his shoulder. Hewhirls about and looks up only to see Mom staring down at him. What is wrong with you?

she cries. Dont you ever wander offlike that again! Timmy looks down for a moment, almostas if ashamed, but then quickly turns to redirect his attention to the sea lions.

Using the above scenario, answer the following questions. First, briefly describe the StrangeSituation used by Mary Ainsworth to study attachment. Second, based on findings from theformer, what might we infer about Timmys attachment style? Third, given Timmysattachment style, what might we infer about the conditions under which Timmy has been

raised? Fourth, if Timmys parents are concerned with curbing Timmys inclination tononchalantly wander off, what sort of changes might you suggest in how they interact withTimmy?

This question(as with all questions) is to be answered in a maximum of one page, double-spaced,using 12 point, Arial font.


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QUESTION #8

Using the example of how intelligence changes over the lifespan, compare and contrast cross-sectional and longitudinal research methods. Why did the two methods yield differentresults? Which set of results most accurately reflects how intelligence changes over thelifespan? In addition, looking more closely at different tasks used to test intelligence, explainin what sense intelligence both increases and decreases over the lifespan.

This question(as with all questions) is to be answered in a maximum of one page, double-spaced,using 12 point Arial font

lecture notes - 6 - june 13th

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